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*
AM ESSAY
OM TBK
PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION
VOL. II.
i ».J-
o *
^ Hn ESSAY
ON THB
PRIKCIPLE OF POPULATION;
OB, A
VIEW OF ITS FAST AND PRESENT EFFECTS
«:^~
HUMAN HAPPINESS ;
WITH
\X INQÜIRY INTO OüR PR0SPECT8 RESPECTING THE
FÜTUHE REMOVAL OR MITIGATIüN OF TUE
EYILS WHICH IT OCCASIOXS.
Bv T. R. MALTHUS, A. M.
LATX FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. IL
FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE THIRD LONDOX
EDmON.
^ WASHINGTON CITY:
PHINTED AKD FUBLISHXD BT ROGER CHEW WEIGHTMAN.
PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE.
1809.
\.
y
- . •
I
X
CONTENTS
OT TBK
SECOND VOLUME
BOOK IL
Pige. Ckap« IX« OntheFruitfulnessof Marriages, • 1 IC, Efiects of Epidemics on Registers of
BirthSy DeathS) and 'Marriages, 32
XL General deductions from the preceding ^ view of Societf) ... 50
BOOK III.
Or THX DIFFERBNT SYSTEMS OR EXFEDIENTS WHICR HATE BEEV PROPOSED OE HAVE PREVAILED IV SOCIETY, AS THEY AFFECT THE EVILS ARISIMG FROM THE PRINCIPLK OF POPULATION.
Chap. I. Of Systems of Equality. Wallace. Con-
dorcet, 77
II. Of Systems of Equality. Godwin, 97 III. Observations on the Reply of Mr. God- win, 13'
i
•t
\'i CONTENTS.
Page. Cbap. IV. Of Emigration, * • • • 133
V. Of Poor Laws, . . . . US
VI. Subject of Poor Laws, continued, 17o VII. Of increasing Wealth, as it affects the
Condition of the Poor, • 189
VIII. Of the Dcfinitions of Wealth. Agricul-
tural and Commercial Systems, 206 IX. Different Effects of the Agricultural and
Commercial Systems, 220
X. Of Bounties on the exportation of Com, 235 XI. ()n the prevailing Errors respecting Po- pulation and Plenty, . s?'*«
BOOK IV.
jV DUR FUTURE PROSPECTS RESPECTIKC THE RCMOVAJ
Oa MITICATIOK OF THE EYILS ARISINC FRON
THE PRINCIPLR OF POPULATION,
Cu AP. I. Of moral Restraint, and our Obligation to
practice this Virtuc, • . 29 7 II. Of the Effects which would result to So« ciety from the Prevalence of this Virtue, !il5
III. Of the only effectual Mode of improving
the Condition of the Poor, . 3 J :
IV. Objections to this mode considered, 34 > V. Of the Consequences of pursuing the op-
posite Mode, • • • . 3s:' VI. Effect» of the Knowledge of ihe Principle
Cause ttf Povcrtv on Civil I.ibcrtv, 3^7
f
CONTENTS. ^ vü
Page. Cbap. VII. Plan of the gradual Abolition of the Poor
Laws proposedi • • • 388
VIII. Of the Modes of correcting the prevailing
Opinions oft Population, • * 408
IX. Of the Direction of our Charity, • 430
X« Different Plans of improving the Condi-
tion of the Poor considered, 435
XI. Of the Necessity of general Principles on
thisSubject, • '• • .461
Of our rational Expectations respecting^
the future Improvement of Society, 487
Appendix^ 50.1
ESSAY, &c.
T=se
BOOK IL
CHAPTER IX.
On the Fruitßilness of Marriages.
IT would be extremely desirable to be able to deduce from the rate of ihcreasc, the actual popu- lation, and the registers of births, deaths, and mar- riages, in different countries, the real prolificness of marriagesy and the true proportion of the bom which lives to marry. Perhaps the problem may not be capable of an aecurate Solution, but we shall make some approximation towards it, and bc able to aecount for some of the difficuities wliich appear in many registers, if we attend to the foK lo^ing considerations,
It should be premiscd however, that in the re- gisters of most countries there is some reason to believe, that the omissions in the births :jid deaÜLS are greater tlian in rl»e marriages ; and ccnse- quently, that the proponion of marriages ^ il- most always given to j ii;rcat. In the enumcratiün vol. ii. b
ESSAY ON Book
On the fruitfulness of marriages.
1 I
which latcly took place in this countiy, -whilc it is supposed with reason, tliat the registry of mar- riages is nearly correct, it is known with certaint)% that there are vcrj- great omissions in the births and deaths ; and it is probable that siinilar onus- sions, though not perhaps to the same extent, prc- vail in other countries.
To form a judgment of the prolificness of mar- riages, taken as they occur, including second and third marriages, let us out ofF a certain period qF the registers of any countr)'-, 30 years for instance^ and inquire what is the number of births which have been produced by all the marriages included in the period cut off. It is evident, that with the marriages at the beginning of die period will bc arrangcd a number of births proceeding from naar- riages not included in the period ; and at the end, a number of births produced by the marriages in- cluded in the period, will be found arranged witfi the marriages of a succeeding period. Now if WC could subtract the former number, and add the latter, wc should obtain exactly all the births produced by the marriages of the period, and of course the real prolificness of those marriages» K the Population be stationär}', the number of births to bc addcd would exacüv equal the num-
Ouip. IX. POPULATION.
On the fruitfulness of marriages.
ber to be subtracted, and the proportion of births to marriages, as found in the registers, would ex- actly represent the real prolificncss of marriages. But if the population be either incrcasing or dc- creasing, the number to be added would never bc equai to the number to be subtracted, and tlie proportion of births to marriages in the registers would never truly represent the prolificness of mar- riages. In an increasing population the number to be added would evidendy be greater than the number to be subtraöted, and of course the pro- portion of births to marriages, as found in the re- gisters, would always be too small to represent the tnie prolificness of marriages. And the contraiy effect would take place in a decreasing population. The questicMi therefore is, what we are to add and what to subtract, when the births and deaths are not equal.
The average proportion of births to marriages in Europe is about 4 to 1. Let us suppose for the sake of iliustration, that each marriage yields four children, one every other yearJ In this
' Id the Statistical account of Scotland it is said, that liie average distance between the children of the samc family hcs been mlculatcd to bc about two ycars.
ESSAY ON Book II.
On the fniitfulness of marriages.
case it is evident, that whcrever you begin your period in the rcgisters, the marriages of the pre* ceding cight ycars will only liavc produced lialf of thtir births, and the other half will be arranged with the marriages included in the period, and ought to be subtracted from them. In the samc manner, the marriages of the last eight years of the period will only have produced half of thcir births, and the other half ought to be added. But half of the births of any eight 3rears may bc con<- sidered as nearly equal to all the births of the succeeding 37 years. In instances of the most rapid increase it will rather exceed the births of the next 3 1 years, and in cases of slow increase approach towards tlic births of the next 4 ycars. The mcan tlicreforc may be taken at 3 years. * Consequently if wc subtract the births of the first 3| ycars of the period, and add the births of the 3| ycars subsequent to the period, y,t shall havc a number of births nearly equal to the births produ- ced by all the marriages included in the period, and of course the proliiicncss of these marriages.
' According to the rate «f increase whkh is now taking place in England, the pertod by calcuktion would be about 3| years.
map. rX. POPULATION.
^w-
Od the fruitfulness of marriages.
But if the population of a country be increasing regularly, and the births, deaths, and marriages continue always to bear tlie same proportion to cach odier, and to the whole population, it is evi- dent that all the biiths of any period will bear the same proportion to all the birtlis of any other pe- riod of the same extent, taken a certain number of years later, as the births of any single year to ti)e birdis of a single year taken the same number rf vears later ; and the same will be true with re-
«
gjffd to the marriages. And consequcntly to esti- mate the prolificness of marriages we have only to tompare the marriages of the present or any other year with the births of a subsequent year taken 3 J years later.
Wc have supposed in the present instance, that each marriage yields four births ; but the average prc^xxtion of births to marriages in Europc is 4 to 1, and as the population of Europe is known to be increasing at present, the prolificness of mar- riages must be grcatcr than 4. If allowing for this circumstance we take the distance of 4 ycars iostead of 3J years, we shall probably be not far from the truth. And though undoubtedly the pe- riod will differ in differcnt coimtries, yet it will not differ so much as we might at first imaginc ;
t> ESSAY ON Book IL
On the fruitfulness of marriages«
because in countries wherc the marriages are morc prolific, the births gcncrally follow at shorter in- tervals, and wherc they are Icss prolific at longer intervals ; and with different degrees of prolific- ness, the length of the period might still rcmain the same.^
It will follow from these observations, that the more rapid is the increase of population, the more will the real prolificness of marri2^;cs exceed the Proportion of births to marriages in the registers.
The rule which has been here laid do\vn« at* tempts to estimate the prolificness of marri^es taken as they occur, bat this prolificness should bc carcfully distinguished from the prolificness of first marriages and of marricd womcn, and stiU more from the natural prolific ness of women in gc- ncnü, taken at the most favorablc agc. It is pro- bablc that the natural prolificness of women is nearly the same in most parts of the world ; but
^ In placcs whrre there are many exports and Imports of peoplei the calculations wiU of course be disturbed* In
towns, particularly« where thcrc is a frequent change of inhabitants, and wherc it so often happens that the mar- riages of the people in the neighboring country are cele« brated, the inferences from the proportion of births to ' marriages are not to bedepended on.
i
Chap. IX. POPULATION.
On th^ fruitfulness of marriages«
die prolificness of marriages is liable to be aiFect-
ed by a variety of circumstances peculiar to each
countT}' ; and particularly by the number of late
marriages. In all countries the second and third
marriages alone form a most important considera-
tion, and materially influence the average propor-
tions. According to Sussmilch, in all Pomerania»
from 1748 to 1756 both included, the number of
persons who married were 56,956, and of these
10,586 were widows and widowers, According
to Busching in Pfussia and Silesia for the year
1781, out of 29,308 persons who married, 4,841
were widows and widowers,« and consequently
the Proportion of marriages will be given füll onc
sxth too much. In estimating the prolificness of
married women the number of illegitimate births^
would tend, though in* a very slight degree, to
counterbalance the overplus of marriages ; and as
it is found that the numbier of widowers who mar-
ry again is greater than the number of widows,
the whole of the correction should not on this ac-
* Göttliche Ordnung, vol. i. tablcs, p. 93.
' Sussmilch, vol. iii. tables, p. 95.
' In France belore the revolution the proportion of ille- fitimate births was ^j of the whole number« Probabi} kis lc9s in this countrv.
ESSAY ON BwkU,
On the fruitfulness of marria^es.
count be a{^lied ; but in estimating the propor* tion of the bom which lives to many from a com» parison of the marriages and deaths, which is what we are now about to proceed to, the whde of this correction is always neccssary.
To find the proportion of tlie bom which lives to many, we must first subtract one sixtli from the marriages, and then compare the marriages of any year so corrected, widi the deaths in the re- gisters at such a distance from them, as is equal to the difference betwecn the average age of mar* riage and the average age of death.
Thus, for example, if the proportion of mar* riagcs to deaths were as 1 to 3, then subtracting one sixth from the marriages this proportion would Ix: as 5 to 18, and the numlxT of pcrsons many» ing annually the first timc would be to the num- bcr of aunual deaths as 10 to 18. Supposing in this case the mean age of death to be ten years latcr than the mean age of marriage, in which ten years the deaths would increase ^, then the num« ber of jxTsons rharryiiig annually the first time, conipared with the number of annual deaths, at the distance of the difference l)etwecn the age of mar- riai3;c and the age of death, would be as 10 to 20 ; from which it would foUow that exactly half of the born lived to raarrw
j
Qhap. IX POPULATION. 9
On the fruitfulness of marriages«
The jgrourtds of this mle will appear from the foUowing observations on registers in general.
In a country in which the population is station- ary, tlie contemporary deaths compared with the births will be equal, and will of course represent the deaths of all the bom ; and the marriages, or more properly the number of married persons compared with both the births and deaths, will, when a proper allowance has been made for se- cond and third marriages, represent the true pro- portion of the bom which Uves to many. But if tfie population be either increasing or decreasing, and the births, deaths, and marriages increasing or decreasing in the same ratio, then the deaths com- pared with the births, and the marriages compared with the births and deaths, will cease to express what they did before, unless the events which are ccmtemporary in the registers are also contempo-
■
rary in the order of nature.
In the first place it is evident that death can not be contemporary with birth, but must on an average be always at such a distance from it, as b equal to the expectation of life, or the mean age of death. Consequently though the deaths of all the bom are, or will be, in the registers, irtiere there are no emigrations, yet, except vd. ii. c
lü ESSAY ON Book IL
Oll the ft*uitfulness of marriages.
\vhen the population is stationaiy, the contempo- rary pcriods of births and deaths never show this, and \ve can only expect to find the deaths equal to the births, if the deaths be taken at such a distance from tlic births in the registers as is equal to the expectation of life. And in fact, thus taken die births and deaths will always be found equal.
Secondly, the marriages of any year can never be contemporary with the births from which thcy have resultedy but must always be at such a dis« tance from them as is equal to the average age of marriage. If the population be increasing, the marriages of the present year have resulted from a smaller number of births than the births of the present year, and of course the marriages, com- parcd with the contenii)orar\' births, will always be too few to re])resent the proportion of the bom which lives to marrj-, and the contrary will takc place if the population Ik* dccrcasing ; and to find this proportion, wc must compare the marriages of any year widi the births of a previous year at the distance of tlie avcragc age of marriagc.
'J'hirdly, tlie avcragc age of marriagc will almost always be much ncarer to the* average age of death tlian marriagc is to birth ; and consequently the aiinual mamages comparcd with tlie contemporary'
Qhap. IX. POPULATION. 11
On the fraitfalness of marriages.
annual deaths will much more nearly represent the true prc^rticm of the bom living to mam-, than the marriages compared with the births. • The
' Dr. Price vcry justlj says "lObscnr. on Reserv. Pay.
Tol. i. p. 269t 4th cdit.) '*that the general effect of an
'^ increase while it is going on in a country is to render
" the Proportion of persons marrying annually, to the an-
« DQal deaths greater and to the annual births Cc99 ilran
* the true proportion marrying out of any given number
'^ bom. This proportion generally lies between the other
^ two proportionS) but always nearest the first." In these
obserrations I cntirely agree with him, but in a note to
this passage he appears to me to fall into an error. Ile
says, that if the prolificaess of marriages be increased
{\he ftrodaöilities ofli/e and i/te encouragement to marriage
remaxning the same) both the annual births and barials
voold increase in proportion to the annual vreddings.
That the proportion of annual births vrould increase is
certatnly true, and I here acknowledge my error in dif-
fcring from Dr. Price on this point in my last edition ;
bat I still think that the proportion of burials to weddings
voald not necessarily increase under the circuinstanccs
here supposed*
The reason why the proportion of births to weddings increases is, that the births occurring in the order of na* tarc considerably prior to the marriages which resull from them, their increase will affect the registerof births much more than the contemporary register of marriages. But the same reason by no means holds with regard to the deaths^ the average age of which is generally Jäter than the agc of marriage. And in this case, after the firet in- tenral between birth and marriage, the permanent effect would bc, that the register of marriages would be more
12 ESSAY ON Book
On the fruitfulncss of marriages.
marriages comparcd with the births, aftcr a pro- per allowancc has l:)een made for second and third marriages, can never represent the truc projx)rtioa of the bom living to many, unless wheii tlie popu- lation is absolutcly stationary ; but although the Population be increasing or decreasing according to any ratio, yet the average age of marriage may still be equal to the average of death ; and in tfais Gase the marriages in the registers compared with the contemporary deaths, after the correction for second and third marriages, will represent the true Proportion of the bom living to marry.'
afTectcd by the increasc of births, than the contemporary register of deaths; and consequcntly the proportion of the burials to the weddings would be rather decreased than incrcased. From not attending to the circumstance that the average age of marriage may often be considera- bly earlier than the mean age of death, the general con« clu&ion also which Dr. Price draws in this note does not appear to be strictly corrcct.
1 The rcader will be aware, that as all the bom must die, deaths may in some cases be taken as synonimous with births* If we had the deaths registered of all the births which had taken place in a country during a cer^ tain period, distingiiishing the married from the unmar- ried, it is evident« that the number ofthose who dicd mar- ried« compared with the whole number of deaths« would arcurately express the proportion of the birthM which had Jived tomarrv.
Chap. JX. POPULiATJON. 13
On the fruitfulness of marriages«
Generally however, when an increase of popula- tion b going forwards, the average age of mar- liage is less than the average of death, and then die Proportion of marriages compared with the GcmtempcM'ary deaths, will be too gres^t to represent die true proportion of the bom living to many, and to find this proportion, we must compare the marriages of any particular year with the deaths of a subsequent year at such a distance from it in die registers, as is equal to the difference between die average age of marriage and the average age of death.
There is no absolutely necessary connection between the average age of marriage and the ave- rage age of death. In a country the resources of wfaich will allow of a rapid increase of population, Ae expectation of life, or the average age of death raay be extremely high, and yet the age of mar- riage be very early, änd the marriages then, com- pared with the contemporary deaths in the regis- • ters, would, even after the correction for second and third marriages, be very much too great to represent the true proportion of the bom living to marrj'. In such a country we might suppose the average age of death to be 40, and the age of mar- riage only 20 ; and in this case, which however
M ESSAY ON Book //.
On the fniitfulness of mairiages*
would be a rare one, the distance between mar- riage and death would be the same as betweeiv biith and marriage.
If we apply these observations to registers in general, though we shall seldom be able to obtain accurately the trae proportion of the bom livir^ to many, on account of our not knowing the ave» rage age of marriage, yet we may draw many use* fol inferences from the Information which they contain, and reconcile many of the difficulties with which they are accompanied ; and it will generaUy be foundi that in those countries where the mar- riages bear a very large proportion to the deaths, we shall see reason to believe that tlie age of mar» riage is much earlier than the averagc age of death.
In the Russian table for the ycar 1799, produ- ced by Mr. Tooke, and rcferred to p. 372, the proportion of marriages to deudis appearcd to bc -as 100 to 200. When corrected for second and third marriages, by subtracting one sixth froni the marriages it will bc as 100 to 252. From which it would seem to follow that out of 252 births 200 of them had lived to many ; but wc can scarccly conceivc any country to be so healthy, as that 200 out of 252 should live to marr}*. If however we suppose what seems to be probable^
Cfc^. IX, POPULATION. 15
•^-^m._ _!■_ _^_i -- ■- - I I I -
\
On the fruitfulness of marriages«
that the age of marriage in Russia is 15 years ear«
iicr than the expectation of life or the average age
of death, then, in order to find the proportion which
lives to many, we must coihpare the marriages
of the present year, with the deaths 15 years later.
Supposing the births to deaths to be (as stated p.
372) 183 to 100, and the mortality 1 in 50, the
yearly increase will be about «V of the population ;
aod consequendy in 15 years the deaths will have
iocreased a litde above .28 ; and the result will be,
that the marriages compared with the deaths 15
years later. Mall be as 100 to 322. Out of 322
births it will appear that 200 live to marry, which
fix)ni the known heakhiness of children in Russia,
and the early age of marriage, is not an improbable
Proportion. The proporticm of marriages to births,
heing as 100 to 385, the prolificness of marria-
geai according to the rule laid do\vn, will be as
100 to 411, or each marriage will on an average,
iodudiag sccond and third marriages, producc
4.11 births.
The IL^ given iil the earlier part of the chaptcr on Russia are probably not correcL It is suspcct- ed with reason, that thcre are considerablc omis- simis both in the births and deaths, but particular- Ir m the deaths, and consequently the proportion
16 ESSAY ON Book IL
On the fruitfulness of marriages.
of marriages is given too great« There may also be a further reason for this large proportion of marriages in Russia. The empress Catherine, in her instructions for a new code of laws, notices a custom prevalent among the peasants» of parents obliging their sons, while actually children, to marry fuU grown women in order to save the ex- pense of buying female siaves. These women, it is Said, generally become the mistresses of the fiu ther, and the custom is particularly reprobated by the empress as prejudicial to population. Thb practice would naturally occasion a more than usual number of second and third marriages, and of course morc than usually increase the propor- tion of marriages to births in the rcgisters.
In the transactions of the society at Philadelphia, (vol. iii. No. vii. p. 25) therc is a paper hy Mr. Barton, entitlcd Ohservations on the probability of life in the United States^ in which it appears that the proportion of marriages to births is as 1 to 4f . He mentions indeed 6i, but his numbers give only 4J. As however this proportion was taken principally from to\vns it is probable, that the births arc givcn too low, and I think we may very safely take as many as five for the average of to%vns and countr}\ According to the same au-
Chap, IX, POPULATION. 17
On the fruitfulness of marriages«
thority, the mortality is about 1 in 45, and if the pqmlaticm doubles eveiy 25 years, the births would be about 1 in 20. The proportion of mar- riages to deaths would on these suppositions be as 1 to2{; and corrected for second and third marriages as 1 to 2.7 nearly. But we cannot sup- pose tfaat out of 27 births 520 should live to many. If höwever the age of marriage be ten years earlier tfaaa the mean age of death, which is highly proba- ble, we must compare the marriages of the present year with the deaths ten years later, in order to obtain the tnie proportion of the bom which lives to marry. According to the progress of popula- tioQ here staied, the increase of the deaths in ten years would be a little above .3, and the result will be diat 200 out of 351, or about 20 out of 35, in- stead of 20 out of 27 will live to marry. ' The
* If the proportions mentioned by Mr. Barton be justj tbe espectatioD of life in America is considerably less thin in Russia, which is the reason that I have taken onlf 10 jears for the difference between the age of marriage and the age of death, instead of 15 years, as in Russia. Ac- cording to the mode adopted by Dr. Price, (vol. i. p. 272.) of estimating the expectation of life in countries the po- pulation of which is increasing, this expectation in Rus- »a would be about 38, (births ^^ deaths -^^ mean ^^0 ^^^ sapposing the age of marriage to be 23, the difTerence «ould be U« vol. ii. d
1« ESSAY ON Book IL
On the fruit fulhess of marriages«
marriages compared with the births 4 years later, according to the ruk laid down, will in thb case give 5.58 for the proKficness of marriages. The calculations of Mr. Barton respecting the age tö which half of the bom live cannot possibly be ap* plicable to America in general. The registers on which they are founded are taken from Philadd* phia, and one or two small towns and village% which do not appear to be so healthy as the ma- derate towns of Europe, and therefore can foiiD no criterion for the country in general.
In England the average proportion of mairi^^ to births appears of late years to have been about 100 to 350. If we add 4 to the births, in- stead of |, which m the chiipter on the Checks /# Population in England I conjectured might be nearly the amount of the omissions in the births and deaths, this will allow for the circumstance of illegitimate birtlis ; and the marriages will then bc to the births as 1 to 4, to die dcaths as 1 to 3. Corrccted for second aud third marriages, the
In America the expectation of life vould« upon ihr samc prinriples, bc only 32], (births ,\, dcaths ^ , mcaa s'iiO a^^l snpl>osing Üic agc of marriafcc 22] the dlffcrcnce
larmiltl 1%^ In
vould be 10.
Chap, IX. POPULATION, 19
On the fruitfulness of marriag/es«
■' ■ • " - 11.^
Proportion of marriages to deaths will be as 1 to S;6. Supposing the age of inarriage in England about 7 years earlier than the mean age of death, the iQ. crease in these 7 years according to the present progrcss of^opulation of iJo yearly would be .06, and the proportion living to marry would be 200 out of 381, or rather more than half. * The mar- riages compared with the births 4 years lutcr will give 4.136 for tlie proliiicness of marriages.
' Births^ deaths ^g, mean j^^ 9 and on the supposition
diat the age of marriage is 28, the difFerence would be 7«
With regard to the allowance which I have made here
and in a former chapter for the omissions in the births
and deaths, I wish to observe, that as I had no very cer-
tain and satisfactory grounds on which to proceed, it may
be incorrect, and perhaps too great, though assuming
this allowance the mortality appears to be cxtraoidi-
narilf small considering the circumstances of the country.
It shottld be remarked however« that in countries which
are different in their rates of increäse, the annual mor*
talitjr is a Tery incorrect criterion of their comparative
bealthiness. When an increase is going forward the portion
of the population which becomes extinct every year is very
different from the expectation of life, as has appeared
▼ery clearly in the cases of Russia and America just no*
ticed. And as the increase of population in England
bas of late years been more rapid than in France, this
drcumstance will undoubtedly contribute in part to the
peat diflerence in the annual mortality.
ESSAY ON Book II.
On the fruitfulness of roarriages.
These instances will be suf&cient to show the mode of apply ing the rules which have been ^ven in Order to form a judgment, from registers, of the prolificness of marriages, and the proportion of the bom which lives to many.
It will be observed how very important the cor- ; rection for second and third marriages is« Sup- po^ng each marriage to yield 4 births, and the births and deaths to be equal, it would at first ap- pear necessary that in order to produce thb efiect» exactly half of the bom should live to marry ; but if on account of the second and third marriages we subtract i from the marriages, and then compare them with the deaths, the proportion will be as 1 to 41, and it will appear that instead of one half it will only be necessary that 2 children out of 4| should live to marry. Upon the same principle if the births were to the marriages as 4 to 1 , and ex- actly half of the bom live to marry, it might bc supposed at first that the population would be sta* tionary, but if we subtract i from the marriages, and then take the proportion of deaths to marriages as 4 to 1, we shall find that the deaths in the reg^s- Cers compared with the marriages would only be as 3no 1 ; and the births would be to the deathi
Chap. IX. POPULATION. 2i
Oa the fruitfulness of xnarriagcs.
as 4 to 3^ or 12 to 10, which is a tokrably &st rate ef increase.
Three causes appear to operate in producing an excess of the births above the deaths, 1. the proli- ficness of marriages ; 2. the proportion of the bom which lives to marry, and 3. the earliness of these marriages compared with the expectation of life, or the shortness of a generation by marriage and birth, compared with the passing away of a gene- ration by death« This latter cause Dr. Price seems lohave omitted to considen For though he very josAy SBcySj that the rate of increase, supposing the pitdific powers the same, depends upon the encou- ragement to marriage and the expectation of a duld just bom; yet in explaining himself, he seems to consider an increase in the expectation of Ufe, merely as it affectsthe increase of the num- ber of persons who reach maturity and marry, and QOt 2S it affects, besides, the distance between the ^ of marriage and the age of death. But it is erident that if there be any principle of increase, that is, if one marriage in the present generation yidds more than one in the next, incUiding sc- cond and dürd marriages, the quicker these gene« rations are repeated, compared with the passing
H2 ESSAY ON JSook U.
On the fruitfulness of marrlages.
away of a gencratioa by death, the more rapid \idU be the increase.
A &v(nable change in either of these three causes tfae other two remaining the same, will clearly produce an effect upon population, and occauoo a grealer excess of the births above the deaths in the repsters. With regard to the two first causes» tfaough an increase in either of them will produce the same kind of eflect on the pix^por<» tioQ of births to deaths, yet their effects on the propofticHi of marriages to births will be in opp^ Site directions. The greater is the proUficnes9 of marriages the greater will be the pn^ortion of births to marriages, and the greater is the number of the bom which lives to be married, the Icss will be the proportion of birtlis to marriages. ^ Con*
* Dr. Price himself has insisted strongly upon this, (voU t. p« 270, 4th edit.) and yet he says, (p. 375.) that healthfulness and prolificness are probably causes of inr crease seldom separatedf and refers to registers of births and weddings as a proof of it. But though these causes may undoubtedly exist together^yet if Dr« Price 's reason* ing be just, such coexistence cannot possibly be inferred from the lists of births and weddings. Indeed the two countries, Sweden and France, to the registers of vrhtch he refers as showtng the prolificness of their marriages, are known to be by no means remarkably healtliy ; and fhe registers of towns to which he alludeSf though they
Chap. IX. POPULATION. 28
On the fhiitfulness of iharriagesi
sequendy if within certain limits, the prolificness of marriages and the number of the bom living to many increase at the same time, the proportion of births to marriages in the registers may still re- main unaltered. And this is the reason why the registers of different countries with respect to births and marriages are often found the sanKe under veiy diflS^rent rates of increase,
The proportion of births to marriages, indeed, forms no criterion whatever, by which to judge of die rate of increase. The population of a coimtry may be stationary or declining with a proportion as 5 to 1, and may be increasing with some rapi- dity with a proportion as 4 to 1. But given the
tüay ftbow as he intends, a want of prolificnesS) yet ac- cording to his previous reasoning show at the same time great healthinesst and therefore ougbt not to be produced as a proof of the absence of both. The general fact that Dr. Price wishes to establish may still remain tinie, that coantry situatlons are both morc healthy and i»orc proH- fic than towns ; but this fact certainly cannot be inferred merely from lists of births and marriages* With regard to tbe different countries of Europe, it will gencrally be foondy that those are the most healthy which are the least prolifici and those the most prolific which are the least healthy. The earlieragcof marriage in unhealthy coun- tries is the obvious reasoc of this fact.
^ ESSAY O» Book IL
On the fniitfulness of niarriages.
rate of increasc which may be obtaincd from other sourcesy it is clearl y desirablc to find in the rcgisters a small, rather than a lai^ proporticm of births to marriages ; becausc the smaller this proportion is^ the grcater must bc the proportion of the bora which lives to many, and of course the more hcalthy must be the country,
Crome^ observcs that when the marriages of a country yield less than 4 births, the population is in a very precarious State, and he estimates the prölificness of marriages by the proportion of yearly births to ntiarriages. If this Observation wert just^ the population of many countries of Europc would be in a precarious State, as in many coun- tries the proportion of births to marriages in the rcg^ters is rather below than abovc 4 to 1. It has been shown in what manner this proportiof^ in the registers should be corrected in order to make it a just representation of the prölificness oC marriages, and if a large part of the bom live to marry, and the age of marriage be considcrably carlier than the expectation of life, such a propor- tion in the registers is by no means inconsistcnt with a rapid increase. In Russia it has appcarcd
* Ueber die Bevolkening der Europais« Staat* p« 9t.
Ghap. IX. POPULATION. 35
S»
•On the firuitfulness of marriages«
Üiat the Proportion of birtfas to mamages is lest
than 4 to 1, and yet its population increases faster
Üian that of any other nation in Curope, In £ng«
land the population increases more rapidly than in
France, and yet in England the proportion of
births to marriages, when allowance has been made
for onussions, b about 4 to 1, in France 4? to 1.
To occasion so rapid a progress as that which has
taken place in America, it will indeed be necessary
that all the causes of increase should be called into
acticn; and if the prolificness of marriages be
very great, the proportion of births to marriages
will certainly be above 4 to 1 ; but in all ordinary
cases, where the whole power of procreation has. '
not room to expand itself, it is surely better that
the actual Increase should arise firom that degree
of healthiness in the early sts^es of life, which
causes a great [»"(^rtic»! of the bom to live to
maturity and to marry, than firom a great degree
of prolificness accompanied by a great mortaliQr.
And consequently in all ordinary cases, a prc^xx*-
tion of births to marriages as 4 or less than 4 to 1
cannot be cönsidered as an un&vorable sign.
It should be observed that it does not foUow that the marriages of a country are early, or that voL ii. c
26 ESSAY ON Book IL
On the fniitfulnesft of marriagres.
the prevcntive check to population does not pre- vail, becauae the greater part of the bom lives to marry. In such countries as Norway and Swit- serland, where half of the bom live to above 40, it is evident that though rather more than half live to many, a lai^ portion of the peoplc between die ages of 20 and 40 would be living in an un- married State, and the prevcntive check would appear to prevail to a great degree. In England it is probable that half of the bom live to above 35, and though rather more than half live to marry, the prevcntive check might prevail consideraUy (as we know it does,) though not to the same ex- tent as in Nor^-ay and Switzerland.
The prevcntive check is perhaps best measurcd by the smallness of the proportion of yearly blrths to the whole population. The proportion of year- ly marriages to the population is only a just crite- rion in countries similarly circumstanced, but is in- correct, where therc is a di&rence in the prolific- ness of marriages, or in the proportion of the po- pulation under the agc of puberty, and in the rate of increase. If all the marriages of a country, be they few or many, take place young, and bc con- sequently prolific, it is evident that to produce the same proportion of births^ a sniallcr proportion of
Chap. IX. POPULATION. 27
On the fniitfulness of marriages.
marriages will be necessary ; or with the same Proportion of marriages a greater proportion of births unll be produced. This latter case seems to be applicable lo France, where both the births and deaths are greater than in Sweden, though the proportion of marriages is nearly the same or rather less. And when in two countries compared, (Mie of them has a much greater part of its population under the age of puberty than the other, it is evi- dent, that any general proportion of the yearly marriages to the whole population vtrill not imply the same Operation of the preventive check among those of a marriageable age.
It is in part the small proportion of the popu- lation under the age of puberty, as wcU as the in- fiux of strangers, that occasions in towns a greater proportion of marriages than in the countiy, al- though there can be litüe doubt that the preventive check prevails most in towns. The conversc of this will also be true, and consequentiy in such ^ country as America where half of the population is under sixteen, the proportion of ycarly mar- riages will not accurately exprcss how little the preventive check really operates.
But on the supposition of nearly the same natu- ral proli&cness in the women of most coun-
28 ESSAY ON Book U.
On the fruitfulness of marriages.
tries, the smaUness of the proportion of biiths will generally indicate, witli tolerable exactness, the degree in which the preventive check prevaib, wfaether arisirig principally from late, and conae* qtiently unproliiic marriages, or from a large pro- portion of the population above the age of puber^ dying unmarried«
That die reader may see at once the rate of increäse, and the perickl of doubling, which would result from any obaenred proportion of birdis to deaths, and of these to the whole populatiimi I subjoin two tables from Sussmilch, calculated by Euler, which I believe are very correct The first is confined to the siipposition of a mortality of 1 in 36, and therefore can only be applied to countries where such a mortality is known to take place. The other is general, depending solely upon the proportion which the excess of the birtfas above the burials bears to the whole population, ,and therefore may be applied universally to all countries, whatever may be the degree of thcir mortality«
It will be observed, that when the proportion bctwcen the births and burials is givcn, the period of doubling will be shorter, the greater the mortali- ty ; because the births as well as deaths are in-
Chap. IX. POPULATION. 29
On the fhiitfiilncss of marriages.
creased by this supposition, and they both bear a greater propcntion to the whole population than if the moitality were smaller, and there were a greater number of people in advanced life.
The mortality of Russia, according to Mr. Tooke, IS 1 in 58y and the proportion of births 1 in 26. Allowing for the omissions in the burials, if we assume the mortalitjr to be 1 in 52, then the births will be to the deaths as 2 to 1, and the pro- p(xtion which the excess of births bears to the whc^ population will be i%. ' According to Table n. the period of doubling will, in this case, be about 36 years. But if we were to keep the pro- portion of births to deaths as 2 to 1, and suppose a mortality of 1 in 36, as in Table L the excess of birdis above the burials would be ^V of the wholc population, and the period of doubling would be only 25 years.
' The proportions herc mentioned are diffcrent from those which have been taken from the additional table in Mr. Tooke*s second edition ; but they are assumed here as morc easily and clearly illustrating the subject.
TABLE I.
Jfhen in any country t/iere are 100,000 pcrscnt Sving^ and the mortality is 1 in 36.
Jf tbe proparikm tfdeatb* to birtbt
to :<
If 13 13 U 15 16 IT 18 19 30 33 35 30
Tben tbe exeeu of tUbaihtmallU
^77 555 833 1110 1388 1666 1943 3231 3499 3777 3333 4165
5554
ttaaeai
TTte Proportion of tbe vxccss of ibc biräH,totbe^ibole popiUation, «<// 6e
1
360
1 1»0
1
ItO
1
90
1
7t
Amd tberefore tbe f^oä qf dcubimi voiUbe
350 yean. 135
83|
632
50J
1 «0 |
43 |
J • 1 |
35» |
1 4# |
3»5 |
1 40 |
38 |
1 3« |
2SÄ |
1 30 |
31J |
1 S4 |
17 |
1 • • |
13? |
TABLE II
The prapartian of tbe exi£*i <^birth* abone tbe deaibt, to tbe xsbole tbe tiving.
Feriod* ofdaMing in yean, and ten / tbounmätb partM.
»=<(
10 II
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Tbe Proportion of tbe ex Ceti ofbirtot abom tbe /featbi, 'o tbe xjbole <jf tbr itving.
7.2723
7.9659
8.6595
9.3530
10.0465
10.7400
11.4333
12.1266
12.8200
S 3.5 1 33
14.2066
^''<
'21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Periodt ofdcuhii^ in yearst amd fcn tböusandtb parte .
14.9000 15.5933 16.2864 16.9797 17.6739 18.3662 19.0594 19.7527 20.4458 2).i39!
XBH
TABLE II, (continued.)
httmctuofhiribt *amt tU Jcaüu |
Tbefroporuan uj tUtxcmofbiriiM |
||||
in jcart, and tn |
i'aiod.^JoMif |
||||
lti,<uboUoftbe |
■.otbfabclco/iht |
ilau^oBiUifianL |
|||
=Mr. |
''™g- |
||||
'32 |
33.5333 |
'310 |
145.90T3 |
||
34 |
23.9119 |
320 |
153.8387 |
||
36 |
35.2983 |
330 |
159.7702 |
||
3S |
26.6847 |
340 |
165.7017 |
||
l 1 |
40 43 |
28.0711 |
SSO |
173.6332 |
|
29.4574 |
1 ! - |
360 |
180.5647 |
||
44 |
30.a43B |
370 |
187.4961 |
||
46 |
33.3303 |
380 |
1^4.437$ |
||
48 |
33.6165 |
390 |
301.3590 |
||
SO |
35.0029 |
^300 |
303.3505 |
||
55 |
38.4587 |
^310 |
215.2230 |
||
60 |
41.9345 |
330 |
232.1535 |
||
65 |
45.4003 |
330 |
229.0850 |
||
70 |
43.tiä6I |
340 |
336.016* |
||
1 i • |
rs |
52.3J18 |
350 |
343.9479 |
|
80 |
55.7977 |
I : - |
360 |
249.879* |
|
85 |
59.2634 |
370 |
256.HI03 |
||
90 |
62.7393 |
3 SO |
2S3,742S |
||
95 |
66.1950 |
390 |
270.6740 |
||
JOD |
69.6607 |
.400 |
377.605* |
||
llO |
76.5933 |
"410 |
384.5S70 |
||
120 |
83.5330 |
420 |
391.4685 |
||
130 |
90.4554 |
430 |
298.4000 |
||
140 |
97.3868 |
440 |
305.331» |
||
ISO |
104.3183 |
450 |
312.3629 |
||
■' |
160 |
111.2598 |
I :. |
460 |
319.1943 |
170 |
IIB. 1613 |
470 |
336.1358 |
||
ISO |
125.1128 |
480 |
333.0573 |
||
190 |
132.0443 |
490 |
339.9883 |
||
300 |
138.S7J7 |
^500 |
346.9203 |
||
J : |
1000 |
693.4» |
CHAPTER X.
EJJecU qfEpvdetmcs an Registers ofBirths^ Deaths^
and Mcarriages.
IT appears clearly, from the veiy valuaUe taUes of mortality which Sussmilch has coUected, and which include periods of 50 or 60 years, that all the countries of Europe are subjcct to periodical ackly seasonsy which check their increase ; and veiy few are exempt from tfaose great and wasdng plagues, wluch, once or twice, perhaps, in a cen» tury, sweep off the third or fourth part of their in- habitants. The way in which these periods of mortality affcct all the general proportions of births, deaths, and marriages, is strikingly illustrated in the tables for Prussia and Lidiuania, from the year 1692 to the year 1757.'
^ Sussmilchy Göttliche Ordnungi toI. u table xxi« p« •3f of the tables*
TABLE m.
iiiKBl Avenue |
>„„. |
.„.„.. |
DtATHi. |
froponn.n of murugcl toLirlhi. |
Pmporti™ biiths. |
|
S/n. 1703 fjn. 1708 |
5747 6070 6oea |
)y71ä 34113 26896 |
14862 14474 16430 |
10 10 lü |
34 39 44 |
lOy : 133 lUO: 165 100:163 |
Iit7«9l(in0 |
.pbgliC |
Numbtrd« )eaii. |
247733 |
|||
In 1711 1» 1T13 |
1202S 6367 |
32522 225170 |
10131 ltH45 |
10 : 27 10 : 36 |
100:330 100:230 |
|
J yn. to 1716 «jn. 1731 5jn. 17» i jt». 1731 ♦ yn. 173i |
4V6S 4334 4719 4t)U8 5434 |
31603 21396 21452 39554 32692 |
11984 12039 12863 12ffJS 15475 |
10 10 10 10 10 |
43 49 45 42 41 |
100. 180 100 r 177 100.166 100: 160 100: 146 |
In 1736 In 1737 |
5380 5765 |
31W5Ö 18930 |
26371 2448Ü |
Epidemk ynn. |
||
S jn. to 1743 iWi. 1746 J jn. 1751 tjn. 17S6 |
5582 5169 6433 5599 |
22099 25275 28235 |
15255 15117 17373 19154 |
10 : 39 10 : 46 10 ! 43 10 : 5U |
100; 144 100 : 167 100: 163 IU0:148 |
|
Intte l$r^M- |
95589 |
380J16 |
245763 |
10 1 39 |
10: 154 |
|
UA6 jn. ibti thipb««. |
i48777 |
1083872 |
690334 |
10 : 43 |
100:157 |
|
In 6J Äood jn. |
344561 |
146438« 936U8r |
936087 |
10 - 43 |
100: 156 |
|
528301 |
||||||
5477 |
33977 |
347733 |
||||
b*Uihe6tjn. mdudh« tkc pta««. |
MOSSit |
148836.-> ii&iü:o |
1183820 |
10 : 43 |
100: 125 |
|
304745 |
34 ESSAY ON , Book IL
Effects of epidemica od registers
The table, from which this is copied, contains the marriages, births, and deaths, for cveiy par- ticular year duriiig the whole period ; but to bring it into a smaller compass, I have retained only the gencral average draivn from the shorter periods of five and four years, cxcept where the numbers for the individual years presented any fact worthy of particular Observation. The year 1711, irnme» diately succeeding the great plague, is not includ- ed by Sussmilch in any general average ; but he has given the particular numbers, and if they bc accurate they show the very sudden and |)rodigious effect of a great mortality on the number of mar- riages«
Sussmilch caiculates that above one third of the pcople was destroyed by the plague ; and yet, notwitbstanding this great diminution of the popu • lation, it will appear by a refcrcnce to the table, that the number of marriages in the year 1711 was vcry nearly double the average of the six years preceding the plague/ To produce this ef-
* The number of people bcforc the plague, accordin^ to Sussmilrh's calculation, (voK i. eh. ix. lect. 173.) wai 570,000 from which if we tubtracl 247,733, the number dying: in the plague, the remainder 323,957 will be the Population after the plague ; which, divided by the
Chap.X. POPULATION. 35
of birthSf deaths^ and marrluges*
fect we must suppose that almost all who were at tbe age of puberty were induced, from the demand fiar labor, and the number of vacant employments, immediately to marry, This immtnse numbtr of marriages in the year could not possibly be ac- companicd by a great proportional number of births, because we caanot suppose that the new marriages coüld each yield more than one birth in the y^ar, and the rest must come from the mar- n^;es which had continued uiibroken through the plague. We cannot thercfore be surprised that the [H'oportion of births to marriages in this year diould be only 2.7 to 1, or 27 to 10. But though the Proportion of births to marriages could not be great, yet on account of the extraordinarj' number of marriages, the absolute number of births must be great ; and as the number of deaths would na- turaDy be small, the proportion of births tp deaths is prodig^ous, being 320 to 100 ; an exeess of
Aamber of marriagc^s and the number of births for the jt»r ITllyinakes the marriages about one twenty-sixth part of the population, and the births about one tenth pari« Such extraordinary proportions could oniy occur in any country, in an individual year. If they were to continue, thejr vould double the population in less thaf\ tcayears.
t'
^ 3Ö ' ESSAY ON Book II,
Effects of epidemics on registers
birtlis as great, ix:rhaps, as has ever been known in Amt rica.
In the next year, 1712, the numl^er of marri- agcs must of course diminish exceeding^y, be- cause, nearly all who were at the age of puberty having married the year before, the marriages . of ihis year would be supplied principally by thos^ who had arrivcd at this age« subsequent to the plague, Still however, as all who were marriage- able had not probably married the year before, the number of marriages in the year 1712 is great in proportion to the population ; and though not much more than half of the number which took place during the preceding year, is greater than the avcrage number in the last period before the plague. The proportion of births to marriages in 1712, though greater than in the preceding year on account of the smaller comparativc number of marriages, is, with refercnce to other countries^ not great, being, as 3.6 to 1, or 36 to 10. But the proportion of births to deaths, though less than in the preceding year, when so very large ^ proportion of the people married, is, witli refer* cncc to other countries, still unusually great, being f(s 220 to 100 ; an excess of births which, calcu- lated on a mortality of 1 in 36, would double tho
#'•
Chap. X POPULATION/ 57
X3B:
of birtbsy deaths, and marriagcs«
populaiiofi of a 4::ountry (acßording to Table L page 30} in 21^ years.
From this period die number of annual mar-
riages t>cgins to be regulated by the diminished
pc^ulatioD, and of course to sink considcrabljr
below the average number of marriages before
the phgue^ depending principally on the number
of po^ons rising annually to a marriageable State»
In die ycar 1720, about nine or ten years after die
jdague, the number of annual marriages, either
bom accident, or the beginning operaüon of tfae
preventive check, is the smaliest ; and it is at this
time that the proportion of births to marriages
riscs veiy hig^ In the period from 1717 to 1721
the pn^xHtion, as appears .by the Table, is 49 to
10; and in the particular years 1719 and 1720, it
Is 50 to 10 and 55 to 10.
Sussmilch draws the attention of his readers to the fruitfulness of marriages in Prussia after the plague, and mentions the prc^ortion of 50 annual births to 10 annual marriages as a proof of it. Thae are the begt reasons, from the general average, for supposing that the marriages in Prus- sia at this time were very fruitful ; but certainly the proportion of this individual ycar, or even pe- riod, is not a sufficient proof of it, being cvidendy caused by a smaller number of marriages taking
38 ESSAY ON Book II.
'Effects of epidemics on registers
place in the year^ and not by a greater number of births. ' In the two years immediately succecd- ing the plague, when the excess of births above the deaths was so astonishing, the births bore a small Proportion to the marriages, and according to the usual mode of calculating, it would have fidlowed that each marriage yietded only 2.7 or 3.6 children. In the last period of the table, from 1752 to 1756, the births are to the marriages as 5 to 1, and in the individual year 1756, as 6.1 to 1 ; and yet during this period, the births are to the deatfis, only as li8 to 100, which could not have been the case, if the high proportion of births to marriages had indicated a much greater num^ her of births than usual, instead of a smallcr num- her of marriages-
The variations in the proportion of births to deaths, in the different periods of the 64 years included in the table, deserve particular attention. If we were to take an average of the four years immediately sueeeeding the plague, the births would be to the deaths in the proportion of above 22 to 10, which supposing the mortality to be 1 in
^ Sussmikh, Göttliche Ordnung, yoI. i. c. ▼• s. Ixxxti. f. 17S.
aiap.X POPULATION. 3| ,
. I
of birthS) deaths, and marriages.
r, I I
36 would double the population in less than 2 1 years« If we take the 20 years from 1711 to 1731, the average proportion of the births to deaths will appear to be about 17 to 10, a proporticm which (according to Table I. page 30) would double the population in about 35 years. But if instead of 20 years we were to take the whole period of 64 years, die average proportion of births to deaths tums out to be but a litde more than 12 to 10, a proporticm wluch would not double the population in less than 125 years. If we were to include the mortality of the plague, or even of the epidemic years 173& and 1737, in too short a period, the deaths might exceed the births, and the population would appear to be decreasing.
Sussmildi think» that instead of 1 in 36, the mortality in Prussia after the plague might be 1 in 38 ; and it may appear perhaps to some of my readers, that the plenty occasioned by such an event ought to make a still greater di&rence. Dr. Short has particularly remarked that an extraordi- nary healthiness generally succeeds any very great mortality ; ^ and I have no doubt that the Observa- tion is just comparing similar ages together. But
■I »
* History of air, seasons» &c. vol. ii. p. 344.
-ä:\i JN Book IL
.^.«t.ac^ m rcgistcrs
.-^ . ^ . aoic jircumstances, infants
. ^> .. ;: ucrc subjcct to death than
^.^. .u -x exuaordinary propor-
. ^^ . , . ..V .■ ->u^y foUows a very greai
.u \:r^ a first die natural healih-
^ . .k.. - M prtvenis it froin making .itt^ v. . ..X pcnoral mortalit}'.
.... X xy,:'i:.Tion of Prussia after the
V . - .^. - xC tiv:,ihs in thc ycar 1711.
^ . V. . \-.. X -".rLtiity Avas ncarly 1 in 31,
. X . . V » X •. Jv vdi* d rathcr than diminishcd,
X ivv ^ ^v.> 5U!mbcr of children bom
A. :"".is greater mortality would
.> ^vii as ihesc children began to
V ^ >::»5^'s of life ; and ihen proba-
,»o>;.r\ ations woiild be just. In
, UV slull observe, that a great
V •s.wu> tHwluces a more sensible cffect
^ , .k«. lUii ».Kl ihe deaths. By refcrring
^ VW V • il 4^*ar, that the number of an-
.^Ä vs^*^^) increases with tlic increasing
. . V»« '^- icdrly keeps up thc samc relative
^^ *. iK *av through. But the number
,.. ^%f4> ?> n*^< ver)' different during thc
^ ^x, svi-h* in this tinic, the popuIatioTV
. A * ^vi^<^xi itself; and thcrcfore the
. -*^
i 1 r
f
Chap. X. POPULATION. 4\
of births, deaths^ and marriages.
————*—————————— ' """■
proportwn of births to the whöle popuIation, at first, and at last, must have changed in an extra^ ordinary degree.
Ic Avill appear therefore how liable we shouM be to err in assuming a given proportion of births fi3r the purpose of estimating the past popuIation of any country. In the present mstance it would have led to the conclusion, that the popuIation was scarcely diminished by the plague, although firom the number of deaths . it was known to be diminished one third.
Variations of the same kind, though not in the aame degree, appear in the proportions of births, deaths, and marriages, in all the tabies which Süss- milch has collected ; and as writers on these sub- jects have been loo apt to form calculations for past and future times from the proportions of a few yearS) it may be uöeful to ^w the attention of the reader to a few more instances of such variations.
In the churmark of Brandenburgh, ^ during 15 years ending with 1712, the proportion of iHTths to deaths was neärly 17 to 10. For 6 years ending with 1718, the proportion sunk to
1 Sussmilch'si Gottliehe Ordnung, toi. i. Tabies, p« 38. voL ii. g
Ü'--
42 ESSAY ON Book II.
Effects of epidemics ob registers
13 to 10; fo^ foüt years ending with 1752^ it was only 11 to 10; and for 4 years ending with 1756, 12 to 10. For 3 years ending with 1759, thc deaths vcry greatly exceeded the births. Thc Proportion of the births to the whole population is not given ; but it is not probable that the great variations observable in tne proportion of birdis to deaths should have arisen solely from the varia- tions in the deaths. llie proporüon of births to marriages is tolerably uniform, the extremes beii^ only 38 to 10, and 35 to 10, and the mean about 37 to 10. In thb table no very great epidemica occur tili the 3 jrears beginning with 1757, and beyond this period the lists are not continued.
In the dukedom of Pomerania,^ the average proportion of births to deaths for 60 years from 169i to 1756 bodi included, was 138 to 100 ; but in some of the periods of six years it was as high as 177 to 100, and 155 to 100. In others it sunk as low as 124 to 100, and 130 to 100. The ex- tremes of the proportions of births to marriages in the different periods of 5 and 6 years were 36 to 10, and 43 to 10, and the mean of the 60 years about 38 to 10. Epidemie years appear to havc
* Siuunilch, vol. u Table», p. 91.
N. -43
: 1 niarriages«
•. hrcc of which the deaths
it this temporär}^ diminu-
iiiced no corresponding di-
md the two individual years
Litcst Proportion of marriages
occur, one the year after, and
rs after epidemics. The excess
wr was not great tili the 3 years
, 59, with which the table concludes.
: n : » rk of Brandciibu rgh, ' for 60 years
u) 1756 both included, the average
'. of births to deaths in the first 30 years
IG 100, in the last 30 years 127 to 100,
V Itolc 60 years 136 to 100. In some periods
; curs it was as high as 171 and 167 to 100«
ihers as low as 118 and 128 to 100, For 5
•
ivs ending with 1726, the yearly average of ' >irihs ^^-as 7012; for 5 years ending with 1746, it IV as 6927 ; from which, judging by the births, we might infer that the population liad decreased in this inter^'al of 20 years ; but it appears from the average proportion of births and deaths during this period, that it must have considerably increas- ed notwithstanding the intervention of some epi-
« Sussmikh's Gottliche Ordnung, vol. i. TahJes, p. 99.
U ESSAY ON Book II.
Effects of epidemics on registers
demic years. The proportion of births to the whole population must therefore have decidcdly changed. Another interval of 20 years in the same table gives a similar result, both with regard to the births aiid the marriages. The extremes of the proportions of births to marriages are 34 to 10, and 42 to 10, and the mean about 38 to 10* The 3 years beginning with 1757 were,as in the other tables, very fatal years.
In the dukedom of Magdeburg^ during 64 years ending with 1756, 'the average proportion of births to deaths was 123 to 100 ; in the first 28 years of the period 142 to 100, and in the last 34 years only 112 to 100; during one period of 5 years it was as high as 170 to 100, and in two pc- riods the deaths exceeded the births. Slight epidemics appear to be interspersed rather thickly thronghout the table. In the two iiistances where threc or four occur in successive years, and di- minish the population, they are followed by an incrcase of marriages and births. The extremes of the proportions of births to marriages are 42 to lü, and 34 to 10, and the mean of the 64 years 39 to 10. On this table Sussmilch remarks, that
I SuMmilch, Tol. u Tablct, p. 103.
^Ol'rLATTOV. 45
. ■.•: <■'"«;. .\U\\ nic."riu'*'es.
< r.ii^'. iiiMsiher of dc:iihs shows an
uhitioij of onc third fiom 1715 or
■ it thc births and inarrhi^s woald
K- stationan' or even dcclininir. In
•s <*onclusion howevcr, he adds ilic
inic vears endinü: widi 1759, durir,!»;
() ihe marriages and births seeni to havc
principality of Ha!l>erstadt,* the avcragc
.iiin of births to dcaths for 68 years, ending
!756, was 124 to 100 ; but m soine pcriods
years it was as hip^h as 160 to 100, and in
js as low as 110 to 100. The incrcusc in the.
i'»le 68 years was considerablc, and yet for 5
»i's ending Wim 1723, the average numlK^r of
»irths was 2818, and for 4 years encling ivitli
^^50, 2628, from which it would apixar that tlic
Ppulation in 27 years had considerably diniinish-
^^'' A similar appearance occurs wiih reg-ard to
the inarriages, during a pcriod of 32 years. In
the 5 years ending with 1718, they wcre 727 ; in
the 5 years ending with 1750, 689. Diiri- g lx)th
the« periods the proportion of deaths would havc
shown a considerable increase. Epidcmics seeni
^ Sussmilch, vol. i. Tables, p. 108.
46 ESSAY ON Book IL
Effects of epidemics on registera
to have occurred frequently, and in almost all thc instances in which they were such as for die deaths to exceed die births, they were immediately suc- ceeded by a more than usual proportion of mar- riages, and in a few years by an increascd propor- tion of births. The greatest number of marriages in the whole table occurs in the year 1751, after an epidemic in the year 1750, in which the deaths had exceeded the births alx)ve one third, and thc four or five foUowing years contain the largest proportion of births. The extremes of the pro- portions of births to marriages are 42 to lü, and 34 to 10, the mean of the 68 years 38 to 10.
The remaining tables contain >imilar results, but these will be sufficient to show the variations which are continually occurring in the proportions of thc births and marriages as \vell as of the deaths, to the whole population.
It will be observed that the least variable of the proportions is that which the births and marriages bear to each other, and the obvious reason is, that this proportion ncarly expresses thc prolificness of marriages, which will not of course be subject to grcat changes. We can hardly indeed supposr that thc prolificness of marriages should var}' so much as the extremes which have been mentioncd.
«
Chap.X, POPULATION. 47
of births, deaths, and m^jriages.
Nor is it necessary that it should, as another cause will contribute to produce the same effect. The biiths which are contemporary with the marriages of any particular year belong principally to marri- ages which had taken plape some years before, and therefore if for four or five years a largc pro- portion of marriages were to take place, and then accidentally for one or two years a small propor- tion, the effect would be a lafge proportion of births to marriages in the registers during thesc cme or two years ; and on the contrary, if for four or five years few marriages comparatively were to take place, and then for one or two years a great number, the effect would be a small proportion of births to marriages in the registers» This was strikingly illustrated in the table for Prussiaand Lithuania, and would be confirmed by an inspec- tion of all the other tables collected by Sussmilch, in which it appears that the extreme proportions of births to marriages are generally more affected by die number of marriages dian the number of births, and consequently arise more from the vari- ations in the disposition or encouragement to ma* trimony, than from the variations in the prolific- fiess of marriages. The common epidemical years that are inter-
^
48 ESSAY ON Book IL
VlflTectyf epidcmics on re^i^isters
spcrscd thrr.iiirhout these tables will not of course ha VC the SciiiR* effccts on the marriages and births^ as ♦ho ^*at j^l if^ue in the table for Prussia ; but tu pri;;M/rrk)n to their magnifudg^ their Operation wiU in general bc found to be simHar. Frotn the regia* ters of m-iriy ofher coiintries, and particubrly of tOMTis, it appiMrs that the Visitation» of the plague were frcquent at the Litter end of the 17th atid tht bef^inning of the 18th ccnturies.
In conttm|)latin^ the plagues and sickly seasoni which occur in thcse tables, after a period of ra{Hd in(*aase, it is impossible not to be imprcssed with thi' idc'i that the numixr of inhabitants had, in %hv>.c ifistanccs, cxcc cded the food and the accom- mo«li*tions ntcessarj to pix'scTve them in health. — Thv milss of the jK-ople woiild, upon this supposi- tiüii, bc oi>liged to live worse, ainl a greater num- ber of them woiild Ixr crowdcd togcthcr in one hoiisc ; and tlicsc natural causes Mould evidently contribute to produce sickncbs, evcn though the coiintry, abs^>lutely cousidered, might not bc crowdetl md populous. In a coujitr)-, evcn ihinly inhabited, if an increase of popul ition takc place bcfore niore food is raised, and morc housi s are built, t!u iiiliabitants must be diMix-sscd for room and sut>sistence. If m the Highlands of Scotland«
Ckp. X. POPULATION. 49
of births, deaths, and marriages. t
for thtr next ten or twelve years, the marriages were to be either more frequent or more prolific, and no emigration were to take place, instead of five to a cottage, there might be seven, and this, added to the necessity of worse living, would evi- dendy have a most unfavorable effect cxi the health- of the common people«
voL iL'
CHAPTER XI.
Generar deductions front the- preceding vicw of
Society.
TH AT the checks which havc bccn men- tioned are the immediate causes of the slow in* crease of population, and that these checks result principally from an insufficiency of subsistencCy. will be evident from the comparatively rapid m* crease, which has invariably taken place whenever^ by some sudden enlargement in the means of sub* sistence, these checks have been in any consider- able degree rcmoved.
It has been univeraally remarked that all new colonies settied in healthy countries, where room and food were abundant, havc constandy made a rapid progress in population. Many of the ccdo- nies from ancient Greece, in the course of one or two centuries, appear to have rivalled, and even surpassed, their mother cities. Syracuse and A- grigentum in Sicily ; Tarentum and Locri in Italy ; Ephesus and Miletus in Lesser Asia ; were, by all accounts, at Icast equal to any of the cities of
ESSAY ON, &?c. 51
General deductions from the> b'c.
ancient Greece. AU these colonies had establish- ed tfiemselves in countries inhabited by savage and faarbarous nations, which easily gave place to the Bcw settlers, who had of course plenty of good land« It is calculated that the Israelites, though diey increased very slowly, while they were wan- dering in the land of Canaan, on settling in a fertile district of Eg3rpt doubled their numbers every fif- teen yesffs during the whde period of their stay. i But not to dwell on remote instances, the Euro- pean Settlements in America bear ample testimony ID die truth of a remark, that has never, I believe, bcen doubted. Plenty of rieh land to be had for little or nothing is so powerful a cause of popula- tkm as generally to overcome all obstacles.
No Settlements could easily have been worse managed dian those of Spain in Mexico, Peru, and Quito. The tyranny, superstition, and vices of the modier country were introduced in ample quantities among her children. Exorbitant taxes were exacted by the crown ; the most arbitrary re- strictions were imposed on their trade ; and the govemors were not behind band in rapacity and
'Sliort's New Obscrv.on Bills of MortalUy, p. 259, 8vo- 1750.
i
52 ESSAY ON Book iL
General deductions from the
extortion for themselves as well as their master. Yet under all these difficulties, the colonies madc a quick progress in population. The city of Quito, whicfa was but a hamlet of Indians, is re* presentcd by Ulloa as containing fifty or sixty thousand inhabitants above fifty years ago. ' Lima, which was founded since the conquest, is men- ^oned by the same author as equally or more populous, before the fatal earthquake in 1746. Mexico is said to contain a hundred thousand inhabitants, which, notwithstanding the exaggcra- tions of the Spanish writers, is supposed to be five times greater than what it contained in the time of Montezuma«
In the Portuguesc colony of Brazil, govemed with almost ecjual tyranny, there were supposed to be above thirty years ago six hundred thousand inhabitants of European cxtraction.*
The Dutch and French colonies, though undcr tlie govemment of exclusive companics of mer- chants, which, as Dr. Smith justly observcs, is the
* Voy. d'Ulloa, tom. i. liv. v. eh. v. p. 229. <to. 1752. ? Smitirs Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. b. iv. eh. vii. p. 363. ? Id. p. 365.
Chap. XI. POPÜLA'nON. 53
preceding view of Society.
worst of all possible govemments, still persisted in thriving under every disadvantage. *
But die English North American colonies, now thc powerful people of die United States of Ame- rica, far outstripped all ihe others, in the progress of their population. To the quantity of rieh land which they possessed in common with the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, they addcd a greater degree of liberty and ecjuality. Though not with- out some restrictions on their foreign commerce, they were allowed the liberty of managing their own internal affairs. Thc political Institution» which prevailed were favorable to the alienation and division of property. Lands which were not cultivated by the proprictor within a limited time were declared grantable to any other person. In Pennsylvania, therc was no right of primogeniture ; and in the provinces of New England, the eldest son had only a double share. Therc were no tithes in any of the States, and scarcely any taxes. And on account of die extreme cheapness of good land, a capital coukl not be morc advantageously employed than in agriculture, which at the same
J Id. p. 368, 369.
54 ESSAY ON BookU.
General deductions from the
time that it affords the greatest quantiQr of healthy work supplies the most valuable produce to the Society.
The consequence of these favorable circum- stances united was a rapidity of increase almost without parallel in histoiy. Throughout all the northem provinces the population was found to double itself in 25 years. The original number of persons which had settled in the four provinces of New England in 1643 was 21,200. After* wards it was calculated that more left them than. went to them. In the year 1760 they were in- creased to half a million. They had therefore, all along, doubled their number ia 25 years. In New Jersey, the period of doubling appeared to be 22 Tcars ; and in Rhode Island still less. In the back setdcments, whcre the inhabitants applied themselves solely to agriculture, and luxury was not known, they were supposed to double their number in fifteen years. Along the sea coast, which would naturally be first inhabited, the pe- riod of doubling was about 35 years, and in some of the maritime towns the population was abso- lutelv at a stand. ^ From the late ccnsus made in
> Price's Obsenr. on Revers. Paym. vol. i. p« 38S, 383,
eh^. XI. POPULATION. 55
preceding view of Society.
meiica it sqppears, that taking all the States to«- , they have still continued co double their mimbers every 25 years ; and as. the whole popu-
«id Tol. ii. p. 360. I have lately had an opportunity of
^Dg some extracts from the sermon of Dr. Styles,
&om which Dr. Price has taken these facts« Speaking
of Rhode Island, Dr. Styles says, that though the period
of doubling for the whole colony ts 35 years, yet that it
» different in different parts» and within land is 30 and
15 years. The population of the five towns of Glouces-
^r, Situate, CoYentry, Westgreenwich, and Exeter, was
5033, A. D. 1748, and 6986, A. D. 1755 ; which implies
t period of doubling of 15 years only. He mentions
tfterwards that the county of Kent doubles in 30 years ;
•od the county of Providence in 18 years.
I haTc also latlSly seen a paper of Facta and calcidationa nafiecsing the fiofiuiation qf ihe United Statea^ which make» the period of doubling for the whole of the States, since their firsi settlement, only 30 years. I know not of what lathority this paper is ; but far as it goes üpon public bctsandenumerations I should thinkthatit must be to be depcnded on. One period is very striking. From a retum to Coogress in 1783, the population appeared to be M89,300, and in the censusof 1790, 4,000,000: increase ia 9 years, 1,610,700 ; from which deduct ten thousand per annum for European settlers, which will be 90,00O ; md allow for their increase at 5 per cent. for 4} years, which will be 30,350 : the remaining increase during Uiose 9 years, from procreation only, will be 1,500,450, which is very nearly 7c.^per cent ; and consequently the period of doubling at this rate would be less than 16 years. If this calculation for the whole population of the States
56 ESSAY OS Book IL
General deductions from the
lation is now so great as not bc matcrially affected f)y the emigrations from Europe, and as it is known, that in seine of the towns and districts near tlie sea coast, the progress of popuIation has bcen comparatively slow ; it is evident that, in the interior of the coinitry in general, the period of donhiing from procrcation only must have been considerably less than 25 years.
The popubtion of the United States of America, according to the late census, is 5,172,312. • Wc hnvc no reason to believe that Great Britain is less |)opulons at present, for the emigration of the small parent stock which produced diese nunibers. On tlie contrary, a ccrtain degrce of emigration is known to Ix' fiivorable to the popuIation of the mother cuuntr}'. It has l)een particularly rcmark- ed that llie iwo Spanish provinccs, from whicli the
be in any deq^ree near the truth, it cannot bc doubtcd« that in particular diHlricts the period ot (loublinj; from procreation only has ofcen been less ihan 15 ycai*s. The period immediatcly succeeding the war was likcly to be a period of very rapid increa«e«
^ One small State is mentioned as being omitte d in the renbus ; and I understand that the popuIation is ge- nerali v ronsidered at above thia number. It is said to apprnach towards 6,U()(),000. Hut such vague opinions cannot of course be much relied on.
Chap. XI. POPULATION. 57
preceding view of Societ^i
greatest number of people emigrated to America, became in consequence more populous.
Whatever was the original number of British e- migrants which increased so fast in North Ameri- ca; let US ask, Why does not an equal number produce an equal increase in the same time in Gfeat Britain ? T*he obvious reason to be assign cd is the want of food ; and that this want is the most efficient cause of the three immediate checks to popuIation, which have been observed to pre- Tail in all societies, is evident, from the rapidity with which even old states recover the desolations of war, pestilence, famine, and the convulsions of nature. They are then for a short time placed a fittle in the Situation of new colonies, and the efl^ is alwajrs answerable to what might be ex- pected. If the industry of Ae inhabitants be not destroyed, subsistence will soon increase beyond the wants of the reduced numbers ; and the inva- riablc ccmsequence will be, that population, which before perhaps was nearly stationary, will begin tmmediateiy to increase, and will continue its pro- gress tili the former population is recovered.
The fertile province of Flanders, which has been so often the seat of the most destructive wars, after a respite of a few years, has always appeared as voL )k i
56
•-r >
Book 11
uie
kition ib 11" F)V tliL- »I
m
known, i!i * near tlu beeil t<<r. interior
co'.i>uK ' '
"I"
im
ilC(M)]<
1
h;!vr
Ol.
kii'
^(1
1-.
■ ■
. .-^. Tic undiminishcd
_jL.i ^a^ Jcibre been no-
-rt'iffty in point. The
.. < fiunual proofs of a ve-
^ -jL noftalities, and thc
. uiiiia, which I have in-
» »j:j£in thisrcspect. The
^ ^uc in London, in 1666,
: X rears aftenvards. —
^,» \jitdwr Turkevand E-
^ 'luci les-s populous for
..^^jil> iay ihem waste. If
*ta uwv contain hc consi-
^ .4iii«.r7 . it is rather to ht
^ ^. Uli opprcsbion of tlic go-
^^_ ^1^% ^Tüun, and the conse-
__,^ ,' ^icullure, than to thc
_^Mi \v ihe plague. Thc
.^«s i*^" Juinines in China, In-
..Ä^» ..'jautrics, are by all ac-
•otcd. and the niost tre-
•jiure, such as volcanic
X i they do not liap|x^u
irtav che inhabil;mib, or
i i Jiss vol.
Cha^Xi. POKJLATION. 5Ö
pneceding tifew 6f Soc1c»)r.
descrc^ ^difch- spiiit bf indusüy , have be«i födfnd tö produce but a trifling effect on die average pöpfü- hdoti oTany State.
It faas appeared from thetegisters öf difietoit
coimtries which have aftitady been pfoduced, diat
die p%jgfe<>s of thcir ptfiftdaticih is chccked by the
periodical, thöagh irregulär, returtis of plagues
and sickly seatons. l!>f. Short^ in hi$ c^ridus r^-
searches into biHs of tnoitality, often uses the ex-
pression of i" terrible cörtectives 'of the redtin-
Aance of tn^hkind ;^'^ ahd in a table of all the
plagues, pe^tilences, and fkmmes, of which he
cooU ecAect accöunts, i^oi^ Ihe constancy and
univeilssAty xX their operaftioh.
The epideniical yeaSrs in his table, <a the yeai^ in which the pbgue or some gi^at and wasting e- pidemic prevailed, fbr smailer sickly seasons seem M to be inchided, ate 431,* of which 32 weir bcSore the Christian «ra. • If we tiividc thereforc the years of the present jera by 399, it will appear ^ üic periodical retüms of !^üch epidemics, to »öve country that we are acquaihted with, have
' New Observ. on Bills of Mortality, p. 96. * Hist. of Air, Seasons, &c. vol. ü. p. 366« Id. vol. iL p. 202.
6» ESSAY ON Book II.
General deductions from the
been on an average only at the interval of about 4| years.
Of the 254 great famines and dearths enume* rated in the table, 15 were before the Christian «ra,^ beginning with that which occurred in Pales- tine, in the time of Abraham. If subtracting these 15 we divide the years of the present aera by the re- mainder, it will appear that the average intenral between the visits of this dreadful scourge has been only about 7i years.
How iar these " terrible corrcctives to the rc- diindance of mankind" have been occasioned by the too rapid increase of popuIation, b a point which it would be very difficult to determine with any degree of precision. The eauses of most of our diseases appear to us to be so n^sterious, and probably are really so various, that it would be rashness to lay too much stress on any single one ; but it will not perhaps be too much to say, that among these eauses we ought certainly to rank crowded houses, and insufficient or unwholesome food» which are the natural consequences of an in- crease of population faster than the accommoda- tions of a country M'ith respect to habitatious and food will allow.
* Hlst. of Alf) Scasoas, Sic vol. ii. p« 306.
•
Chap. XI. POPUIfATION. da
preceding view of Society.
Almost aU the histories of epidemics which wc have, tend to confirm this suppösition^ by describ- ing thetn in general as making their principal ra- vages among the lower classes of people. In Dr. Siort's tables this circumstance is frequently men- tioned ;^ and it further appears that a very consi- deraUe proportion of the epidfemic years either fol- löwed or were accompanied by seasons of dearth and bad food.* In other places he also mentions great plagues as diminishing particularly the num- bers of the lower cmt servile sort of people ; * and in qpeaking of diferent diseases he obsenes, that Üiose which are occasioned by bad and uiiwnole- some food generally last the longest. ^
We know from constant experience, that fevers are generated in our jails, our manufactories, our ciowded WOTkhouses, and in the narrow and close streets of our large towns ; all which situations ap. pear to be similar in their effects to squalid pover- ty : and we cannot doubt that causes of this kinc!, aggravated in degree, contributed to the produc-
* Hist. of Air, Seasons, &c. vol. ii. p. 206. ej seq. ' Id. p. 206, et seq. and 336* *New Observ. p. 125. ^ Id. p. 108.
62 ESSAY ON Book 11.
General deductions fVotn the
tion and prevalence of those grcat and wasling pbg;ties formerly so common in Europe, but which now, from die mitigation of diese causes, are cvery where considerably abatcd, and in many places appear to be completely extirpated.
Of the other great scourge of mankind, famine, it may be observed, that it is not ui the nature of things diat the increase of population should ab- solutely produce one. This increase, though iti- pid, is necessarily gradual; and as the human frame cannot be supported, even for a very short time without food, it is evident that no more hu- man beings can grow up than there is provisioii to maintain. But though the prineipie of popula. tion cannot absolutely produce a famine, it prc- pures the way for one in the most complete man- her ; and by obliging all the lower classes of people to subsist neariy on the smallest quantity of food tliat will support life, tums evcn a slight deficicncy from the failure of the seasons iiito a severe dearth ; and may be &irly said therefore, to be one of the princii^al causes of faminc. Aniong the signs of an approaching dearth, Dr. Short mentions one or niorc yc;fi^ of luxuriant crops togcther : ' and this
* Hibt« of Air» Seasonft» kc. vol. ü- p. 367.
Oup. XI. POPULATION. 63
preeeditig vkw of ScKriety.
Observation is probably just, as we know that the
geneial effect of years of cheapness and abundance
is to dispose a greater number of persons to marry,
and under such circumstances the retum to a year
merdjr of an average crop might produce a scarcity.
The small-pox which at present may be consU
dered as the most prevalent and fatal epidemic in
Europe, is of all others, perhaps, the most difBcult
to acoount fc»', diough the periods of its retum are
in many places regulär« ' Dr. Short observes, that
froitt die histories of this disorder it seems to have
veiy little dependence upon the past or present
Gonstitution of the weather or seasons, and that it
appears epidemically at all times, and in ^jl states
of die air, diough not so firequenüy in a hard frost
We know of no instances, I believe, of its being
deariy generated under any circumstances of situ-
aüeii. I do not mam therefore to insinuate that
poverty and crowded houses ever absolutely pro-
doced it ; bat Imay be allowed to remark, that in
those places where fis retums are regulär, and its
ravagesamong children, particularly among those
of the lower class, are considerable, it necessarily
foBows thal these circumstances, in a greater degree
1 Hiftt. oC Alt*, Scasonsy &c- vol. ii. p. 411.
64 ESSAY ON Book IL
»
General deduclions from the
than usual, must always precede and accompany I its appearance ; that is, from the time of its last visit^ the average number. of children will bc in- creasing, the people will, in consequence, be grow- ing poorer, and the houses will be more crowded tili another visit retnoves this superabundant po- pulation.
In all thrse cases, how little soever force wc may be disposed to attribute to the eflSK:ts of the principle of population in the actual production of disorders, we cannot avoid allowing their force as predisposing causes to the reception of contagion, and as giving veiy great additional force to the extensiveness and fatality of its ravages.
It is observed by Dr. Short that a severe mortal epidemic is gcnerally succeeded by an uncommon healthinchs, from die late distemper having carried oflf most of die declining womout constitutions. ' It is probable, also, that another cause of it may be the grcater plenty of room and foöd, and the consec|ucntly meliorated condition of the lower classes of the people. Sometimes, according to Dr. Short, a very fruitful ycar is followcd by a ver)' mortal and sickly one, and mortal ones often
' Hist. of Airt Seasont^ 8cc. toK ii. p. 344.
Qhap. XL POPULATION- 65
preceding view of Society.
succeeded by very fruitful, as though nature sought cither to prevent or quickly repair the loss by death. In generai the next year, after sickly and mortal ones, is prolific in proportion to the breeders left«^
This last effect we have seen most strikingly exemplified in the table for Pnissia and Lithuania.' And from this and other tables of Sussmilch it also appears, that when the increasing produce of a <x>untry, and the increasing demand for labor, so &r meliorate the condition of the laborer, as greatly to encourage marriage, the custom of early marriages is generally continued tili the population has gone beyond the increased produce, and sickly seasons appear to be the natural and necessary ccmsequence. The continental registers exhibit many instances of rapid increase, interrupted in this manner by mortal diseases, and the inference seems to be, that those countries where sobsistence is increasing sufficiently to encourage population, but not to answer all its demands, will be more subject to periodical epidemics than those where the increase of population is more nearly accom- modated to the average produce.
* New Observ, p. 1 9 1
* Page 33 of this vol.
vol. Ü. k
66 ESSAY ON Book ß,
General deductions from the
llie converse of this will of course be true. In those countries which ure sul^ject to periodical sicknc!>sesy the increase of popuIation, or the ex« ccss of births above the dcaths, will be greater in the intervals of these pcriods than is usual in countries not so much subject to these diseases. If Turkey and Eg)'pt have bcen nearly stationary in their average population for the last Century, in the intervals of their periodical plagues, the births must liave exceeded the deaths in a much greater proportion than in such countries as France and England«
It is for these reasons that no estimates of future population or dcpopulation, formed from any cxis- ting rate of increase or decrease, can be depended upon. Sir William Pctty calculated that in the year 1800 the city of London woiild contain fivc millions three hundn^d and iifty nine thousand* inha- bitants, instead of which it does not now contain a fifdi part of that number. And Mr. Eton has latcly proj^hesied the extinction of the population of the Tiirkish cmpire in another Century ;* an cvent which will, as certainly, fail of taking place. If
» Political Arithmetic, p« IT.
^ Survcy of the Turkish Empire, c. vii. p. 381
Chap, XI. POPULATION. 67
preceding Tiew of Society.
America were to continue increasing at the same rate as at present, fw the next 150 years, her po- pulatioo would exceed the population of China ; but though prophecies are dangerous I will ven- ture to say, that such an increase will not take place in that time, though it may perhaps in iive or six hundred years.
Europe was, without doubt, formerly more
subject to plagues and wasting epidemics than at
present, and this will account, in great measure,
for the greater proportion of births to deatlis in
former times, mentioned by many authors, as it
has always been a common practice to estimate
these proportions from too short pcriods, and ge-
nerally to reject the years of plague as accidental.
The highest average proportion of births to
deaths in England may be considered as about 12
to 10, or 120 to 100. The proportion in France
for ten years, ending in 1780, was about 115 to
100.^ Though these proportions have undoubt-
edly varied at different periods during the last
Century, yet we have reason to think that they
have not varied in any very considerable degree ;
■ Necker de 1* Administration des Finances, tom. i. < üu p* 335«
68 ESSAY ON Book 11.
General deductions frora the
and it will appear therefore, that the population of France and England has accommodated itself more nearly to the average produce of each coun- try than many other states. The Operation of the preventive check, wars, the silent thougfa certain destruction of life in large towns and ma- nu&ctories, and the close habitations and insuflSi- cient food of many of the poor, prevent popula- tion from outrunning the means of subsistence ; and if I may use an expression, which certsünly at first appears stränge, supersede the necessity of great and ravaging epidemics to destroy what is redundant. If a wasting plague were to sweep off two millions in England, and six millions in France, it cannot be doubtcd that aftcr the inha- bitants had recovered from the dreadful shock, die Proportion of births to deaths would risc much above the usual average in either countr)* during the last Century. *
In New Jersey the proportion of births to deaths on an average of 7 years, ending 1743, was 300 tc 100. In France and England the highcst ave« rage proportion caiuiot be reckoned at more ihan
I This remark has becn, to a certain dcgrec, vcrified o late in France, by the increase of births which has taker place since the reTolution*
Chap. XI. POPULATION. 69
precedlng view of Society«
120 to 100. Great and astonishing as this diffe- rence is, we ought not to be so wonder-struck at it, as to attribute it to the miraculous interpo^tion of heaven. The causes of it are not remote, latent, and mysterious, but near us, round about us, and open to the investigation of eveiy inquiring mind. It accords with the most liberal spirit of philosophy to belicve, that not a stone can fall or plant rise without the immediate agency of divine power. But we know from experience, that these Opera- tions of what we call nature have been conducted almost invariably aecording to fixed laws. And since the world began the causes of population and depopulation have been probably as constant as any of the laws of nature with which we are ac- quainted.
The passion between the sexes has appeared in cveiy age to be so nearly the same, that it may always be considered, in algebraic language, as a given quantity. The great law of necessity which prevents population from increasing in any country beyond the food which it can either produce or acquire, is a law so open to our view, so obvious and evident to our understandings that we cannot for a moment doubt it. The different modes which nature takes to repress a redundant popula- tion, do not appear indeed to us so certain and re-
70 ESSAY ON Book II.
General deductions from the
gular ; but though we cannot always predict the mode we may with certainty predict the fact. If the Proportion of the births to the deaths for a few years indicates an increase of numbers much be- yond the proportional increased or acquired food of the country, we may be perfectly certain, that unlcss an emigration take place the deaths will shortly exceed the births, and that the increase that had been observed for a few years cannot be the real average increase of the population of the country. If there were no other depopulating causes, and if the preventive check did not operate, very strongly, cvery country would, without doubc, be subject to periodical plagues and famines.
The only true criterion of a real and permanent increase in the ix)pulation of any country is the increase of the means of subsistencc. But evcn this criterion is subject to some slight variations, which however are completely open to our Obser- vation. In some countries population seems to havc been forced ; that is, the people have been ha- bituatcd by degrees to live almost upon the small- cst possible quantity of food. There must havc Ixren periods in such countries when population in- creased permanently without an increase in the means of subsistence. China, India, and the coun- tries posscssed by the Bedowccn Arabs, as we havc
ChapXL POPULATION. 71
preceding view of Society.
Seen in thc former part of this work, appear to an- swer to this description. The average produce of these countries seems to be but barely sufficient to Support the lives of the inhabitants, and of course any deficiency from the badness of the seasons must be fatal* Nations in this State must neces- sarily be subject to famines.
In America, where the reward of labor is at present so liberal, the Iower classes might retrench very considerably in a year of scarcity, without materially distressing themselvcs. A famine there- fore, seems to be almost impossible. It may be expected that in the progress of the pppulation of America the laborers will in time be much less Uberally rewarded. The numbers will in tliis case permanently increase without a proportional in- crease in the means of subsistence.
In the difFerent countries of Europe there must be some variations in the proportion of the num- ber of inhabitants and the quantity of food con- sumed, arising from the difFerent habits of living which prevail in each State. The laborers of the south of England are so accustomed to eat fine wheaten bread, that they will suflFer themselves to be half-starved before they will submit to live likc the Scotch peasants«
12 ESSAY ON Book IL
General deductions from the
They might perhaps, in time, by the constant Operation of the hard law of necessity, be reduced to Hve even Hke the Iower classes of the Chinese, and the country would then with the same quantiQr of food Support a greater population. But to effect tliis must always be a difficult, and every friend to humanit} will hope, an abortive attempt.
I have mentioned some cases where population may permanently increase, without a proportional increasc in the means of subsistence. But it is evident, that the Variation in diflferent states be- tween the food and the numbers supported by h is restrictcd to a limit, beyond which it cannot pass. In evcry country the population of which is not absohitcly decreasing, the food must be ne - ccss;irily sufticicnt to support and to continue the y racc of laborcrs.
Ol her circumstances bcing the samc it may be aflirnied, tluit countries are populous according to the quantity of human fcxxl which they produce^ or can acquirc ; and happy, according to the libe- rnlity with which this food is dividcd, or the quanti- ty which a day's labor will purchase. Com coun- tries arc more populous than j)asture countries ; and rice countries more |X)pulous tlian com coun- tries. But their happiness does not depend cither upon their being tliinly or fuUy inhabited, upon
Clu^. XL POPULATION. 73
preceding view of So^ety.
their poverty or their riches, their youth or their age ; but on the proportion which the popuIation and the food bear to each othen This proportion is generaUy the most favorable in new colonies, where the knowledge and industry of an old State operate on the fertUe unappropriated land of a new cne. In other cases the youth or the age of a State is not, in this respect, of great importance. It is probable that the food of Great Britain is di- ▼ided in more liberal shares to her inhabitants at the present period, than it was two thousand, three thousand, or four thousand years 2igo. And it has appeared that the poor and thinly-inhabited tracts of the Scotch Highlands are more distres- sed by a redundant popuIation than the most po- pulous parts of Europe«
If a country were never to be overrun by a peo- ple more advanced in arts, but left to its ovtm na- tural progress in civilization ; from the time that its produce might be considered as a unit, to the tiroe that it might be considered as a million, du- ring the lapse of many thousand years, tljere would not be a single period when the mass of the people could be said to be free from distress, either di- rectly or indirectly, for want of food. In every
State in Europe, since we have first had accounts voL il 1
74 ESSAY ÖN Book IL
Genenl deductions from the
■ ■ ' ■
of it, millions and millions of human existences have becn repressed from this simple cause, thoiif^h perhaps ki some of these states an abso- lute famine may never have been known.
Famine seems to be the last, the most dreadful resource of nature. The power of population is so superior to the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man, ttiat unless arrested by the preventive check, premature death must in some shape or other visit the human race, The vioes of mankind are active and able ministers of depo- pulation. They are the precursors in the greal army of destniction, and often finish the dreadfiil work themselves. But should they feil in this M'ar of extirmination, sickly scasons, epidemics, pestilence, and plague, advancc in terrific array, and swcep off their thousands and ten thousands. Should success be still incomplcte, gigantic inevi- table famine stalks in the rear, and at one mighty blow Icvels the population with the food of the World.
Must \\ not then be acknowledgcd, by an atten- tive cxamincr of the histories of mankind, that in cverj' age and in every State in wliich man has ex- •istcd or docs now exist.
A
Ch^XI. POPULATION. 75
preceding view of SocSety«
The kicrease of population is necessarily limit- ' cd by the meaiis of subsistence :
Population invariably increases when tlie means of subsistence increase, unless prevented by pow* erful and obvious checks :
These checks, and the checks which keep the populadcm down to the level of the means of sub- sistencCy are moral restraint, vice, and miscry.
In comparmg the State of society which has been considered in this second book with that which fcnmed the subject of the first, I think it a{^)ears that in modern Europe the positive chtcks to populaticm prevail less, and the pre venti ve checks more than in past times, and in the more uncivil- ized parts of the world.
War, the predominant check to ^e population of savage nations, has certainly abated, even in- cluding the late unhappy revolutionary contests ; and since the prevalence of a greater degree of perscHial cleanliness, of better modes of Clearing and building towns, and of a more equable distri- bution of the products of the soil from improving knowledge in political economy, plagues, violent diseases, and famines, have been certainly miti- gated, and have become less frequent.
With regard to the preventive check to popula-
76 ESSAY ON, 6?f.
General deductions from the, ^c«
tion, though it must be acknowledged, that that branch of it which comes under the hcad of mord restraint • does not at prescnt prevail much among^ the male part of society ; yet I am strongly dis- posed to believe, that it prevails more than in thosc States which were first considered; and it can scarcely be doubted, that in modern Europe a much larger proportion of women pass a consider- able part of their lives in the exercise of this vir- tue, than in past times and among uncivilized nations. But-however this may be, if we consider only the general term which implies principally an infrequency of the marriage union from the fear of a family, without reference to consequences, it may be considered in this light as the most powerful of the checks, which in modern Europe keep down the population to the level of the means of subsistence.
* The reader will recoUect the confined scnsc in which I take this term*
ESSAY, &c.
BOOK III.
or THE DIFFSRSNT SYSTEMS OR EXPEOIENTS WHICH RATE BEEW PROPOSEO OR HAVE PREVAILED IN SO- CIETY, AS THEY AFFECT TUE EVILS ARISING FROM THE PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION.
CHAPTER I.
Of Systems ofEquaHty. Wallace. Condorcct.
TO a person who views the past and prc- sent States of mankind in the light in which they have appeared in the two preceding books, it can- not but be a matter of astonishment that all the writers on the perfectability of man and of society, who have noticed the argument of the principle of population, treat it always very slightly, and inva- riably represent the difficulties arising from it as at a great and almost immeasurable distance. Even Mr. Wallace, who thought the argument itself of
'8 ESSAY ON Booklir
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
SO much weight as to destroy his whole system of equality, did not seem to be aware that any diffi- culty uould arise from this cause tili the whde earth had becn cultivatcd like a garden, and was incapable of any further increase of produce. Were this really the case, and were a beautiful System of equality in other respects prac:ticahle, I cannot think that our ardour in the pursuit of such a scheine ought to be damped by the contcnipla- tion of so remote a difficulty. An event at such a distance might fairly be left to providence. But the truth is, that if the view of the argument giv- en in this essay be just, the difficulty, so far froui being remote, would be imminent and immediate. At every period during the progrcss of cultivation, from the prescnt moment to the time when the whole earth was become like a garden, tlie distress for want of food would be constantly pressing on all niankind if diey were equal« Though the pro- duce of the earth would be increasing cvery ycar, population would be tending to increase much fas- ter, and the redundancy must necessarily be check- cd by the periodical or constaQt action of monil restraint, vice, or miscry.
M. Condorcet*s Esqtätse d^un tableau histo- rique des progres de Pesprit humam ^'as nritttn, it
(7Äfl/>. /. POPULATION. 79
Of Systems of equality« Wallace« Condorcet.
is Said» under the pressure of that cruel proscrip-
äon which terminated in his death. If he had no
hopes of its being seen during his life, and of its
interesting France in his favor, it is a singuiar
instance of the attachment of a man to principles,
which every" day's' cxperience was so fatally for
himself contradicting. To see the human mind,
inone of the most enlightened nations of the world,
debased by such a fermentation of disgusting
passions, of fisar, cruelty, maüce, revenge, ambi-
tion, madness, and folly, as would have disgraced
the most savage nations in the most barbarous age,
mnst have been such a tremendous shock to his
idets of the necessary and inevitable progress of
die human mind, as nothing but the firmest con-
viction of the truth of his principles, in spite of all
>
^qypearances, could have withstood.
This posthumous publication is only a sketch oT a much larger work which he proposed should bc executed. It necessarily wants therefore that detail and application, which can alone prove the mith of any theory. A few observations will be sufficient to show how completely this theory is contradicted, when it is applied to the real and not tö an imaginary State of things.
ao ESSAY ON Book IIL
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
In thc last division of the work, which treats of thc futiire progress of man towards perfection, M. Condorcet says, that comparing in thc difierent civilized nations of Europe the actual population with the extcnt of territory ; and observing their cultivation, their industry, their divisions of labor, and their means of subsistence, we shall see that it would bc impossible to preserve the same means of subsistence, and consequendy the same popu- lation, without a number of individuals who have no other means of supplying their wants than their industry.
Having allowed the necessity of such a class of men, and adverting afterwards to the precarious revenue of those families that would depend so en- tircly on the life and health of their chief,* he says vcry justly, " Therc exists thcn a necessary cause " of inequality , ofdependence,andeven of misery, *^ which menaces without ceasing, the most nu- ** merous and active class of our societies." The difficulty is just and well stated ; but his modc of
^ To savc lime and long quotationsi I shaU here g^re the ftubsUnce of some of M* Condorcet's sentimentst and I hope that I shall not misrepresent them ; but I rcfer the reader to the work itself, which will amuse if it do not convince bim.
Cfc^- /. POPULATION- ai
Of sjttems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
removing it will, I fear, be found totally ineffica- cious.
By tbe application of calculations to the proba«- bifities of life, and the interest of money, he pro- poses that a fund should be established, which fihould assur^ to the old an assistance produced in pari by their own former savings, and in part by the savings of individuals, who in making the same sacrifice die before they reap the beif§fit of it. The same or a similar fund should give assist« ance to women and children who lose their hus- faands or fathers ; and afford a capital to those who were of an jge to found a new family, suf&cient Ibr the development of their industry. These cstablishments, he observes, might be made in die name and under the protection of the sooiet}% Going still further, he says, that by the just appli- cation of calculations, means might be found of aore completely preserving a State of equality, by preventing credit from being the exclusive privi- ^;c of great fortunes, and yet giving it a basis cqually solid, and by rendering the progress of industry and the activity of commerce less depen- dent on great capitalists.
Such establishments and calculations may ap- pear very promising upon paper ; but whcn applied
8S ESSAY ON Book 111.
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
to real life they will be found to be absolutely nu- gatory. M. Condorcet allows that a class of peo* ple which maintains itself entirely by industry is necessary to every State. Why does he allow this ? No other reason can well be assigned, than because he conceives that the labor, necessary to procure subsistence for an extended population will not be performed without the goad of neces- sity« «4f by establishments upon the plans that have bcen mentioned, this spur to industry be re- moved ; if the idle and negligent be placed upon the same footing with regard to their credit, and the future support of their wives ai^ fiunilies, as the active and industrious, can we expect to see mcn exert that animated activity in bettering their condition, which now forms the master- spring of public prosperity ? If an inquisition were to be established to examinc the claims of each indivi- dual, and to dttcrmine whether he had or had not exerted himself to the utmost, and to grant or re- fuse assistance accordingly, this would be little eise than a repetition upon a largcr scale of the English poor laws, and would be completely destructive of the true principles of liberty and equality.
But indcpendently of this great ohjection to these establishments, and supposing for a moment
ۀ^. /. POPULATION. 83
Of Systems of equality. Waiiace. CondorcA.
*
tfaat they would give no check to produclion, Ihe greatest difficulty remains yet behind.
Wcre every man sure of a comförtable Provi- sion for a &mily, almost every man would have one ; and were the rising generation free from the '< killing frost" of misery, population must increase witfa unusual rapidity. Of this M. Condorcet seems to be fully aware himself ; and after having dcsciibed further improvements he says,
*^ But in this progress of industry and happi- ^ ness, each generation will be called to more ^ eztended enjoyments, and in consequence, by " die physical^onstitution of the human frame, to '^ an increase in the number of individuals. Must ^ Dol tfaere arrive a period thcn when these laws ^ cqpaSiy necessary shall counteract each other ; ^ when die increase of the numl^er of men surpas- «< sing their means of subsistence, the necessary ^ resuk must be» either a contmual diminution of '' haiqpiness and population — a movement truly ^ retrograde ; or at least a kind of osciilation be- ** tween good and evil? In societies arpivcd at ^ this term will not this osciUation be a constantiy *' subsisting cause of periodical misery '? Will it ^ not mark the limit when all further melioration ^ will become inipossible, and point out that term " to the perfectiliilit)' of the human race, whicli
84 ESSAY ON Book
ez
#f Systems of eqpiality. Wallace. Condorcct.
** «t may reach in the course of ages, but can never " pass ?" He tlien adds,
" There is no pers»on who does not acc how ^^ ven' distant such a period is from us. But shall *' we ever arrive at it ? It is equally impossible ^^ to pronounce for or against the future realisatioR '^ of an eventy which cannot take place but at an ** aera when the human race will have attained im- ^* provements of which we can at present scarcety •* form a conception.'*
M. Condorcet's picture of what may be expect- cd to happen when the number of men shall sur- pass their- means of subsistence is jusdy drawiu The oscillation which he describes will certainly take place, and will without doubt be a constantly subsisting cause of periodical misery. The.only point in which I differ from M. Condorcet in thb description is, with rcgard to the period when it may be applied to the human race. M Condor« cet thinks that it cannot possibly be applicable, but at an aera extrcmcly distant If the proportion betweea the natural increase of population and food, which u*as stated in the beginning of this cssay, and which has rcceived considcrable confir- mation from the povert)' that has been found to prcvail in evcrj- stage and department of human Society, l>e in any degree ncar the truth, it wiO
Chap,L POPULATION. •*' 85
Of Systems of equality. Waljace. Condorcet.
■ II r , ■ ■ ■
•
appear on the contrary that the period when thc number of men suqiasses their means of subsist- cnce has long since aitived ; and that this necessary osciDation, this constantly subsisting cause of pe- riodical misery, has existed ever since we have Kad any histories of mankind, and continues to cxist at the present moment.
M. Condorcet ho\^Tver gfoes on to say, that
should the period which he conceives to be so
distant ever arrive, the human race, and the ad-
vocates of the perfectibility of man, need not be
alänned at it. He then proceeds to rcmove the
difficulty in a manner which I profess not to un-
derstand. Having observed that the ridiculous
prejudices of superstition would by that time have
ceased to throw over morals a corrupt and degra-
db^ austerity, he alUides either to a promiscuous
concubinage which would prevent breeding, or to
something eise as unnaturah To remove the dif-
ficuhy in this way will surely, in the opinion of
most men, be to destroy that virtue and purity of
maimers which the advocates of equality, and of
die perfectibility of man, profess to be the end
and object of their views.
Xhe last questioii which M. Condorcet propo- ses fiM" examination is, the organic perfectibility of
«6 •'• ESSAY ON Book 111.
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcel.
man. He observes, thaf if the proofs which have been alrcady given, and which, in their develop- ment, will reccive greatcr Force in thc w(h4c itself, are suf&cient to establish the indefinite perfectibili- t^ of man, upon the supposition of the same natu- ral faculties and the same Organization which hc has at present ; wliat will be the certainty, what the extent of our hopes, if this Organization, these natural faculties themselves, be ^usceptible of me- lioration ?
From the improvement of medicine ; from the use of more wholesome food and habitations ; from a manner of living, which will improve the strength of the body by exercise without impair- ing it by excess ; from the destruction of the two grcat causcs of the degradation of man, misery, and too great riches ; from the gradual rcmoval of transmissible and contagious disorders by the im- provement of physical knowledge, rendercd more efficacious by the progress of reason aud of social Order ; he infers, that though man will not abso- lutely become immortal, yet that thc duration be- tween his birth and natural death will increasc without ceasing, will have no assignable term, and may properly be expressed by the word indefinite. He tlien dcfines this word to mean either a con* stant approach to an unlimited extent without e ver
Chap.I. POPULATION. * 87
■,\
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
reaching it ; or an increase in the immensity of aggs to an eztent greater than any assignable quan- titjr.
But surely the application of this term in either 0f these seiises to the duration of human life is in die highest degree unphilosophical, and totally un- wairanted by any appearances in the laws of na- ture. Variations fh)m different causes are essen- tially dbtinct firom a regulär and unretrograde in- crease. The average duration of human life will to a certsun degree vary from healthy or unhealthy dimales, from wholesome or unwholesome food, from virtuous or vicious manners, and other cau- «CS ; but it may be fairly doubted whether there las been realiy the smallest perceptible advance Vi the natural duration of human life since first we IkkI any authentic history of man. The prejudi- ces of all ages have indeed been directly contrar}' to tiib supposition ; and though I would not lay ouich stress upon these prejudices, they will in somc. neasure tend to prove, that there has been oo iflUited advance in an opposite direction.
;. -r It may perhaps be said that the world is yct so youi^, so completely in its infancy, that it ought BOC to be expected that any difference should ap- pcar so soon.
l If tlus be the case, there is at once an end of all
f.. t
88 ESSAY ON Book lU.
Of Systems of equality. WalUce. CondorceU
human science. The whole train of reasonings from cSects to causes will be destroyed. ^c may shut our eyes to the book of nature, as it will no longer be of any use to read it The wiklest and most improbable conjectures may be advan* ced with as much certainty as the most just and sublime theories, founded on careful and reiterated experiments. We may retum again to the dd mode of philosophising, and make fiicts bend to Systems, instead of establishing Systems upon facts. The grand and consistent theory of New- ton will be placed upon the same footing as the wild and eecentric h)rpothe^ (rf* Descartes. U Short, if the laws of nature be thus fickle and in* constant ; if it can be affirmed and be believed that they will change, when for agcs and ages they havc appeared immutable, the human mind will no longer have any incitements to inquiry, but must remain fixed in inactive torpor, or amuse itself only in bewildering dreams and extravagant Euu cics.
The constancy of the laws of nature and of ef- fbcts and causes is the foundation of all human knowledge ; and if without any previous obscrva* blc Symptoms or indications of a change we can infer that a change will takc place, we may as well
i
Chap.L POPULATION. 89
Ofsf Sterns of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
make any assertion what(rvtr, and think it as un- reasonable to be contradicted, in afiirming that the moon will come in contact with the earth to- morrow, as in saying that the sun will rise at its appointed time.
With regard tö the duration of human life there does not appear to have existed, from the earliest ages of the world to the present moment, the smaUest permanent Symptom or indicätion cf in- creasing Prolongation« The observable effects >f dimate, habit, diet, and other causes, on length of fifc, have furnished the pretext for asserting its indefinite extension ; and the sandy foundation on ivfaich the ai^ment rests is^ that because the limit of human life is undefined, because you cannot mark its precise term, and say so far exactly shall it go, and no further^ therefore its extent may in- crease for ever, and be properly termed indefinite er unlimited. But the fallacy and absurdity of this argument will sufficiendy appear from a slighl cxamination of what M. Condorcet calls the or- ganic perfectability or degeneration of the race of plants and animals, which, he says, may be re- garded as one of the general laws of nature.
I have been told, that it is a maxim among 9ome öf the improvers of cattle that you may voU ii. n
90 FSSAY ON Btwk IH,
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
breed to any degree of nicety you please ; and they fotind this maxim upon another, which is, that some of the oflTspring will possess thc dcsi- rable qiialities of the parents in a greater degree. In the famous Leicestershirc breed of sheep; the object is to procure them with small heads and small legs« Proceeding upon these breeding maxims it is evident, that we might go on tili the heuds and legs were evanescent quantities ; but this is so palpable an absurdity, that we may be quite sure that the premises are not just, and that thcre really is a limit, though ive cannot see it or say exactiy where it is. In tWs case the point of tKe greatest degree of improvcment, or the smallest size of the head and legs may Ix? s:\id to be un- defined ; but this is very diffen^nt from unlimitcd, or from uidcflnite, in M. Condorcet's acccptation of the term. Though I may not Ixi able in die present instancc to mark die limit at which fur- ther improvement will stop, I can wry easily men- tion a point at which it will not arrivc. I should not scruplc to assert, that were the breeding to continue for ever, the heads and legs of thcsc shcep would ncvcr l>e so small as the head and legs of a rat.
It cannot be true tlKTefore, that among aninvils
Chap. I. POPULATION. 91
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
some of the ofFspring will possess the dcsirable qualities of the parents in a greater degree ; or that animals are indefinitely perfectible.
The progress of a wild plant to a beautiful gar. den flower is perliaps more marked and striking than any thing that takes place among animals ; yet even here it would be the height of absurdity to assert, that the progress was unlimited or inde- finite. One of the niost obvious features of the improvement is the increase of size. The flower has grown gradually largcr by cultivation. If the progress were really unlimited it might bc increas- cd ad infinitum ; but this is so gross an absurdity that WC may be quite sure, that among plants as well as among animals there is a limit to iniprove- ment^though we do not cxactly know where it is. It is probable that the gardeners who contcnd for flower prizes liave often applied strongcr drcssing wilhout success. At the same tinie it would be highly presumptuous in any man to say, that he had seen the finest camation or anemone tliat could ever be made to grow. He might ho\ve\ er assert without the smallcst chancc of being contradicted bv a future fact, that no camation or ancnionc could ever by cultivation be incrcased to the sizt* of a largt- cabbage ; and yct iherc arc assignablc c{uantities greater than a cabbage. No man ca;i
92 ESSAY ON Book 121.
Or Systems of equality. Wallace« Condorcet.
say that hc has secn the largest ear of wheat, or the largest oak that could ever grow ; but he might casily, and with perfect certainty, name a point of magnitude at which they would not arrive* In all these cascs tficrclore, a careful distinction should be made l>etween an ualimited pn^ess and a progress where the limit ib merely undcfined.
It will be Said pcrliaps, that the reason why plants and animals cannot increase indefinitely ia size is, tliat they would fall by thcir own weight. I answcr, how do wc know this but from experience t From cxixirience of the degree of strength with which diese bodies are formed. I know that a camutiou long beforc it reachcd the size of a cab- bagv would iiot Ix; supported by its stalk ; but I only know düs from my cxjKTiencc of the weak- ness and want of tciuicitv in the inaterials of a car-
0
nation stalk. Thcre might bc substanccs of tlic same size tliat would support as largc a head as a cabbage.
The reasons of the mortality of plants are at prcscnt (Krrfcctly unknown to us. No man caR say why such a plant is annual, another biennial, and another cndures for agcs. The whole aflair in all diese cascs, in plants, animals, and in the human acc, is an aflair of experience ; and I only coficlude üiat a man is monal, bccause Uic invari*
Chap. h POPULATION. 93
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.
able experience of all ages ha3 proved the morta- lity of those materials of which this visible body is made,
*' What can we reuon but from what we know ?"
Sound philosophy will not authorise me to alter diis (^inion of the mortality of man on earth tili it can be clearly proved, that the human race has made, and is making, a decided progress towards an illimitable extent of life. And the chief reason why I addueed the two parcicular instances from animals and plants was to expose and illustrate, if I could, the fallacy of that argument which infers an unlin^ited progress, merely because some par- tial improvement has taken place, and that the limit of this improvement cannot be precisely ascertained,
The oapacity of improvement in plants and ani- mals, to a certain degree, no ])erson can possibly doubt« A clear and decided progress has already becn made ; and yet I think it appears that it would be highly absurd to say that this progress has no fimits. In human life, though there arc great va- rktkuis from different causes, it may be doubted wfaether since the world began any oi^anic im- provement whatever of the human Frame can be clearly ascertained. The foundations therefore^ on which the ai^ments for the organic perfecli- bility of man rest, are unusually weak, and cati
94 ESSAY ON Book III.
Of Systems of equality« Wallace. CondorceU
only \yc coiisidercd as mere conjecturcs. It does not however by any means seem impossible, that by an attention to breed^ a ccrtain dcgree of im- provement similar to that among animals might take place among men. Whether intellect could bc communicalcd may be a matter of doubt ; but size, strengthy beaiity, compkxion, and perhaps cvcn longevitj-, are in a dcgree transmissible. The error does not seem to lic in supposing a small de» gi*ce of improvement possiblc^ but in not discri* minating between a small improvement, the limit ol* which is undefmed, and an improvement really uiilimited. As the hiunan race however could not be improvcd in this \va)', without condcmning all the bad spccimen^ to celiliacy, it is not proljablc Uiat an attention to I)rced sImhiUI cvcr iKConie ge- neral ; indceil I know of no wcll-dircctccl attempts of this kiiKl except in tlK* ancicut family of tht Bickerstafis, wlio arc said to ha\c Ikch vcr\- stic- rtssful in u hitening the sk ins and incrcasing the hei^ht of tlicir racc by pnulent marriaj^s, parti- cularlv bv thiit ver\' judicions crass with Maud the milk-nmi'l, by which somc cajntal dcfccts ia the eonstitutions of the faiuih u ere <;orreeted.
It will not l)e necessary, I think, in nrder nmrc CDmpletely to show the miprobabilily of any ap- pr<Kich \\\ man towards immortality on eailh, lü
j
Chap.L POPULATION. «5
Of sfstems of eqnality« Wallacc. Condorcet.
ui^ the very great additional weight that an in- crease in the duration of life would give to the ar- gument of popuIation.
M. Condorcet*s book may be considered not only as a sketch of the opinions of a celebrated individual, but of many of the literary men in France at the beginning of the revolutioii. As such, though merely a sketch, it seems worthy of attention.
Many^ I doubt not, will think that the attemp- ^ng gravely to controvert so absurd a paradox as die immortality of man on eartli, or indeed even die perfectibility of man and society, is a waste of time and words ; and that such unfounded con- jectures are best answered by neglecL I profess, however, to be of a different opbiion, When pa- tadoxes of this kind are advanced by ingenious »d able men, neglect Iias no tendency to convincc diem of their mistakes. Priding themselvcs on what they conceive to be a mark of the reach and 9ze of their o\vn understandings, of the extent and comprehensiveness of their views; they will iDok upoQ this neglect merely as an indication of fioverty and narrowness in the mental exertions of dieir contemporaries ; and only think, that the «orid is not yet prcj^ared to reccivc their sublime
On the contrary, a candid invcstjgation of diese
96 ESSAY ON, i!?c.
Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Coodorcet.
subjects, accompanicd witli a perfect readiness to adopt any theory warrantcd by soünd philosophy, may have a tendcncy to convince them, that in forming improbable and unfounded hypotheses, so ihr from eiilarging tlie bounds of human science, they are contracting it ; so far from promoting the improvement of the human mind, they are ob- structing it : they are throwing us back again al- most into the infancy of knowledge ; and weak* ening tlie foundations of that mode of phSosophi- sing under the auspices of which science has of latc made such rapid advances. The late rage fbr ivide and imrestrained speculation seems to have been a kind of mental intoxication, arising perhaps Crom the grcat and unexpccted discovcries which had been made in various branclies of science. To mcn elatc and giddy with such succcsises, every thing appcared to bc within die grasp of humaa poH'crs ; and under this illusion they confounded , subjects whcrc no real progrcss could be proved^ with those where the progrcss had been marked^ ccrtain^ and acknowledgtd. Could they be per- suaded to sol)er themselves h iUi a litde severe and chastised thinking they would see» that the cause ^ ' of tnith and of sound philosophy cannot but suflfer - by sul)stituting wild flights and imsupported as-,^ aertions, for patient investigation and wcU authcn* '^ ticated proofs.
CHAPTER IL
Of Systems of Equolity. Godwin.
IN reading Mn Godwin's ingenious work on political justice, it is impossible not to be Struck . with the spirit and energy of his st}'le, the force and prccision of some of his reasonings, the ardcnt tone of his thoughts, and particularly with tbat impressive eamestness of manner which gives an 2ur of truth to the whole* At the same time it must be confessed that he has not proceeded in his inquiries with the caution diat sound philosophy requires. His conclusions are often unwarranted hj his premises. He fails sometimes in removing objections which he himself brings for^vard. He relies too much on general and abstract proposK tioDS which will not admit of application. And ins conjectures certainly far outstrip the modestj- ofnature.
The System of equality which Mr. Godwin proposes is, on a first vicw, die most beaiitiful and eng^ng of any that has yct appcarcd. A voL ii. <»
98 ESSAY ON Book Ul.
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
melioration of society to be produced merely by reason and conviction gives more promise of per- manence than any chan^ effected and maintained by force. The unlimited exercise of private judg- ment is a doctrine grand and captivating, and has a vast superiority over those Systems, where evciy individual is in a manner the slave of the puUic The Substitution of benevolence, as the master- spring and moving principle of society, instead of self-love, appears at first sight to be a consumma* tion devoutly to be wished* In short, it is impos- sible to contemplate the whole of this fiur picture idthout emotions of delight and admiraticxi, ac- companied with an ardent longing for the period of its accomplishment. But alas ! that moment can never arrivc. ITie wholc is little better than a drcam — a phantom of the imapfination. These ** gorgeous palaces" of huppiness and immortality, thesc " solcmn temples'' of truth and virtue, will dissolve, " like the bascless fabric of a vision," whcn we awaken to real life, and contemplate the genuine Situation of man on earth.
Mr. Godurin, at tlic conchision of the tliird chapter of his eighth book, spcakiug of {)opulation, says, " Therc is a principle in human society *^ by which popukition is iKrpetually kept doun
<yup. IL POPULATION. 99
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
** tothe levelofthe means of subsistence. Thus, •• among the wandering. tribes of America and " Asia we never find, through the lapse of ages, ^ that population has so increased as to render ne- "cessaiy the cultivation of the earth."' This piinciple which Mr. Godwin thus mentions as some mysterious and occult cause, and which he does not attempt to investigate, has appeared to be the grinding law of necessity — misery, and the üar of misery.
The great error under which Mr. Godwin la-
bors througfaout his whole work is, the attributing
of almöst all the vices and misery that prevail in
cml Society to human institutions. Political re-
giilations, and the established administration of
property, are, with him, the fruitful sources of all
evil, the hotbeds of all the crimes that degrade
mankind. Were this really a true State of the case,
it would not seem an absolutely hopeless task to
reraove evil completely firom the worid ; and rea-
SOD seems to be the proper and adequate instru-
mcnt for effecting so great a purpose. But the
tnith is, that though human institutions appear to
be the obvious and obtrusivc causes of mucli
• Page 460, 8vo. 9d edU,
100 ESSAY ON Book in.
Of Systems of equality. Godwiiii
mischicf to mankind, thcy are, in rcality, light and superficial, in comparison with those decpcr-seat- cd causes of cvil which rcsult from thc laws of na- ture.
In a chaptcr on the bcncfits attendant upon a
System of equality, Mr. God\^in says, " Thc
" spirit of oppression, the spirit of scrvility, and
" the spirit of fraud, these ate the immediate
" p^wth of thc established administration of pro-
** perty. They are alike hostile to intenectual im-
*• provement. The other vices of envy, malice,
*^ and revenge, are their inseparable companions.
" In a State of societ>' where men lived in thc
" midst of plenty, and where all shared alike thc
" boiintics of nature, thesc scntimcnts would in-
** cvitably expire. The narrow principle of sei.
** fishncss would vanish. No man bcinfsj obligcd
to guard his little storc, or provide with anxicty
and pain for his restless u'ants, cach would lose
** his individual existence in the thought of thc
" gcneral good* No man would be an enemy to
" his neighbors, for they would have no subject
" of contention ; and of conscqucncc philanthropy
** would resumc the cmpire which reason assigns
" her. Mind would bc dclivered from her per-
*< pctual anxicty about corporal support ; and free
J
Oiap. IL POPULATION. lOl
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
"to expatiate in the field of thought which is ** congenial to her, £ach would assist the iu- '^quiries of alU"'
Tlüs would indeed be a happy State. But that it is merely an imaginary pictiire with scarcely a feature near the truth, the reader, I am afraid, is aiready too well convinced.
Man cannot live in the midst of plcnty. All
G&uiot sharc alike the bounties of nature. Were
tliere no established administration of property
cveiy man would be obliged to guard with force
his lirtle store. Selfishness would be triumphant.
The subjects of contention would be perpetual.
Every individual would be under a constant anxi-
e^ about corporal support, and not a single in-
tellect would be left free to expatiate in the field
of thought.
How littlc Mr. Godwin has tumed his attention to the real State of human society will sufficiently appear, finom the manner in which he endeavors 10 remove the difficulty of an ovcrcharged popu- pulation. He says, '^ The obvious answer to this ** objection is, that to reason thus is to foresee dif- " iiculties at a great distancc. Thrce fourths of
^ Political Justice, b. viii. c« lii. p. 458.
102 BSSAY ON Book in.
Of Systems of equality« Godwio.
u
the habitablc globe are now uncultivated. The
parts already cultivatcd are capable of immea- " surable improvcment. Myriads of centuries crf '^ still increasing popuIation may pass away, and ** the carth be still found sufHcicnt for the subsist* " ence of its inhabitants." '
I have already pointcd out the error of suppos- ing that no distress or difficulty would arisc from a redundant popuIation, before the earth absolute- ly refused to produce anj' morc. But let us im- agine for a moment Mr. Godvvin's System of equality realized in its utmost extent, and see how soon this diffici^lty might be expected to (»ress, undcr so perfect a form of society. A theory that will not admit of application cannot possibly be just.
Let US supposc all the causes of vice and mi- ser}' in tiiis island rcmovcd. War and contcn- tion cease. Unwholesome trades and manufuc- tories do not exist. Crowds no longer collect togcther in great and pestilent cities for pur- poses of court intrigue, of commerce, and vicious gratification. Simple, heaUhy, and rational amusc- ments take place of drinking, gaming, and de-
* Politictl Jutticei b. viii. c« ix. p. 5 10.
Chap. IL POPULATION. 103
Of Systems of eq'uality. Godwin.
bauchery. There are no tovvns sufficiently large to have any prejudicial effects on the human Con- stitution. The greater part of the happy inhabitants of this terrestrial paradise live in hamlets and 6rm houses scattered over the face of the country. All men are equal. The labors of luxury are at an end ; and the necessary labors of agriculture are shared amicably among all. The number of persons and the produce of the island we suppose to be the same as at present. The spirit of bene- Toience guided by impartial justice will divide this produce among all the members of society accordbg to their wants. Though it would be impossible that they should all have animal food cvciy day, yet vegetable food, with meat occa- sionally, would satisfy the desires of a frugal people, and would bc sufBcient to preserve them io health, strength, and spirits.
Mr. Godwin considers marriage as a fraud and a monopoly. ' Let us suppose the commerce of the sexes established upon principles of the most perfect freedom. Mr. Godwin does not diink himself that tliis freedom would Icad to a promis- cuous intercourse ; und ia this I perfccdy agrec
» Polittcal Justice) b. viii, c. viii. p. 498 et »cq.
104 ESSAY ON HookUI.
Of Systems of cquality, Godwin.
with him. The love of variety is a vicious, cor- rupt, and unnatural taste, and could not prevail in any great degree in a simple and virtuous State of Society. Each man would probably select for himself a partner to whom he would adhere, as long as that adherence continued to be the choioe of both parties. It would be of little consequenoep according to Mn Godwin, how many chiidren a woman had, or to whom they belonged. Provi- sions and assistance would spontaneously flo# from the quarter in which they abounded to the quarter in which they were deiicient ' And cvay man according to his capacity would be ready ti> fumish instruction to the rising generation.
I cannot conceive a form of society so favorable upon the whole to population. Tlie irremcdiable* ncss of marriage, as it is at prcsent constituted, undoubtcdly deters many from entering into this State. An unshackled intercoursc on tlie contrary would bc a most powerful incitement to carly at* tachmcnts ; and as we are supposing no anxiety about the futurc support of chiidren to cxist, I do not conceive that there would be one woman in a
* Political Justice, h. viii. c. viii. p. 504.
fSmap, IL POPULATION. 105
Of 878tems of equality. Godwin.
tmndred, of twenty-three years of age, without a iunüy.
With diese extraordinary encouragements to po-
puhtion, and every cause of depopulation, as we
kave supposed, removed, the numbers would ne«
cessarily increase &ster than in any society diat
las ever yet been known. I have before mention-
ed that the inhabitants of the back Settlements of
America, appear to double their numbers in fif-
teea ycars. England is certainly a more healthy
eountiytban the back setdements of America ; and
as we have supposed every house in the island to
be airy and wholesome, and the encouragements^
lohave a fifimily greater even than in America, no
probable reason can be assigned why the popula-
tion should not double itself in less, if possible»
than fiAeen years. But to be qnite sure that we
do not go beyond the truth, we will only suppose
the period of doubling to be twent}'-five years ; a
rado of increase which is slower than is known to
have taken place throughout all the northem states
nf America.
There can be litde doubt that the equalization n{ property which we have supposed, added to the circumstance of the labor of the whole communi- :V. ii. p
106 ESSAY ON Book ItT.
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
ty being directed chiefly to agriculture, would tend greally to augment the producc of the country.— But to answer the demands of a population increas- ing so rapidly, Mr. Godwin's calculationof half an hour a day would certainly not be sufficient It is probable that the half of every man's time must be employed for this purpose. Yet with such or much greater exertions, a person who b acquaint^ ed with the nature of the soil in this country, and who reflects on the fertility of the lands already in cultivation,. and the barrenness of those that are not cultivatedy will be very much disposed to doubt whether die whde average produce could possibly be doubled in twenty-fivc ycars froih the prcscnt period. The only chance of success would be from the ploughing up most of the grazing countries, and putting an end almost cntircly to a- nimal food. Yet this schemc would probably de- Icat itself. The soil of England will not produce inuch without drcssing ; and cattlc seem to be ne- icssary to makc that spccies of manure which best suits the land.
Difficult liowcver as it might be to doul)le the average producc of the islund in twcnty-five ycars, Ict US supposc it cffcctcd. At tht- txpiration of the first pcrifxl thcreforc, the food, though almost
iChap. IL POPULATION. 107
Of Systems of equalily. Godwin.
^entirely vegetable, would be sufficient to support jn health the doubled popuiation of 22 millions.
During the next period where will the food bc lound to satisfy the importunate demands of the increasing numbers ? Where is the fresh land to :tum up ? Where is the dressing necessary to im- -piove that wbickls already in cultivation? Therc is no pers^i with the smallest knowledge of land <but would say, that it uras impossible that the ave- lage produce of the country could be increased during the sccond tventy-five years, by a quantity cqual to what it .at {»[-esent y ields. Yet we will sippose this increase, hewcver improbablCy to take {dacc The exuberant strength of tlie argument aDows of almost any concession. £ven with this concession however, there would be eleven mil- lions at the expiration of .die second term unpro- vided bxr. A quantity equal to the frugal support of 33 millions would be to be divided among 44 millions.
Alas.! what becomes of the picture, where men lived in the midst of plenty, where no man was obliged to provide with anxlety and pain for hls resdess wants ; where the nai row principle of sel- fifthness did not ex ist; where the mind was de- Ihrered from her perpetual anxiet}- alx)ut corporal
108 ESSAY ON Book III.
Of B^items of equality. Godwin.
Support, and free to expatiate in die fieM of thougfat which is congenial to her. This beautiful £ibric of the ima^^nation vanishes at the severe touch of truth. The spirit of benevolence, chc- rished and invigorated by plenty, is rcpressed by the chilling breath of want The hatefui passions that had vanished reappear. The mighty law of self.preservation^xpels all the softer and more ex- alted emotions of the souL Hie temptations tö evil are too strong for human nature to resist— - The com is plucked beibre it is ripe, or secrcted in un&ir proportions ; and the whole black train of vices that belong to falsehood are immediatefy^ ge- nerated. Provisions no longcr flow in for the Sup- port of a mother with a largc family. The chil- dren are sickly from insufficicnt food. The rosy flush of health gives place to üic pallid check and hollow eye of misery. Benevolence yct lingering in a fcw bosoms makes some faint expiring stnig- glcs, tili at length sclf-lovc resumcs his wonted cmpire, and lords it triumphant over the world.
No human institutions here ex isted, to the per- vcrseness of which Mr. Godwin ascribes the original sin of the worst men.^ No opiiosition
^ Political Justice) b. tIü. c. iii. p. 340.
Qhap. IL POPULATION. 109
Of ssTBtems of equality. Godwin.
bad been produced by them betwcen public and private good. No monopoly had been created of thoec advantages which reason directs to be left in common. No man had been goaded to the breacli xfoider by unjust laws. Benevolence had esta- Uished her reign in all heaits. And yet in so short a period as fifty years, violence, oppression, false- hood, misery, every hateful vice, and evcry forn; if distress which degrade and sadden the present shte of Society, seem to have been generated by the most imperious circumstances, by laws inhc- fcnt b the nature of man, and absolutcly indepen dent of all human regulations.
If we be not yet too well convinced of the rcalit} <if tfais melancholy picture, let us but look for u moment into the next period of twenty five ycars, and we shall see 44 millions of human bcinr^s lithout the means of support ; and at the conclu- sioii of the first Century the population would be 176 millions, and the food only sufficient for 55 minions, leaving 121 millions unprovided for. In these ages want indeed would be triumphant, and TB^vx and murder must reign at large : and yet all this time we are supposing the produce of the earth absolutely unlimited, and the yearly incrcase grcat er than the boldest speculator can imagine.
110 ESSAY ON Book JII.
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
This is undoubtedly a very different vicw of the difficulty arising from the principle of popula- tion, from that which Mr. Godwin gives, when he says, ^^ Myriads of centuries of still increaung '^ popuIation may pass away, and the earth be still ^^ found sufEcient for the subsistence of its inha- " bitants."
I am sufiiciendy aware that the redundant m3- lions which I have mentioned could never luve existed. It is a perfectly just Observation of Mr. Godwin, that ^^ there is a principle in human so- " cicty by which popuIation is perpetually kept ** down to the levcl of the mcans of subsistence/* The sole question is, what is this principle ? Is it some obscure and occult cause? Is it somc mysterious interfcrcncc of Hcaven, which at a certain period strikcs the mcn with impotence, and the women with barrenness? Or is it a xause open to our researches, within our view ; a xause which has constantly been obsor\'ed to ope- rate, though wiih varied force, in every State in which man has been placed ? Is it not miscrj-, and the fear of miseiy, tlie necessar>- and inevita- ble results'of die laws of nature, which human in. stitutions, so far from aggnivating, have tendcd xonsiderably to mitigatc, though tlicy can ncvtr Qtmove ?
Chap. IL POPULATION. \\l
.m I
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
It may be curious to ol^serve in the case that we have been supposing, how some of the principal laws, which at present govem civilized society, woukl be successively dictated by the mos! impe- rious neces^ty. As man, according to Mr. God- win, is the creature of the impressions to which he is subject, the goadings of want could not con- tinue long beföre some violations of public or pri- vate stock would necessarily take place. As these violations increased in number and extent, the more active and comprehensive intellects of the socie^ would soon preceive, that while population was fast increasing the yearly produce of the countiy would shordy begin to diminish. The urgency of the case would suggest the necessity of some immediate measures being taken for the general safety. Some kind of Convention would dien be called, and the dangerous Situation of the couDtry stated in the strongest terms. It would be observed, that while thev lived in the midst of plenty it wasof little consequence who laboredthe fcast, or who possessed tlie least, as every man was perfectiy willing and ready to supply the Hrants of his neighbor. But tliat the questiou was no longer whethcr one man should give to another 4iat which hc did not use himself ; but whcther
H2 ESSAY ON Book IIL
Of Systems of equalUy. GodwiD.
he should give to his neighbor the food which was absolutcly necessary to his own existence. It would be represented, that thc numl>cr of thosc who wcre in want veiy greatly exceedcd thc num- bcr and means ofthose who should supply them; that these pressing wants, which, from the State of the produce of the country, could not all be gratified, had occasioned somc flagrant violations of justice ; that these violations had already checked thc in- crease of food, and would, if they were not by somc means or othcr prevented, throw the whole Community into confusion ; that impcrious neces- sity seemed to dictate, that a yeariy increase of produce should, if possible, be obtained at all cvcnts ; that in order to cfiect this first great and indis{)ensible purposc it would be advisable to make n more com])lete division of land, and to se- curc Qxory man's propcrty against violation by the most powcrful sanctions.
It might be urged pcrhaps, by somc objectors, that r.s tlic fcrtilit}' of the land incrcased, and va- rious accidents occurred, the sharcs of some men miirht hc much more tlian sufficient for their sup- port : :md tlüit when tlie rcign of sclf-lovc was 'incc cstablislicd, thcy would not distribute their "»iirrVins produce withont some compcnsalion iii
Oiapi IL POPULATION. 11
r*
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
return. It would be observed in answer, that this was an inconvenience greatly to be lamented ; but that it was yi^vil which would bear no compari- son to the black train of distresses which would inevitably be occasioned by the insecurity of pro- perty ; that die quantity of food which one man could consume, was necessarily limited by the nar- row capacity of the human stomach ; that it was not certainly probable that he should throw avvay ihe rest ; and if he exchanged his surplus produce Ux the labor of others, this would be better than Chat these others should absolutely starve.
It seems highly probable therefore, that an ad- ministration of property not very different from that which prevails in civilized states at present would be established as the best though inadequate lemedy for the evils which were pressing on the societ}\
The next subject which would come under
discussion, intimately connected with the preced-
ing, is the commerce of the sex es. It would bc
' Qi]ged by those who had tumcd theii- attention
fo die true «^use of the difficulties under which
flie Community labored, that while every man feit
secure that all his children would be well provided
fcr by general benevolence, the po>vers of the
WH. ik <\
114 ESSAY ON Book lll.
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
eaith woiild be absolutcly inadcquate to produce food for tlie popukition which would inevitably ciisue ; that even if the whole attefii^ and labor of the Society wcre directed to this sole point, and if by the most i>crfcct security of proi)erty, and cvery other encouragement that could be thou^it of, the grcatest possible incrcase of produce wcre yearly obtaiiied; yet still the increase of food would by no means keep pace with the much niore rapid increase of population ; that some check to population therefore was imperiously calicd for ; that the most natural and obviöus check seemed to be to make every man provide for his own childrt I) ; that this would operate in some resjxrct as a mcasurc and a ^ide in the incrcase of jx^pulation, as it niight be expcctcd that no man would bring bcings into the world for whoni he could not find tlic mcans of supix)rt ; that whcre this notwithstanding w as the case, it seemed ne- cessaT)' for the example of otlicrs, that the disgrace and inconvenicnce attending such a conduct should fall ujKju tliat individual who had tlius inconsidc- rately plunged himself aud his innocent children into waut and niisery.
The ULstitution of marriage, or at least of some expa*ss or implied Obligation, on ever)- man to sup.
f»q». IK POPULATION. 115
Of Systems of equalhy. Godwin.
poit his o>vn children, seems to be the natural re- ^t of these reasonings in a Community under the difficulties that we have supposed.
The view of these difficulties presents us with
a very iiatural reason why tlie disgrace which at-
tends a breach of chastity should be greater in a
woman than in a man. Jt could not be expected
that women should have resources suificient to
suj^port their own children. When, therefore, a
ynxväsi had lived with a man who had entered in-
to i|0 compact to. iruüntain her children ; and, aware
of the inconvemences that he m.ight bring upon
himself, had deserted her, these children must ne«
eeasarily feil upon the society for support, or starve.
And to prevent the frequent recurrence of such an
incpnvenience, as it would bc highly unjust to
panish so natural a fault by personal restraint or in-
fiction, the men might agrec to punish it with
disgrace« The offence is besides more obvious
and conspicuous in the woman, and less liable to
my mistake. The father of a child may not always
be known : but the same unccrtaintj' cannot easily
cxist with regard to the mother. Where the evi-
dence of the oflence was most complete, and the
inconvenience to the society at the same time the
\
116 ESSAY ON Book:
Of Systems of equality« Godwin.
grcatcst ; there it u'as agrced tliat the largcst sl of blame shoiild fall. The Obligation on every i to Slipport bis children, the socicty would enfi by positive la\vs ; and the greatcr degree of ine venicnce or labor to which a family would n« sarily subject him, added to sonie portion of < grace, u hich every human being must incur i leads another into unhappiness, might be consU ed as a sußicicnt punishment for the man.
That a woman should at present be almost ven fix>m socicty for an offcnce which men c< mit nearly with impunity, seems to be undoubi ly a breach of natural justice, But tbc origii the custom, as the most obvious and eflec method of preveiiting the frcquent rccurrcnce serious inconvcnicnce to a comminiity, appcar be natural, though not perhaps perfcctly justifia This origin however is now lobt in the new t of ideas, that the custoni lias since genera Wliat at first might be dictatcd by State neccs is now supported by female delicacy ; and < ratcs with the greatcst force on tliat part of the ciety, wherc, if the original intcntion of the cus vverc prcscrved, there is the least real occasion
When Uiesc two fund:uu<Mital lau s of soci
amp.lL POPULATION. 117
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
the security of property, aiid the Institution of mar- riage were once established, inequality of condit üons must necessarily follow, Those who were bom after the division of property would come in- to a World already possessed. If their parents from having too large a family were unable to give them sufficient for their support, what could they do in a world where every thing was appropriated ? We have seen the fatal effects that would result to Society, if every man had a valid claim to an cqual share of the produce of the earth. The menibers of a family which was grown too large for the ori- ginal division of land appropriated to it could not then demand a part of the surplus produce of otbers as a debt of justice* It has appeared, that fitrni the inevitable laws of human natiire some human bcings will be exposed to ^^-ant. These alt the unhappy persons who in the grcat lottery of life have drawn a blank. The number of thesc persons would soon exceed the ability of the sur- plus produce to supply. Moral merit is a veiy difficult criterion except in extreme cases. The owners of surplus produce would in general seek !>ome more obvious mark of distinction ; and it seems to be both natural and just, that except upon
^18 ESSAY ON Bai^k I.
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
particular occasions their choice should iall \x\ those who were ahle, and professed themsch willing to exert their strength in procuring a f ther surplus produce, which would at once bei fit the Community, and enablc the pn^rietore aflford assistance to greater numbers. AU ^ were in want of food would be urged by impeH< nccessity to offer their labor in exchange for t article, so absolutely necessar}- to existence. T fund appropriated to tlre pnaintenance of lal \A ould be the aggrcgate quantity of food posses by the owners of land beyond tlicir outi consui tion. When the demands upon this fund i» great and n\imerous it would natiirally be divi< into very small sliares. Labor would be ill p; Mcn would offer to work for a Ijare subsisten« and tlic rearing of familics wfuild bc chcckcd sickncss and miscr)-. On the contrary, when t fund was incrcasing fast ; when it was great Proportion to the number of claimants, it woul^ dividcd hi much larger sharcs. No man wr exchange his lal>or without rcceiving an an quantity of food in rctum. Laborers would in ease and comfort, and would consctiucnth abk torcar a nunierous and vigorous off^pring.
aap. IL POPULATION. 119
Of Systems of equality« Godwin.
On the State of this fund the happiness or the .
degree of misery, prevailing among the lower
blasses of people in every known State, at present
chiefly depends ; and on this happiness or degree
ofraisery depends principally the increase, stationa-
liness, or decreäse of population«
And thus it appears, that a society constituted according to the moist beautiful form that ima- gination can conceive, with benevoleilce for its moving principle instead of self-love, and with t?ciy evil disposition in all its members corrected bf reason, not force, would from the inevitable, ^ws of nature, and not from any original depravi- ^ of man, or of human institutions, degenerate in a very short period into a society cönstructed fXfoa a plan not essentially different from that «bich prcvails in every known State at present ; t society divided into a class of proprietors and a dass of laborers, and with self-love for the main- l|iing of the great machine.
Ib the supposition which I have madc, I havc vodoubtedly taken the increase of population smalkr, and the increase of produce greater than they really would be. No reason can be assigned why under the circumstances supposed popu- htion should not increase faster than in anv knowii
120 ESSAY ON, £5V.
SS
Of Systems of equality. Godwin.
iiistaiicc. If dien we wcrc to take thc period of doubling at fiftccn years instcad of tiventy-five ycars, and reflcct .upon die labor necessaiy to double die produce in so short a time, even if we allow it possible ; wc may venture to pronounce with certainty, that if Mr. Godwin's System of So- ciety were eetablishcd in its utmost perfection, instead of niyriads of centuries, not thirty years could elapse before its utter destruction firom the simple principle of population.
I have taken no noüce of emigration in this place, for obvious reasons* If such societies were instituted in other parts of Europe» these coun- tiies would be under die siune diificuldes, with regard to i>opuIation, and could admit no fresh mcnibcrs into thcir bosoms, If diis bcautifui societv wcre conüncd to ihis island, it must havc degencratcd straiij^lj froni its original purit}', and adniinistcr biit a very small portion of the luijjpincss it proposcd, bcforc any of its members would voluntarilv consent to Icave it, and live un« der such p)vcnimcnts as at pa*scnt cxist in Eu- ropo, or submit to thc extreme Iiardbhips of firsl HettliTb in nc\v rcgions.
CHAPTER IIL
Ghservations ort the Reply ofMr. Godwin.
MR. GODWIN in a late publication häs iq>lied to tliose parts of the Essay on the Princi- pk of Population, which he thinks bear the hardest cn his System, A few remarks on this reply will be sufficient.
In a note to an early part of his pamphlct hc •bserves, that the main attack of the essay is not directed against the principles of his work, but its conclusionJ It may be true indeed, that as Mr. Godwin had dedicated one particular chapter towards the conclusion of his work to the conside- lation of the objections to his system, from the principle of population, tliis particular chapter is most frequendy alluded to : but certainly if the great principle of the essay be admitted it afiects his whole work, and esscntiiilly alters the founda*
' Reply to the attacksof ür. Pam >Tr. Mackintosh, the author of an Essay on Population, ana otuers, p. 10.
V'jL \r. r
122 ESSAY ON Book Hl
Observations on the replf of Mr. Godwm.
tions of political justice. A great part of Mn Godwin's book consists ofan abuse of human in« stitutions, as productive of all or most of the evib which afRict society . The acknowledgment of a ncw and totally unconsidered cause of miserj would evidently alter the State of these arguments, and make it absolutely necessary that they ahouUJ be either newly modified or entirely rejected.
In the first book of Political Justice, chap. vL cntitled, ^^ The Spiiit of Political Institutions»** Mr. Godwin observes, tliat ^^ Two of the greatefl «< abuses relative to the interior policy of nadooB *^ which at this time prevail in the worki consist ** in the irregulär transfer of property, either first " by violcncc, or secondly by fraud.'* And he gocs on to say, that if there existed no desire in individuals to possess thcmselvcs of the substance üf othcrs, and if ever}* man could wiih perfect &• cility obUlin the ncccsbarics of life, civil society niight bccome what poetry has feigned of the gold- en age. Lct US inquire, he says, into the princi« plcb to uliich thcsc cvils arc indcbtcd for existence. After ucknowlcdging the truih of ihc principal iirgunicnt in tlie essay on jxjpulation, I do not think that he could stop in this inquirj' at mcrc human institutions. Many oihcr piirt«i of his werk
Chap. ni. POPULATION. 123
Obserrations bn the reply of Mr« Godwin.
^vould be a&cted by this consideration in a simi- lar maniier.
As Mr. Godwin seems disposed to understand,
;aiid candidly to admit die truth of the principal
argumieiit in the essay, I feel the more mortified
tliat he diould think it a fair inference from my
|M»ftions, that the pdi^cal superintendents of a
Community are bound to exercise a patemal vigi-
laiioe and eare over the two great means of advan-
tage and safety lo ma^kind, misery and vice ; and
4&t no evil is more to be dreaded than that \ve
ihould have too little of them in the world to coo-
faie die priaciple of population within ita proper
aphere. ^ I am at a loss to conceive what clasa
of evib Mr. Godwin imagines is yet behind, whidi
diese sahitary checka are to prevent For my own
part I know of no greater evils Chan vice and mi-
«ry ; and the sole question is respecting the most
efcctual mode of dimir*<diing fhem. The only
jcaaofi why I <^ect to Mn Godwin's System is
my fiiU convietion, that an attempt to execute it
would very greatly increase the quantity of vice
aod miaery in society. \\ Mr. Godwin will undo
litts conviction, and prove to mc though it be
^ Reply» l&c. p. 60.
124 ESSAY ON Book JH.
Obsemitions on the reply olT Mr. Godwin.
only in theor}% provided that theory be consistent and founded on a knowledge of human nature, that hb System wUl really tend to drive vice and misery from the earth, he may depend upon hai- ving me one of its steadiest and wärmest advocates. Mr. Godwin observes, that he should naturally be lUsposed to pronounce that man strangely in- difierent to schemes of extraordinaiy improve- ment in society, who made it a conclusdve argu- ment againt them, that when they were rcalized, they might peradventure be of no permanencc and duration. And yet, what is morah^ indivi- dual or political, acccurding to Mr. Godwin's own definition of it, but a calculation of consequences ? Is the physician the patron of pain who advises hk patient to bear a present evil rather than betake himself to a remedy, which though it might give momentary relief would afterwards greatly aggra- vate all the Symptoms? Is the moralist to be called an enemy to pleasure, because he recom- mends to a young man just entering into life not to min his health and patrimony in a few years by an excess of present gratifications, but to econo- mize his enjoyments diat he may spread them ova a longer pcriod ? Of Mr. Godwin's System, ac- cording to the present arguments by which it b
Chap.lll. POPULATION. gFl25
Observations on the reply of Mr. Godwin.
supported, it is not enough to say, perochentare it will be of no permanence ; but we can pronounce ^th certainty that it will be of no permaner.ce : and under such circumstances an attempt to exe- «ite it would unquesiiünably be a great political immoraKty.
Mr. Godwin obscrvcs, that after recovcring firom tfae first impression made by the Essay on Population, the first thing that is apt to strike eve- ry reflecting mind is, that the excess of power in Ae principle of population over the principle of sub- ästence has never, in any past instance, in any quarter or age of the world, produced those great and astonishing effects, that total breaking up of an the structures and maxims of societv, which the Qsay leads us to expect from it in certain cases in fiiture. ■ This is undoiibtedly true ; and the rea- 80D is, that in no past instance, nor in any quarter or age of the world, has an attempt been made to establish such a system as Mr. Godwm's, and witfaout an attempt of this nature none of these great efiects will follow. The convulsions of the social System, dcsc i ibed in the last chapter, appear-
» Reply, p. 70
126 ESSAY ON Book IIl
Obaenrations on tfae reply of Mr. Godwin.
ed by a kind of irresistible necessi^-, to tenmiiate in the establishiuent of the laws of proper^ and niarriage ; but in countries where these laws aie already established, as they are in all tlie commoo «onstitutions of society with whicb we are acqiJMunt' ed, the Operation of the principle of popoküoii wS always be silent and gradual, and not diferent to what we daily see in OUT owa countiy« Otherpcr- soitö beside Mr. Godwin have imagined» Aat I kx)ked to certain periods in future, idien popufci» tion would exceed the means of subsistence in t much greater degree than at present, and that die evils arising from the principle of population wtfc ratlier in contemplation than in existence ; but this is a total misconception of the ai^ment« * Po- verty, and not absolute faminc, is the specific ef* fect of the principle of population, as I have before endcavored to show. Many countries are now suffering all the evils that can cvcr be expected to flow from this principle, and evcn if we werc ar- rivcd at the absolute limit to all further increase of producc, a point which we shall certainly nevcr reach, I should by no means expcct that theae evils would bc in any marked manncr aggravatcd.
* In other parti of his Rcply, Mr« Godwin dots not fall into this error.
Chap. 111. POPULATION. 127
Obsenrations on the replf of Mr. Godwin.
TThc ificrease of produce in mo^t European coun-
is so veiy slow compared with what would
reqnired to support an unrestricted increase of
pcople, that the checks which are constantly in
sMäon to repress the population to the level of a
pndace increasing so slowly would have very
litde more to do in wearing it down to a produce
absolutely stationary.
Biit Mr. Godwin says, that if he looks into the
[ fNHt faistory of the world, he does not' see that in^
citanng population has been controlled and con-
hed by vice and misery alone. In this obser\'a-
tkn I cannot agree with him. I believe Mr.
Godwin would find it difficult to liame any check,
which in past ages has contributed to keep down
the population to the level of che means of subsist-
cooe, that does not fairly come under some form
of rfce Of misery; except indeed the check of
moral restraint, which I have mentioned in the
coone of diis work ; and which, to say the truth,
wbatever hopes we may entertain of its prevalence
ia fiiture, has undoubtedly in past ages operated
widi inconsiderable forcc. *
^ It should be recollected always, that by moral res- tndnt I meaa a rcstraint from marriag^e from prudcntial
128 ESSAY ON Book ///.
Obaenrations on the replf of Mr* Godwin.
I do not think that I ^ould find it difficult to justify myself in the eyes of my readers from the Imputation of being the patron of vice and misery ; biit I am not clear that Mr. Godwin would find such ajustification so easy« For though he has posi- tively declared tliat he doesnot ^* regard them with complacency;" and^^ hopes thatit may not be cod* '^ sidered as a taste absolutely singular in him thal ** he should entertain no vehement partialities ibr *^ vice and misery ;'^^ yet he has certainly exposed himself to the suspicion of having this Rinpihr taste» by suggesting the Organization of a voy large portion of them for the benefit of socieQr in general. On this subject I need only observe, thac I ha VC always rankcd the two checks* which hr
motives which in not foUowed by irregulär gratificatioos^ In this sense I am inclinl:d to bclicve that the expreasioiB 1 havc hcre iiscd is not too strong.
* Rcply, p. 76.
* Mr. Godwin docs not acknowledge the justice oT Ilume's ohscn-ation respecting infanticidc ; and yet the extreme pnpulation and povcrty in China, whcre thiscui« lom prcvaiK, tend stmngly to cunfirm the Observation» It is still hnvicvcr true, as Mr. Godwin obscnxsy that the cxpedicnt is, in iis own natnre, adcquate to the cnd for which it was ritcd« (p. 66,) l>ut to make it so in factt it munl *H' dfiT»'- by the maq^istratc« and not lefl t» Che
C/mfi. m. POPULATION. 129
Ol>aeryalions on the reply of Mr. Godwin.
first mentions among the worst forms of vice and miseiy.
In one part of his reply, Mn Godwin makes a
supposition respecting the number of children
tfiat might be ailowed to each prolific marriage ;
bat as he has not entered into the detail of the
node by which a greater number might be pre-
vented, I shaii not notice it further tlian merely to
observe» that although he professes to acknowlcdge
äie geometrical and arithmeticai ratios of popuki-
tioQ and food, yet in this place he appears to think
Aot practically applied, these different ratios of in-
Qtase are not of a natura to make the evil resulting
Ittents. The almost invariable tendency of this custom
toincrease population, when it depends entirely on the
parentSy showsthe extreme pain which they must feel in
ludungsuch asacrifice, even when the distress arising from
ueessive poverty may be supposed to have deadened in
freat measure their sensibility* What must his pain
be then upon the supposition of the interference of a ma-
gittrate or of a positive law, to make parents destroy a
chSd, which they feel the desire and think they possess
the power ofsupporting? The permission of infanticide
is bad cnough) and cannot but have a bad effect on the
moral sensibility of a nation ; but I cannot conceive any
thing much more detestable or shocking to the feelings than
iny direct regulation of this kind, although sanctioned by
the names of Plato and Aristotlc.
voL ii. •^
130 ESSAY ON Book
Observations on thc reply of Mr. Godwin.
from them urgent, or alarmingly to confine
natural progress of population. * This observa
seems to contradict bis fbnner ackoowledgin
The last check which Mn Godvnn ment»
and which I am persuaded is the only one wl
he would seriously recommend is, *^ that ae
" ment, whether virtue, pnidence, or pride, wh
'^ continually restrains tlie universality and
" quent repetition of the marriage contract.***
this sentiment which I have already noticed
will appear that in the sequel of this work I a
lay considerable stress. Of thk check therd
itaelf I entirely approve ; but I do not tbink I
Mr. Godwin's system of political justice is by a
means favorable to its prevalence» The tendei
to early marriages is so strong thut we want er<
possible help that we can get to counteract
and a system which in any way whatever ta
to weaken the foundation of private property , a
to lessen in any degree the füll advaiitage and i
periority which each individual may derive fn
his pnidcnce, must remove thc only countera
ing weight to the passion of love, tliat can be (
• Rcply p. 70. » Id. p. 73.
Gmp. m. POPULATION. 131
Obsenrations on the reply of Mr. Godwin.
pended upon for any essential eflTect. Mr. Godwin acknowledges that in his System, ^^ the ill conse- " qaences of a numerous family will not come so ^ coorsely home to each man's individual interest •* as thc^ do at present."' But I am sony to say, As^ from what we know hitherto of the human ^aracter we can have no rational hopes of success widxHit thb coarse application to individual inte- rest, ^Hiich Mr. Godwin rejects. If the whole Act wtre to depend merely on a sense of duty, oonsidenng the powerful antagonist that b to be oontended with in the present case, I confess that I Aould absolutely despair. At the same time I fii strcmgly of opinion, that a sense of duty, su- pendded to a sense of interest, would by no Bieaiis be wiihout its effect. Tbere are many noble and disinterested spirits, who, though aware of Ac inconveniences which they may bring upon themsdves by the indulgence of an early and vir- taoas passion, fed a kind of repugnance to listen to tbe dictates of mere worldly prudence, and a fride in rejecting these low considerations, There is a kind of romantic gallantry in sacrificing all
■ Reply, p. 74.
132 ESSAY ON, &fr.
Observations on the reply of Mr. Godwin.
for love, naturally fascinating to a young mind ; and to say the truth, if all is to be sacrificed, I do 1 not know in what better cause it can be donc« But if a strong sense of duty could in these in- stances be added to prudential suggestions, the whole question might wear a diffcrent color. In delaying the gratification of passion from a senae of duty y the most disinterested spirit, the most de- licate honor, might be satisfied. The romantic pride might take a difierent direction, and die dictates of worldly prudcncc might be foUowed with the cheerfui consciousness of making a vir- tuous sacrifice.
If we were to removc or weaken the motivc of intcrest, which would bc the casc in Mr. Godwin*8 System, 1 fear wc should have but a weak Substi- tute in a sense of dut}\ But if to the preaent beneficial effects known to result from a sense of interest, we could superadd a sense qf dutj which is the object of the latter part of this werk, : it does not seem absolutely hopeless, that some partial improvement in society should result from it
SS&B9
CHAPTER IV,
Of Emigration.
ALTHOUGH the resource of emigration to be excluded from such a society as Mr. Godwin has imagined ; yet in that partial degree üf improvement which alone can rationally be expected, it may feirly enter into our considera- faxxL And as it is not probable that human in- dustry should be^n to receive its best direction dnoughout all the nations of the earth at the same time, it may be said that in the case of a redun- dant population in the more cultivated parts of die World, the natural and obvious remedy that piesents itself is, emigration to those parts that are uncultivated. As these parts are of great ex- tcnt, and vcry thinly peopled, this resource might qjpear, on a first view of the subject, an adequate remedy, or at least of a nature to remove the evil to a distant period : but when we advert to expe- rience, and to the actual State of the !|5civilized parts of the globe, instead of any thifilg^ like an
134 ESSAY ON Book 111
Or Emigration.
adequate remedy it will appear but a slighl palliative^
In the accounts which we have of the peopling of new countries, the dangers, difficulties, and hardships, with which the first settlers have had to struggle, api)ear to be .e ven greater than we can well imagine they CQuld be exposed to in theh parent State. The endeavor to avoid that degrec of unhappiness arising from the difficulty of sup- porting a family might long have left the new World of America unpeopled by Europeans, ü those more powerful passions the thirst of gain, the spirit of adventure, and rcligious enthusiasm, had not directed and animated the enterprise. These passions enabled the first adventurcrs to triumph ovcr evcry obstacle; but in many in- stances in a way to make humanity shuddcr, and to defeat the true end of emigration. Whatever may be the character of die Spanish inhabitants of Mexico and Peru at the prescnt momcnt, we cannot read the accounts of the first conrjuests of thcse countries without fecling strongly, that the racc dcstroyed was in moml worth as well as numbcrs supcrior to the race of thcir destroycrs.
The piirts of America settlcd by the Eiiglish, from being thinly peopled, were bcttcr adaptcd t€
Chap. IV. POPULATION. 135
Of Emigration.
Ae establishment of new colonies ; yet even here, «he most formidable difficulties presented them- sdves. In the settlement of Virginia, begun by Sir Walter Raleigh, and established by lord Dela- irore, three attempts completcly faÜed. Nearly half of the first colony was destroyed by the sa va- ges, and the rest consumed and wom down by fa- t%ue and &mine deserted the country, and retum- td home in despair. The second colony was cut off to a man in a manner unknown ; but they were supposed to be destroyed by the Indians. The third experienced the same dismal fate ; and the rcmains of the fourth, after It had been reduced by inline and disease in the course of six months tum 500 to 60 persons, were retuming in a fam- isbing and desperate condition to England, when ftejr were met in the mouth of the Chesapeak bay bf lord Delaware, with a squadron loaded with piDvisions, and every thing for their rclief and de- fenceJ
The first puritan se^lers in New England were fcw in numbcr. Thev landed in a bad season,
m
and were only supported by their private funds.
' Burke's America, vol. ii. p. 319. Eobertson, b* ix. P« SS, 86.
136 £SSAY ON Book llf.
Of Emigration.
The Winter was premature and terribly coki;
the country was covercd with wood, and afforded
very litüe for the refreshment of persons sickiy
with such a voyage, or for the sustenance of an
Infant people. Nearly half of them perished by
the scurvy, by want, and the severity of the cli-
mate ; yet those who survivcd were not di^iritcd
by their hardships, but supported by their energy
of character, and the satisfaction of finding them- selves out of the reach of the spiritual arm, re-
duced this savage country by degrees to joeld
them a comfortable subsistence. *
Even the plantation of Barbadoes, which in* creascd afterwards \vith such extraordinär}' rapidi- ty, had at first to contend with a countr}' utterly desolate, an extreme want of provisions, a difBcul- ty in Clearing the ijrouiid unusually grcat from the unconimon sizc and hardncss of the trces, a most dishciirtcning samtiiicss and poverty in their first crops, and a b!o\v anJ prccarious supply of provi- sions from Kngland.*
The attcmpt of the French in 1663, to form at onre a ijowerful colony in Guinea, was attended
' Burke's America, vol. ii. p. 144« • l«l. p. 85.
Ch^ IF. POPULATION. 137
Of Emigration*
with the most disastrous consequences. Twelyc thousand men were landed in the rainy season, and [daced under tents and miserable sheds. In this situaticHi, inactive, weary of existence, and in want of all necessaries, exposed to contagious disteixu pers which are always occasioned by bad provi- sions, and to all the irregularities which idleness produces among the lower classes of society , almost tbe whole of them ended their lives in all the bor- rors of despair, The attempt was completely abortive. Two thousand men, whose robust con- stitutions had enabled them to resist the inclemen- cy of the climate and the miseries to which they had been exposed, were brought back to France, and the 25,000,000 of livres which had been ex- pended in the expedition were totally lost. '
In the late Settlements at Port Jackson in New Hcdland, a melancholy and afFecting picture is drawD by Collins of the extreme hardships with which, for some years, the in&nt colony had te stniggle before the produce was equal to its sup- port. These distresses were undoubtedly aggra- vated by the character of the settlers; but thosc
■ Raynal, Hist. des Indes, tom. vii. liv. iXiu p. 43. 10 Tols* 8vo. 1795.
voL ii.
156 ' ESSAY ON Bink IH
Of Emigration.
which Were caused by the unhealthiness of a new- ly cleared country, the failure of first crops, and the uncertainty of supplies from so distant a mother countiy, were of themselves sufficieiitly disheartening, to place in a strong point of view the necessity of great resources, as well as unconquer- 'able perseverence, in the colonization of savage countries.
The establishment of colonies in the more diinly peopled regions of Europe and Asia would cvidendy require still greater resources, FroiA the power and warlike character of the inhabitants of these countries^ a considerable military force >5Vould be necessary to prevent thcir utter and nn- mediate destruction. Even the frontier provinces of the most powerful states are defcnded with considerable difficulty from such restless neigh- bors ; and the peaceful labors of the cultivator are continually intemipted by their predator}' incur- sions. The late empress Catliarine of Russia found it necessary to protcct by regulär fortresses, the colonies which she had estabüshed in the dis* tricts near the Wolga ; and the calamities which her subjects sufTered by the incursions of the Crim Tartars fumished a pretext, and pcrhaps a just one, for taking possession of the whde of the
Chap, n. POPULATION. Jjfg^
Of Emigration.
Crimea, and expeliing the greatest part of thesf turbulent neighbors, and reducing the rest to a more tranquil mode of life.
The difficulties attending a first establishment finom soll, climate, and the want of proper conve- Biencesy are of course nearly the same m these re« gions as in America. Mn Eton, in his account of the Turkish Empire, says, that 75,000 Chris- tians were obliged by Russia to emigrate from the Crimea, and sent to inhabit the oountry abandoned by die Nogai Tartars ; but the winter coming on before the houses built for them were ready, a, great part of them had no other shelter from the cold than what was afibrded them by hdes dug in the ground, covered with what they could procure, and the greatest part of them peri^d. Qnly 9even thousand remained a few years after- wards. Anotber colony from Italy to the banks of the Borysthenes had, he says^ no better fate, owing to the bad management of those who were com- missioiied to provide for them« •
It. is neediess to add to these iostances, as the accounts given of the difficulties experienced ID new Settlements are all nearly similur. It has beeil jostly obscrved by a correspondent of Dr. I'ranklin, that on^ of the reasons why we have secn so many
ttO ESSAY ON Book III.
Of Emigration.
fhiitless attempts to setde colonies at an immense public and private cxpense by several of the pow- ere of Europe is, that the moral and mechanical habits adapted to the mother country arc finc- quently not so to the new-settled one, and to ex- temal events, many of which are unforeseen ; and that it is to be remarked, that none of the Engtish colonies became any way considerable tili the nc- cessary mannere were bom and grew up in die country. Pallas particulariy notices the want of proper habits in the colonies established by Rua* sia, as one of the causes why they did not increase 80 fast as might have been expected.
In addition to this it may be observcd, that the first establishment of a new colony gcnerally prc- sents an instance of a countrj'^ peopied considerably beyond its actual produce ; and the natural con- sequence secms to be, that this population, if not amply supplied by the mother countrj-, should at the commencement be diminished to the level of the first scanfy productions, and not begin permanently to increase tili the rcmaining numbcrs had so far cultivated the soil as to make it yield a quantity of food more than sufficient for their o\vn support ; and which consequently thcy could dividc with a fiynily. The frequent failures in the establishment
Chap. IF. POPULATION. 141
Of Emigration.
of new colonies tend strongly to show the order of precedence between food and population. ', It must be acknowledged then, that the class of people on whom the distress arising from a too rapidly incFeasing population would principally 611 could not possibly begin a new colony in a distant country. From the nature of their Situa- tion, they must necessarily be dcficient in those resources which alone could ensure success ; and uideas they could find leaders among the higher cfasses ui^d by the spirit of avarice or enter- prise, or of religious or political discontent ; or werc {iiniished with means and support by govern- ment ; whatever degree of misery they might suf- fcr in their own country from the scarcity of sub- sisCence, they would be absolutely unable to takc possession of any of those uncultivated regions of frflich there is such au extent on the earth.
When new colonies have been once securelv
•
estaUished, the difficulty of emigration is indeed veiy considerably diminished; yet, even then, some resources are necessary to provide vcssels for the voyage, and support and assistance tili the emigrants can setüe themselves, and find employ- ment in their adopted country. How far it is incumbent upon a govemment to fumish these
142 ESSAY ON Book III.
Of Emigration.
resources may be a question ; but whatever be its duty in this particular, perhaps it is too much to cxpect, that except where any particular colonial / advantagcs are proposed emigration should be actively assisted./
The necessaiy resources for transport and main- tenance are however frequently fumished by indi- viduals or private companies. For many years bcfore the American war, and for some few räicc» the facilities of emigration to this new world, and the probable advantages in view, were unusuaSy great ; and it must be considered undoubtedly as a very happy circumstance for any country , to havc so comfortablc an asylum for its redundant popu« lation. But I would ask whether, even during thesc pcriods, the distress among the common ])Cople in this country was little or nothing, and whether every man feit sccure before he ventured on marriagc, that however largc his family might be, he should find no difficulty in supporfing it without parish assistance. The answer, I fear, could not be in the affirmative.
It will be said, that when an opportunity of ad* vantageous emigration is offered, it is the fault of the people themselves, if instead of accepting it tbcy prefer a lifc of celibacy or extreme poverty
Chap^ ir. POPULATION. US
Of Emig^ration«
in thcir own country. Is it then a fault for a man
to fcel an attachment to his native soil, to love the
parents that nurtured him, his kindred, his friends,
and the companions of his early years ? or is it no
evil that he siiffers, because he consents to bear it
rather than snap these cords which nature has
wound in dose and intricate folds round the hu-
tum heart ? The great plan of Providence seems
to itquire indeed that these ties should sometimes
be broken ; but the Separation does not, on that
account, give less pain ; and though the general
good may be promoted by it, it does not cease to
be an individual evil. Besides, doubts and un-
oeitain^ must ever attend all distant emigrations,
poiticularly in the apprehensions of the lower clas-
ses of people. They cannot feel quite secure,
thai the representations made to them of the high
pricc of labor, or the cheapness of land, are accu-
raldy true. They are placing themselves in the
power of the persons who are to fumish them with
the means of transport and maintenance, who may
perhaps have an interest in deeeiving them ; and
the sea which they are to pass appears to them like
the Separation of death from all their former con-
nexioDS, and in a manner to preclude the possibili-
ty of retum in case of &ilure, as they cannot ex-
144 ESSAY ON Book Dl.
Of Emigration,
pect the offer of the same means to bring them back. We cannot be surprised then that except , where a spirit of enterprise is added to the uneasi- ^ ness of poverty, the consideration of these circum — stances should frequendy
« Make them nther bemr the iüs they luffer, <* Than fly to othen which they know not o£"
If a tract of rieh land as large as this island wcfl^ suddenly annexed to it, and sold in small lots, <^ let out in small farms, the case would be very ferent, and the melioration of the State of the mon people would be sudden and strikuig ; thoi^ V^ the rieh would be continually complaining of high price of labor, the pride of the lower and the difficulty of getting work done. Thes^"-^ ' understand, are not unfrequent complaints amo^^-^ the men of property in America.
Ever}' resourcc however, from emigration, used efi'ectually, as this would be, must be short duration. There is scarcely a State in rope except perhaps Russia, the inhabitants which do not often endeavor to bettcr their c< dition by rcmoving to othcr countries. As thcr^'^ States thereforc have nearlv all rather a redunda^-^ dian deficient population, in proportion to th^^ produce, they cannot Ix* supposed to afford
C3k^. iT. POPULATION. 145
Of Emigration*
efectual resources of emigration to each other. Let US suppose for a moment, that in this more enlightened part of the globe, the internal econo* my of each State were so admirably regulated, that HO checks existed to population, and the different govemments provided evcry fecUity for emigra- tion« Taking the population of Eurof)e, exclud- ing Russia, at a hundred milliohs, and allowing a' ^reater increase of produce than is probable, or cvcn possible, in the mother countries, the redun« dancjr of parent stock in a single Century would be de?en . hundred milliohSy which added to the na- tund increase of the colonies, duringthe same time, w«>iild more than double what has been supposed to be the present population of the whole earth.
Can we imagine that in the uncultivated parts üf Asia, Africa or America, the greatest exer- tSoBS and the best directed endeavors could, in so ahart a period, prepare a quantity of land sufficient bt Ifae support of such a population. If any san- gQihe person should feel a doubt upon the subject^ kt him ähly add 25 or 50 jrears more, and ev^ doubt musi be crushed in overwhelming convic« äon.
It b evident therefbre, that the reason why the Ksottfce of emigration has so long continued tp ^ ii. u
146 ESSAY ON Book JH.
Of Emigration.
be held out as a remedy to redundant population is, because from the natural unwillingness of peo- ple to desert their native country, and the difficul- ty of Clearing and cultivating fresh soil, it never is or can be adequately adopted. If this remedy weie indeed really e&ctual, and had power so fiu* to relieve the disorders of vice and misery in old States as to place them in the condition of the moet prosperous new colonies, we should soon see the phkd exhausted, and when the disorders retumed with increased vinilence, every hope from th» would be forever dosed« It is clear therefore, that with any view of mak- ing room for an unrestricted increase of popula* tion, emigration is perfectly inadequatc ; but as a partial and tcmporary expedient, and with a view to the more general cultivation of the earth, and the wider spread of civilization, it seems to be both useful and proper ; and if it cannot be proved that govemments are bound actively to cncouragc it, it is not only strikingly unjust, but in the highest dcgree impolitic in them to prevent it. There are no fears so totally ill-grounded as the fears of de- population from emigration. The vis inertue of people in general, and their attachment to their homes, are qualities so strong and general, that wc
Omp. ly. POPULATION. 147
Of Emigration.
may rest assured that they will not emigrate, un-
less firom political discontents or extreme povert}'
they are in such a State, as will make it as much
for the advantage of their country as of themselves
^t they should go out of it. The complaints of
lugh wages in consequence of emigrations are of
a& olhers the most unreasonable, and ought the
käst to be attended to. If the wages of labor in
any country be such as to enable the lower classes
of people to live with tolerable comfort, we may
bc quite certain that they will not emigrate ; and if
they be not, such it is cruelty and injustice to de-
lamtbem
CHAPTER V.
Cf Poor Law$.
TO remedy the frequent distresaes of tfae poor, laws to enforce their relief liave bcen insd- tuted ; and in the establishment of a general ers- tem of th'is kiod, England has particularly disüiw guisbed herseif. But it is to be feared that thougjll it may have alleviated a little the intensity of indi» vidual misfortune, it has spread the evil over a much largcr surfacc.
It is a subjcct oftcn started in conversation, and mentioned ahvays as a matter of great surprise, that notwithstanding. the immense sum which b annually coUectcd for the poor in this country tliere is still so much distress among them. Some think that the money must be embezzled for pri- vate use ; others, that the churchwardens and overseers consume the greatest part of it in feasl- ing. All agree, that somehow or other it must be ytry ill managed. In short, the fact, that even hefore tne late acarcities three millions were col-
ESSAY ON, 6V. 149
Of Poor Laws.
lecled annually for the poor, and yet that tbeir distresses were not removed, is the subject (^ continual astonishment. But a man who looks a little below the sur&ce of things would be much nyjre astonisbed, if the &ct were otherwise than it is observed to be ; or even if a collection luiiver- sally of eighteen Shillings in the poimd, instead of four, were materially to alter it«
Suppose, that by a subscription of the rieh, the eigfateen^pence or two Shillings, which men eam now, were made up five Shillings, it might be im- agined, perhaps, that they would then be able to Jive ccHnfortably, and have a piece of meat every day for their dinner. But this would be a very &be conclusi(xi. The transfer of t]^ee additional Shillings a day to each laborer would not increase the quanüty of meat in the country. There is ooC at present enough for all to have a moderate shaie. What would then be the consequence ? die competition apdong the buyers in the market of meat would rapidly raise the price from eigbt peuce or nine penoe to two or three Shillings in die poui^i, and. the commodity would not be di - ?ided among many more than it is at present. When an artide is scarce, and cannot be distri-
150 ESSAY ON Jiook III.
Of Poor Laws.
• ♦
buted to all, he that can show the most valid pa- tent, that IS, he that oflFers the most money becomes the possessor. If wc can supjx)se the compctition among the buyers of meat to continue long enough for a greater number of cattle to be reared annual- ly, thts could only bc done at the expense of the com, which would be a very disadvantageous ex- change; for it is well known, that the country could not then support the same population ; and when subsistence is scarce in proportion to the number of people it is of little consequencc whe- tlier the lowest members of the society possess two Shillings or five. They must, at all events, l)e reduced to live upon the hardest farc and in the smallest quantity.
It might be said perliaps, that the increascd number of purchascrs in cvery articlc would give i\ spur to productive industry, and that the whole produce of the island would be increased. But ihe spur that these fancied riches would give to population would more than counterbalance it ; and the increased produce would be to bejlivided among a more than proportionably increased num- ber of people.
A collection from the ritrli of cip^teen Shillings
Chab. V. POPULATION. 151
'"M «.^ • ■ •
\^' '
■•Ai
Of Poor Laws.
in the pQupd, even if distributed in the most judi- cious Bijt^per, would have an effect similar to that resultiil^ from the supposition which I have just made ; and no possible sacrifices of the rieh, par- ücularly in money, eould for any time prevent the recurrence of distress among the lower members of Society, who ever they were. Great changes might indeed be made. The rieh might become poor, and some of the poor rieh ; but while the present prqporticxi between popuIation and food coQtinues, ;t.part of society must necessarily find itdifficult to Support a &mily, and this difiiculty win naturally fall on the least fortunate members. It may at first appear stränge, but I believe it b tme, that I cannot by means of money raise the condition of a poöi^ man, and enable him to live mach better than he did before, . without propor-» tionaMy dcpressing others in the same class. If I retrench the quantity of food consumed in my house, and give him what I have cut off, I theii benefit him without depressing any but myself and &mily, who perhaps may be well able to bear iL If I tum up a piece of uncultivated land, and give him the produce, I then benefit both him and * all the members of socictv, because what he before
■^^
isi Essay on HooJt
Of Poor Laws.
V
consumed is thrown into the common stock, probably 9ome of the new produce whh it. if I only give him money, supposing the prod of the country to remain the same, I give hi title to a larger share of that produce than forn ly, which share he cannot receive without di nishing the shares of others. It is evident this effect in individual instances must be so » as to be totaily imperceptibie ; but still it n exist, as many other eSects do, which Uke so of the insects that people the air elude our gra perceptions.
Supposing the quantity of food in any coui to remain the same for many years together, i evident that this food must be dividcd accord to the value of each man's patent, or the sun money which he can aSbrd to spend in this cc modity so universidly in requesL It is a dem strative truth therefore, that the patents of one of men could not be increased in value, witb diminishing the value of the patents of some ot sct of men. If the rieh were to subscribc s give five Shillings a day to five hundred thousa men, without retrenching their own tables, doubt can exist that as these men would live m at their ease, and consume a greatcr quantit}'
p
dtp. r. POPULATION, M6
Of Poor I^ws.
proirisioiis, there would be less food remaining to divide among the rest; and consequ^ntly each man's patent would be dim^ni^hed m vajue, pr tbe sanie number oi pieoes of ^ver would pur- diase a aroaller quantity of subsistence, and die prioe of provisions would universally rise.
Tbese general reasonings have beea strikjngly oottfirmed duriog the late scarcities. Tbe $uppQ* ädoQ wMch I bave made of a coUection from tbe rieh irf* ^hteen duUings in the pound has beea aeariy realized ; and tbe effect has been such a^ night have been ejepected. If the same distri- Imäoo had been made wjben no scarcity existed, t ooQfindemble -advanoe in the price of prov isioos VQidd have been a neoessaiy consequence ; but Utoving as it did a scarcity, its e&ct must have been doubly powerfuL No person, I believe, wiU venture to doubt, that if we were to give three additional riiillings a day to every laboring man in the kingdom, as I before supposed, in order Ihat be might have meat for his.dinner, tbe price «f Aeat would rise in the most rapid and unex- mpkd maimo*. But surely, in a deficiency of com, which renders it impossible for every man toliavehis usual .ahare, if we still continue to für- "üol. iL X
J54 ESSAY OK Book JH.
Of Poor Law8.
lüsh each person with the means of purchasnig the same quantity as before, the effect must be in every respect similar.
Itseems in great measure to have escaped ob- aervation, that the ßrice of com in a scarci^ will depend much more upon the obstinacy widi iduch die same degree of consumption is persevered in, dian on the degree of the actual deficiency. A de- fidency of one half of a crop^ if the people coiild immediately consent to consume only one half of what they did before, would produce little or no eflfect on the [»ice of ccmd. A deficiency of one twelfth, if exacdy the same consumption were^ continue for ten or eleven months, might raise the price of com to almost any height. The more is given in parish assistance, the more power is fur- nished of persevering in the same consumpliony and of course the higher will the price rise before the necessary diminution of consumption b cf- fected.
It has been asserted by some people that high prices do not diminish consumption. If this were really tnie, we should see the price of a bushel of com at a hundrcd pounds or more, in every defi- ciency, which could not be fully and completely i^mcdied by importation. But the &ct is, that
Cfc^. K POPULATION; 155
Of Foor Laws.
higfa prices do ulttinately diminish consumption ; but on account of the riches of the country, the unwifliogness of the people to resort to sub^tutes^ and ÜK immease sums which are distributed by parishes, tfüs'object cannot be attained tili the prices become excessive, and force even the mid- & classes of society, or at least those immediately above the poor, to save in the article of bread firom die actual inability of purchasing it in the usual quantity. The poor who were assisted by their parisbes had no reasQn whatever to complain of die lügh price of gr^ ; because it was the ex. oessiveness of this price, and this alone, which by oforcing such a saving left a greater quantiQr of com for the consumption of the lowest classes, which com the parish allowances enaUe them to command« The greatest sufferers in the scarcity were undoubtedly the classes immediately above die poor; and these were in the most marked man- ner depressed by the excessive bounties given to diose below them« Almost all poverty b relativ« ; and I much doubt whetfaer these people would have been rendered so poor if a sum equal to half of diese bounties had been taken directlv out of their pockets, as they were, by that new distribution of
156 ESSAY OK A)ok 7/7.
Of Poor Laws»
the money of tfae socicty which actually toök place.* Thb distribution by giving to tbe poorcr claases a command of fiood, so much greater iStma that to which their degree of skiU and mdustiy ea* tided them, in die actual circumstances of the eountiy, diminished exacdy in the same propor- tion that command over the necessmes ci Ufe» wluch th^ classes above them, by their superioi^ skiU and industry, would nataraUy posseas ; and it may be a question whether the degree of axawtanor which the poor recerved, and which prevented diem fix>m resorting to the use ofthose Substitutes»
' Supposing; the Iower classes to eam on an average ten Shillings a week. and the classes just above them twcn- ty, it is not to be doubted, that in a scarcity these latter would be more straightened in their power of command- ing the necessarics of life> by a donation of ten Shillings a week to those below them, than by the subtraction of five Shillings a week from their own eamings. In the one case. they would be all reduced to a level ; the price of provisions would rise in an extraordinary manner from the gremtnessof the competition; and all would be straight- ened for subsistencc« In the other case, the classes abore the poor would still maintain a considerabte part of their relative superiority ; the price of provisions would by no means rise in the same degree ; and their remaining fif- iecn shillingt wouM purchase much more than their twcn- ty f hillingt in the former case«
Omp. r. POPULATION. 157
Of Poor Lawt.
wkich in every other country on such occasions the great law of necessity teaches, was not more than overbalanced by the severity of the pressure OQ so large a body of people from the extreme high prices, and the permanent evil which must TC^ak from forcing so many persons on the pgrish, who before thought themselves almost out of the reach of want. ^
If we were to double tlie fortunes of all those who possess above a hundred a year, the efiect on the price of grain would be slow and inconside- rable ; but if wc were to double the price of labor throug^iout the kingdom, the effect in raising the price of grain would be rapid and great. The general principles on this subject i«il not admit of dispute ; and that in the particular case which we have been considering, the bounties to the poor were of a magnitude to operate very power- fully in this manner will sufficiently appear, if we recoUect, that before the late scarcities the sum coUected for the poor was estimated at three mil- lionsy and that during the year 1801 it was said to be ten milUons« An additional seven millions acting at the bottom of the scale, ^ and employed
^ See a iii\all pamphlet published in November 1800«
158 ESSAY ON Book UI.
Of Poor Laws.
«
exclusively in the purchase of provisions, jomed to a considerable advance in the price of wages in many parts of the kingdom, and increased by a prodi^ous sum expended in voluntary charity, must have had a most powerful eifect in raising tlie price of the necessaries of life, if any relianoe can be placed on the clearest general [»incipleb confirmed as much as possible by appearanccs. A man with a &mily has received, to my know- kdge, fourteen Shillings a week finoni the parish. His common eamings were ten Shillings a week, and his weekly revenue therefwe, twenty^ibur. Before die scarcity he had been in the habit of purchasing a bushel of flour a weck with eight •hillings pqjhaps, and consequently had two stül- lings out bf his ten, to spare for other necessaries. During the scarcity he was cnabled to purchase
entitled) An inve$tigation q/* the cauMe of thr fireatnt high /irice of /inruisions. This pamphlct was mistakcn by sonie for an inquiry into the cause of the scarcitf« and as such it would naturalis appear to be incompletci adrertingt as it doesi principally to a Single cause« But the sole object of the Pamphlet was to g^ve the principal reason for tbc extreme high price of provisions, in proportion to the de« gree of the scarcity, admitting the deficiency of one fourth, as stated in the Duke of Portland's letter ; whichi I am much inclined to think was rerj near the truth.
Chap. V. POPULATION. 159
Of Poor Laws.
tiie same quantity at neariy three times the price. He paid twenty-two Shillings for his bushel of flour, and had as before two. Shillings remaining for odier wants. Such instances could not possi- hfy have been universal, without raising the price of wheat veiy much higher than it really was dorii^ any part of the dearth. But similar in- stances were by no means infrequent, and the s]rstem itself of measuring the relief given by the price oTgrain was general.
If die circulation of the countrv had consisted endrely of specie, which could not have been im- inediately increased, it would have been impossible to give such an additional sum as seven millions to die poor without embarrassing to a great degree Ac Operations of commerce. On the commence- mcnt dierefore of this extensive relief, which would necessarily occasion a proportionate expendi- tme in provisions diroughout all the ranks of so- cicty, a great demand would be feit for an increas- cd circulating medium. The nature of the me- dium then principally in use was such, that it could be created immediately on demand. From die accounts of the bank of England, as laid be- fore Päriiament, it appeared that no veiy great
wo ESSAY ON Book in.
Of Poor Lawt.
additional issues of paper took place from this quarter. The three mUlions and a half added to its former average issues were not probably mucli above what was suificient to suppty the quanti^ of specie, that had been withdrawn from the cir- culation. If thb supposition be true, and the small quanüty of gold which made its appearanoe at that time fumishes the strongest reason (or be- lieviiig that nearly as much as this must have beco withdrawn, it would foUow that the part of the cir- culation originating in the bank of England» thougii changed in its nature, had not been much increas- ed in its quantity ; and with regard to the effcct ol the circulating medium on the price of all commo- dities it cannot be doubted, that it would be pre- ciscly the same whether it were made up princi- pally of guineas, or of pound notes and Shillings which would pass currcnt for ^ineas.
The demand thcrefore for an increased circula- ting medium was Icft to be jsupplied principally b) the countf}' baiiks, and it could not be expected that they sliould hcsitatc in taking advantagc of sc profitable an opportunity. The paper issues of i countrj' bank are, as I conceive, measured by the quantity of its notes which will rcmain in circula- tion ; aad this quantity is again measured, suppo
Chop, F. POPULATION. Wi
Of Poor Laws.
sing a ccMifidence to be est^lished, by the suni of wliat is wanted to carry oa all the money transac- iioD& of the neighborhood. From the high price oi provisions, all these transactions became more expensive. In the Single article of the weckly payment of laborers' wages, including the parish a]lowance3, it b evident that a very great addition to the circulating medium of the neighborhood would be wanted. Had the countiy banks at- tempted to issue the same quantity of papcr with- oat such a particular demand for it, they would qoickly have been admonished of their tnot by its rapid and pressing retum upon them ; but at this time it was wanted for immediate and daily use^ and was therefore eagerly absorbed into the circu-
faüoii«
It may even admit of a question, whether under similar circumstances the country banks would not have issued nearly the same quantity of paper, if the bank of England had not been restricted from payment in specie. Before this event the issoes of the country banks in paper were regulat- cd by the quantity that the circulation would take up, and after, as well as before, they were obliged to pay the notes which retumed upon them in bank of En^and circulation. The difierence in vel. ii. y
162 ESäAY^ON Book W.
Qf Poor Law^.
!!?■*•-'
to
tlie two cases would artse principatty from the per« iiicious cüstomi adopted siiice the restriction of the bank, of issaing one and two pound notes, and from tiie little preference that many peopfe might fcclj if they could not get gold, between countiy bank paper and bank of Engbmd paper.
The very great issoe of country bank paper during the years 1800 and 1801 was evidetitly therefore, in tts or^n rather a consequence thaa a cause of die high price of provisions ; but being oiice absorbed into the circulation, it must neces» sarily affect the {nice of all commodities, and throw very great obstacles in the way of retuming cheap- ness. This b the great mischief of the System. During the scarcity, it is not to be doubted that the increased circulation, by prevcnting the em- barrassments which commerce and specubtion must otherwise have feit, enabled the country to continue all the branches of its trade with less interruption, and to import a much greater quan- tity of grain than it could have done otherwise ; but to overbalance these temporary advantages, a lasting cvil might be entailed upon the Community» and the prices of a time of scarcity might become permanent, from the difficulty of reabsorbing this increased circulation.
0kip. V, POPULATION. 163
Of Poor Lavs.
In tiiiß respect however, k is much better that the great ässue of paper shouk) have coroe froi^ tbe couiUay banks tjban from the bank of England. Dttrii^ the restriction of payment in specie, tbc^ is HO possibility of fbrcing the bank to retake its lioties wfaen too abundant ; but wkh regard to ihft eouotiy banks, as soon as their notes are not wanted in the circulation they will be returned ; and if the bank of England notes be not increased, the whole circulating medium will thus be di- minished.
We may oonsider ourselves as peculiarly fori-
tunate, that the two years of scarcity were suc-
oeeded by two events the best calculated to restone
pfenty and cheapness — an abundant harvest and a
peace ; which together produced a general con-
viction of plenty, in the minds both of buyers and
adlers ; and by rendering the first slow to purchase,
amd tiie others eager to seU, occasioned a glut in
U»e market^ and a consequent r^id fall of price,
^iriiich has enabled parishes to take off their allow-
wooes to the poor, and thus to preveat a retum of
high priceswben the ^darmamoQg the seHers was
If tbetWQJsears of scardty had been succeeded nperely \f^ ycars of average cvc^, I api strongly
164 ESSAY ON Book fti.
Of Poor Law8«
disposed to believe, that as no glut would have taken place in the market, the price of gran wouUI have fallen only in an inconsiderable degree, the parish aüowances could not have been resumed, the increased quantity of paper would still have been wanted, and the prices of all commodities might hj degrees have been regulated permanent- ly, according to the increased circulating medium. If instead of giving the temporary assistance elf parish allowances, which might be withdrawn on the first fall of price^ we had raised universally the wages of labor, it is evident that the obstacles to a diminution of the circulation, and to retum- ing cheapness, would have been still further in- creased ; and the high price of labor would have become permanent, without any advantage what- cver to the laborcr.
There is no one that morc ardently desires to see a real advance iii the price of la^x>r than my- self ; but the attempt to effect this object by for- cibly raising the nominal price, which was prac- tised to a certain degree, and recommendcd almost universally during tlie late scarcities, every think- ing man must reprobate as puerile and ineffectual.
The price of labor, when left to find its natural kvel, b a most important political barometer, ex-
Ch^. r. POPULATION. 165
Of Poor Laws.
pressing tbc relation between th^ supply of provi- fflonsy and the demandfor them; between the quantity to be consumed, and the number of con- suipers ; and taken on the average, independently of accidental circumstances, it further expresses dearly the wants of the society respecting popula- tiOQ ; that is, whatever may be the number of children to a marriage necessary to maintain ex- acüy die present population, the price of labor wiB be just sufHcient to support this number, or be above it, or below it, aecording to the State of Ae real funds for the maintenance of labor, whe- Act stationary, progressive, or retrograde, Instead however, of considering it in this light, we consi- der it as something which we may raise or depress at pleasure, something which depends principally upon his majesty's justices of the peace. When an advance in the price of provisions already ex- presses that the demand is too great for the supply, in Order to put the laborer in the same condition as before, we raise the price of labor, that is, we increase the demand, and are then much surprised diat the price of provisions continues rislng. lu this we act much in the same manner as if, when die quicksilver in the common weatlier-glass stood at ^tormtfj we w]pre to raise it by some mechaniciU
^
166 ESSAY ON Jiook /!/.
Of Poor Lawt.
pressure to tetücdfair^ and then bc grcady aato- nished that it continued raining.
Dr. Smith has cleaiiy slK>wn, that thc natund tendency of a year of scarcity is either lo thr6w • number of laborers out of employ ment, or to ob- lige them to work iox less than diey did before, finom the inability of masters to employ tfae same number at the same pnce. The raising of the price of wages tends necessarily tothrow more out of employmeat, and completely to preveot the good eSects which, he aays, sometimes arise firom a year of moderate scarcity, that of makii^ thc lOwer classes of people do more work and become möre careful and industrious. The number of servants out of place, and the manufacturers want* ing employment, during the late scarcitics, werc melancholy proofs of the truth of these rcasonings. If a general rise in the wages of labor had taken place prc^rtioned to the price of provisions, nooc but &rmers and a few gentlemen could have af- forded to employ the sanie number of workmen as before. Additional crowds of servants and manufacturers would have been tumed off; and those who were thus thrown out of emplo]rmeot would of course have no other refuge than the parish. In the natural onler of thmgs a scaKl^
Ch^. F. POPULATION. 167
Of Poor Laws.
K
must tend to bwer, instead of to raiae, the price
of iabor.
After die publication and general circuladon of
such a work as Dr. Smith's I confess it appears to ne Strange that so many men who would yct as-
piit to be thought pdiucal economists shouid still
tfaink diat it is in the power of the justices of the
peaoe, or cven of the omnipotence of parliament, to
aher by ^ßat the whole circumstances of the coun-
try ; asud \dien the demand for provisions is great-
' er dian die supply, by publishing a particular edict
to nudie the supply at once equal to ex* greater than
the demand. Many men * who would shrink at
tlie proposal of a maximum would propose them-
sdves, Üiflt the price of Iabor shouid be proportion-
<3d to die price of provisons, and do not seem to
bc aware that the two proposals are very nearly of
tbe same nature, and that both tend direcüy to fa-
mine. It matters not whether we enable the la-
borer to purchase the same quantity of provisions
which he did befwe by fixing their price, or by
RD^i^ in Proportion the price of Iabor. The only
idvantage on the side of raising the price of Iabor
is, that the rise in the price of provisions which
oeoessarily foUows it encourages importiition ; but
puttmff importation out of the question, which
ittM^I
168 ESSAY ON Book IL
Of Poor Laws.
mi^t possibly be prevented by war, or othe circumstances, a universal rise of wages in prc |X)rtion to the price of provisions, aided by ade quate parish allowances to those who were throwi out of work, would, by preventing any kind c saving, in the same manner as a maximum, caus the whole crop to be consumed in nine month which ought to have lasted twelve, and thus pro duce a famine. At the same time we musi nc forgct that both humanity and true policy imperi ously rcquire, that we should give every aasistanc to the ]X)or on these occasions that the nature c the case will admit. If provisions were to c« tinue at the price of scarcity, the wages of bbc must necessarilv rise or sicknessand famine woul quickly diniinish the numbcr of laborers, and th supply of labor bcinfj uncquul to the dcmand, il price would soon risc in ä still greater propoi tion than the price of provisions. But even on or two years of scarcity, if the poor were left er tirely to shift for thcnisch es, might produce som effcct of this kind, and consequently it is our ir tercst as well as our duty to give thcm temporar aid in such scasons of distress. It is on suc occasions that cvery chcap Substitute for breac and cvcry mcxlc of economizing food shoukl b
Chap. V. POPULATION. 169
^^.^
Of Poor Laws.
resorted to. Nor should we be too ready to com- plain of that high price of com which by encour- aging importation increases die supply.
As die inefficacy of poor laws, and of attempts farcibly to raise die price of labor, are most con- spicuous in a scarcity, I have diought myself jus- tified in considering diem linder diis view ; and as Üiese causes of increased price received great ad- ditional force during die late scarcity from die in- erease of Üie circulating medium, I trust diat die few observations which I have made on diis sub- ject will be considered as an allowable digression.
iv^. ii.
CHAPTER VI.
Subject qfPoor Imw$ cantinued.
INDEPENDENTLY of any coaskkm« tions respecting a year of deficient crops it is. evi- dent, that an increase of population withöut a pro- portional increase of food must lower the value of each man^s eamings. l*he food must necessarily be distributed in snudler quantities, and consequentty a day's labor vnü purchase a smaller quantity of provisions. An increase in the price of provisions will arise either from an increase of populatioQ faster than the means of subsistcnce, or from a dif- ferent distribution of the money of the society. The food of a country which has been long peo- pled, if it be increasing, incrcases slowly and re- gularly, and cannot be made to answer any sudden demands ; but variations in the distribution of the money of the society are not unfrtquently occur- ring and are undoubtedly among the causes which occasion the continual variations in the prices of provisions.
ESSAY ON, £s?r. 171
Subject of Poor Law», contiaoed.
The pooF laws of England tend to depress the general condkion of the poor in these two ways« Their first obvious tendency is to increase popula» a tion without increaskig the food for its aüppoit« ' A poor man may marry with Uttle or no pfospect of being able to support a family without pariah assistance. They may be said therefcH^, (o crealit the poor which they maintain ; and as the provi- aioas of Ae country must^ in consequence of the increased population, be distributed to every man in smaller proportions, it is evident that the labcNr of tiiose who are not supported by parish aasis* tanoe will purchase a smaller quantity of provisions than befisre, and consequently more of them must be driven to apply for assistance.
Secondly, the quanti^ of provisions ponsumed ^' \
in workhouses, upon a part of the society that
caiuiot in general be conaidered as the moajt vakia^
bk pttTt, diminishes the shares that would other-
wise belong to more industrious and more wortby
HKoaberSi and thns, in the san^e manner, forces
Uore to becmne dependefit. If the j^oor in the
irorikfaonaes were to tive bettor than they do now,
thia neiv distribtttion of tfae money of the society
wmrid tend more conspicuously to depress the
^ondkioB of those out cf the workhouses by occa-
noQii^ an advance in the price of p rovisions.
172 ESSAY ON ßook III.
Subject of Poor Laws» continued.
Foitunately for England, a spirit of indepen* dence still remains among the peasantiy. The poor laws are strongly calculated to eradicate thb spiriL Thej- have succccded in part ; but had thcy suc- ceeded as completely as might have been expected, their pemicious tendency would not have been so long concealed.
Hard as it may appear in individual instances, dependent poverty ought to be hcld disgraceful. Such a Stimulus seems to be absolutely necessaiy to promote the happiness of the great mass of mankind ; and every gencral attempt to weaken this Stimulus, however benevolent its intentioo, will always defcat its own purpose. If men be in- duced to marry from the mere prospcct of j^arish Provision, they are not only unjustly tcmpted to bring unhappiness and depcndencc upon them- sclves and children, but they are tempted without knowing it, to injure all in the same class with themselves.
The parish laws of England appear to have contributed to raise the price of provisions, and to lower the real price of labor. They have there- fore contributed to impoverish that class of peo- ple whose only possession is their labor. It b al- fQ difficult to suppose that they have not power-
Chap.FI. POPULATION. 173
Subject of Poor Laws^ contihued*
fidljr contributed to generale that carelessness and Utot of frugalhy observable among the poor, so contraiy to the disposition generally to be re- marked among petty tradesmdn and small farmers. The laboring poor, to use a vulgär expression, seem always to live fram band to mouth. Their present wants employ their whole attention ; and diey seldom think of the future. Even when diey have an opportunity of saving they seldom exer* eise it ; but all diat they eam beyond their pre* sent necessities goes, generally speaking, to the alehouse. The poor laws may therefore be said to diminish both the power and the will to save
«
among the common people, and thus to weaken ooe of the strongest incentives to sobriety and in- dusliy, and consequently to happiness.
It is a general complahit among master manu- bcturers that high wages ruin all their workmen ; but It b difficult tQ conceive that these men would not save a part of their high wages for the future sapport of their &miliesy instead of spending it in drunkenness and dissipation, if they did not rely OD parish assistance for support in case of acci- dents. And that the poor employed in manufac- tures consider this assistance as a reason why they may spend all the wages which they eam, and en-
174 ESSAY ON S«ok 111.
Sttbject of Poor Lawt, continuttd.
jojr themselves while thcy can, appears to be eti» dent, from the number of familics that upon Ae &ilure of any great manufactory immediately &I1 upon the parish ; when perhaps the wages eamed in thb manufactory while it flourished were aui&- dently above the price of common country labor, to have allowed them to save enough for dieir aop* port, tili they could find some other Channel ibr their induatry.
A man who might not be detcrred from gCNng^ to the alehouse from the considerationy that on his death or sickness he should leave his wife and £unily upon the parish, might yet hesitate in thns dissipating his eamings, if he were assured that in either of these cases his family must starve, or be left to the Support of casual bount)'.
The mass of happiness among the common pcople cannot but be diminisiKd, when one of the strongest chccks to idieness and dissipation is thus rcmoved ; and positive institutions which render dcpendent poverty so general wcaken that dis- grace, which for the best and most humane rea- sons ought to be attached to it.
The poor laws of England were undoubtedly institutcd for the most benevolent purpose ; but it is evident they have faiied in attaining it. They
Chap. n^ POPULATION. 175
Sobiect of Poor Laws, continued»
#l||aiiil}r mit^;ate some cases of severe distress
yijfch in^;fat otherwise occur, thougfa Üie State of
tfae.poQT wbo are supported by parishes, consider-
cd in alt its circumstaiices is very miserable. But
OK of die principal objections to the system is,
tfot fix the assistance which some of the poc»* re-
cdvCy io itself ahnost a dpubtfiil blessing, the
whole dass of common people of England is sub-
jccted to a set of grating, inconvenient, and tyran-
lucal laws, totaUy inconsistent with the genuine
spirit of the Constitution. The whole business of
Settlements, even in its present amended State, is
CQDtradictory to all ideas of freedom. The parish
persecution of men whose &milies ar^ likely to
become chargeable, and of poor women who are
oear Ijrii^ in, is a most disgraceful and disgusting
tynumy. And the obstructions continually occa-
aoued in the market of labor by these laws have a
instant tendency, to add to tlie difficulties of
thosc who are stru^ling to support themselves
widx)ut assistance.
These evils attendant on the poor laws seem to be irremediable. If assistance l>e to be distribut- td to a certain class of peop|e, a power must be lodged somewhere of discrimina ting the proper objects, and of managing the conce ras of the insti-
176 ESSAY ON 6ook W
Subject of Poor Laws, continued.
tutions that are necessary ; but any great interfcr- ence with the affiurs of other people is a species Ol tyranny, and in the common course of things, thc exercise of this power may be expected to becomc grating to those who are driven to ask for suf^iort The tyranny of justices, churchwardens, and ovcr seers, is a common complaint among the poor but the &ult does not lie so much in these persoos who probably before they were in power werc no worse than other people» but in the nature of al such institutions.
I fecl persuaded, that if the pocx* laws had nevci existed in this country, though there might havi been a few more instances of very severe distress the aggregate muss of happiness among thc com- mon pcoplc would havc l^ecn much greater thai it is at prcscnt.
The radical dcfcct of all svstems of the kind L
m
that of tending to incrcase population without in crcasiiig the mciuis for its support, and by thu deprcssing the condition of those that are not rc ücvcd by parishcs to crcate more poor. If, indeed we cxaminc some of our Statutes strictly with rc ferencc to thc principle of ixjpulation, we shall fin that they attempl an absolute impossibilit}* ; an
Chap. FI. POPULATION. 177
Subject of Poor Laws, continued.
cc
iC
cannot be surprised therefore, that they should iC^onstantly fail in the attainment of their object.
The famous 43d of Elizabeth, which has been
Si€^ often referred to and admired, enacts, that the
O'verseers of the poor, " shall take order from timc
•* to time, by and with the consent of two or more
*• justices, for setting to work the children of all
such whose parents shall not by the said per-
sons be thought able to keep and .maintain their
children ; and also such persons married or un-
married, as having no means to maintain them»
use no ordinary and daily trade of life to get dieir
" living by. And also to raise, weekly or other-
" wise, by taxation of every inhabitant, and every
** occupier of lands in the said parish, (in such
** competent sums as they shall think fit) a conve-
" nient stock of flax, hemp, wool, thread, iron,
** and other necessary wäre and stuff, to set the
"poor to work.''
What is this but saying that the funds for the maintenance of labor in this country may be in- otased at will, and without limit, by ^fiat of go- vemment, or an assessment of the overseers. StricÜy speaking, this clause is as arrogant and as absurd as if it had enacted that two ears of wheat vol. iL a a
^^
178 ESSAY ON Book IIL
Subject of Poor I^ws, continued.
should in future grow where onc oiüy had grown bcfore. Canute, when hc commandcd thc waves not to wet his princely foot, did not in reality as* sume a greater power over tlic laws of nature. No directions arc given to the overseers how to increase the fiinds for tlie maintenancc of labor ; the necessity of industry, economy, and enlighten- edexertion, in the management of agricultuFal and commercial capital is not insisted on for this purpose ; but it is expectcd that a miraculous in- crease of these fqnds should immediately foliow an edict of the govemment used at the discretion of some ignorant parish oificers.
If this clause wcre rcally and fjonoßdc put in cxc- cution, and the shame attending thc rccciving of }xirish assistance wom off, cvcrj- luboring niaji might marrj' as early as hc pleascd, undcr thc ccr- tain prospect of having all his childrcn propcrly provided for ; and as according to thc supposition, thcre would be no check to population from thc conscqucnccs of poverty aftcr marriagc, die in- crease of people would bc rapid bcyond cxumplc in old States. After what lias bccn said in thc former parts of this work it is sul)mittcd to thc nadcr, whcthcr the utmost excrtions of thc most
(Mp. VI. POPULATION. 179
Subject of Poor Laws, continued.
cnlightened govemment could, in this case, make the food keep pace with the population, much less a mere arbitraiy edict, the tendency of which b certainly rather to diminish than to increase the funds for the maintenance of productive labor.
In the actual circumstances of every country, the prolific power of nature seems to be always ready to exert nearly its füll force ; but within the Umit of possibility, there is nothing perhaps more improbable, or more out of the reach of any go- vemment to effect, than the direction of the indus- try of its subjects in such a manner as to produce 4e greatest quantity of human sustenance tliat the earth could bear, It evidently could not be done ^out the most complete violation of the law of property, from which every thing that is valuable to man has hidierto arisen. Such is tlie disposition tomarry, particularly in very young people, that if the difficulties of providing for a family were en- tirely removed, very few would remain single at twenty-two. But what statesman or rational go- vemment could propose, that all animal food should be prohibited, that no horses should be used for business or pleasure, that all the people should live upon potatoes, and that the whole industry of
180 ESSAY ON Book in.
Sübject of Poor Laws, continued.
^m^
the nation should be exerted in the production of them, except what was necessar}^ for the mere nc- eessaries of cloathing and houses. Could such arevolution be effected, would it be desirable; particularly as in a few years, notwithstanding all these exertions, want, with less resource than cver, would inevitably recur.
After a country has once ceascd to be in the peculiar Situation of a new colony , we shall always find, that m the actual State of its cultivation, or in that State which may rationally be expectcd front tfie most enlightened govemment, the increase of its food can never allow for any length of time an unrcstricted increase of popuIation ; and thcrcforc the due execution of the clause in the 43d of Elizabeth, as a permanent law, is a physical impossibility.
It will be said perhaps, that the fact contradicts the theory, and that the clause in question has rc- mained in force, and has been exceuttd during the last two hundred years* In answcr to this I should say without hesitation, that it has not real- ly been executed ; and that it is merely owing to its incompletc execution, that it rcmains on out Statute book at prescnt«
Chap, FL POPULATION. I8l
Subject of Poor Laws, continued.
i*Mr-
The scanty relief granted to persons in distress, 'ihe capricious and insulting- manner in which it is sometimes distributed by the overseers, and tte jnatural and becoming pride not yet quite extinct .aoncHig the peasantry of England, have deterred che mcHie thinking and virtuous patt öf them fix)m venturing on marriage, without some better pros- pect of maintaining their families than mere parish assistance« The desire of bettering our condition and the fear of making it worse, like the vis me- dkatrix natura in physicks, is the vis medicatrix reipubUea in politics, and is continually counter- icting the disorders arising from narrow human iDstitutions. In spite of the prejudices in favor of Population, and the direct encouragements to mar- nage from the poor laws, it operates as a preven- tive check to mcrease ; and happy for this country is it that it does so. But besides tliat spirit of independence and prudence which chccks the frequency of marriage notwithstanding the en- couragements of the poor laws, these laws them- seives occasion a check of no inconsiderable mag- nitude, and thus counteract with one ha^d what they encomage with the other. As each parish is <)bliged to maintain its own poor, it is naturally
182 ESSAY ON Book UL
Subject of Poor Laws^ continued.
fearful of increasing their number, and evciy landholder is in consequence more inclined to puU down than to biüld cottages. This deficicncy of cottages operates necessarily as a strong check to marriage, and this check is probably the principal reason why we have been able to continue the System of the poor laws so long.
Those who are not prevented for a time frora manying by diese causes, are eithcr relieved veiy scantily at their own homes, where they sufier all the consequences arising from squalid poverty ; or they are crowded together in close and un- wholesome workhouses, where a great mortality almost universally takes place, particularly among the young children. Tlie dreadful account givcn by Jonas Hanway of the treatment of piirish chil- dren in London is well kno\%7i ; and it appcars from Mr. Howlett and othcr writers that in somc parts of the country their Situation is not very much better. A grcat part of the redundant po- pulation occasioncd by the poor laws is thus ta- kcn ofl' by the Operation of the laws thcmsclves, or at least by their ill execution. The rcniaining part which survives, by causing the funds for the maintenance of labor to be dividcd among a grcat-
Chap. VI. POPULATION. 183
Subject of Poor Laws, continued.
er number than can be properly maintained by
them, and by tuming a considerable share from
the Support of the diiigent and careful workman,
to the Support of the idle and the negligent, depres-
ses the condition of all those w ho are out of the
workhouses, forces more everj' year into them,
and has ultimately produced the enormous evil
which we all so justly deplore, that of the great
and unnatural proportion of the people which is
DOW become dependent upon charity.
If this be a just representation of the manner in which the clause in question has been executed, and of the eflFects which it has produced, it must be allowed, that we have practiced an unpardona- ble deceit upon the poor, and have promised what wehave been very far from performing. It may be asserted without danger of exaggeration, that the poor laws have destroyed many more livcs 4en they have prcserved.
The attcmpts to employ the poor on any great Scale in manufactures have almost mvariably fiul- ed,and the stock and materials have been wasted. In those few parishes which, by better managemen^ orlarger funds, have l:)een enablcd to perscvcrc in this System, the effect of these new manufactures in the market must have been to throw out oC ^^m
^
184 ESSAY ON Book IIL
Subject of Poor Laws, continued«
ployment many independent workmen who wcrc before engaged' in fabrications of a similar nature. This effcct has been placed in a strong point of view by Daniel de Foc, in an address to parlia- mcnty entitled, G'w'ing alms no charity. Si)eaking of the empIo}mient of parish cliildren in manufac- tiires he says, For eveiy skein of worsted thesc poor chiidrcn spin there miist be a skcin the less spun by some poor family that spun it before; and for cvcr}' piece of bays so made in London, t}icrc must be a piccc the less made at Colchester, or some- wherc eise. • Sir F. M. Eden, on the same sub- ject, observcs, that whether moi^s and brooms are made by parish chiidrcn orb) private worknun, no more can Ixi sold than the pul^lic is in want of.'
> See extracls from Daniel de l'oe, \\\ Sir F. M. Eden's valiiable work on the poor, vol. i. p. 261.
' Sir F. Eden, speaking of the Ji\jppf)sc(l rij;ht of the poor to bc supplicd wilh employnicnt while ahlc to work, und with a maintenance when incapaciiated frini labpr, vcry justly remarks, " It may howevcr be doiihtcd, whc- '*therany light, ihc gratification of which sccms lo bc im- " practicable, can bc said lo exist," vol. i. p. 447. No man has collected so many matcrials for forming a judg- ment on eflects of the poor laws as Sir F. Eden^ and the result hc thus expresses. »• Upontlie wholc ihcreforc therc ** sccms to be just grounds for conrtuding, that the sum
},FL POPULATION. 185
Subject of Poor Laws, continued.
will be Said perhaps that the same reasoning t be applied to any new capital brought into »etition in a particular trade or manufacture, 1 can rarely be done without injuring, m some c, those that were engaged in it before. But is a material difierence in the two cases. In the competition is perfecüy fair, and what man on entering into business must lay his int to. He may rest secure that he will not pplanted, unless his competitor possess supe-> kill and industry. In the other case, the com- on is supported by a' great boutity, by which s, notwithstanding very inferior skill and in- jr (Ml the part of his competitors, the indepen* ¥orkman m ly be undersold, and unjustly ex- d fh>m the market« He himself perhaps is to contribnte to this competition against his eamings, and the funds for the maintenance or are thus tumed from the support of a trade I yields a proper profit, to one which cannot ain itself without a bounty. It should be
Kxl to be expected from a compulsory maintenance e poor will be far out-balanced by the sum of evil b it will inevitahly create/' vol. i. p. 467. I am to have the sanction of so practical an inquirer to inion of the poor laws.
i. bb
186 * ESSAY ON Book i/7.
Subject of Poor Laws^ continued.
observed in general that when a fimd for the main- ' tenance of labor is raised by assessment, die greatest part of it is not a new capital brought into trade, but an old one, which before was much moir profitably employed, tumed intoa new channd« The farmer pays to the poor's rates for the en- couragement of a bad and unprofitable manufiic- ture, what he would have employed on his land with infinitely more advantage to his country. In the one casc, the funds for the maintenanoe of labor are daily diminished ; in the other, daily increased. And this obvious tendency of asseas- ments for the employment of the poor, to decrease the real funds for the maintenanoe of labor in any country, aggravates the absurditj' of supposing that it is in the jxiwer of a govemmcnt to find em- ployment for all its subjects, however &st thcy may increase.
It is not intended that these reasonmgs should be applied against every mode of cmploying the poor on a limited scale, and with such restrictions as may not encourage at the samc timc thtir in- crease. I would never wish to push general prin- ciplcs too far, tliou^h I think that they ought al- ways to be kept in view. In particular cases, the individual gocxl to be obtained may Ixr so grcat^
Ch^.rL POPULATION. 187
Sabject of Poor Laws^ continued«
- -^^siA the general evil so slight, that the former may «karly overfoalance the latter.
The mtention is merely to show, that the poor laws as a general System are founded on a gross ; and that the common declamation on the bject of the poor, which we see so often in print,
»
^nd hear continually in conversation, namely, that tiie market price of labor ought always to be suffi- cient decendy to support a family, and that em« fdoyment ought to be found for all those who are willing tö work is in effect to say, that the funds finr the maintenance of labor in this country are not only infinite, but might be made to increase wUh such rapidity, that supposing us to have at fiesent six millions of laborers, including their fa- ules, we might have 96 millions in another Cen- tury ; or if these funds had been properly mana« ged since the be^nning of the reign of Edward L supposing that there were then only two millions of kdxxierSy we might now have possessed above four million millions of laborers, or about four thousand times as many laborers as it has been calculated äiat there are people now on the &ce of the earth.
CHAPTER VII.
Of mcreasing fFealth as it affects the Condititm
of the Poor.
THE professed object of Dr. Smith's inqui* 17 is, the nature and causes of the wealth of na- tions. There is another however perhaps stiO more interesting, which he occasionally mixes with it, the causes that aflfect the happiness and comfort of the lower orders of societ)*, which in everj' na- tion form the most numeroits class. I am suffi- ciently aware of the near conncxion of these two subjfcts, and that generally speaking, the causes which contribute to increasc the wealth of a statc tend also to increasc the happiness of the lower classes of the people. But perhaps Dr. Smith has considered these two inquirics, as still more nearljr connected than they really are ; at least he has not stopped to take notice of those instances, where the wealth of a society may increasc according to his definition of wealth, without baving a proportional tendency to increasc the comforts of the laboring* part of it.
M
ESSAY ON, &?«?. 189
SB
Of incrcasing wealth as it affects, Is^c.
I do not mean to enter into any philosophiöal
^iscussion of what constitutes the proper happiness
man, but shall merely consider two universally
:nowledged ingredients, the command of the
mmecessaries and comforts of life, and the possession
of health.
The comforts of the laboring poor must neces- sarily depend upon the funds destined for the main- tenance of labor ; and will generally be in propor- .' tion to the rapidity of their increase, The demand } fijT labor, which such increase occasions, will of coorse raisc the valiie of labor ; and tili the addi- tional numbcr of hands required are reared, the in- creased funds will be ^liiptributed to the same num- ber of persons as before, and therefore every la- borer will live comparativel)i at his ease. The entjr of Dr. Smith lies in representing ever}' in- crcTse of the revenue or stock of a society, as a pro- portional increase of these funds. Such surplus stock or revenue will indeed always be considered bjr the individual possessing it, as an additional fimd finom which he may maintain more labor ; but widi regard to the whole country , it will not be an eftctual fund for the maintenance of an additional nomber of laborers, unless part of it be convertible ioto an additional quantity of provisions ; and it
190 ESSAY ON Book lU.
Of increaing wealth as it afTects
will not bc SO convertible where the increase has ariaen merely from the produce of labor, and not fix>m produce of the land. A distinction may in this case occur between the number of handi which the stock of the society could employ and the number which its territory can maintain.
Dr. Smith defines the wealth of a State to be the annual produce of its land and labor. This definition evidently includes manufactured pro- duce as well as the produce of the island. NonT supposing a nation for a course of years to add what it saved from its yearly revenue to its manu- &cturing capital solely, and not to its capital em- ployed upon land, it is evi^^ that it might grow richer according to the above definition, without a power ofsupi)ortinj| a greater numlDcrof laborc-rs, and therefore without any increase in the real funds for the maintenance of labor. There would not- withstanding be a demand for labor, from the ex- tension of manufacturing capital. This demand would of course raise the price of labor ; but if the yearly stock of provisions in the countrj- were not increasing, this rise would soon tum out to bc merely nominal, as the price of provisions musl necessarily rise with it The demand for manu- facturing laborers would probably entice somc
^ *.■»•»■
Ch^, ril. POPULATION. 191
thc Condition ofthc Poor.
Aom private service, and some even from agri-
culture ; but we will suppose any effccts of this
Idnd on agriculture to be compensated by improve-
moents in the instruments or mode of culture, and
€he quantity of provisions therefore to remain the
same. Iraprovements in manufacturing machine-
¥7 would of course take place ; and this circum-
stance, added to the greater number of hands em.
ployed in manufactures, would augment consider-
ably the annual produce of the labor of the country.
The wealth therefore of the country would be in-
creasing annually according to the definition, and
m^t not be increasing very slowly. '
1 I havc supposed here a case which, in a landed na* tkm« l allow to be very improbable in fact ; but approxl- Butions to it are perhaps not unTrequently taking place. Mf Intention is merely to show, that the funds for the naintenance of labor do not increase exactly in proportioti tothe increase in the prodnce of the land and labor of a country, but with the same increase of produce, may be nore or Icss favorable to the laborer, according as the iBcitase has arisen principally from agriculture or from BttDQfactures. On the supposition of a physical impos- sSbility of increasing the food of a country it is evident, tktt by improvements in machinery it might grow yearly ncher in the exchangeable value of its manufactured. produce, but the laborer though he might be better clothed and lodgedj could not be better fed.
■bitatär^..
192 ESSAY ON Book lU.
Of increasing irealth as it affects
The question is, how far wealth increasing in this way has a tendency to better the condition of the laboring poor. It is a self-evident proposition, that any general advance in the price of labor, the stock of provisions remaining the same, can odIj be a nominal advance, as it must shortly be follow- ed by a proportional rise in provisions. The in- crease in the price of labor which we have suppos- ed, would have no permanent eifect therefore in giving to the laboring poor a greater command over the necessaries of life. In this respect thcy would be nearly in the same State as before. In some otlier respects they would be in a worx State. ''A greater proportion of them would bc employed in manufacturcs, and a smaller propor- tion in agriculturc. And this cxchangc of profes- sions will be allowed, I think, by all to be very unfavorable to health, one esscntial ingredient of happiness, and to be further disadvantageous on account of the qreater uncertainty of manufactur- ing labor, arising from the capricious taste of man, the accidents of war, and othcr causes which oc- casionally produce very severe distress among the lowcr classes of society. On the State of the poor employed in manufactories, with respect to health and other circumstances which afTcct their happi-
Otap. FJL POPULATION. 19S
the Condition of the Poor.
ness, I will beg leave to quote a passage frora Dr.
Aikin's description of the country round Mcin-
chester.
" The invention and improvements of machines
*' to shorten labor have had a surprising influence •* to extend our trade, and also to call in hands " from all parts, especially children for the cotton " mills. It is the wise plan of providence, that in " this life there shall be no good without its at- " tendant inconvenience. There are many which " are too obvious in these cotton mills and similar " factories, which counteract that increase of po- "pulation usu^ly consequent on the improved " fecility of labor. In these, children of very ten- " der age are employed, many of thcm coUected " from the uorkhouses in London and Westmin- " ster, and transported in crowds as apprentices " to masters, resident many hundred miles distant, ** where they serve unknown, unprotected, and for- ** gotten by those to whose care nature or the laws * had consigned them. These children are usually ** too long confmed to work in close roonis, often " during the whole nig;ht. The air thcy breathe ** from the oil, &.c. employcd in the machinery, ** and other cir cumstances, is iiijurious ; little at- voL iL c c
U
194 £SSAY ON Büok lU,
Of increasing wealth as It aßccts
^^ tention is paid to tlicir cleanliness ; and frequcnt *^ ch^ges from a warm and deosc to a cold and " thin atmosphcre are prcdisposing causes to sick* ness and disabiliA', and particularly to the epide- noic fever which is so generally to be mct with '* in, thesi^ faptories. It is also much to be qiues- ^* tioiiedi if Society does not rcceivc detriment ^^ from the manncr in which children are thus em- *^ ployed during thcir early years. They are not gc- " ncrally strong to labor, or capablc of pursuing any other branch of business wlicn the tcrm of their apprenticeship expirqs. The females are wholly uninstructed in sowing, knitting» aiid " other domestic afFairs, rcquisite to make them ** notable and frugal wivcs and mothcrü. This is " a very great niislbrtunc to thcm and the public, '' as is sadly provcd by a comj)urison of the fami- ** lies of laborers in husbandr\. and thosc of ma- " nufacturers in genenil. In the fonner we meet *' with neatness, cleanliness, and comfort ; in the *' latter, with filth, rags, and jxnerty, although *' their u-ages may be nearly doul^k* to üiose of " the husbandman. It must be addcd üiat the " want ofcürly religious instnictiou and i xample, *^ and the numerous and indiscriniinatc asbociation
Omp. rn. POPULATION. 195
ttie Condition of the Poov.
" in these btiildings, are ver}^ unfavorable to their " ftiture conduct in life."*
In addition to the evils mentioned in this pas- sage, we all know how subject particular manufiic- ture^ are to fail, from the caprice of taste, or the accldent of i^^ar, The weavers of Spitalfields were plunged into the most severe distress by the fiishion of muslins instead of julks ; and numbcrs of the workmen in Sheffield and Bimuiigham were for a tinie thrown out of employmcnt, frotn the adoption of shoe-strings and covered buttons, in- stead of buckles and metal buttons. Our manu- bcturesy taken in the mass, have incruascd with great rapidity, but in particular places they have iatied, and the parishes where this has hapfx*ned alre invariably loaded with a crowd of poor in the
most distressed and miserable condition. In tho
•
work of Dr. Aikin just alludcd to, it appears that the register for the collcgiate church at Manches- ter, from Christmas 1793 to Christ nlas 1794,stat(.tl a decrcuse of 168 marriiigcs, 538 christcnings.
' Page 219. Endeavors have beew made, Dr.Aikin jays, to rtmedy these cvils, and in some factories the« !iavr bccn attended with succcss. An acl of parliam'-ut lias of latc also passed on this subject, from which it is hoped that much good will result.
196 ESSAY ON Book HI.
Of incrcasing wealth as it affects
and 250 burials. And in the parish of Rochdale in tlie neighborhood, a still more melancholy re- duction, in proportion to the number of people^ took place. In 1792 tlie births wcre 746, the burials 646, and the marriages 339. In 1794 the births were 373, the burials 671, and the marri- ages 199. The cause of this suddcn check to population was ihe commcncement of the war, and the failure of commercial credit, which occurred about this time ; and such a check could not have taken place in so sudden a manner, withöut bcing* occasioned by the most severe distress.
Under such circumstances of Situation, unless the increase of the riches of a countrj- from nia- nufactures give the lower classc's of the society^ on an average, a dceidedly greater command over the necessarics and eonvenicnces of life, ii will notappear that their condiilon is inijTovcd.
It will be Said perhaps, ihat ihe adv;;nce in thr pricc of provisions will immediately tum somc additionul capital into the Channel of agricukure,. and thus o<xasion a much greater produce. But from experience it appears, that this is an efiect which sometimes follows ver}* slouly, particularly if heavy taxes that affect agricultural industr}-^
Chap. VIL POPULATION. 197
the Condition of the Poor.
and an advance in the price of labor, had preceded the advance in the price of provisions,
It may also be said, that the additional capital of the nation would enablc it to import provisions sufficient for the maintenance of those w hom its stock could employ. A small country with a large navy, and great accommodations for inlaiid carnage, may indeed import and distribute an e&ctual quantit}»^ of provisions ; but in large landed nations, if they may be so called, an im- portation adequate at all times to the dcmand is scarcely possible.
It seems in great measurc to have escapcd attention, tliat a nation which, from its extent of territory and popuhrion, must necessarily siipport the greater part of its peoplc on the produce of its cwm soil, but which yet in average ycars draws a small portion of its com from abroad, is in a much more precarious Situation, with regard to the constancy of its supplies, than such statcs as diaw almost the whole of their provisions from other countries, The demands of Holland and Hamburgh may be known with considenible ac- curacy by those who supply them. If thcy in- crease, they increase gradually, and are not sub- jcct from year to year to any great and suddcn
198 ESSAY ON Book HL
Of increasrn^ wealth as it afiects
yariatioiis. But it is othenvisc with such a coQn- try as England. Supposing it, in avenigc years, tu want about four hundred thousand quarters of wheat. Such a demand will of coursc be vcrv easily snpplied. But a year of dcrficient crops oc- curs, and thc dcmanci is suddenly two millions of qiiarters. If thc demand had Ixrcn on an avcrage two millions, it might pcrhai>s havc bcen adequate- ly supplicd, from the extendcdagriculturcof thoae countries which are in the habit of exporting com : but we cannot expect that it can easily Ix* answer- cd thus suddenly ; and indeed \vc know from ex- perience that an unusual demand of this naturc^ in a nation aipable of paying for it, cannot ex Ist, without niising the price of w licat \ ery considcr- ably in all the ports of Eiiro{>c. Hamburg, Hol- land, and tlie jK)rtsof the Bahic, feit very sensibly the high priccs of England during the latc s^uircity ; and I have been informed from \ cn szdocI autho- rity, that the price of bread in New York was little inferior to the highcst price in London.
A nation possessed of a large territor)' is un- avoidably subjcct to this uncertainty in its means of subsistcnee, when the coinincrcial [lart of its populatiou is either equal to or has inercaserl beyond the surplus produee of its cultivators. No
Cbap. FIL POPULATION. 199
the CooditioD of the Poor.
resenre being in these cases left in exportation, the füll eflfect of every deficiency from unfiivorablc sG9ß0M must necessarily be feit ; and diough the richea of such a country niay enable it for a certain pmod to continue raising the nominal price of wages, so as to givc the Imver classes of the Socie- ty, a power of purchasing imported com at a high price ; yet, as a sudden demand can very seldom be fulty answered, the competition in the market will iavariabiy raise the price of provisions, in ftiU propartion to the advance in the price of labor ; the lower classes will be but little relieved ; and tbe dearth will operate severely throughout all the lanks of Society.
According to the natural order of things, years of scarcity must occasionally recur in all hinded nations. They ought idways therefore to enter in- ta our consideration ; and the prosperity of any country may justly be considered as precarious, in wUch the funds for the maintenance of labor arc liable to great and sudden fiuctuations from everj unfiivorable Variation in the seasons.
But putting, for the present, years of scarcity cmt of the question ; whcn the conimcrcial p()j)ula- tkn of any country increases so much beyond the sui|>his.produce of the culüvators, that the dcmund
200 ESSAY ON Book IL
Of increasing wealth as it afiecU
for imported com is not casily supplied, and tl price riscs in proportion to tlie price of wages, n furtlKT increase of riches will have any tendenc to give thc laborer a greater command over tt necessarics of life. In the progress of wealth th will naturally take place ; either from the largenc of the supply wanted ; the increased distance finoi which it is brought, and consequenüy thc incres ed cxpense of importation ; the greater consum] tion of it in the countries in which it is usuai purchased ; or what must unavoidably happen, tl neccssity of a greater distance of inland carriage these countries. Such a nation, by increasing i: dustr}', and increasing ingc-nuit)' in the improv mcnt of macliincry, may still ^ on increasing tl yearly c|uanlity of its manufacturcd producc ; b its funds for llic maintcnancc of lal)or, and cons quently its population will Ix! jxrrfcctly stiitionar This poiut is thc natural limit to thc population all comnicrcial statesJ In countries af a gre
' Sir Jiime^ Slcnart's Political r.conomy» »ol. i. b c. xviii p. 119. It is probable that Holland bcforc the Vülution \yv\ neaiiy rtMchf I ihis pnini, not so niuch ho cvcr fmin ibc «üTiculiy of oblainini; »norc foreij^ com, \ from thc vtry hcuvy laxes wbich wcrc im|>o5ed on t! finit ncccsüary of life. All thc grcat landcd nalions of £
CSk^. riL POPULATION. 201
the condition of the Poor.
distaiice firom this limity an eiFect approaching to
what has been here described will take place when-
cver the march of commerce and manufactures is
more rapid than that of agriculture. During the
last ten or twelve years it cannot be doubted, that
the annual produce of the land and latxx* of Eng-
Jand has very rapidly increased, and in conse-
-quence the nominal \vages of labor have gready in-
-cieased ; but the real recompense of the laborer,
^hough increased, has not increased in proportion.
That every increuse of tlie stock or rcvenue of
at nation cannot be considered as an increase of the
nal funds for the maintenance of labor, and there-
Skxt cannot have the same good effcct upon the
condition of the poor, will appear in a strong light
if the argument be applied to China.
Dr. Smith observes, that China has probably Wng been as rieh as the nature of her laws and bsätutions will admit ; but that, with other laws ^nd institutions, and if foreign commerce were lidd in honor she might still l)e much richer. The question is, would such an iucrcasc of wcalth be an increase of the real funds for the maintenance
ope are ccrtainly at a considerable distance from this point preseDt.
/• ii. d d
202 £SSAY ON ßm* lU.
Of increasing wealth as It affects
of labor, and consequently tend to place the lowcr classes of people in China in a ;state of greater plenty ?
If trade and foreign commerce were lidd in great honor in China, it is evident, that frtmi die great number of laborers, and the cheapness C3f labor, shc might work up manufactures for icMreign sale to an immense amount. It is equally evident, that from the great bulk of provisions, and the amaiu ing extent of her inland territory, ^ could nol in retuni import such a quantity as woukl be any sensible addition to the annual stock of suhsistmor in the country. Her immense amount of laaim* fectures therefore she would exchange chiefly for luxuries coliccted from all parts of the world* At present it api^ars that no labor wliatevcr is ^xuied in the production of food. The countr}* is rather overpeoplcd in proponion to wluit its stock caa employ, and kibor in therefore so abundant thal no pains are takcn to abridj^e it. Tlie consequencc of this is probably the greatcst pn)duclion of food that the soil caii possibly afford ; for it will be gc- nerally obscrved, tliat proccsses for abrid^ng agricultund labor, thoiigh they may ciiablc a farm- er to liring a ccrtain quantity of grain cheaper to market, tcnJ rather to diminish tlian inca'ase the wholc producc. An immense ca])ital could not
CÜ^. m, POPULATION. 203
the condition of the Poor.
be employed in China in preparing manufactures for Foreign trade, without taking off so many ia- bwers from agriculture, as to alter this State of diings, and in some degree, to diminish the pro- duce of the country. The demand for manufac* turing iaborers would naturally raise the price of hbor; but as the quantity of subsistence woiild not be increased, the price of provisions woukl kcep pace with it, or even more than keep pace wich k, if the quantity of provisions were really decreaising. The country would however be evi- dently advancing in wealth ; the excliangeable va- hie of the annual produce of its kind aixl labor would be annually augmented ; yct the real funds fbr the m^ntenance of labor would be stationary or even declining ; and consequently the increas- ing weahh of the nation would tend rather to de- press than to raise the condition of the poorJ
* The condition of the poor in China is, indeed, vcry mtimtblc at present ; but this is not owing to their waot of fiyreign commercey but to their extreme tendency to BUUTiAge and increase ; and if this tendency were to con- tiime the aame, the only way in which the introduction of a greater number of manufactures could possibly make the lowcr classes of people richer, would be by increasing the mortality amongst them^ which is certainly not a very öesirable mode of growing rieh.
204 ESSAY ON ßook IIL
Of increasing wealth fts it affects
With regard to the command ovcr the neccssaries of life tliey would be in die same or radier worse State than l^cFore ; and a great part of them would have exchanged the healthy labors of agriculture for the unhealthy occupations of manufacturin^ industiy.
The argumcnt perhaps appairs clearer when applied to China, because it is generally aHowed that its wealth has long been stationary, and hs
•
soil cultivated nearly to the utmost. With regard to any other country it might always bc a matter of dispute, at which of the two periods compared, wealth was increasing the fastest, as it is upoD the rapidity of the increase of wealth at any particular period, that Dr. Smith says, the condition of the jjoor depends. It is evident however, that two nations might increase exactiy with the same ra- pidity in the cxchangeable viiluc of the annual produce of their land and labor ; yet, if one had applied itself chiefly to agriculture, and the other chiefly to commerce, the funds for the niainte- nance of labor, and consequcntly the cffcct of the increase of wealth in ejich nation, would be ex- tremely different. In that which had applied itself chiefly to agriculture the poor would live in grcat- cr plenty, and population would rapidly increase.
Ck^ FIT. POPULATION. 205
the condition of Ihe Poor.
Inthatwhich had applied itself chiefly to com- merce the poor would be comparatively but little benefited, and consequently population would either be stationaiy or ihcrease veiy slowh'. ^
* The condition of the laboring poor, supposing their Mwts to remain the same, cannot be very essenlially im- pfwcd but by givinj^ them a greater command over the meins of subsistence. But any advantage of this kind inürt from its nature be temporary, and is therefore rcaUy of less valae to them than any permanent change in tbeir habits. But manufactures by inspiring a taste fercomforts^ tend to promotea favorable change in these Inbits, and in this way perhaps counterbalance all their &«d?antagea. The laboring classes of society in nations nereiy agricultural are generally on ihe whole poorer tlian in manufacturing nations, though less subject to tliose occasional variations which among manufacturers often produce the most severe distress. But the consi- derations which relate to a change of habits in the poor beloi^ more properly to a subsequent part of this work.
CHAPTER VlIL
Ofthe DefimHam of JFealth. Agricultural and
Commercial Systems.
THERK are none of the definitions of the wealth of a State that are not liable to some objcc- tions. If we take the gross produce of the land it is evident, diat the funds for the maintenance of hbor, the popuIation, and the weahh may increaac very rapidly, while the nation is apparently poor, and has ven^ little disposeable revennc. If wc take Dr. Smith's definition, wealth may increase, as has bcfore been shown, without tciulinff to in- crease the funds for the maintenance of lalx>r and the populatton. If we take the clcar surplus pro- duce of the land, according to the Economists, in this case the funds for the maintenance of labor and the population may increase, without an in- crease of w(ralth, as in the instance of tlie cultiva- tion of new bnds, which will p:iy a profit but not a rent ; and vice versa^ wealth may increasc with. out increasing the funds for die maintriuince ot
ESSAY ON, £?<?. 207
3x:
Of the definitions of wealth. Üc«
labor, and the population, as in the instance of improvements in agricultural Instruments, and in the mode of agriculture, which may make the Und yield the same produce, with fewer persons €mployed upon it ; and consequently the dispose- dbte wealth or revenue would be increased without a power of supporting a greater number of people. The objections however to the two last defini- tions do not prove that they are incorrect; but merely that an increase of wealdi, though generally, is not necessarily and invariably accompanied by WH increase of the funds for the maintenance of hbor, and consequently by the power of support- bg a greater number of i^eople, or of enabiing Ae former number to live in greater plentj' and Ittppiness.
Whichever of these two definitions is adopted
asdie best criterion of the wealth, ix)wer, and
fn)spmty of a State, the position of the Economists
will always remain tnie, ihat the surplus produce
of ibe cultivators is the great fund which ultimately
pajs aU those who are not employed upon die land.
Throughout the wholc world the number of ma-
nu&cturers, of proprietors, and of persons engaged
m the various civil and military professions, must
be exacdy proportioned to this surplus produce.
L
208 ESSAY ON Book
Ofthe definitions of wealth.
and cannot in the naturc of things increase bcy it. If the earth had becn so niggardly of produce as to oblige all her inhabitants to k for it, no manufacturers or idle [)ersons could < have existed. But her first intercourse with i was a voluntary present, not vcry large ind< but suflicient as a fund for his subsistence, tili the proper exercise of his faculties he could ] eure a greater. In proportion as the labcM* ingenuity of man exercised upon the land, li incrcased this surplus produce, leisure has b given to a greater nuniber of persons to emj themselves in all the inventions which embel civilized life. And though, in its turn, the de to profit In ihcsc inventions has greatly cor butcd to siiinulatc die cultivators to increase tl surplus produce ; yet the ordcr of prccedcno clearly the surplus produce; bccause the fu for the subsistencc of the manufacturcr must advanccd to him bcfore he can complcte his wo and if \ve were to imagine, that we could c< mand this surplus produce, whenevcr we wi it, !)y forcing manufactures, we should be quic admonishcd of our gross error, by the inadeqi support which iJie workman would reccive, spitc of ;iny v\^' that might takc i)lace in his
Chap. VUI. POPULATION. 209
A^ricuhui*al and commercial Systems.
minal wages. If in asserting the peculiar produc-
tiveness of labor employed upon land, we look
only to the clear monied rent yielded to a certain
mimber of proprietors, we undoubtedly consider
Ac subject in a very contracted point of view.
The quaatity of the siirplus produce of the culti-
vatCHS is indeed in part measured by this clear
Tttit, but its real value consists in its afibrding the
means of subsistenee, and the materials of cloath-
ii^ and lodging to a certain number of peopie,
•coonling to its extent, some of whom may live
Without manual exertions, and others employ
Aemselves in modifying the raw materials of
natiire into the forms best suited to the gratifica-
tionofman.
A clear monied revenue, arising from manu-
Bictures, of the same extent, and to the same
number of individuals^ woiild by no means be
accompanied by the same circumstances. It would
tfarow the countrv in which it existed into an ab-
solate dependance for food and materials on the
sorplus produce of other nations, and if this fo-
reign supply were by any accident to fail, the re-
▼enue would immediately cease.
The skill to modify the raw materials produced from the land would be absolutely of no value, tW. ii. e e
210 ESSAY ON Book lU.
Of the deBnitions of wealth*
aiid thc indivicluals possessing it wonld immedi« ately pcrish, if diese mw materials, and the food necessiiry to support those who are working them up could not be obtained ; but if the materiib and the food were secure, it would be easy to find thc skiil sufEcient to render them of considerabk value.
According to the System of the Economisli» maniifactures are an objeet on which revenue ii spcnt, and not any part of the revenue itself. • Bat though from this description of manu&ctures, ind the epithet sterile sometimes applied to tbem, they seem rather to be degraded by the terms of the Economibts, it is a very grcat error to suppose
■ Kvcn upon this systcin ihere is onc point of vicw in which maniifactures appcar (>;rcatly to add to the riclict of a State. The use of a revenue, according to the £co- nomists, is to be spent ; and a great part of it will of coune be spent in manufactures. But if by the judicious ein« ployment of manufacturing capital« these commoditict grow considerably cheaper, the surplus produce becomes proportionably of so much greater value« and the real revc.iue of the nation is virtually increased. If this view of 'he siibject donot, in the eyes of the Economists, com- plc'tcly justify Dr. Smith in calling manufacturing labor prjductivr^ in thc strict sense of that tcrm, it must fuUf Warrant -AI thc pains he has taken in explaining the na* ture and eHccts of commcrcial capital» and of the di%*itioii of manufacturing labor.
Chap, rUI. POPULATION. 211
3BSB
Agricultural and commercial Systems.
thattheir system is really unfavorable to them. On the contrary, I am disposed to believe, that it is die only System by which commerce and manu« Actures can prevail to a ver}' great extent, without Irii^ing with them at the same time the seeds of tiieir own ruin. Before the late revolution in Holland, the high price of the nccessaries of life \aA destroyed many of its manufactures. ' Mo- Qopolies are always subject to be broken; and cven the advantage of capital and machinery, wiuch may yield extraordinary profits for a time, is table to be gready lessened by the competition of odicr nations. In the histor}' of the world, the ntions whose wealth has been derived principally Gnom manu&ctures and commerce, have been per- fecta ephemeral beings, compared with those, die basb of whose weahh has been agriculture. It is in the nature of things tliat a State which sub- sisCs lipon a revenue fiimished by other countries, Bmst be infinitely more exposed to all the acci- of time and chance, than one which pro- \ its own.
No error is more frequent than that of mistaking cfixts fbr causes. We are so blinded by the
• Smith*s Wealth of Nations, vol. iii. b. v. c. ii. p. 392.
212 ESSAY ON Book III.
Of the definitions of wealth.
showincss of commerce and manufacturcs, as to believe, that they are almost the sole cause of üic wealth, power, and prosperity of England. But pcrhaps they may be more justly considered as the consequences than the cause of this wealth. Ac* cording to the definition of the Economists, which considers only the produce of land, England is the richest countr}' in Europe in proportion to her sizc Her System of agriculture is beyond comparisoo better, and consequently her surplus produce » more considerable. France is verj- greatly supe- rior to England in extent of territory and popubu tion ; but when the surplus produce, or disposca- ble revenuc of the two nations are compared, the supcriorit)' of France almost vanishes. And it is this great suq^lus produce in England, arising from her agriculture, which cnabics her to support such a vast bocly of manufacturtrs, such formida- ble fleets and armics, such a crowd of pcrsons en- gaged in the liberal professions, and a proportion of the Society living on moncy rcnts very far be- yond what has cver bcen known in any other coun- try of the* world, According to the rctums lately made of the population of England and Wales, it appears tliat the numbcr of persons employed in agriculture is considerably less then a fifth part of
Chap. VllL POPULATION. 213
Agricultural and comniercial Systems.
the whole. There is reason to believe that the clas- «fications in these retums are incorrect ; but mak- iDg ven' great ailowauces for crrors of tliis nature, it can scarcely admit of a doubt that the number of persons employed in agriculture is very unusually small in proportion to the actual produce. Of lata years indeed the part of the society, not connected with agriculture has unfortunately incrcased be- yond this produce ; but the average importation <rf com, as yct, bears but a small proportion to that which b grown in the countrj', and consequently Ac power which England possesses of supporting sovast a body of idle consumers must be attributed principally to the greatness of her surplus produce. It will Ijc said that it was her commerce and manufactures which encouraged her cultivators to obtsdn this grcat surplus produce, and therefore indirectly, if not directly, created it. That com- merce and manufactures produce this effect in a great degree is true ; but that they sometimes pro- duce a contrary effect when carried to excess, is equally true. Undoubtedly agriculture cannot flouri^ without a vent for its commodities, citlier at home or abroad ; but when this want has been adequately supplied, the intcrcsts of agriculture demand nothing more. When too grcat a part of
214 ESSAY ON Book Ul.
Or the deiinitions of wealth«
a nation is engaged in commerce and manuiactureSy it is a clear proof that, either from undue encou* ragcment, or from other particular causes, a ciq)i- tal is employed in tliis way to much greatcr ad« vantage than in domestic agriculture ; and under such circumstanceS) it is impossible that the land should not be robbcd of much of the capital which wotilcl naturally have fallen to its sliare. Dr. Smith jusily observcsy that the navigation act, and the monoply of the colony trade, necessarily. forced into a particular und not vcry advantageous chm* nel» a greatcr proportion of the capital of Grcat Britain than would otherwise have gone to it ; and by thus taking capital from othcr emplo}TnentS9 and at the samc time universally raising the rate of British mcrcantile profit, discouraged the improve*
mcnt of the land. * If the improvemcnt of land,
*
he goes on to say, aifords a greater capital than wliat can be drawn from an equal capital in any mcrcantile employment, the land will draw capital from mcrcantile cmploymcnts. If the profit bc Icss, mcrcantile employments will draw capital from the improvemcnt of land. The monopoly therc» fort, by raising the rate of British mcrcantile pro-
* Wealth of Nationi) vol. ii. b« iv« c. tu. p« 435.
Chap. rill. POPULATION. 215
Agricultural and coramercial Systems«
fit, and thus discouraging agricultural improve- nent, has necessarily retarded the natural increase of a great original source of revcnue, the rent of
The East and West Indies are indeed so great an object, and afford employment with high pro- fits, to so great a capital, that it is impossible that Acjr should not draw capital from other employ- ments, and particularly from the cukivation of the »il, the profits upon vvhich in general are very tvuüL
All corporations, patents, and exclusive Privi- leges of every kind, which abound so much in 4e mercantile system, have in proportion to their cxtent the same efFect. And the experience of the last twenty years seems to Warrant us in con- chidmg, that the high price of provisions^arising from the abundance of commercial wealth, ac- companied as it has been by very great variations, nid by a great rise in the price of labor, does not #perate as an encouragement to agriculture suffi- cient to make it keep pace with the rapid strides tf commerce.
It will be said perhaps, that land is always im*
* W«alth of Kations^ vol. ii. b« iv. c. viu p. 436.
216 ESSAY ON Book 111.
Of thc definitions ofwealth.
proved by the redutidancy of commercial capitaL But tliis cfTect is late and slow, and in the nature of things cannot operate powerfiilly , tili this capi- tal is rcally redundant, which it ncvcr is, while thc intcrest of money and the profits of mercantile stock are high. We cannot look forwards to any considerable efFect of this kind tili thc intcrest of money shiks to 3 per cent. Whcn mcn can gti 5 or 6 per cent. for their money, without any troubtc« they will hardly venture a capitiil upon land, where» including risks, and the profits up<3n their owa labor and attendance, they may not get much more. Wars and loans, as far as internal circum* stances are concerned, impede but little the pro* gress of thosc branchcs of commerce whcre thc profits of stock are high ; but affect very consider* ably thc incrcase of that more essential and per- mancnt source of wcalth, thc improvemcnt of the land. It is in this point, I am inclined to bclieve, that the national debt of England has bc*en most injurious to her. By absorbing the rcdundancy of commercial capital, and kccping uj) ihc rate of intcrest, it has prcvented this capital from over- flowing upon thc soil. And a large mortgagc'
> Thc prmcipal error of the Frcnch Economistt appears
CÄ^. rni. POPULATION. 5217
Agricultural and commercial Systems.
thus been established on the lands of England, interest of which is drawn from the payment o^ productive labor, and dedicated to the support idle consumers.
tD l)e on the subject of taxatlon. Admitting that the
MiTplos produce of the land is the fund which pays eveiy
thing besides the food of the cultivators ; yet it seems to
be a mistake to suppose that the owners of land are the
•ole proprietors of this surplus produce* It appears to
mey that erery man who has realized a capital in money
bis Tiitually a mortgage on the land for a certain portion
of the surplus produce ; and as long as the conditions of
Ulis mortgage remajn unaltered, (and the taxes which
licet bim only in the character of a consumer, do not
idter these conditions) the mortgagee pays a tax in the
ttme manner as the land holder, finally. As consumers
indtcd it cannotbe doubted, that even those who live upon
the Profits of stock and the wages of labor, particularly of
pf^ofetsional labor, pay some taxes on necessaries for a
▼My considerable time, and many on luxuries permanent-
I7;becau9e the consumption of individuals who possess
iwgc shares of the wcalth which is paid in profits and
•8g«8,may be curtailed and tumed into another Channel,
witbout impeding, in any degree, the continuance of the
■anc quantity of stock, er the production of the same
qnantity of labor.
The real surplus produce of this country, or all the produce not actually consumed by the cultivators, is a vcry diffcrent thing, and should carefully be ^islinguished from the sum of the iiet rents of the landlords. This sum, ii is supposed, does not much exceed a fifth part of
voU ii. f f
218 ESSAY ON Book UL
Of the definitions of wealth.
It must be allowed thcreforc, lipon the whoie, tliat our commerce has not donc so much for cur agricukure as our agriculture has for our com- merce ; and th;ilt the improvcd system of cultiva*
th€ gross produce* The reinainiDg four fifths is cerlminly not consumed hj the laborers and horses employed in agriculture ; but a vcry considerabfo portion of it is paid by the fanner in tithes, in taxes, in the instmiueDls oC agriculture, and in the manufactures used in bis own &• xnily« and in the families of bis laborers« It ia in thia manner that a kind of mortgage is ultimately established on the land, by tax es, and the progress of commerctal wealth ; and in this sense, all taxes may be satd to fiUI wholly upon the Und, though not whoUy on the Und» holders. It secms a little hard therefore, in taxing sur* plus produce» to make the landlords pay for what they do not rcccive« At the same timc it must be confesscdt that indcpcndently of thcse considerations which makea a land tax partial, it is the best of all taxes, as it is the only one which does not tcnd to raisc the price of com* moditics. Taxes on consumption by which alone monied revcnues can be reached, without an incomc tax, ncces- sarily ruisc all prices to a degree greatly injurious to a country«
A land tax, or tax upon not rent, has little or no cflTect in di&couraging the improvement of land, as many have supposed. It is only a tithc, or a tax, in proporiion to the gross produce which dots this. No man in bis scnses will bc dctertrd from gctting a clcar pruBt of 20]. instead of 101. because he is always tu puy a fuurtli or filth of bis < Icar gains ; but whcn he is to pay a tax in proi)ortion to bis gross produce, which In the casc of capital laid out
Otap. rill. POPULATION. 219
Ag^icultural and commercial Systems.
ticHi which has taken place, in spite of consider- able discouragements, creates yearly a surplus produce, which enables the country , with but little assistance, to support so vast a body of pcople engaged in pursuits unconnected with the laiid.
in improvements is scarccly cver accompanied with a proportional increase of his clear gains, it is a very diffcr- ent thingy and niust necessarily impedc, in a g;rcat de* gree» the progress of cultivation« I am astonished, that so obvious and easy a commutation for tithes as a land tax cm improved rents has not been adopted. Such a tax vonld be paid by the same persons as before» only in a l>ctter form \ and the change would not be feit, cxcept in die adrantage that vould accrue to all the parties concem- ed» the iandlord, the tenant, and the clergyman. Tithes undoubtedly operate as a high bounty on pasture» and a great discouragement to tillage, which in the prcsent pecaliar circumstances of the country is a vcry gica' ^isidvantage»
\.
CHAPTER IX.
Different Effects oft he AgricuUural and Commerz
dal Systems.
ABOUT the middle of the last Century wc were genuinely, and in the strict sense of tbe Economists, an agricultural nation. Our com- merce and manufactures were however then in a veiy respectable and thriving State; and if thcy nad contip.Mcd to bear the same relative proportion to our agriculture, they would evidently liave gonc on iiicreasing considcrably, with the improving cultivation of the countr}-. Thcre is no apparent limit to the quantity of manufactures which might in time be supported in this way, The increasing wealth of a country in such a State sccms to bc out of the reach of all common accidcnts. TTierc is no discoverablc germ of decay in the System ; and in theory there is no reason to say that it might not go on increasing in wealth and prospc^ rity for thousands of years. Wc have now however stepped out of the agri»
ESSAY ON, fc?c. 221
Different efTects of thcy tsfc.
ultural System, into a State in which the commer- system clearly predomiiiates ; and there is but «0 much reason to fear that even our commerce manu&ctures will ultimately feel the disad- of the cliange. It has bcen already ob- ed that we are exactly in the Situation in hich a country feels most fully the effect of those ^3inmon years of deficient crops, which in the »"Ä^tural course of things are to be expccted. The c^^Dinpetition of increasing commercial weahh, opc-
upon a supply of corn not increasing in the
■
Proportion, must at all timcs tcnd to raisc
nominal price of labor ; but when scar<:e years
taken into the consideration, its eftlcl in tliis
must ultimately bc very grcat. Du ring the
late scarcities the p/ice of labor has been continu-
ally rising, and it will not readily fall again. lu
cvery country there will be many caiiscs, which,
in practice, operating like friction in mechanic\?,
prevent the price of labor from rising and falliiig
exactly in proportion to the price of its compo-
nent parts. But besides tliese causes, there is
onc very powerful cause in theor)-, which operjtrs
10 prevent the price of labor from falling when
once it has been raised. Supposing it to be riii ^
edby a temporary cause, such as a scarcity of pro-
222 ESSAY OS Book HI.
Different effects of the
visions, it is evident tliat it will not fall again, un- less some kind of stagiuition take place in the com- Petition among the purchasers of labor; but the power which the increase of the real price of labor, on the retum of plenty, gives to the laborer of purchasing a greater quantity both of rüde and manulactured produce, tends to prevcnt this Stag- nation, and strongly to coiinteract that £01 in the price which would otherwise take place.
Labor is a commodity the price of which will not be so rcadily afiected by the price of its com- ponent parts as any other. The reason why the consumer pays a tax on any commodi^', or ao advance in the price of any of its component parts» isy because if he cannot or will not pay this ad- vance of price, ihc commodity will not bc pro- diiced in tl>c same quantity, and the ncxt year thcrc will bc only such a proj>ortiün in the mar- ket as is accommodated to the number of i)ersons that will consent to pay the advance. But in the case of labor, the Operation of withdrawing the commodity is much slower and morc painful. Although the piu'chasers refusc to pay the advan- ccd price, the same supply will necessarily rcmain in the market, not only tlie ncxt year, but for some years to comc. Conscquently, if no incrcase take
<:hap. IX. POPULATION. 223
agricultural and commercial Systems.
place in the demand, and the tax or advance in tbe price of provisions be not so great as to make it immediately obvious that the laborer connot support his &niily, it is probable, that he will coQtinue to pay this advance, tili a relaxation in the rate of the incrcase of population causes the market to be under supplied with labor, and then of course the competition among the purchasers will raise the price above the proportion of the ad- vance, in Order to restore the necessar}^ supply. In the same manner, if an advance in the price of labor take place during two or tliree years of scar- dty, it b probable that on the retum of plent}% ^ red recompense of labor will continue higher Üian the usual average, tili a too rapid increase of population causes a competition among the labor- ^ and a consequent diminution of the price of labor below the usual rate.
When a country in average years grows morc com than it consumes, and is in the habit of ex- poiting a psMt of it, thosc great variations of price which from the competition of commercial wealdi often produce lasting effects, cannot occur to the same extent, The wages of labor can never rise ^vry nmch abovc the common price in othci*
224 ESSAY ON BookJU,
Different efTects of the
commercial countries; and under such circum- stances, England would have nothing to fear from the füllest and most open competition. The in- crcasing prospcrity of other countries would onljr open to her a more extensive market for her com- modities, and give additionai ^irit to all her com- mercial transactions.
The high price of com and of rüde produce in p;encral, as far as it is occasioned by the frcest competition among the nations of Europe, is a vcry great advantage, and is the best possible cn- couragement to agriculture ; but when occasioned merely by the competition of monied %vealth at liomc, its cffect is different. In the one case, a ^rrc:\t cncourr/^^cment is givcn to production in ge- nri\il, w.v\ the morv is prochiccd the better. In \\\r fu!v-r casc, the pnxlucc Is ncccssarily confined ■ f) ih'- !i )inc consumption. The cuhivators are ius-Iy i-Vaid of t^rowing too much com, as a con- '.i ^ »:';! loss will be sustaincd ui)on that part of i: \'. M' '. is s(»l(l iihroad; and a glut in the homc !iia:l .: \.ill imiversally makc the price fall l»cln\v *i:K' i.iir aiul proper reeonipeiisc to the growcr. It is imnohsihli liiat a eountry imder bueh cireiini- s:;»nces should not be >>uujcct to gixat and IVi;. unt \ ariations in the price of eurn.
Chap. IX. POPULATION. 225
Agricultural and commercial Systems«
If we were to endeavor to lower the price of l^bor by encouraging the importation of fbreign com, we should probably aggravate the evil ten- fold« Experience Warrants us in saying, that the &!! in the price of labor would be slow and un- certain ; but the decline of our agriculture would be certain. The British grower of com could not, in hb own markets, stand tiie competition of the foreign grower, in average years. Arable lands of a moderate quality would hardly pay the ex- pcnse of cultivation. Rieh soils alone would yield a rent. Rouiid all our towns the appearances iwmld bc the same as usual ; but in the interior of the country, much of the land would be neglected, and almost universally, where it was practicable, pasture would take place of tillage. This State of things would continue, tili the equilibrium was restored, either by the fall of British rent and wages, or an advance in the price of foreign com, or, what is mwe probable, by die union of both causes. But a period would have elapsed of con- iiderable relative encouragement to manufactures, aod relative discouragemcnt to agriculture. A certain portion of capital would be taken from the land, and when the equilibrium was at length res- tored, the nation would probably be found depen. iW. ii. g g
\
226 ESSAY ON Book III.
Different effecto of the
dent upon forcign supplies for a great portion of her subsistence ; and unless some i>articular cause were to occasion a Foreign demand greater than the home demand, her independence in this res- pcct, could not be rccovered. During this period even her commerce and manufactures would be in a most precarious State ; and circumstances by no means improbable in the present State of £u* rope might rediice her population within the li- mits of her reduced culüvaüon.*
In the natural course of things a country which depends for a considerable part of its supply of coro upon its poorer neighbors, may expect to see this
> Though it be tnie that the high price of labor or taxes on agricultural capital ultimately fall on the rent« yet we must by no means throw out of our consideration the current leases. In the course of twenty years^ I am inclined to believe» that the State of agriculture in any country might be very flourishing, or vcry much the re- versc, according as the current leases had tended to en* courdge or discourage improvement. A general fall in the rent of land would be preceded by a period most un« favorable to the Investment of agricultural capital ; and consequently cvery lax which affects agricultural capital is peculiarly pemicious. Taxes which affcct capitals in trade are almost immediately shifted ofTon the consumer ; but Uxes which affect agricultural capital fall, during the ' iirrent leases. whollv on the farmcr.
Chip. IX, POPULATION. 227
Ag^ricultural and commercial Systems.
- supply gradually diminbh, as these countries in- crease in riches and population, and have less sur- plus of their rüde produce to spare.
The pditical relations of such a country may iexpose it, during a war, to have diat part of its supplies of provisions which it dcrives from fo- reign states suddenly stopped, or greatly dimin- ishcd ; an event which could not take place with* out producing the most calamitous eßccts.
A nation in which commercial wealth predomi- nates has an abundance of all those articles which form the principal consumption of the rieh, but is exposed to be straightened in its supplies of that article, which is absolutely necessar)' to all, and in which by £ir the greatest portion of the revenue of tbe industrious classes is expended.
A nation in which agricultural wealth predomi- nates, though it may not produce at home such a surjdus of luxuries and conveniences as the com- onercial nation, and may therefore be exposed pos- siAj to some want of these commodities, has, on the other hand, a surplus of that article which is .cssential to the well being of the whole State, and ia therefore secure firom want in what is of the greatest importance. And if we cannot be so sure of the supply of
228 ESSAY ON Book UI.
DifTerent efTects of the
what we derive from others, as of what we pro- cluce at homCy it seems to be an advantageous po- lier in a nation, whosc territory will allow of it, to secure a surplus of that eommodit}^ a deficiencj of which would strike most deeply at its happiness and prosperity.
It has been almost universally aeknowledged, that there is no braneh of trade more profitable to a country, even in a commercial point of view, than the sale of rüde producc. In general its va- lue bears a much greater proportion to the ex- pensc incurred in procuring it, than that of anjr other commodity whatever, and the national pro» fit on its sale is in conseqiicnce greater. This is oftcn noticed by Dr. Smith ; but in combating the argiimcnts of the Economists, hc sccms for a mo- mcnt to forgct it and to spcak of the superior ad- vantage of exporting manufacturcs.
He observes, that a trading and manufacturing countr}' exports what can subsist and accommo- date but vcrj- few, and Imports the subsistencc and accommodation of a great number. The other exports the subsistence and accommodation of a great number, and imports that of a verj' few only. The inhabitants of the one miist always en- joy a much greater quantity of subsistence than
Ch^. /X POPULATION. 229
Agricultural and commercial Systems.
ivhat their own lands im the actual State of their cultivation could afford. The inhabitants of the other mustalways enjoy a much smaller quantity.^ In this passage he does not seem to argue with bis usual accuracy. Though the manufacturing nation may export a commodity which, in its ac- tual shape, can only subsist and accommodate a very few ; yet it must be recollected, that in order to prepare this commodity for exportation, a con- siderable part of the revenue of the country had been employed in subsisting and accommodating a great number of workmen. And with regard to die subsistence and accommodation vvhich the other nation exports, whether it be of a great or a small number, it is certainlv no raore than suflS- cient to replace the subsistence that had been con- sumed in the manufacturing nation, togcther witli the profits of the master manufacturer and mer- chant, which, probably, are not so great as the profits of the farmer and the merchant in the agri- cultural nation. And though it may be true that die inhabitants of tlie manufacturing nation enjoy a greater quantity of subsistence than what their own lands in the actual State of their cultivation
^ Wealth of Nations, vol. iii* b. iv. ۥ ix. p. 97.
230 ESSAY ON Book 11 J-
Different efiecU of the
could aflbrd ; yet an inference in favor of the ma nufacturiiig System by no means fbllows, the adopt:on of the one or the other System itiake the greatest difference in their actual of cultivation. If during the course of a Century two landed nations were to pursue these two dif* ferent Systems, that is, if one of tliem wcrc regu- ]ar!y to export manufactures, and tmport subsis- tence ; and the other to export subsistence, and imix)rt manufactures, there would be no compari- SCHI at the end of the period between t}ie State of cultivacion in the two countries ; and no doubt could rationally be entertained that the countiy which exported its raw produce, would be ablc to subsibt and accommodate a much grcater po(>ula- tion tlian the other.
In the ordinary course of things, the expoita- tion of com is sufficienüy profitable to the iudivi- duals concenied in it. But with regard to national advantage, there arc four very strong reasons why it is to be preferred to any other kind of export. In the first place, com pays from its own funds the expenses of procuring it, and the whole of what is sold is a[clcar national profit. If I set up a new manufacturc, the persons cmployed in it must be supported out of the funds of subsistence al-
Ch^.IX. POPULATION 231
Agricultural and commercial Systems,
ready existing in the country, the value of which must be dcducted Irom the price for which the commodity is sold, before we can estimate the dear national profit. But if I cultivate fresh land, or employ more men in the improvement of what was before cultivated, I increase the general funds of sabsistence in the country. With a part of this increase I support all the additional persons cmployed, and the whole of the remainder wliich is cxported and sold is a clear national gain ; be- sides the advantage to the countr)-, of supporting an additional popuIation equal to the additional number of persons so employed, without tlie süght- est tendoicy to diminish the plcnty of the rest.
Secondly, in all wrought commodities, the samc quantity of capital, skill, and labor^ employed, will produce the same or very nearly the same quanti- ty (rf complete manufacture. But owing to the variations of the seasons, the same quantity of ca- pital, skill, and labor in husbandry may produce in diferent years very different quantities of corn. Consequently, if the two commodities wcre equal- ty valuable to man, from the greatcr probabiliiy of tlie occasional failure of com than of nianufactures, it would be of morc consequence to have an avc- rage surplus of the fornier than of the hitter.
232 ESSAY ON Book UZ
DifTerent efTects of the
Thirdly, com being an articlc of the most abso«^ lute necessity, in com[)arison with which all othersa will be sacrificed, a deiiciency of it must necessa- rily produce a much greater advance of price than ^a deficiency of any other kind of produce; and as the price of com influences the price of so manj other commodities, die evil cffects of a deficiency will not only bc more severe and more general, but more lasting, than die eficcts of a deficiency in any other commodity.
Fourthly, there appear to be but three ways of rcndering the supplies of com in a particular coun* tr)' more equable, and ofprcventing the evil efiects of thosc dcficiences from unfavorable seasons, which in the natural coursc of things must be cx- jKctcd occasionally to rccur. These arc, 1. An immcdiatc supply from foreign nations, as soon as the scarcity occurs. 2. Largc public gnuiaries, 3. The liabitual growth of a quantity ofcom fora more extcnded market Uian the avcragc home consumption aSbrds. Of tlic first, cxpcricncc has convinccd us Uiat the suddenncss of the dcmand prcvcnts it from Ix^ing effectual. To the second it is acknowlcdged by ;ill, tliat thesc are vcrv grcat and weighty objcitioiis. Tlicre rcmains Uicn on- Iv the third.
Chap. IX. POPULATIOK. 233
AgricttltU^ and cofAAiefcHil Systems*
These Considerations seem to make it a point of ^ tiie flrst conseqaence to the happiness and permä- öent pfosperity of any country, to be able to carry oti tht äxpott trade of com as one consideraUö braneh of its commercial transactions.
But hovv to give this ability^ how to tum a Da-^
tkm froni the habit of importing com to the habk
dt expörting it, is the great difficulty. It ha^
been generally acknowledged, and b frequently
toticed by Dr. Smith, that the poHcy of modern
Eirfop^ häs led it to encourage tlie indu<stry of th^
towns more than the industry of the country, or,
fa other words, trade more than agriculture. la
Aus pollcy, England lias certainly not been be-
hind the rest of Europe ; perhaps indeed, except
in oft6 tnstance,* it may be said Ihat she has been
fte foremost. If things had been left to take their
tttttifäl course, there is nö reason to think, that the
tommercial part of the socictj'^ would have itN
creased beyond the surplus produce of the cuiti-
vators; but the high profits of commerce from
monopolies, and other peculiar encouragements^
have altered this natural course of things : and the
hoäj politic is in an artificial, and in some degree
' Thcbounty on the exportation of com. voi lu h h
2S4 ESSAY ON, öfcr.
Difiereat cffccts of the, e^r«
diseased State, with ODe of its principal memhers^ out of Proportion to the rest« Almost all medi«' eine is in itself bad ; and one of the great evils oT* illness h the necessiQr of taking it« Ko person caa ivell be more averse to medicine in the animal cconomyi or a system of expedients in political economy, than myself ; but in the present State of the countiy something of the kind may be necesaa* ry to prevent greater evils« It is a matter of very little comparative importance, whether we aie fuUy supplied with broadcloth, linens, and muslins^ oreven with tea, sugar, and coffee ; and no rational pditician therefore would think of proposing a bounty upcm such commodities. But it is oer* tainly a matter of the very highest importance, whether we are fuUy supplied with food ; and if a bounty would produce such a supply, the most liberal political economist might be justified in pro- posing it ; considering food as a commodity distinct fiom all 9therSy and pre-eminently valuable.
CHAPTER X.
OfBcunties on the Exportation of Cara.
IN discnsshig the policy of a bounty on the exportation of c(nii, it should be premised, that die private ipterests of the fkrmers and proprietors ahoold never enter in the question. The sole ob- jcGt of our consideratioo ought to be the penna- rat interest of the consumer, in the character of which is comprehended the whole nation.
AcooitLing to the general principles of political coonomy, it cannot be doubted^ that it is fcx* the imeresl oC the civilized workl that each nation dKNild purchase its conunodities wherever they caabe had the cheapest.
Accordingtotheseprinc^IeSy itisrather desi» rable that some obstacles should exist to the ex« cessive accumulation of wealth in any particular CQuntiy, and that rieh nations should be tempted to purchase their com of poorer nations, as by diese means the wealth of the civilized worid will not only be xnxxe rapidiy increased, but more equably diffused.
236
ESSAY ON Jtoak ILt-
C)f bounties on the exportation of com.
— . « — » M
It is evident, however, that local uiterests political rclatioi.s may modify the appUcatii» — ^ of .hese gcntral principles ; J»nd in a couiitr;^ \vith a territory fit for the production of com, ai independent, and at tl\e ianie time a more equal su|»ply of this necessary of life, may be an objec pf such importance a3 to Warrant a deviation
tjK'm.
It is undoubtedly tnie, that every thing wil ultimutely find its level, but this level is somc- times effected in a very harsh manner, En| may export com a hundrcd years hcnce without^" ^ the assistance of a bounty ; but this is mach na likely to liappen from the destniction of her ma nufcicturcs, than from the increasc of her agricul iure ; and a policy which, in so important a point, may tend to soften the harsh corrections of gene- ml laws, seems to be justifiable.
The reguLuions resjx'ctinjij importation and ex- portation adofUcd in the com laws that \^*erc csta- bÜshcd in 1688 and 1700, scemed to have the ef- fect of jjfiving ihat encouragcmcnt to agrieulture, which it so niucii wantcd, aud the appareiU result was gradiKiUy to |)roduce a j;r<iwih of com in thw couMtn- coiisicleriblv ahove the wants ff the' ariiKtt population, to lower the avcrat^; priee c»f it, and
Chap.X. POPULATION. «37
■^mii
Of bonnties on the exportation of coHii
give a steadiness tQ prices that hnd never been cxperienced before.
Puring the seventeenth centuiy, and indeed the ivhole period of our history previous to it, the prices <^ wheat were subject to great fluctuations^ and the average price was very high. For fifty years before the year 1700, the average price of wheat per quarter was 31. lld. and before 1650 it was 61« 8s. lOd. ^ From the time of the com« pletion of the com laws m 1700 and 1706, the prices became extraordinariiy steady; and the average price for forty years previous to the year 1750, sunk so low as IL 16s. per quarter. This was the period of our greatest exportations. In tbe year 1757, the laws were suspended, and in the jrear 1773 they were totally altered. The ex- ports oi com liave since been regularly decreasing, and the iroports incrcasing. The average price of ivfaeat for the forty years ending in 1800, was % 9s. 5d. ; and for the last five years of this po». nod, 3L 6s. 6d. During this last term, the balance of the imports of all sorts of grain is cstiinatcd at 2,938,357,* and the dreadful fluctuations of price
• Dirom's Inquiry into ihe Corn Laws, Appendix, No. I.
* Anderson's Investi«j:ai'ionof the Circum^tanccsNv hieb Icd to Scarcily* Table, p. 40.
ESSAY ON Book ///*
Ofboimtiev on the exportation of com*
wlücb fasive occurred of latc years, we are but wen acqnainted with.
It is at an times dangerous to be hasty in Aimr lug generai inierences from partial experience txit, iD the present instance, the period that been consideted is of so considerable an extent, and the changes from fluctuating and high prices ta steady and low prices, with a retum to ftuctuat» ingand high prices ag^n, correspond soaccuratdjF with the establishmcnt and füll vtgor of the com iaws, and with thcir subsequent akenitions and inefficacy, that it was certainly rather a bold asser* tion i» Dn Smith to say, that the faM in the price of com miist have happcned in spite of the bounty; and coutcl noi possibly have happcned in conse- quencc of Lu* Wc have a riglu to expect that hc blioukl dcfend a position so contrar}- to all apparcnC experience, bj" the raost powerful arguments. As In ihe present State of this country, the subject bcems to be of the highest importance, it will bc Wortli while to examine the validity of these argu. ments.
He olxiervcs, tluit both in ycars of plcnty, anj in years of scarcity, the bounty ncccbbarily tcnds
• Wcaltb €f Nations, vol. ii> b. iv. c. v. p, 264.
CkafhX, POPULATION. 23f
IUI II I s=B— ae
Of bonnties on the exportation of com.
to raise the money price of com somewhat higher
<han It otherwise would be in the home market^
That it does so in years of plenty is undaubted-
ly true ; but thaC it does so in years of scarcity ap«
pears to me as undoubtedly fake. The only ar«
^ument by which Dr. Smith supports tfais latter
posiüon is, by saying that the exportation prevents
iSbc plenty of one year froin relieving the scarcity
of another. But this is certainly a very insufficient
reasen. The scarce year may not immediately
CoDow the most plentiful year ; and it is totally
eootrary to the habits and practice of farmers, to
sive the superflui^ of six or seven years for a con-
^Dgency of this kind. Great practical inconve«
luences generally attend the keeping of so large a
icserved störe« Difficulties often occur from a
waot of proper accommodations for it. It is at all
times liable to damage from vermin and other cau-
SCSI When very large, it is apt to be viewed with
^ je^ous and gnidging eye by the common people.
And in general, the farmer may either not be able
toremain so long without his retums ; or may not
be williog to employ so considerable a capital in a
w^ in which the retums must necessarily be dis-
*• Wealth of Nationsi toI« ü. b. ir. c. v. p. 265*
240 ESSAY ON Book UL
BBS
Or bounties on the exportaüoti of com«
tant and precarious. On the whole, therefore, wc cannot reasonably expect that, upon this plan, Ae reservcd störe should in any degree bc equal to that, which in a scarce year would bc kcpt at homCi in a country which was in the Ilabit of constant exportation to a considerable amount; and ive know that even a very little difference in the de- grce of deficiency will oftcn make a very great diflference in the price*
Dr. Smith then proceeds to State very jusdy^ that the defenders of the com laws do not insisl ai^ much upon the price of com in the actual State tillagc, as upon their tendency to improlre actual State, by opening a more extensive foragn market to the com of the farmer, and securing to- him a bettcr price than hc coukl othcrwise expect for his commodity ; which double cncouragement, they imägine, must in a long pcriod of years occa« sion such an incrcvisc in die production of com^ as may lowcr its price in the home market much more than the bouiity can raise it, in the State of tillage thcn actually existing. '
In answcr to this hc obscrvcs, that whatever ct- ttnsion of the foreign market can bc occasioned by
* Wcalth of Nationsy vol. ii« b. iv« c. v. p. 265.
Oia^ X POPULATION. 241
Of bountics on the exportation of com.
ihe bounty, must in every particular year be alto- gether at the expense of the home market, as eve- ry bushel of com which is exported by means of the bounty, and which would not have been ex- ported without the bounty, would have remained in the home market to increase the con&umption ttid to lower the price of that commodity.
In this Observation he appears to me a litde to misose the term market, Because, by selling a commodity below its natural price, it is possible to get rid of a greater quantity of it, in any particular market, than would have gone off otherwise, it cannot justly be said that by this process such a market is proportionally extended. Though the removal of the two taxes mentioned by Dr. Smith, aspaid on account of the bounty, would certainly lathcr increase the power of the lower classes to porchuse ; yet ineach p:*rlicular year the consump- tioo must be ultimately limited by the population ; aid Üie increase of consumption from the rcmoval tf these taxes might by no means be sufficicnt to ökcoff the whole superfluily of tlie farmers, with- out lowering the generai price of com, so as to de- prive them of their fair rccompence. If the price of British com in the home market rise in conse-
quence of the bounty, it is an unanswerable proof,
• •• • •
m. n. 1 1
I
242 ESSAY ON JBooklJl
Of bounties on the exporiation of com.
that the efiectual market for British com is exU cd by it ; and that the diminution of demand ^ home, whatever it may be, is more than countcr:^ balanced by the extension of the demand
There cannot bc a greatcr discouragement the production of any commodity in a large quaC^ tit}', than the fear of overstocking the market wit — it. Nor can there be a greater encouragemcnt tr^ such a production, than the certainty of finding cfil'Ctual market for any quantity, however that can be obtained. It sliould be observed fur^'*' ther, that one of the principal objects of the boun«^ ty is to obtain a surplus above the homc consump-— ' tion which may supply the deficicncy of unfavora--^ ble ycars ; but it is evident that no jx)ssible ex— — tension of tlic homc market can attain this object—- -
Dr. Smith t^ocb on to say, tliat if the two taxcs-^^ paid by the pcople on account of the bounty, name- ly, the one to the governmcnt to pay this bounty» and the other paid in the advanced pricc of the commodity, do not, in the actual statc of the crop, raisc the pricc of lalx)r, and tlius return upon the farmcr, thtv must rcducc die abilitv of tlie lal>or. ing poor to bring up their childrcn, and l)y thus rcsträining tlic population and industrj' of the countr}% must tcnd to stunt and rcstrain tlie gra- dual extension of the homc market, and tliercbv.
Tiop. X POPULATION. 243
Of bounties on the exportation of corxu
the long nin, rather to diminish than to aug- cnt, the whole market and consumption of com.' I think it has been shown, and indeed it will arcely admit of a doubt, that the s} stem of ex- rtation arising from the bounty has an evident idency in years of scarcity to increase the sup- cs of com, or to prevent their being so much minished as they othervvise would be, which mes to the same thing. Consequently the la- ring poor will be able to live better, and the po- lation will be less checked in thesc particular ars, than they would have been without the steni of exportation arising from the bounty. at if the effect of the bounty, in this view of the ibject, be only to repress a little the population in ears of plenty, while it encourages it comparative- r in years of scarcity, its effect is evidently to re- jilate the population more equally according to bat quantity of subsistence, which can permanent- |r, and without occasional defalcations, be supplicd. bd this effect I have no hesitation in saying, is «le of the greatest advantages which can possibly ccur to a society, and contributes more to the appiness of the laboring poor, than can easily be
^ Wcalth of Nations, toI. ü.b. iv. ct. p. 267<
au ESSAY ON Book ül
Of bounties on the exportation of com*
conceived by those who have not deeply cooskkr» ed die subjcct. In die whole compass oF human events, I doubt if diere be a more firuitfiü source of misciy, or one more invariably productive of dis» astrous consequences, Üian a &udden Start of po|>u- lation from two or three years of plenty, which miist necessarily be repressed on thc first return of scarcity, or evcn of average croivs* It has bcen suggested, that if we werc in the habit of export- ing com in consequenc^ of a bouiUy, the prlce wouii fall still lower in years of extraordinär/ abundanco, than without such a bounty and such exportation ; because thc exuberancc belonging to that part of the crop usually cxiK)rtcd would fall upoii thc home market. But thcre sccnis to be no reason for supposiiig tliat this would bc thc case. Thc (juantity annually ^cxportcd would by no means be fixcd, but would dcpcnd uyajn die statc of the crop, and tlic dcmauds of thc homc market« One great advantagc of a foR*ign market^ both with rcgard to buying and selling, is thc improba« bility, that years of scarcity, or years of abundancc, should in many difllrcnt countrics occur at the same timc. In a ycar of abundancc Uk* fixcd sum of the bounty would always bcar a grcatcr projx>r- tion to die cost of production. A gnatcr cncou- ragement would thereforc be given to cxixjrt, and
Ou^. X POPULATION. 245
Of bounties on the exportatioD of com«
a very moderate lowering of price would probably enable the farmer to dispose of the whole of hb excess in foreign markets.
The most plausible argument that Dr. Smith adduces against the com laws is, tliat as the money price of com regulates that of all other home- made commodities, the advantage to the proprie- tor fix>m the increased money price is merely appa- rent, and not real ; since what he gains in his sdes, he must lose in his purchases. *
TMb Position howcver, is not true, without many limitations. The money price of com in a particular country is undoubtedly by far the most powerful ingredient in regulating the price of labor, and of all other commodities ; but it is not enough fcr Dr. Smith's position, that it should be die most powerful ingredient ; it must be shown that odier causes remaining the same, the price of every artide will rise and fall exactly in proportion to 4c price of com, and this does not appear to be the casc. Dr. Smith himself excepts all foreign com- niodities ; but when we reflect upon the sum of Ottr imports, and the quantity of foreign aiti- des used in our manufactures, this exception alonc
' Wcahli of Nations, vol. ii. b. iv. c. ▼. p. 2fi9.
246 ESSAY ON £odk 111.
Of bounties on thc exportation of com.
is of veiy great importance. Wool and raw hides, two most important materials of home growth, da not, according to Dr. Smith's own reasonings, (Book i. c. XI, p. 363, et seq.) dcpcnd much upon the price of com and the rent of land ; and thc price of flax is of coursc greatly influenced by thc quantity we Import. But woollen cloths, leather, linen, cottons, tea, sugar, &c. which are compre- hended in the above named articles, form almost the whole of the clothing'and luxuries of the indus- trious classes of societ}\ Consequently, ahbough that part of ihe wagcs of labor which is expendcd in food will rise in proportion to the price of corn, the whole of the wages \vill not rise in thc samc proportion. \Vhen great improvemcnts in num- fecturing niachinery h ive taken plucc in any coun* Xt\\ that part of thc price of thc wrought commo- dity which pays thc interest of the fixcd capital cniployed in producing it, as this capital had becn accumulatcd beforc the advancc in the price of la- bor, will not rise in conscqucncc of tliis advancc, cxcept as it requires gradual renovation. And in thc case of great and numerous taxcs on consump- tion, as those who live by thc wagcs of labor must alu'ays rcceive whcrewithiil to pay them, at Icast all those upon neccssarics, a rise or fall in thc price of com, though it would incrcasc or dccrcasc iliat
Outp. X. POPULATION. 247
Of bounties od the exportation of com«
part of the wages of labor which resolves itself into food, evidently would not increase or decrease that port which was destined for the payment of taxes.
It cannot then be admitted as a general position,
that the money price of com in any country is an
aux^iirate measure of the real value of silver in that
country. Bat all these considerations, though of *
great weight to the owners of land, will not influ-
cnce the growth of com beyond the current leases.
At the expiration of a lease any particular advan-
tage which the farmer had received from a favora-
Ue Proportion between the price of com and of
hbor, would be taken from him, and any disad*
vantage from an unfavorable proportion made up
to him. The sole cause which would determinc
the quantit}' of effective capital employed in agri*
culture would be the extent of the effectual demand
Jbr com, and if the bounty had really enlarged this
demand, which it certainly would have done, it is
impossible to suppose that more capital would not
be employed upon the land.
WhenDr. Smith says, that the nature of things has stamped upon com a real value, which cannot be altered by mercly altering the money price ; and that no bounty upon exportation, no monopoly of the home market, can raise that value, nor the
248 ESSAY ON Book ID.
Of bounties on the exportation of com.
freest competition Iower it,* it is evident, that hc changcs the qucstion from the profits of the grow- ers of com or the proprictors of land, to the phy- sical and absolute value of com in itself. I cer* tainly do not mean to say, that the bouoty alters the physical valuc of com, and makes a bushel of it Support a greater number of laborers for a day than k did before ; but I certainly do mean to say, that the bounty to die British cultivator does, in the actual State of tliings, really incrtase the dcmand for Bri- tish corn ; and thus encourages him to sow morc than he otherwise would do, and enables him in consequcncc to employ more busheis of com in the maintenuncc of a greater number of laborers.
If Dr. Sinitirs theory were strictly truc, and the real price of com, or its price in the sum of all other eommfxlities, never suffered any Variation, it would be düHcult to givc a rcason why we grow more com now than we did 20 ) years ago. If no rise in the nominal price of com were a real rise, or could cnable the farmer to cultivate better or detemiine morc of the national capital of t!ie land, it would appcar that agriculture was indecd in a most unfortunate Situation, and that no adcquate
» Wealth of Nationi, vol. ii. b. it. c. t. p. 278,
C&^. X POPULATION. 249
Of bounties on the exportation of coro.
motive could exist to the further Investment of Capital in this branch of industry» But surcly \ve cannot douot tliat the real price of com varies, though it may not vary so much as the real pricc of other commodities, and that there are periods when all wrought commodities are cheaper, and periods when they are dearer, in proportion to the price of com ; and in the one case capital flows fixMn manufactures to agriculture, and in the otlier from agriculture to manufactures. To overlook ihese periods, or consider them of slight import- ance, is unpardonable, because m every branch of trade these periods form the grand encouragement to an increase of supply. Undoubtedly the pro- fits of trade in any particular branch of industry, can never long rcmain higher than in others, but W are they lowered except by influx of capital occasioned by these high profits ? It never can bc a national object permanently to increase the pro- fits of any particular set of dealers. The national object is in the increase of supply, but this object cannot be attaincd but by previously increasing the profits of these dealers, and thus dctermining a greater quantity of capital to this particular eni- ployment. The ship-owners and sailors do not make greater profits now, tlian they did bcfore tl\e vol. ii. k k
250 ESSAY ON Bqok ///.
Of bounties on the exportaüon of corn.
Navigation act ; but the objecl ol thc nation was not to increase the profits of sliip-ovvncTb and sail- ors, but the quantity of shippinj; i«nd sciimcn, ;ind this could not be done but by a la\\ , wliich b\ in- creasingthe dcmand for them, raiscd the profitt» ot the capital beforc employed in this way, and dctcr- mined a greater quantity to flow into the same Channel. The object of the nation in the coni laws is not the increase of the profits of the fariQ* ers, or the rents of the landlords, but the detemu- nation of a greater quantity of the national capital to the land, and the consequent increase of supply ; and though in the case of an advance in the pricc of corn from an increased dcmand, the riae of wages, the rise of rents, and the fall of silver, tend to obscurc in somc degrce our view of the sub- ject ; yct wc cannot refusc to acknowlcdge, that the real price of com varics du ring periods sufli- ciently long to affcct the dctermination of capital, or \ve shall be reduccd to the dilrmma of ownii^ that no motive can exist to the further invcstment of capital in the production of com.
The mode in which a bounty upon the expor- tation of com opcrates secms to be this. Lct us suppose that the price at which the British growtr can afibrd to seil his com in average years is 55
äup'^ pöPüEAtiöN. ist
.. j
Or boanties on the expoftätton of com.
t
aiiiUin|;s, and the price at which the Foreign grow-
ct dah seil it, 53 Shillings. Thus circumstancedi
it iä evident that th^ British grower cannot export^
dorn even in years cotisiderably above an' average
Äbp, In this statt of thmgs let'a bounty of fi\-e
diillings pie'r quarter be' granted on exported com.
fiiim6diately as this bounty was established the
(AEportatiön w'öuld begin, and go on, tili the price
iiitlife honife märtet had risen to the price at which'
BiitL^ com could be sold abroad with the addition
(Jf'the bounty. The abstraction öf a part of the*
hörnt süpply, or even the apprehensJon of it,
WtHlId söon raise the price in the home market^
aiSi it is pirbbable that the qnantity exported be-
6re this rise had takeri place would not, at th^^
Äost^ bear such a pröportion to the whole quan-
% in the'ports of Europe, as to lower the gene-
rftl pritc more than a Shilling in the quarter.
Gonsequetttly the British grower' would seil his
€bm abtöäd för 52 Shillings, which with the addi*
tlbn of the bounty would be 57 shiHings, and
what was soM at home would beär exäctly the^
söne' price, throwing out of our cohsideration at
piescnt the expenses of frcight, &c. The British'
gfrower therefore, iristead of 55 Shillings at which*
he cöuld lafförd to seH, wöüM*get'57 shiUtngü för
352 ESSAY ON Book OL
Of bounties on thc exportation of com.
his whole crop. Dr. Smith' has supposed that i bounty of (ive Shillings would raise the price of com in the home market four Shillings, but tfab is e vidently upon the supposition that the growing prioe of the com was not lower abroad than at home, and in this case his supposition would pro- bably be correct. In the case before supposed faowever, the extra profits of the farmer wbuld be only two Shillings. As far as this advance would go, it would raise the profits of iarming, and en- courage him to grow more com. Tlie next ycar thcreforc the supply would be increased in pro- portion to the number of purchascrs of the year before, and to mxdwC this additional quantity go off the price must fall ; and it would of course faU bolh in tlic forcign and the home market, as while any exportation continucs, the price in the home market will be rcgulated l^y die price in Foreign markets with the addition of thc bount)*. ITiis fall may ht inconsiderable, but still the efiect will be in tliis direction, and after thc first year, the price of com will for some timc continuc to fall towards its former Icvel. In the mcan time how- ever, the cheapncss of com abroad might graduallv tend to incrcase the number of purchascrs, and extrnd the efiectual demand for com, not onlv
Siap. X POPULATION. 3SS
Of bounties on thc exportatlon of com«
it the latc reduced prices, but at tlie original or cven higher prices, But every extension of this kiiid would tend to raise the price of com abroad to a nearer levci with the giowing price at home, md consequently would give the British fanner a greater advantage from the bounty. If the de- mand abroad extended only in proportion to the :heapness, the effect would be, that part of the igriculture of foreign countries would be checked \Q make room for the increased agriculture of Britain, and some of the foreign growers, who :raded upon the smallest profits would be justled 3ut of the markets.
At what time the advanced price at home would 3egin to affect the price of labor and of all other ^ommodities, it would be very difficult to say ; tMit it is probable that the interval might be consj- derable, because the first and grcatcst risc, upon the supposition that has becn made, would not \k: above three pence in the bushel, and this advancc would for some time diminish every year. But after tlie füll effect from this advance, whatcver \{ might be, had taken place, the influence of thc bounty would by no mcans be lost« For some years it would give the British grower an absolute
$iS4 ESSAY OK JStok ItL
Of bountiea on the exportation of corti.
advantage over the Foreign grower. This advan« tage would of course gradually dimini^, becauäer it 19 the nature of all effectual detnand to be ulti* mately supplied, and to oblige the producers to seil at the lowest price that they can affiml. But afler having experienced a period of very decidM en- couragement, the British grower will find himself at last on a level with the foreign grower, which he was not before the bounUr, and in the habit of supplying a larger market than his own upoo equal terms with his competitors. And after this, if the foreign and British markets continued to ex- tcnd themselves equally, the British grower would continue to proportion his supplies to both, becausc unless a panicular increase of demand were to take place at home, he could ncvcr withdraw his foreign supply without lowering the price of his whole crop ; and the nation would tiius be in pos* Session of a constant störe for years of scarcity.
To the prescnt state of things, indeed, the sup- Position here made will not apply. In averagc years we do not grow enough for our own con- sumption. Our first object must thercfore be ta supply our own wants before we aim at obtaining OD excess, and the rtsuictive law» on importation
ehap. X, rOPÜLATION 555
Of bounties on the exportation of com*
are strong^y calculatcd to produce this effect. It '
i$ difficult to poncdve a more decided encourage-
ment to the invefttment of capital in agriculture,
than the certaiaty, that for many years to come,
tfae price will never fall so low as die growing
price. If such a certainty has no tendency to give
encouragement to British agriculture, on account
of the advance it may occasion in the price of la^
bor, it may safely be pronounced^ that no possible
, mcrease of wealth and population can ever en-
Courage the production of com,^ In a nation
which never imported com except in a scarcity^
commeFce could never get the start of agriculture ;
and restrictive laws on importation, as &r as they
^ If the Operation of the com laws, as they were csta«
Uished in 1700, had conti nued uninterrupted, I cannot
bring inyseif to believe, that we should be now in the
babit of importing so much com as we do at present.
Potttng the bounty on exportation out of the question,
the rettnctive laws on importation alone would haye made
it impossible« The demand for British com would, for
Che bat 30 years, hare been both greater and more uni-
§ana than it has been ; and it is contrary to erery prin-
cipleof supply and demand to suppose, that this would not
have occasioned a greater growth. Dr. Smith's arg^-
ment clearly prores too much, which is asbad as proving
tottlittle.
L
256 ESSAY ON . Book
Of bounties on the exportation of com*
go, tend to givc a relative discouragement to ma — nu&ctures, and a relative encourdgement to agri — culture. If witliout dimiiiishing manufacturcs^ they were mercly to determine a greater pari of th^ future annual accumulatioii to fall on the iand, c&ct would undoubtedly be in the highcsl degr^ desirabk ; but cvcn allowing that the present veO* rapid march of wealth in gcncral were to suflR^ ^ slight rclaxation in its progress, if therc be an>' foundation whatever for the alarms that have o^ late been expressed respecting the advantageou^ employmcnt of so rapidly increasing a eapital, wr mtglit surely be wiUing to s^icrifice a small portion of present riches, in ordcr to attain a greater degree of scciirity, indcpcndcncc, and psrrmancnt pros- pcrity.
Havinjf considercd tlie tflcct of the boiinty on the farmcr, it remuius to considcr its cflcct on the consunicr. It must bc allowcd, that all tlie direct effccts of the bounty are to raise, and not to lower tlic pricc of corn to the consumcr ; but its uidircct effccts are both to lovvcr the avcrage pricc, and to prevcnt the variations alx>vc and bclow that price. If WC take any {KTiod of sonic Icngth prior to the cstablishmcnt of Uic boiintv, wc shall find tliat Uie
». X POPULATION. 257
Of bounticB on the exportation <^ com.
age price of ccmti is most powerfuUy affected ears of scarcity. From 1637 to 1700, both isive, the average price of corri, according to
Smith, was 21. lls. 0\\ yet in 1688 the kring price, according to an estimate of Grego- Ling, which Dr. Smith sup|K)ses to be correct, only 1 /. 8^, It appears therefore, that during period it was the monopoly price from de- ncy of supply, rather than the growing price *h influenced the general average. But this
average price would not proportionally en- age the cultivation of corn. Though^ie far-
might fi^l vary sanguine during one or two 'S of high price, and project many improve- ts, yet the glut in the market which would w, would depress him in the same degree, and roy all bis projects. Sometimes, indeed, a
of high price really tends to impoverisli the , and prepare the way for future scarcity.—
period is too short to determine more capital le land, and a temporary plenty is often restor-» •y sowing ground that is not ready for it, and
injuring the permanent intcrests of agricul- . It may easily happen therefore that a very uating price, although the general average be K. I 1
iÄ ESSAY ON Book Ul
Of bounties on tbc exportation of com.
hoictu will no€ tend lo encourage the determinatkn of capital to the land in the same degree as a stea- dkr price with a lower general average, provided that this uvcTuge is above the growing {H*ice. And if the bounty has any tendency to encourage a greater supply, and to cause the general average to be more afiected by the growing price than the price of scarcit}-, it may produce a benefit of veiy high magnitude to the consumer, while at the >ame time it fumishes a better encouragement to the furmer, tvvo objects vvhich have been consi« dered ^ incompatible, tliough not with sufficient reuson. For let us suppose that the growing price lu this countrj' is 55 Shillings per quartcr, and that for three years out of tlic last ten, the price Trom scarcity had becn five guineas, for four years 55 Shillings, and for the rcmaining three years 52 >hiirmgs. In this case the average of the ten vvurs will be a little above 3/. 9s. This is a most VHc\Hiraging price, but the three years \\ hich were bclA.>w the growing price would dcstroy, in a great iiKü^ure, its effect, and it cannot be doubted that .kUricultim! would have reccivcd a much more bc- *Ktivuil Impulse, if the price liad continued steadily ilk s* jjtiiiKas during die whole timc. With regard V ^' ci>nsumer, the advantage of the latter aver- i^v Ktvwl not bc insistcd on.
yup. X. POPULATION. 259
Of bounties on the exportation of corn«
Whcn Dr. Smith asserted that a fall in thc price of com could not possibly happcn in consequence sf a bounty, he overlooked a distinction which it hs necessary to make in this case between the grow- jig prioe of com in years of common plenty, and iieaverage price ofapcriod including years of scarcity, which are in fact tvvo vcry different things. Supposing the wages of labor to be regulated liiore rcqvently by thc former than the latter price, mhkh perhaps is the case, it will readily bc allowed Iiat thc bounty could not lower the growing price, fiough it might very easily lower the averagc firice of a long period, and I have no doubt what- nrer had this effect in a considerable dcgree du« ring the first half of the last Century.
The Operation of the bounty on the value of silver is, in the same manner, in its direct effects U) depreciate it, but its indirect effects may perhaps tcnd more powerfuUy to prevent it from falling. In die progress of wealth, when commerce out- fltrips agriculture, there is a constant tendency to a dt[»eciation of silver, and a tendency to an oppo- site effect, when the ballance leans to the side of agriculture. Duringthe first half of the last Cen- tury agriculture seemed to flourish more than com merce, and silver, according to Dr. Smith, seem-
260 ESSAY ON Book Ilf.
Of bouDties on the ex{x>rtation of com.
cd to rise in valuc in most of the countries in Eu- rope. During the lattcr half of the Century, com* merce seemed to have got the start of agricultinti and the eflfect not being counteracted by a defi« cicncy ofcirculadng medium , silverhas been vcry generally depreciated. As far as this depreciadon b common to the commercial World, it is cotii- paratively* of litt* importance ; but undoubce^ those nations will feel it most, where
' Eren the depreciation which is common to the mercial worid produces much eyil to indiTiduals who_ fixcd incomcai and one important national cyiI, tbat «^^^ disposing landlords to let long leases of farma. Witl^^ ^ gard to leases, the Operation of the bounty would ccrt— ^^ If be favorable. It has appcared« that after the adv^^^^ occasioned on its first establishment, the pricc of ^^®^ would for many years tcnd to fall towards its formcr 1«^^ and if no othcr causcs intervcned a very considerable \^^^^^ might elapsebefore it had regained the hei^;ht from wl^**^, it began to sink. Conscquently after the fii st depre^^****' tion, futurc depreciation would be chcckcd, and of cou "^ long leases morc enconraged. The absolute depreoiat '** occasioned by the establishment of the bounty, wouM ^ perfectly inconsiderablc, compared with the othcr cau ^^^' of depreciation, which are constantly operating in t -^^ country. Indepcndently of the funding System, the ^^ ''* tended usc of paper, the infltjx of commercial wealth, » ^ the comparaii VC deficiency of com, every tax on the nccr ^' ! taries of life tends to lower the value of siWer.
A
Chap, X POPULATION. 261
Of bounties on the exportation of com.
has prevailed in the greatest degree, and where the nominal price of labor has risen the highest^ «nd has been most affected by the competition of oommercial wealth, operating on a comparative* deficiency of com. It will certainly be allowed diat those landed nations which supply the ports of Europa with com, will be tlie least liable to this ^Bsadvantage, and even those small states whose wants are known will probably suffer less than tfiose whose wants, at the same time that üiey are quite uncertain, may be very considerable. l'hat J&igland is in the latter Situation, and tliat die ra- ludprogresä of commercial wealth, combined vvitii years of scarcity, lias raised the nominal price of wages more than in any other country of Europe, vrSl not be denied ; and the natural consequence is, that silver is more depreciated here than in the rest of Europe.
If the bounty has any effcct in weakening this sause of depreciation, by preventing the average price of com from being so much affected by the price of scarcity, the ultimate advantage which its indirect Operation occasions, with regard to the value of silver, may more than counterbalancc Ae prcsent disadvantage of its direct Operation.
On the whole thcrefore it appears, that the com
ita ESSAY QN MmklBL
Ot iüinfi I og tbc cxgc<rar;iin itomi»
cy cpcamg a arger, out mcir ^^-^ -,
I
X wül be 2iLa vrsL s an advancixrc af
^rSLxa jmi in :ni^ rxrts c£ Enropc« and ;tt jar s
-MC :' SIC iimcr? c^uli ^raci^aiiT -zcreAsc üicir gr»«tk
tiac 4 5cr*ila^.:c w:-^IJ ar'.sc *: hoo« to dcmAad tlic ▼!tcic o& it« B«i>t iü '^is case. üi« grear lacnease of öe uttiHii m:$cs soteiy trjci iLe cacx^ocss. anc micst tbcfc- ■t-n: Sr t^jCiIIv cf a uferest niture frooi sach a denusd a>* ;i üic jctual clrcwi3.5txacc5 of thc coQntrr. wovild e»- coumjtc 4a cficmaoi scppij. If th« makers of sopcrte ^>cv«iAi c&txh« «o«««i scU üi«ir commooitj ibr 4 cKit|iny i T^ni iTi^ccJC ci" 4 f:\iinea. i: cxnnoc bc doubted ^hit ÜK JciBLioJ vculd incrcase mort than ten fold ; bui tbc cer« :4io(T Ol such an incnnsc of demand. ia sucb a caset «ottk! h4vc DO teodcDCT whatcYcr« in the actual circuiD- >taB%:e5 of an 5 known countnr. lo cncouragc thc mann* t\jctur« ofbroad cloth?.
K X. POPULATION. 263
Of bounties or, the exporlation of conu
ominal price of com regulates the price of all • commodities, a proportional difference in the 5 of silver. With regard to the permanent ests of commerce there is great reason to be- , that this disadvantage would be more tlian terbalanced by the tendency of a fuUer and Lier supply of corn to prevent the futurc dc- tation of silver in this country, but still it is a mt evil ; and the good and evil of the systeni t be compared with the good and evil of a per- freedom in the commerce of grain, the name hich is undoubtedly most fascinating. The ntages of an unlimited freedom of importa- and exportation are obvious. The specific to be apprehended from it in a rieh and com- :ial countr}' is, that the rents of land and the » of labor would not fall in proportion to the n the price of com. If land yielded no other uce dian corn, the proprietors would be abso- f obliged to lower their rents exactly in pro- on to the diminished demancl and diminished r, because, universally, it is price that deter- » rent, not rent that determines price ; but in jntry where the demands for the products of jre are verj' great, and daily mcreasing, tlie j of land would not be entirelv delcrmined bv
264 ESSAY ON Book UL
Of bourities on the exportation of com.
thc price of com ; and though they would fitU a fall in the price of com, they would not fall in Proportion. In the same manner, the \v^nes of labor being influenced not only by the price of com, but by the competition of commercial wealth, and the otlier causes before enumerated, though they would probably fall with a fall in the price of corn would not fall in proportion. During die first half of the last Century the average price of corn feil considerably, but owing to the demand for labor arising from an increasing commerce, die price of labor did not fall with it. High rents and high wages occasioned by an increased demand and an increased price of com, cannot possihly stop cultivation, for tlic obvious reason, that the power of paying the advance is given previous to thc advance taking place ; but high rents and high wages supported by other causes than the price of corn tcnd most powcrfully to stop it. Undcr these circumstances land on which little lalx>r has been bestowed, will generally yicid a higher rent than that on which much has l)cen bestowed, and the bringing of fresh land under cultivation is most powcrfully checked. A rieh and commer- cial nation is thus by tlie natural course of things
Cyutp. X POPULATION. 265
Of bounties on the exportation of com.
Icd more to pasture than tillage, and is tempted
to become daily more dependent upon others for
its smpplies of com. If all the nations of hurope
oould be considered as one great country, and if
any one State could be as secure of its supplies
fi-om others, as the pasture districts of a particu-
lar State are from the com districts in their ncigh-
^l3orhood| there would be no härm in this dcpcn-
dence, and no person would think of proposing
com laws. But can \ve safely consider Europe
in thi» light? The fortunate Situation of this
country, and the excellence of its laws and govera-
ment exempt it, above any other nation from fo-
reign invasion and domestic tumult, and it is a
paidonable love of one's country, which under
such circumstances produces an umvillingnesk to
expose ity in so important a pouit as the suppl} of
its principal food, to share in the changcs and
diances which may happen to the contiiicnt. How
would the miseries of France have been aggravat.
cd during the revolution if she had bcen dcptndent
on foreign countries for the support of two or threc
mülions of her people.
That we can readily tum oursclves from an im- porting to an exporting nation, in the artick of com, I would by no means prctend to say ; but voL H. mm
•
266 ESSAY ON Book 111.
Of bounties on the exportation of com.
•
both theory, and the experience of the first half of the last Century, Warrant us in concluding it prac- ticable ; and we cannot but allow tkit it is wortb the experiment, as tlie permunencc of our national prosperity may depend upon it. ' If we proceed in our present coursc, let us but for a moment re- flect on the probable conscquenecs. Wc can hardly doubt that in the course of some years, we shaD draw from America, and the nations bordering on the Baltic, as much as two millions of quarters of wheat. besides other com, the support of above two millions of peoplc. If under tliese circum- staiices, any commercial discus&ion, or other dis- pute, were to arisc with these nations, with what a wcight of power thcy would negociate ! Not the wholc British navy could ofler a morc coiivincing argumcnt than the simple thrcat of shutting all their i>orts. I am not unaware, that in gencral, wk: may securely deptnd uiK)n pcopic's not acting di-
* Sincc ihis was first writtcn, a new systeni of com laws has bcen cstablibhcd by the legisluturc. but it is not so powerful in its Operation as that of 1688 and 1700. The new laws tend sirongly toencourage the growth of an independent supply of com, but not so strongly the pro- ductjon of an excess. An independent supply howcTcr ia ccrtainly the fir&t and most important objtct.
Ch^. X. POPULATION. 267
Or bounties on the exportation of com.
rectly contraiy to their interest. But this consi- deration, all powerful as it is, will sometimes yield vduntarily to national Indignation, and is some- times forccd to yicld to the resentment of a so- v^reign* It is of sufficient weight in practicc f^hen applied to manufactures ; because a delay in tlieir sale is not of such immediate consequence, and from their smaller bulk they are easily smug* gled But in the case of com, a delay of three or four months may pnxiuce the most compücated misery , and from the great bulk of com, it will generaUy be in the power of a sovereign to exe- cute almost completely his resentful purpose» Small commercial states which depend nearly for the whole of their supplies on foreign powers, will always have many friends. They are not of suf- ficient consequence to excite any gcneral indigna- tioa against them, and if they cannot be supplied from one qoarter, they will from another. But diis is by no means the case with such a country as Great Britain, whose commercial ambition is pe- coliarly calculated to excite a general jealousy, and in &ct has excited it to a very great degree. If our commerce continue increasing for a few years, and our commercial population with it, we shall be iaid so bare to the shafts of fortune, that notliing
268 ESSAY ON Jiook ///.
Of bounties on the exporlation of com«
but a miracle can save us from being Struck. The periodical retum of such seasons of dearth, as those which we have of late experienced, I coo- »der aa absolutely certaii), upon our preaent im* poiting System : but excluding from the questioQ at present the dreadful distress that they occaaiony wnich however no man of humani^ can long ba- nish from his mind, I would ask, is it poUtic, merely with a view to our national greatneas, to render ourselves thus dependent upon others for our Support, and put it in the power o( a combi» nation against us, to diminish our populatioD tivo jnillions ?
To restore our independence, and build our na« tional greatncss and commercial prosperity on the sure foundation of agriculturc, it is cvidcntly noi suiiicicnt, to proposc prcmiums for tillage, to cul* tivate this or that waste, or even to pass a general inclosure bill, though thcse arc all exccllent as far as tlicy go. If the iiicrease of the commercial population keep pace witli these cfTorts, we shall only be where we wcre before, with regard to the necessity of importation. The object requircd is to alter the relative proportion between the commcr- cial and the agricultural population of the country, which cjn onlv l)C doae bv somc svstem wliich
Oup. X POPULATION. 469
Of bounties on the exportation of corn«
will determine a greater proportion of the national capital to the land. I see no other \\ray at present of e&cüng thb object, but by com laws adapted to the peculiar circumstances of the country and the ttate of foreign markets. All Systems of peculiar lestraints and encouragements are undoubtedly
•
fisagreeable, and the necessity of resorting to them may justly be lamented. But the objection which Dr. Smith brings against bounties in general, that of fcxx^ing some part of the industry of the country iato fi Channel less advantageous than that in which it would run of its own accord,* does not apply in die present instance, on account of the pre-eminent qoalities of the products of agriculture, and the dreadiul consequences that attend the slightest fuiure of them. The nature of things has indeed stamped upon com a peculiar value ;' and this re- nark, made by Dr. Smith for another purpose, nay &irly be applied to justify the exception of thb commodity from the objections against boun- ties in general. If throughout the commercial World every kind of trade were perfectly free, onc should undoubtedly feel the grealest reluctance in
* Wealth of NatioDS, vol. ii. b, it. c. t. p. 278. « Idcm.
27Ü ESSAY ON BooklU^
or bounties on the cxportation of corn«
])roposing any intcmiption to such a System of gc- neral libcrtv; and indeed, under such circum- stances, agriculture would not need peculiar en- couragements. But under the present universal prevalcnce of the commercial System, with all ita difierent expedients of encouragement and re- straint, it is folly to exccpt from our attention the great manufacture of com which supports all the rest. The high duties paid on the importation of foreign manufacturcs are so direct an encourage- ment to the manufacturing part of the societf, that nothing but some encouragement of the same kind can place the manufacturers and cultivators of this countT}' on a fair footing. Any System of encouragement thercforc, which mip;ht l^ found nccessary for the commerce of grain, wonid evi- deiilly 1)0 owing to the prior cncouragtments which had been given to manufiictures. If all be free, I havc nothing to say ; but if \vc protect and encouragc, it seems to bc folly not to encourage that production, which of all others is the most imiK)rtant and valuable.'
* Thoui»!) 1 have dwclt miich on ihe imporiancc of paiVinj* a qTianiif y of corn in the country bcyond the de- ii)an(U of the hoine consuniption. yet I do not mcan Xn
Vhap. X POPULATION. 271
Of bounües on thc exportation of com.
Let it not however be imugined, thut the most ^ightened System of agricuitiirc, though it \a ill
Tecommend that general System of ploughing, vhich
lakes place in most parts of France, and defeats ils owu
porpose« A large stock of cattle is not only nccessary as
&Tery valuable part of the food of the country, and ascon-
tribuling vcry greatly to the comforts of a considerable
portion of its population ; but it is also necessary in the
pitNiuction of com itself. A large surplus produce, in
Proportion to the number of persons employed, can never
beobtained without a great stock of cattle. At the same
time it does not follow, that we should throw all the land
that it fit for it into pasture. It is an Observation of Mr.
Toang, and I should think a just one, that the first and
nost obyious improvement in agriculture is to make the
Ukmsof a country support the additional cattle a*tid shecp
Vttited in it. (Travels in France, vol. i. p. 361.) I am by
Bo means sanguine however, as to the practicability of
cooTerting England again into an exporling country, whilc
die demands for the products of pasture are daily increas-
iogf from the increasing riches of the commercial part of
tke nation« But should this be really considered as im*
pncticable, it seems to point out to us one of the great
caii9es of the decay of nations. We have always heard
that ttates and empires have their periods of declension ;
tBdwe leam from history that the diiferent nations of the
' ttrth have flourished in a kind of succession) and that
poor countries have been continually rising on the ruins
oftheir riclier neighbors. Upon the commercial svsteni,
this kind of succession seems to be in tl:e natural and nc-
cessaiy course of things, indcpendently of the cffects of
war. If from the increasing riches of thc commercial
L
272 ESSAY ON Book III.
Of bounties on the exportation of com«
undoubtedly be able to producc food beyond the dcmaiids of the actual population, can evcr be
part of any nation, and the consequently increasing de- ipands for the products of pasture, more land were dailf laid down to grass» and more corn imported l'rom oUier countriett the unaroidable consequence seems lo bCf that the increasing prospcrity of thene countries which theiic CKportations of com would contribute to accelerate» m' uliimately diminUh the population and power of the tries which had fostered them« The ancienla alway attributed this natural weakness and old age of ttates luxury. But the modems who have generally conaid luxury as a principal encouragement to commerce manufactures« and consequently a powerfui initni of prospenty, have, with great appearance of rcatony unwilling to considcr it as a cause of decline. But alle ing, with the modems, all the advantagcs of luxury, an when it falls short of actual vice, they are certainly there seems to be a point beyond which it must necc rily bccome prejudicial to a State, and bring with it th seeds of weakness and decay. This point is, when it r pushed so far as to trench on the funds necessary for i Support, and to become an impediment instead of encouragement to agriculture.
I should be much misunderstood, if, from any thiag^ that I have said in the four last chapters, 1 should b^ considcred as not suiüciently awarc of the advantagc# derived from commerce and manufactures. I look upoD them as the most distinguishing characteristics of ci^tli- zation, the most obvious and striking marks of the im* provement of society, and calculated to enlarge our en* joyments, and add to the sum of human happinett. No
J
Chap, X. POPULATION. 273
()f bo\inlies on the cxportalion of corn.
made to keep pace with an unchecked popubtion. The crrors that hüve arisen from the constivtit ap- pcarance of a füll bupply, produced by tlie agri-
great siirplus produce of ajjriculture could exist without
them^ and if it 4i! t^xist, it woiild be '-.o m parat ively of
Tcry littltr valiie. Hur still they are rathcr tlie omamenta
mnd cmbcllii^hinentsof ihe political structure than its foun-
dations. W'hiltr ihest; foundalions are pci*fectly seciirc,
we cannot ne too s>/licii')u<i to make all the apartments
conTcnient an 1 elccant ; but if there be the slij^iicst rca-
•OQ to fear ihat t:\e for.v.l.itions thcnselves may jyjve way,
k seems lo '»e io!ly lo contiiiiie dirtctinq; our principal
attention to ttie 'ess essenlial parts. There has ncver yet
becn an instance in history, of a lari>;c nation conünuing
with undirair.:ic.i vj^^or, to su!>port four or five millions of
ita people on imported com ; iior do 1 believe that there
cver will be such an instance in futiire. England isi un-
doubtedly, from her insular Situation, and commanding^
navy« the most likely to form an exccption to this riile ;
Vut in spitc evcn of tne ptculiar advantages of England,
itappears lo me clear that il -»:-j coiuinue yearly to in-
crease her iniportations of corn, she cannot ultimaiely
escape that dccline which seems to be the natural and
Becessary consequence of exccssive commercial wealth.
1 am not now speaking of the next twenty or thirty years,
•but of the next two or three himdred. And though we are
Utile in the habitof looking so far Ibrwards, yet itmay be
qoestioned, whether we are not bound in duty to make
some exertions to avoid a System which must necessarily
terminate in the wcakncss and decline of our postcriiy.
But whether we make any practical application of such a
discussion or not, it is curious to contemplate the causes
vol. ii. n n
274 ESSAY ON, ^c.
Of bountics on thc exportation of com.
cultural systciA, aiid ihc source of somc other prc- judiccs Ol) thc biibjcct of population, will be no« ticcd in ihc following chapter.
ofthose rcverses in the fates of emptreS) which so fre- qucntly changed the face of the world in past timcs^ and inay be expected to produce similar, thoiigh perhaps not such violent chang;es in future. War h as undoubiedly in ancient times, the principal cause of these changes; bul it frequenily only finished a work which excess of luxury and the nei^lect of a^^nculture had begun* Foreign In- vasion«^ or internal convulsions, produce but a tempormry and comparatively slight effect on such countries as Lombardy« 'luscany, and Flandera, but are fatal to such States as Holland and Ilambuif^h ; and though the com- merce and inanufactures of England will probably mlways be siippotted in a grcat degrec by her avrriculture^ yet that part which is not so snpportcd will still rcmain sub« ject to the revcrsc» of depcndcnt states.
\Vc sho\ild rerollcct, that it is only within thc last twenty or ihirty ycars ihat wc havc bccome an importing nation. In so shori a pcriod, it coiild hardly bc expected that the cvils of the sy^tcm sho\ild be pcrcrptible. \Ve have howevcr alrvady feit somc of its inconvenicnces; and if wc pcrscvcre in it. ils cvil consccjuenccs may by no nieans bc a matter of rcmote spcculation.
CHAPTER XL
On the prevailing Errors respectmg Population and
Plenty.
TV has been observed, that many coim^ries atthe period of their p^eatest depjce of populous- ness have lived in the grealest plenty, and have bccn able to export com ; but at other periods, wfaen their population was verj- low, liavc liver] in Gontinual poverty and want, and have been obliijed to imp<Ht com. Eg}'pt, Palestine, Rome, Sicily, »d Spain, are cited as particular exemplifications of this fact ; and it has been inferred, that an in- erease of population in any State, not cultivated to the utmost, will tend rather to augment than di- nmii^ the relative plenty of the whole socieiy ; md that, as Lord Kaiines observes, a country can- not easily become too populous Ibr agriculture ; because agriculture has the signal property of pro- ducing food in proportion to the number of con- sumers.'
^Sketches of the History ofMan^b.i. sketch i« p. 106^ 107. 8yo. 1788«
376 ESSAY ON Book HL
On the prevailing crrors
The gencral facts from which thcse inferenccs arc dra\ni, thcre is no rcason to doubt ; but the iiifcrenccs by no mcans foUow from the premises« It is the nature of agriculture,particularly when well conducted, to produce suppoit for a considerable number above tliat which it employs ; and conse* quently if thcse members of the societ)% or as Sir James Steuart calls them, the free hands, de not increase, so as to rcach the limit of the number which can be supported oy the surplus produce, the whole popiilation of the country may continue for ages increasing with the improving stute of agriculture, and yet always be ablc to export com. But this incrcase aftcr a certain p(*riod, will be vcrj' differcnt from the natural and unrcstrictctl incrcasc of population ; it will mcicly foUow the slow au^mentalion of produce from tht gradual improvcnitnt of ap^iculturc, aiul populaiion will still bc chcckcd by the ditficulty of procuring sub- sisteiice. It is vcrv iustlv obscrvtd bv Sir Jumes Stcuiirt, that the population of K.nirland in ihc mid- die of the last Century when the expf rts ofeom were considerable, was still chreked for Wüiit of food.' The precise measure of the pnpnl.Jtw » in
> Polit. £con. vol. i. b. i. c« xv. p. 100.
Chap. XI. POPULATION. 277
respecting population and plenty.
a country thus circumstanced, will not indeed bc the quantity of food, because pari of it is exported, but the quantity of employment. The State of this employment however will necessarily regu- late the wages of labor, on which depends the power of the lower classes of people to procurc food; and according as the employment of the country is increasing, whether slowly or nipidly, these wages will be such, as either to check or to cncourage early marriages, such, as to enable a laborer to support only two or three, or as many as five or six children.
The quantity of employment in any country will not of course vary from year to year, in the same manner as the quantity of produce must ne- eessarily do, from the Variation of the seasons; and consequcntly the check from want of employ- ment will be much more steady in its Operation, and be much more favorable to the lower classes of people, than the check from the immediate want of food. The first will be Ihe prcventive check ; the second the positive check. When the dem^.id fior labor is either stationarj-, or increasing very slowly, people not seeing any employment opcn by which they can support a family, or the wages of common labor being inadequate to this purj)osc,
278 ESSAY ON Meok 111.
()n the prevailing errors
t _
will of coursc be deterred f rom maiT)ing. But if a demand for labor continue iiicreasing with some rapidity, although the supply of food be uncertain, on account of variable seasons, and a dependciice 011 othcr countries, the popuIation will evidently go on, tili it is positively checked by famine, er the diseases arising from severe want.
Scarcity and extreme poverty therefore may er may not accomjxmy an inereasing popuIation, ac- cording to circumstances ; but tliey must neces- sarily accompany a permanently declining popub* tion ; because there never has been, nor probabljr ever will be, any other cause than want of fcod^ which makes the popuIation of a country perma- nciitly decliiie. In the numerous instances of de* popuIation which occur in historj-, the causes of it may alwavs be traced to the want of industr\\ or the ill direction of that industry, arisnig from vio^ lence, bad govcmment, iguorance, &c, which first occasions a want of food, and of course depopula* tion follows. When'Rome adopted the custom of iniporting all her com, and layiiig all Italy into pasture, she soon declined in popiilution, 'ITic aiuses of the dei>opuIation of Kt^\pt anr! Turkcy have iUreadv lx*en allufUd to ; and in the case of Spain, it was certainly not the numerical loss of
CÄfl^. XI. POPULATION. 279
respecting population and plenty.
people occasioned by the expulsion of the Moors ;
but the industry and capital thus expelled, which
permanently injured her population. When a
country has been depopulated by violent causes,
if a bad govemment, with its usual concomitant
insecurity of property ensuc, which has generaHy
been the case in all those countries which are now
less peopied than formerly, neither the food nor
the population can recover themselves, and the in-
habitants will probably live in severe want. But
when an accidental depopulation takes place, in a
country which was bcfore populous and industri-
cus, and in the habit of exporting com, if the re-
maining inlmbitants be left at liberty to exert, and
<io exert, their industry in the same direction as
Icfore, it is a stränge idea to entcrtain that they
'^^rould then bc unable to supjjly themselves with
com in the same plenty ; particularly as the di-
Tninished numbers would of course cultivate prin-
•
cipally the more fertile parts of their territory, and not be obliged as in their more populous State, to apply to ungrateful soils. Countries in this Situa- tion would evidently have the same chance of re- covering their former number, as they had origi- nally of reaching this number ; and mdeed if abso- lute populousness were necessary to relative plen-
280 ESSAY ON Book lU.
On the prevailing cirors
ty, as some agriculturists luve supposed, * it would be impossible for new colonics to increasc iiith the samc rapidity as old stiitcs.
1 Among others, I allude more particularlf to Mr. Andci*son, who, in a Calm Invrntigation qf the Circum" Mtancea which havc led to the firctrnt Scarcity of groin im Dritairiy (publishcd in 1801) has labored with extraordV nary eamestncss, and I believe with the beut intentior*-^ possible, to impress this curious tnith on the minds ^^ bis countrymcn» The particular position which be ft-^' tempts to prove is, that an incrcase oj fiofiulation in «r^^ ^ 9tate vfhoaeßelda have not been made /• attain their fäf^kt po^Mtöle dcgree of firoductivtneuM^ (a thing that haa nrver yet bcen sren on thU globe) iviii ncccMaarily hüi ita mcana of subsistence rather augniented than ditniniake^^ by that augmentation of ita poftutation ; and the rci^eraf^^ The proj>osition is, to be sure, expressed rather obscure ly ; but from the contcxt, bis nicaniiig cvidcnily i», tha-^ every increasc of population teiuls to increase rtlativ^^ plenty, and vice versa. Ile conchidcs his proofh by ob-^^ scrving, that if the facts which he has thus brought for-^ ward and connected do not serve to remove the fears of^ those whodoubt the possil)iliiy of this counlry producing abundance to sustain its incrcasing po]>ulation, were it to augment in a ratio greaily more progressive than it has yet done, he shouhl doubt whether they couhi be con- vinced of it, were one evcn to risc froni tlie dcad lo teil them so. Mr. A. is perhaps justified in ihis doi;ht, ln>m the known incredulity of the age, which might cunse {>co- ple to remain unconvinred in botli cases. 1 agree uith Mr. A. howevcr, cntirely, resixctinj^^ tlu- imiwrtanct of directing a greatcr part of the national industry to a^i-
Ch^, XI, POPULATION. 281
respecting. population and plenty.
The prejudices on the subject of population bear a very striking resemblance to the old pre- judices about specie, and we know how slowly aod with what difficulty these last have yielded to juster conceptions. Politicians observing, that States which were powerful and prosperous were almost invariably populous, have mistaken an ef- fect for a cause, and concluded that their popula- tion was the cause of their prosperity, instead of their prosperitj' being the cause of their popula- tion ; as the old political economists concluded, that the abundance of specie was the cause of na* tioiial wealth, instead of the effect of it. The an- nual produce of the land and labor, in both these instances, became in consequence a secondary coosideration, and its increase, it was conceived, would naturally foUow the increase of specie in die one case, or of population in the other. The fijly of endeavoring by forcible means to increase the quantity of specie in any country, and the ab-
cnhare ; but from the circumstance of its being possible fer m country, with a certain direction of its industry, ilwayt to export com, although it may be very populous, he has been lad into the stränge error of supposing, that n sgricultural country could support an unchecked po* pulaüoii«
voL ii. o o
28Ü ESSAY OK Book UI,
On the prevailing errors
solute impossibility of accumulating it bejrond a certain level by any human laws that can be devi* sedy are now fully established, and havc been com- pletely cxemplified in the instances of Spain and Portugal ; but the Illusion still remains respecting population ; and under this impression, almost eve- ry political treatisc has abounded in proposab to encourage population, with little or no compan- tivc reference to the means of its suppcnt« Yct surely the foUy of endeavoring to increase the quantity of specie in any country without an in* crease of the commodities which it is to circulate, is not greater, than that of endeavoring to increase the number of peoplc without an increase of the food which is to maintain them ; and it will be found, that the levcl above which no human laH's can raise the population of a country, is a Umit more fixed and impassable than the limit to the accumubtion of specie. Howevcr improbable in fact, it is possible to conceive, that means might be invented of retaining a quantity of specie in a State, greatly beyond what was dcmunded by the produce of its land and labor ; but whcn by great cncouragements, population has been raised to such a hcight, that this produce is meted out to each individual in the smallcst portions that can
Chaft. XI. POPULATION. 28
o
respecting population and plenty.
su[qx)rt life, no Stretch of ingenuity can even con- ocive tbe possibility of going furthen
It has appearedy I think, clearly, in the review of difierent societies given in the former part of this woAi^ that those countries the inhabitants of which were sunk in the most barbarous ignorance, 4»" oppressed by the most cruel tyranny, however lowr they might be in actual population, were veiy |«q;>ulous in proportion to their means of subsist- €iice ; and upon the slightest failure of the seasons generaUy suffered the severities af want Igno- rance and despotism «seem to hare no tendency to destroy the passion which prompts to increase ; but they effectiially destroy the checks to it from xtaaoa and foresight. The improvident barbarian wbo thinks only of his present wants, or the misc- laUe peasant, who, from his political Situation, fcels little securit}' of reaping wliat he has sown, will sel- 4om be deterred from gratifying his passions by die prospect of inconveniences whicli cannot be Cxpected to press on him under three or four years. But though this want of foresight which is fostered by ignoranoe and despotism tend thus ra- ther to encourage the procreation of children, it is absolutely fatal to the industry which is to support &em. Industry cannot ex ist without foresight
284 :BSSAY ON Book UL
Oll the prcvailin^ cirors
and security. The inHoIence of the savage b wdl known ; and the poor £g}^tian or Abyssinian 6r- mer without capital, who rents land which is kt out yearly to the hi^est bidder, and who is con- stantly siibfect to the demands of bis tyrannicil masters, to the casual plunder of an encmy, and» not unfrequently, to the violation of bis miaerabfe contractu can have no heart to be industrious, aml if he had» could not exercise that industry success. Even povertj' itself, which appearsto the ^jeat spup4!b industry, when it has onoe certain limits, almost ceases to operatc. The in- - digence which is hopeless, destroys all vigorous^ exertion, and confines the efforts to what is suffi- - cient for bare existcncc. It is the hope of bettcr- inp our condition, and the fear of want, radier " than want itself, that is the best Stimulus to indus- try ; and its niost constant and best dirccted ef- forts will almost invariably be found among a class of pcople alx)vc tlie chss of the uretchedly poor« The cffect of ignorance and oppression will thercfore always be to destroy the Springs of indus- tr}% and consequently to diminish tlic annual pro- duce of the land and labor in any country ; and thb diminution will inevitably be followed by a de- crease of the population, in spitc of the birtb of
Cht^. XI. POPULATION. 285
respecting population and plenty.
any numbcr of children whatever, annually. The desire of immediate gratification, and die retnoval cf the restraints to it from prudence, may perliaps, in such countries, prompt universally to early mar« riages ; but wheii these habits have once reduced die people to the lowest possible State of poverty, Aey can evidendy have no further effect upon the populati(Mi. Their only effect must be on the de- gree of mortality ; and there is no doubt, that if we coiild obtain accurate bills of mortality in those «outhem countries, whcre very few women remain Bnmarried^ and all marry young, the proportion of die annuai deaths would be 1 in 17, 18, or 20, in- atead of 1 in 34, 36, or 40, as in European states, where the preventive check operates.
That an increase of population, when it foUows in its natural order, is both a great positive good in itaelf, and absolutely necessary to a further in- crease in the annuai produce of the land and labor cf any country , I should be the last to deny. The oily question is, ivhat is the natural order of its pft^ress ? In this point, Sir James Steuart who has in general explained this subject so well, ap- pears to me to have fallen into an error. He de> totnines that multiplication is the efficient cause «f agriculture, and not agriculture of multipHca-
fi86 ESSAY ON Boot lU.
On the prevailing errors
tion. ■ But though it may be allowed, that tbe increase of people beyond what could eaaily «ib- sist on the natural ihiits of the earth, first prompt- ed man to tili the ground ; and that the view of maintaining a family, or of obtaining some vahit^ ble consideration in exchange for the products of agriculture» still operates as the principal sdmuluf to cultivation ; yet it is clear, that these prodnctSi in their actual State, must be beyond the loweift wants of the existing population, before any per-' manent increase caii possibly be supported* Wrr know that a multiplication of births has in num^-^ berless instances taken place, which has produoe^ no effect upon agriculture, and has mercly bcer^ followed by an increase of diseases ; but perhap!^ there is no instancc where a permanent increase o^ agriculturc, has not effccted a permanent increase-^ of popubtion, some wliere or othcr. Consequent- — ly, agriculture may with more propriety be termed the efiicient cause of population, than population of agriculture,* though thcy certainly re-act
PoHt« Econ. vol« i. b« i«c. xviii. p« 114.
^ Sir James Steuart explains himself afterwards bf tay»
ing that he means principally the multiplication of thoie
persona who have some valuable consideration to give for
the products of agriculture ; but this is evidently not
Chap. XL POPULATION. 287
respecting population and plenty.
upcm each other, and are mutually necessary to each other's support. This indeed seems to be tbe hinge on which the subject tums, and all the prejudices respecting population have, periiaps, arisen from a mistake about the order of prece-» dence.
The author of DAmi des Hommes^ in a chapter
€0 the effects of a decay of agriculture upon po-
puhtion, acknowledges that he , had fallen into a
fundamental error in considering population as
the source of revenue ; and that he was afterwards
iiillj convinced that revenue was die source of
jtopulation.^ From a want of attention to this
most important distinction, statesmen, in pursuit
^ the desirable object of population, have been
Icd to encourage early marriages, to reward the
Etfbers of fiimilies, and to disgrace celibacy ; but
^liis, as the same author justly observes, is to dress
mai water a piece of land without sowing it, and
^id yet to expect a crop.
Among the other prcjudices which have pre- vaikd on the subject of population, it has beea
mere increase of population« and such an explanation Kernt to adnüt the incorrectness of the gcneral proposi- tioB.
* TonuTÜi« p. 34. 13ino. 9 ?ola. 1763.
288 ESSAY ON Book Ol.
On the prevailing errors
generally thought, that while there is either waste among the rieh, or land remaining uncultivutdl in any eountry, the complaints for want of food cannot be justly founded, or at least that the pres- sure of distress upon the poor is to be atthbuted to the ill conduct of the higher classes of societj, and the bad management of the land. The real eiFect however of these two circumstances m merely to narrow the limit of the actual populatioo; but they have little or no influence on what may be called the average pressure of distress on the poofcr members of society. — If our ancestors had bcoi so frugal and industrious, and had transmitted such liabits to their posterity, that nothing superfluous Avas now consumed by the higher classes, no horsrt werc used for j leasurc, and no land \ras left uncul* tivated, a striking difference would appear in ibc State of the actual populätion ; but probably nooc whatever, in the State of the lower classes of pco» ple, wiih r<"spect to the price of labor, and tht f cii- ty of supporting a family. The wastc among the rieh, and the horses kcpt for pleasure, have indi^ t little the elTect of the consumption of grain in dis« tilleriesy noticcd before with regard to China. On the supposition that the food consumed in this manner may be withdrawn on the occasion of a
Ghap. XL POPULATION. 289
respecting population and plentf •
acarcity, and be applied to the relief of the poor, Aey operate certainly as far as they go, like gra- naries which are only opened at the time that they ire most wanted, and must therefore tend rather tobenefit than to injure the lower classes of societ}\ With regard to uncultivated land, it is evident, diat its effi^t upon the poor is neither to injure not to benefit them. The sudden cultivation of it inll indeed tend to improve their condition for a time, and the neglect of lands before cultivated wiäl certainly make their Situation worse for a cer« lain period ; but when no changes of this kind are going forward, the effect of uncultivated land on die lower classes operates merely like the posses- Bon of a smaller territory. It is indeed a point of rery great importance to the poor, whether a Qountry be in the habit of exporting or importing com ; but this point is not necessarily connected iritfi the complete or incompletc cultivation of the ivfaole territOT)', but depends upon the proportion of the surplus produce, to those who are support- ^ by it I and in fact this proportion is generally he greatest, in countries which have not yet com« )leted the cultivation of all their territory. If ivcry inch of land in tliis country werc well culti-
H/L ii. p p
290 ' ESSAY ON Book DL
On the prevailing errors
vatcd, there would be no reason to expect, mereljr from this circumstance, that we should be able to export com. Our power in this respect would depend entirely on the proportion of the surpitis produce to the commercial population; and tiiisi of course, would in its tum depend on the direc- tion of capital to agriculture or commerce«
It is not probable that any country with a larp territory should ever be completely cultivated; and I am inclined to think that we often draw verjr mconsideratc conclusions agamst the industry and 'govemmcnt of states from the appearance of un- cultivated lands in them. It seems to be the dar and express duty of cvery govemment to removc all obbtacles, and give everj' facility to the inclo« siirc and cultivation of land ; but when this has becYi donc, tlie rc3t must be Icft to tlie Operation of individual intcrest ; and upon this principle it cannot be* expectcd tliat any new land should be brought into cultivation, the manure and the labor nccessar}' for which, might be employed to grcatcr advantage on the improvement of land already in cultivation ; and this is a case vvhich will verv fi^e* quently occur. In countries possesscd of a largc tcrritorj-, there will always be a grcat quantity of
Chap. XI, POPULATION. 291
respecting population and plenty«
land of a middling quality , Avhich requires con^^ dressing to prevent it from growing worse, '\^ which would admit of very great improve^ent, if a greater quantity of manure and labor could be employed upon it The great obstacle to the me- lionition of land is the difficulty, the expense, and somctimes the impossibility of procuring a suffl* eient quantity Sf dressing. As this instrument of improvement^ therefore, is in prdctice limited» whatever it may be in theory, the question will al- ways bCi how it may be most profitably employed ; and in any instance where a certain quantity of dressing and labor employed to bring new land into cukivation, would have yielded a permanent- ly greater produce if employed upon old land, bodi the individual and the nation are losers. UpOQ this principle, it is not uncommon for für- ners in some situations never to dress thelr poorest landy but tö get from it merely a scanty crop evcry Ünee Ofr four years, and to employ the \a hole of
Öicir manure, which they practically ftel is lin it-
cd, CHI those parts of their farms, where it wiil
froduce a greater proportional tffcct. The case wdll be different of cour.se, in a small
territory with a .great population, supporttd on
292 ESSAY ON Book IDL
On the prevailing eirors
fi{D& not derived fromi their own soil. In this wk there will be little er no choice of land, and M comparative superabundance of manure ; and under such circumstances the poorest soUs maj be brought under cultivation. But for this pur- po6e, it is not mere population that is wanted, but a population which can obtain the produce of other countries, while it is gradually improving its own ; otherwise it would be immediately re- duced in proportion to the limited produce of tUs small and barren territory and the meliora- tion of the land might perhaps never take place * w if it did, it would take pbce very slon^y indee^^ and the population would always be exactly me:^^ - sured by this tardy rate, aiKi could not'possibl increase beyond it.
This subject is illustrated in the cultivation the Campine in Brabant, which, according to th^ Abbfe Mann,* consisted originally of the mos^ barren and arid sand. Many attempts werc mad^ by private individuals to bring it under cultivation^ but without success ; which proves that, as a farm^
^ Mcmoir on the Agriculture of the Netherlands, pub-- liahed in vol. i. of Communications to Ihc board of Api^ culture, p. 'i35.
Chap. XI. POPULATION. 293
respecting population and plenty.
11^ project, and considered as a sole dependence, äie cultivation of it would not answen Some re- Ugious houses however, at last settled there, and being supported by other funds, and improving the land merely as a secondary object, thcy by degrees, in the course of some centuriesy brought nearly the whok under cultivation, letting it out to farmers as soon as it was sufficiently improved.
There is no spot, however harren, which might ■ot be made rieh this way, or by the concentrated population of a^manufacturing town; but this is DO proof whatever that with respect to population and food^ population has the precedence, because this concentrated population could not possibly czist, without the preceding existence of an ade- quate quantity of food in the surplus produce of some other district.
In a country like Brabant or Holland, ^where territory is the principal want and not manure, such a district as the Campine is described to be, may perhaps be cultivated widi advantage. But in countries possessed of a large territory, and with a considerable quantity of land of a middling quality, the attempt to cultivate such a spot, would be a palpable misdirection and waste both of in dividual and national resources.
294 ESSAY ON Book lU.
On the prevailing^ errors
The French havc already found their error in bringing under cultivation too great a quantity of poor land. They are now sensible that they have employed in this way a portion of labor and dres- sing, which would have produccd a permanently better effect, if it had been applied to the further improvement of better land. Even in China, which is so fuUy cultivated and so fully peopled» barren heaths have been noticed in some districts, which prove that distressed as the people appear to be for subsistence, it does not miswer to them to employ any of their manure on such spots. These remarks will be still further confirmed, if we recollect, tliat in die cultivation of a large sur- face of bad land, tlierc must ncccssarily be a vcry great vvaste of secd corn.
\Vc shouUl not tlK-rcforc be too rcady to makc infcrences agi\inst the internal ceononiy of a coun- \xy froni the apiKarancc of uncultivatcd headis, without othcr cvidcncc. But die lact is, tlut as no country has cver rcachcd, or probably cver will rcach, its highest possiblc acmc of producc, it appears ahvays as if the want of industry, or tiic ill-dircction of that industry, was the actua limit to a further increasc of produee and popula- tion, and not the absolute rcfusal of natiirc to
Vu^. XI. POPULATION. 295
respccting population and plenty«
ield any raott ; but a man who is locked up in a 3om may be feirly said to be confined by thc raUs of it, though he may never touch them ; nd with regard to the principle of population, it \ never the question, whether a country will pro- oce any morey but whether it may be made to roduce* a sufficiency to keep pace with an ün- hecked increasc of people. In China, the ques- on is not, whether a certain additional quantity if rice might be raised by improved culture, but irhether such an addition could be cxpected du- ring the next twenty-five years, as would be suffi- incnt to Support an additional three hun Jred mil- lions of people. And in this coyntr}', it is not the question, whether by cultivating all our com- nons, we could raise considerably more com than it present ; but whether we could raise sufficient br a population of twenty millions in the next wcnty-five years, and forty millions in the next ifty years.
Thc allowing of the produce of thc earth to bc ibsolutely unlimited, scarcely removes thc weight if a hair from the argument, which depends en- irely upon the difterently increasing ratios of [Kopulation and food : and all that the most en-
296 ESSAY ON, &V.
On the prevailing erron« Ü'r.
liglitencd govemments, and the most perseverim^Bg and best guided eßbrts of industry can do, is make the neccssary checks to population operal more ecjuably, and in a direction to produce least evtl ; but to remove them is a task absotutef^Hy hopeless.
■
ESSAY, &c.
BOOK IV.
-^F OVR FUTÜRl PROSPECT8 RESPSCTIVG THS RIMOvXl
CR XITIGATION OF THE EVILS ARISIN6 FROX
THB PRIRCIPLt OF POPULATION.
CHAPTER I.
€)fmoral Restraintj and our Obligation to Fraetiie
this Virtue.
AS it appears that in the actual State of cvay Society which has come within our review, Ifac natural progress of popuIation has been con- stantly and powerfuUy chccked; and as itseems evident, that no improved form of govemment, no plans of emigration, no bcnevolent institutions, and no degree or direction of national industry, can prevent the continued action of a great check to popuIation in some form or other ; it foUows that rxJ. ii. q q
298 • ESSAY ON BwA /^.
Of moral restraint.
WC must submit to it as an inevitable law of ture ; and thc only inquiry that remains is, how L^«^ may takc place with thc least possible prejudice t^i^ o the virtuc and happincss of hiiman society. Al^KJl thc immediate checks to population which havi been observcd to prevail in the same and diflkrenr countries, seem to be resolvable into moral re- straint, vice, and misery ; and if our choice be con— fined to these three, we cannot long hesitate in decision respecting which it would be most eligi- ble to encourage.
In the first edition of this essay I observed, as from the laws of nature it appeared, that soine check to population must exist, it was better thit this check should arisc from a foresight of the dif- ficulties attending a family, and tlic fear of depen- dent povcrty, than from thc actual prcscnce of want and sickness. This idea will admit of being pur- sued furthcr, and I am inclincd to tliink that from the prevailing opinions respecting population, which undoubtcdly originatcd in barbarous ages, and have been contiiuicd and circulated by that part of ^vQvy Community which may hc supposcd to be intercßtcd in their support, wc havc bccn prcvent- cd fnjm attending to thc clcar dictatcs of rcason and nature on this subjcct.
Cfc^. /. POPULATION. 399
Of moral restraint.
Natural and moral evil seem to be Üie instru- ments employed l^ the Deity in admonishing us k> avoid any mode c^conduct, which is not suited to our being, and will consequently injure our toppinesä. If we be intemperate in eating and fainking, we are disordered ; if we indulge the nnsports -of anger, we seldom feil to commit acts )f which we afterwards repent ; if we multiply too aat, we die miserably of poverty and contagious Sseases. The laws of nature in all these cases re similar and uniform. They indicate to us, hat we have followed these impulscs too far, so s to trench upon somc other law which equally bemands attention. The uneasiness we feel from q^ledkm, die injuries that we inflict on ourselves IT othcrs in anger, and the inconvenicnccs we suf- Sbt on the approach of poverty, are all admonitions to US to regulate these impulses better ; and if we hoed not this admonition, we justly incur the pe- oahy o( our disobedience, and our sufibrings ope- me as a waming to others.
From the inattention of mankind hitherto to the oooKqoences of increasing too fast, it must be pre- samed that these consequences are not immediate- ly and powerfully connected with the conduct which leadsto them, as in the other instances ; but
300 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of moral restraint.
the delayed knowkdge of any particular eflfects does not alter their nature, nor our Obligation to regulate our condnct accordingly, as soon as we are satisfied of what this conduct ought to be.-^ In many other instances it has not been tül after long and painful experience, that the conduct most &vorable to the happiness of man has been forced upon his attention. The kind of food, and the mode of preparing it, best suited to the purposes of nutrition and the gratification of the palate ; the treatment and remedies of diiFerent disorders ; the bad eflfccts on the human frame of low and marshy situations ; the invention of the most conveiuent and comfortable clothing ; the constniction of good houses ; and all the advantages and extended cn* joyments which distinguish civilized life, were not pointed out to tlie attention of man at once ; but were the slow and lato result di experience, and of the admonitions received by repeated fiiiluies. Diseases have been generally considered as the inevitable inflictions of Providence ; but perhaps t great part of them may more justly be consideied as indications that we have offended against some of the laws of nature. The plague at Constantino- ple> and in other towns of the East, is a constant admonitim of this kind to the mbabitants« The
Ohap, L POPULATION. 301
Of moral restraint«
g===^= ■ 'r
human Constitution cannot support such a State of filth and torpor ; and as dirt, squalid poverty» and indolence, are in the highest degree un£ivorabIe to happiness and virtue, it seems a benevolent db- pensation, that such a State should by the laws of nature produce disease and death, as a beacon to adiers to avoid Splitting on the same rock.
The prevalence of the plague in London tili the irear 1666, operated in a proper manner on the Bonduct of our ancestors ; and the removal of nui* wnces, the construction of drains, the widening of tlie streets, and the giving more room and air to Aveir houses, had the effect of eradicating com- pletety this dreadful disorder, and of adding greatly to the health and happiness of the mhabitants.
In the history of every epidemic it has almost invariably been observed, that the lower classes of people, whose food was poor and insufficient, lud who lived crowded together in small and firty houses, were the principal victims. In what other manner can nature point out to us, that if we increase too fast for the means of subsistcncc, 90 as to render it necessary for a considerable part of the Society to live in this miserable manner, wo have offended against one of her laws. This law sbe has declared exactly in the same manner, as
302 ESSAY ON ßook IF
Of morai restraint»
she declares that intemi^erance in eating and drink* ing will be foUowed by iU health, and that however gratcfui it may be to us at the moment to induige thesc passions to excess, this indulgencc will ulti- mately produce unhappiness. It is as much a law of nature that repletion is bad for the human frame, as that eating and drinkiiig, unattendcd with this consequcnce, is good for it. ,
An implicit obedience to the impulses of oor natural passions would Icad us into the wildcst and most &tal extravagancies ; and yet we have the strongest reasons for bclicving that all thesc passions are so necessary to our being, that thcy could not be gcncrally wcakcncd or diminished» without injuring our happincss. The most pow- erful and universal of all our dcsircs is the dcsirc of food, and of those thinpjs, such as clothing, houscs, &.C. which are immcdiatelv necessar>' to rclievc us from the pains of hunger and cold. It is acknowlcdged by all, that these dcsires put in motion the greatest partof tliat activity, from which the multiplicd improvements and advantages of civilized lifc are dcrivcd ; and that the pursuit of thesc objects, and the gratification of these desires, form the principal happincss of the largcr half of mankind, civilized or uncivilized, and are indis-
Chap.l, POPULATION. 303
Of moral restraint.
pensably neccssary to the more refined enjoyments
of the other half. We are all conscious of the
inestimable bcnefits that we derive from these de-
^rea, when directed in a certain manner ; but wc
arc cqually conscious of the evils resulting from
diem, when not directed in this manner ; so much
so, diat Society has taken upon itself to punish
most severely what it considers as an irregulär
gradfieation of them. And yct the desires in both
cases are equally natural, and abstractedly consi-
. dered, equally virtuous. The act of the hungr)-
\. töan who -satisfies his appetite by taking a loaf
■ fixm the shelf of another, is in no respcct to be
disdngubhed from the act of him who does the
samt diing with a loaf of his own, but by its con-
aequences. From the consideration of these con-
sequences, we feel the most perfect convictiou
4at if people were not prcvcnted from grati-
fying dieir natural desires with the loaves in the
possession of others, the number of loaves would
unitrersally diminish. This experiencc 5s the
foundation of the laws relating to propcrty, and of
Ae distinctions of virtue and vice, in the gralifi-
catkm of desires, otherwise perfectly the same.
If the pleasure arising from the gratification of
propensities were universally diminished in
304 £SSAY ON Book IF
Of moral restraint.
' vividness, violations of property would become less frequent ; but this advantage would be great- ly overbalanced by the narrowing of the sourocs of enjoyment. The diminution in the quantity of all those productions which contribute to human gratification would be much greater in proportion than the diminution of thefts ; and the loss of ge- neral happiness on the one side, would be beyood comparison greater than the gain to happiness oo the other. \Vhen we contemplate the ccmstaot and severe toils of the greatest part of mankind, it is impossible not to be forcibly impressed with the reflection that the sources of human happinesr would be most cruelly diminished, if the proqptct of a good meal, a \varm house, and a comfortabk fuxiside in the evening, were not incitements suf- ficiently vivid, to give interest and cheerfulness to the labors and privations of the day.
After the desire of food, the most powerfiil and gencral of our desires is the passion between the sexes taken in an enlarged sense. Of the happi* ness spread over human life by this passion» voj few are unconscious. Virtuous love, exalted by friendship, seems to be that sort of mixturc of scn- sual and intellectual enjoyment, particularly suited to the nature of man, and most powerfuUy calcubn
Cfiap.I, POPULATION. 305
C)f moral restrainU
ted to awaken the sympathies of the soul, and pro- duce the most exquisite gratifications. Perhaps there is scarcely a man who has once experienced the genuine delight of virtuous love, however great his intellectual pleasures may have been, that does not look back to the period as the sunny spot in his whcde life, where his imagination loves most to bask, which he recollects and contemplates with the fondest regret, and which he would most wish to live over again.
It has been said by Mr. Godwin, in order to abow the evident inferiority of the pleasures of aense, " Strip the commerce of the sexes of all its •* attendant circumstances, and it would be genc- lally despised." He might as well say to a man idio admired trees, strip them of their spreading bianches and lovely foliage, and what beauty can you see in a bare pole ? But it was the tree with the brancbes and foliage, and not without them, that excited admiration. It is '^ the symmetry of ** person, the vivacit}', the voluptuous softness of " temper» the affectionate kindness of feeling, the ^imagination and the wit'" ofawoman, which
^ Political Justice, vol. u b. i. c. v. p» 72« 8vo.
30Ö ESSAY ON Book JF.
Of moral restraint.
cxcite the pi^ssion of love, und not the roere dis- tinctioii of her being a female*
It is a very great mistake to suppose that the passion between the sexes only operates and in- fluenccs human conduct, whcn the immediate gratification of it is in contemplation. The for- m»tion and steady pursuit of some particular plan of life, has been justly considered as one of the most ptrmanent sourc^s of happiness ; but I am inclined to believe that there are not many of these plans formed that are not connected in a consider- able degree with the prospect of the gratificatioa of this passion, and with the support of childreiB arising from it. The evcning meal, the warm house, and the comfortablc fireside, would lose half of their intcrest, if wc wcrc to cxciude the idea of some object of affectioii with whom thcy were to Ik* shared.
Wc have also great reason to Ixrlicve that the passion between the sexes has the most powerful tcndency to soften and meliorate ihe human cha- ractcr, and krcp it morc alivc to all the kindlier emotioris of Inrnevolence and pity. Obscr\atioas on savajjc lifc have jjrenerally tciukd to pro\e, tliat natlons in which this passion appeared to be Icss vivid wcre distinguished by a fcrocious and nialig:-
Chap. I. POPULATION. 307
Of moral restraint.
nant spirit, and particularly by tyranny and cruelty
'to the sex. If inilecd this bond of conjuj^vil af-
*fection were considerably vveakened, it stcms
probable, either that the man would makc usc of
liis superior physical strength and tum his wifi: in-
•to a slave, as among the generality of savagcü, or
at best, that every iittle inequalÄy of temper wbich
must necessarily occur between two persons,
wouH produce a total alienation of affection ; and
this could hardly take place, without a diminution
of purtntal fondness and care, which would havc
the most fatal cffect on the happiness of societj-.
It may be furtlier remarked, that obsenations on the human character in different countries War- rant US in the conclusion, that the passion is strong- cr, and its general effects in producing gendeness, kindness, and suavity of manners, much more powerful, where obstacles are thrown in the way of very early and universal gratification. In some of tlie southem countries where everj" »mpulse may be almost immediately indulged, the passion sinks into mere animal desirc, is soon weakened and al- most extinguished by excess ; and its influence on ihe character is extremely confined. But in European countries, where, thougli the women be not seduded, yet manners have imposed consider*
I
308 ESSAY ON Book IV,
Of moral rcstraint.
able restraints on this gratification, the passion r.r * only rises in Force, but in the universality and tieficial tendency of its effects, and has often ih most influence in the formation and improvcmcni of the charactcr where it is the least gra tified.
Considering then the passion betwccn the sexes in all its bearings*and rclations, and including the endearing engagcment of })arent and child resulting from it, few will be disposed to deny that it is one of the principal ingredients of human happiness. Yet experience teachcs us that much evil flows from the irregulär gnitification of it ; and thcmgh the evil be of little weight in the scale, when com* pared \vith the good, yet its absolute quantity can- not be inconsidcral)le on account of the strcngth and universality of the passion. It is evident howevcr, from the gcneralcom'uct ofall governnimts in their distribulion of punishmcnts, that the evil resulting from this cause is not so great and so immediate- ly dangerous to society, as the irregulär gratifica- tion of the desirc of property ; but placing this evil in the most iormidable point of view, we should evidently purchase a diminution of it at a ver}- dear price, by the extension or dimmution of the passion which causes it ; a change, which would probably convert human life» eitbcr into a
Chap. L POPULATION. 309
Of moral restraint.
cold and cheerless blank, or a scene of savage and merciless ferocity.
A careful attention to the remote as well as immediate effects of all the human passions, and all the general laws of nature, leads us strongly to the conclusion, that under the present Constitution of things, few or none of them would admit of being gready diminished, without narrowing the sources of good, more powerfully than the sour- ces of evil« And the reason seems to bc ob- vioos. They are, in faet, the materials of all our pleasures, as well as of all our pains ; of all our happiness, as well as of all our misery ; of all our TUtues, as well as of all our vices. It must there- Iotc be regulation and direction that are wanted, not diminution or extinetion.
It is jusdy observed by Dr. Paley, that " Hu- man passions are either necessary to human wel- fere, or capable of being made, and in a great ** majority of instances, in faet, made conducive to its happiness. These passions are strong and general; and perhaps would not answcr their ** purpose, unless they were so. But strength and " generality, when it is expedient that particular " circumstances should be rcspected, becomc, if " lefttothemselves,excessandmisdirection. From " which excess and misdirection die vices of man-
4« iC
310 ESSAY ON Book 1 f.
Of moral restraint.
** kind (thc causes no doubt of much miseiy) ap- ** appcar to spring. This account while it show3 ** US the principle of vice, shows us at the stmc •• time, the province of reason and sclf-govcrn- "menf."
Our virtue therefore, as reasonable beings, ni dently consists in educing from the general matc. rials which the Crcatcx* has placed under cur gui- dance, the greatest sum of human happiness ; tnd as our natural impulses are abstractedly consider- cd good, and only to bc distinguished by their coo* sequences, a strict attention to these consequeo* CCS, and thc regulation of our conduct confonnabif to thera, must Ix* considcrcd as our principal duty.
The fccundity of ihc human sjx^cies is, in sorac rcspccts, a distinct consideration from the passion bctwcen tlie scxcs, as it cvidcntly dcpends more \\\ydx\ thc power of women in lxarii'^children,than upon the strcngih or wcakncss of this {xission. — It ib howcvcT a law exactiy simihu* in its grcat fea- turcs to all the other laws of nature. It is strong and general, and apjjarcntly would not admit of any vc- r}' considerable diminution, wilhout iKing inadc - cjuate to its object ; the evils arisinfjfrom it are in-
^ Natural Thcology, c. xxvi. p. 547.
10/». /. POPULATION. 3U
Of moral reslraint*
ental to these necessaxy qualities of strength l generality ; and these cvils are ca^ble of be- ; very greatly mitigated, and rendered compa- ively light by human energy and virtuc. Wc mot but conceive that it is an object of the ^tor that the earth should be replenished, and it )ears to me clear that this could not be efiected liout a tendency in population to increase faster n food; and as vvith the present law of increase, : peopling of the earth does not proceed verj^ ra- ily, we have undoubtedly some reason to be- ^e that this law is not too powerful for iu> appa- it object. The desire of the means of subsist- Ä would be comparatively confined in its efFects^ , i would fiiil of producing that gcneral activity necessary to the improven^nt of tlie human fa- Ities, were it not for the strong and universal ef- t of population, to increase with grcatcr rapidity ^ in its supplies* If these two tendcncies wert j] actly balanced, I do not see what motive therc Mild be, sufficientiy strong to ovcrcome the ac* owledged indolence of man, and make him pro- sd in the cultivation of the soil. The popula- n of any large territory, however fertile, would as likely to stop at five hundred, or five thou- kI, as at five millions, or fifty millions. Suöh a
312 ESSAY ON Book IT,
Of moral restraint.
balance therefore, would deariy defeat one gitit
purpose of creation ; and if the question be merelj
a question of degree, a question of a little mort or
a little less strength, we may fairly distrust our
competence to judge of the precise quantity ne-
cessary to answer the object with the smallest sum
of incidental evil. In the present State of tluogs
we appear to have imder our guidance a great
power, capable of peopling a desert region in a
small number of years ; and yet under other cir«
cumstances, capable of being confined by humaa
energy and virtue to any limits however narrow, at
the cxpense of a small comparative quantity of
evil, The analogy of all the other laws of nature
would be completcly violated, if in this instance
alone, there were no provision for accidental fai-
lures, no resources against the viccs of mankind«
or the partial mischiefs resulting from other gene-
ral laws. To effect the apparent object without
any attendant evil, it is evident that a perpetual
change in the law of increase would be necessary«
varying with the varying circumstances f eack
countr}\ But instead of this, it is not only more
consonant to the analogy of the other parts of na*
ture, but we have reason to think, that it is more
Gonducive to the formaüon and improvement of
aap, 1. POPULATION. 513
Of moral restraint.
■'»'■' ' -**
the human mind, that the law should be uniform, and the evils incidental to it, under certain circum» stances, be left to be mitigated or removed by man himself. His duties in tliis case vary with his Situation ; and he is thus kept more alive to the consequences of his actions, and his faculties have evidently greater play and opportunity of improve- ment, than if the cvil were removed by a perpetu- al change of the law according to circumstances, Even if from passions too easily subducd, or the facility of illicit intercourse, a State of celibacy were a matter of indifference, and not a State of some privation, the end of nature in the peo|)ling of the earth would be apparently liable to be de- feated. It is of the very utmost importance to the happiness of mankind, that they should not in- creuse too f st ; out it docs not apptar that the ob- jcct to be accomplished would admit of any very considerablc diminution in the desirc of marriage. It is clearly the duty of each individual not to marry tili he has a prospect of supporting lüs chil- dren ; but it is at the same timc to be wished that he should ret:\in undiminishtd his desire of mar- liage, in order that he may cxert himsc If to realize this prospect, and be stiniiilated to make provision for the Support of greater numbcrs,
It is evidently therefore, regulation and direc- voL ii. s s
zu ESSAY ON, &?r.
Of iDoral restraint.
tion that is required with regard to the principle of population, not diminution or alteration. And if moral restraint be the only virtuous mode of avoid- inj^"* the incidental evils arising from this prin- ciple, öur Obligation to practise it will evident- ly rest exactly upon the same foundation, as our Obligation to practise any of the other virtues, the foundation of Utility.
Whatever indulgence we may be disposed to allow to occasional failures in the discharge of a duty of acknowledged difBcuIty ; yet of the strict line of duty, we cannot doubt. Our Obligation not to marry tili we have a fair prospect of being ahle to Support our children, will appear to descrvc the attention of the moralist, if it can be proved, that an attention to this Obligation is of morc efTcct in the prevention of misery, thaii ull the other vir. tues combined ; and that if in viohition of this duty, it werc the gcneral custom to follow the first im- pulsc of naturc, and marry at the agc of pubcrty, the universal prcvalcnce of evcry known virtue, in the greatcst conccivablc dej^ce, would fail of res- cuing Society from the most wrctched and despe- rate State of want, and all the diseases and famines which usuaily uccompany it.
CHAPTER IL
&fthe effects which would result to society from
the prevalence oj this virtue.
ONE of the principal reasons which has prevented an assent to the doctrine of the constant tendency of population to increase beyond the means of subsistence, is a great unwillingness ro believe, that the Dcity would by tiie laws of nature bring beings into existence, which by the iaws of nature could not be supported in that existence. But if in addition to that general activity and di- rection of our industry put in motion by thcse laws, we further consider, that the incidental evils arising fix)m them are constandy directing our attention to the proper check to population, moral restraint ; and if it appear, that by a strict obedi- ence to those duties which are pointed out to us by the light of nature and reason, and are confirm- cd and sanctioned by revelation, these evils niay be avoided, the objection will, I trust, be removed, and all apparent imputation on the goodness of fhe Deity be done away. The heathen moralists never represented hap
316 ESSAY ON Book ir.
Of thc cffccts on aocicty
pincss as attainable on carth, but through thc medium of virtue ; and among their virtues pni- dence ranked in the first class, and by somc was even considered as including ever}' other. Thc Christian religion places our present as well as fu'iire h ippiness in the cxercise of those virtues which tcnd to fit us for a State of superior enjoy- ment ; and the subjection of die passions to the guidancc of reason, which, if not the whole^ is a principal branch of prudence, is in consequence most particularly inculcated.
If for the sake of Illustration, we might be per- mitted to draw a picture of societ}-, in which eacb indivtdual endeavored to attain happiness by thc strict fulfiimLnt of thosc duiics, which the niost enlightcned of the ancicnt philosophers deduced from the law» of natuR% and which have been diPLCtly laiight, and rcccivcd such powcrful sanc- tions in the moral code of Christianilv, it would present a very differcnt sccnc from that which wc now contemplate. Evcrj' act which was prompted by thc desirc of immcdiate gratification, but which threatcned ao ultimate overlxilancc of jxiin, would be considered as a brcach of duty ; and consc- quently no man whose earnings were only sufficient to maintain two cliildren, would put himself in a
Chap. IL POPULATION. 317
of moral restraint.
Situation in which he might have to maintain four
or five, however he might be prompted to it by
the passion of love. This prudential restraint, if
it were generally adopted, by narrowing the sup-
ply of labor in the market, would, in the natural
course of things, soon i-aise its price. The period
of delayed gratification would be passed in saving
tlie eaniings which were above tlie wants of a sin-
^e man, and in acquiring habits of sobricty , indus-
try, and economy, which wouid enable him in a
iew ycars to enter into the matrimonial contract
^nthout fear of its consequences, • The ©Iteration
of the preventivc check in this way, by constantly
Iceeping the population within the limits of die
food, thouj3^h constantly following its incnuse,
would give a real value to the rise of wages, and
'the sums saved by laborers before marriage, very
different from those forced advances in the
price of labor, or arbitrary parochial donations,
nrhich, in proportion to their magnitude and ex-
tensiveness, must of necessity be followed by a
proportional advance in the price of provisions.
As the wages of labor would dius be suflicicnt to
mainüdn with decency a large family, and as
cvery married couple would set out wiih a sum
for contingencies, all squalid poverty would I)e
318 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of the effects on «ociety
removcd from society, or at Icast, Ije confincd to a vcry fcw, who had fallen into misfortuncs aguinst which no prudcnce or foresight could provide.
The intcrval between die age of puberty and die pcriod at which cach iiidividual might venture on marriagc must, according to thc supposition, bc passed in strict chastity ; becausc the law of chas- tity cannot bc violated without producing cviL Thc cffcct of any diing likc a promiscuous intcr- coursc which prevcnts die birdi of children, b evi- dently to wcal^cn die best affcctions of thc heait, and in a vcr}' markcd uianner to dcgrade the fc- malc charactcr. And any other intcrcoursc wouU without inipropcr arts, bring as many children in- lo thc society as marriagc, with a niuch greattr prol)al)ility of thcir bccoming a bürden to it.
These considerations show tluit the virtiic of chastity is not, ;js some havc siipposed, a forccd produce of artificial society ; but ihat it hab thc niost real and solid foundation in naturc and rca- son ; being apparently thc only virtuous mean of avoiding die vice and misery which rcsult so oftcn from the principlc of population.
In such a society as we havc Ixen supposing, it might l)c neccssary for both scxes to pass many of thc early yeai's of lifc in thc singlc slate ; and if
Chap,lL POPULATION. 319
of moral restraint.
Ihis were general, there would certaiuly be rooni
for a much greatcr number to marry afterwards,
ao that fewer, upon the whole, would be (ondcmii-
cd to pass their iives in celibacy. If the-i^^stoni
of not marrying early prevailed gencrolly, and if
violations of chastity were equally dishonorable in
both sexes, a morc familiär and friendlv inter-
eourse between them might take place without
danger. Two young people might converse togc-
ther intimatcly without its being immediatcly siip-
posed that diey either intended marriage or in-
trigue ; and a much better opportunity would thus
bcgiven to both sexes of finding out kindrcd dis-
positions, and of forming those stron.^ and lasting
lOaebments, without which the marricd State is
geoerally more productive of miser}- than of h.ippi-
acss. The earlier years of life would not be spcnt
without love, though without the füll gratiilcation
of it The passion instead of l)eing cxtinguishcd,
IS it now too frequently is by early scnsuali'tv,
woald only be repressed for a tinic, that it miglit
afterwardb burn with a brightcr, purer, and steadi-
cr Same ; and the happiness of the married stat'/,
iDSteadof an opportunity of immediate indul.<3^nce,
would be looked forward to as the prize of indus
320 ESSAY ON Jiook IT.
r
Of thc cffccts on socicty
tr)' and virtue, and die reward of a genuine and constant atüichmcntj
The passion of love is a powerfui Stimulus b the formation of character, and ofien prompts to the most noble and gencrous exertions ; bUi this is only when the affcctions are centered in ooc objcct ; and generally, when füll graUfication n dclayed by difficultic. .* The heart is perfaq»
' Dr. Currie, in his interesting observatioos on tk charactcr and condition of the ^^cotch peasantry« whkh he has pretixcd to his life of Büros, remarkt» witb % just knowledgc of human nature, that ^ in appreciadsf *^ the huppincäs and virtue of a Community, there n ^^ perhaps no Single criterion on which so much depcB- •' dciKc n^ay bc placed as ihc slatc of thc intercourse b<» '* twecn Ulf stxcs. Wherc this displays ardorof atticb- '* mcnt, accompanied by purily of coiiduct, thc chanctef ^* aiul ihe inflijtr.cc of \\<imcn li.-c, cur impcrfcct nature '^ niounis in tlic scalc of moral cxccllcncc; and from the •» hoiiicc üf this Single arTcclion. a siream of felicity de» •< scends, which branches into a thousand rivulets tbil •' rnrich and adom the ficld of life. Wherc the attach- ** mcnt belwecn the sexe^ sinks in'o an appetite, thc hcrit- ** age of our specics is coinparaiivcly poor, and man ap- •* Ijioaches to ihc condition of tlie brutcs that perish." Vol. i. ]). 1 8.
* Dr. C'unic observes, that the Scottish peasant in tlM com sc of his passion oficn excrls a spirit of advcnture« of \^l.icli a Spanish ca^alicr necd not bc ashamed. Bumt* Works, vol. i. p. 16. It is no« to be doubtcd, that thift kind ofronianlic passion which Dr. C. says, charmcterii«f
Chap. IL POPULATION. 321
of moral rcstraint.
never so much disposed to virtuous conduct, and certainly at no time is the virtue of chastity so litüe difficult to men, as when under the influencQ of such a passion. Late marriages taking place in this way would be very different from those of the same name at present, where the union is too fre- quendy prompted solely by interested views, and the parties meet not unfrequently with exhausted constitutions, and generally with exhausted affec- üons. The late marriages at prescnt are indced principally confined to the men; and there are fcw, however advanced in life they may be, who if they determine to marry, do not fix their choice (Ml a veiy young wife. A young woman without fortune, when she has passed her twentj'^-fifth year, b^ins to fear, and with reason, that she may lead a life of celibacy ; and with a heart capable of fonning a strong attachment, feels as each year ereeps on, her hopes of finding an object on which to rcst her affections gradually diminishing, and Ae uneasiness of her Situation a^ravated by the
the attachments of the humblest people of Scotland, and «hieb has been greatly fostered by the elevation of mind giTen to them by a superior education, has had a most powerful and most beneficial influence on the national character.
TfoL ii, l t
322 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of thc eifects on society
silly and iinjust prejudices of the world. If thc general agc of marriage among women were latcr, tlie period of youth and hopc would be prolonged, and fewer would bc ultimately disappointed«
Tliat a changc of diis kind would be a most decidcd advantage to thc more virtuous half of societv, we cannot for a momcnt doubt« How« cver impatiently the privaüon might be boroe bj the mcn, it would be supported by the women rcadily and cheerfully ; and if they could look for* wards with just confidence to marriage at twcnty- cight or thirty, I fully believc that if the matter wcre left to their free choice, they would clearij prefer waiting tili this period, to the being involv- cd in all the carcs of a large family at twenty-fivc« Thc most eligible age of marriage howevcr, could not be fixcd ; but must dcpcnd entin^ly on circum* stances and Situation. Tiicrc is no period of hu- man life at which nature morc strongly prompts to an Union of tlic sexes, than from scventecn or eigh- tcen to twenty. In evcr}- societ}- above that ^tat^ of depression which almost cxcludcs rcason and forcfiiight, thcsc carly tendencies must neccssarily bc restrained ; and if hi thc actual bUite of things, such a restraint on thc impulscs of nature bc found unavoidablc, at what time can wc bc con^tcntly
Onp. IL POPULATION. 3Ü3
of moral restraint*
rdeased from it, but at that period, whatever it may bc, when, in thc existing circumstances of the 50ciety, a fair prospect presents itself of maintain- ing a family?
The difficulty of moral restraint will perhaps bc objected to this doctrine. To him who does not acknowledge the authority of the Christian reli- gkm, I have only to say, that aller the most careful kivestigation, this virtue appears to be absolutely necessary, in order to avoid certain evils which would otherwise result from the general laws of nitiire. According to his own principles, it is his daty to pursue the greatest good consistent with laws ; and not to fail in this important end, produce an overbalance of misery, by a partial obedienoe to some of thc dictates of nature while hc ne^ects others. The path of virtue, though it be the only path which ieads to permanent happi- Hess, has always been represented by the heathen monlists as of difficuh ascent.
To the Christian I would say, that the scriptures OKMt dearly and preciscly point it out to us as our duty^ to restrain our passions within the bounds of leason ; and it is a palpable disobedience of this faw, to indulge our desires in such a manncr as rc;i- squ teils us will tmavoidablv cnd \\\ niisCr^-. Thc
524 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of the effects on society
Christian cannot consider the difficulty of moral restraint as any argument against its being bis du- ty ; since in almost every page of the sacred writ* ings, man is described as encompassed on all sides by temptations, which it is cxtremely difficult to resist ; and though no duties are enjoined which do not contribute to his happiness on earth as well as in a future State, yet an undeviating obedience b never represented as an easy task.
There is in general so strong a tendency to lovc in carly youth, that it is extremely difiicult at tlüs pcriod to distinguish a genuine from a transient passion. If the carlier years of life were passed by both sexes in moral restraint, from the greater fäsKä- lity that this would give to the meeting of kindred dispor itions, it might even admit of a doubt whc- thcr more happy marf iages would not take place, and consequenüy more pleasure from the passion of love, than in a State such as that of America, the circunistances of whicli would allow of a very ear- ly Union of the sexes. But if we compare the in- tcrcüurse of the sexes in such a society as I havc bccu supposing, with that which now exists in Eu* rojK', takcn underail its circunistances, it may safe- ly hj asscrted, that indcpendendy of the load of iTiiscry uliich would be removed, the sum of piea-
Chap. IL POPULATION. 525
of moral restraint.
surable sensations from thc passion of lovc would be increased in a ver)^ great degrce.
If we could suppose such a system general, the accession of happiness to society in its internal cconomy, would scarcely be greater than in its ex- temal relations. It might fairly l)e expected that war, that great pest of the human race, would, un- der such circumstances, soon cease to extcnd its ravages so widely and so frequently, as it does at present.
One of its first causes and most powerfui im- pnlses, was undoubtedly an insufficiency of room and food; and greatly as the circumstances of mankind have changed since it first began, the same cause still continues to operate and to pro- duce, though in a smaller degree, the same effects. The ambition of princes would want instniments of destniction, if the distresscs of the lower classes of people did not drive them under their Standards. A recniiting serjeant always prays for a bad har- vest, and a want of emploympnt, or in other words, a redundant population.
In the earlier ages of the world, when war was die great business of mankind, and thc drains of population from this cause were, bcyond compari- son, greater than in modern times, thc legislators
326 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Of the efiects on society
Hnd statesmen of each countrj', adverting princi- pally to the means of offcnce and defcnce, encou- raged an increase of peoplc in e very possible way, fixed a sti^a on barrcnncss and celibacy, and ho- nored marriage. The populär religions foUowcd these prevailing opinions. In many countries the prolific power of nature was the object of solenm worship. In the religion of Mahomet» which was- cstablished by the sword, and the Promulgation oT" which, in consequencey could not be unaccompara* cd by an extraordinär}- destruction of its foUo%%Tr\ the procreation of children to glorify the Creator was l^d down as one of the principal duties of man ; and he who had the most numcrous off. spring, was considered as having best answcntl the cnd of his creation. The prcvalcncc of such moral sentimcnts had naturally a grcat cffcct in en- couraging marriage ; and the rapid procreation which followcd was partly the cffcct and parlly the cause of incessant war. The vacancies occasioD- cd by former desolations madc room for the rcar- ing of fresh supplies ; and the overflowing rapidi- ty with which thcse supplies followcd, constanüy fumishcd fresh incitements and frcsh instruments for rencwed hostiüties. Under the influcnce of
Chap, IL POPULATION. 327
of moral restraint.
such moral sentiments it is difßcult to conceive ho»v the fury of incessant war should ever abate«
It is a pleasing confirmation of the tnith and divinity of the Christian religion, and of its being adapted to a more improved State of human Socie- ty, that it places our duties respecting marriage and the procreation of children, in a difTcrent light from that in which they were before beheld.
Without entering minutely into the subject, ivhich would evidently lead too far, I think it irill be admitted, that if we apply the spirit of St Paul's decla(^tions respecting marriage to die present State of society, and the known Constitu- tion of our nature, the natural inference seems to tae, that when marriage does not interfere with tiig^r duties, it is right ; when it does, it is \vrong. .According to the genuine principles of moral scieiice, " The method of Coming at the will of ** God from the light of nature, is to inquire in- ** to the tendency of the action to promote or di ^nünish the general happiness."* There are per- haps few actions that tend so directly to diminisli 4c general happiness, as to marry without the means of supix)rting children. Hc who commits
#*-
' Palcy's Moral Philosophyi.vol. i. b, ii c iv. p. 65.
323 ESSAY ÜN Book IV.
Of the efiects on society
this act thcrefore, clearly offends against thc will of God, and having bccome a bürden on thc society in which he Hves, and plungcd himself and family into a Situation in which virtuous habits are prc- served with more difficulty tlian in any othcr, hc appears to Iiave violatcd his duty to his neighbc»^ and to himself, and thiis to have listened to thc voice of pussion in Opposition to his higher obh-^ gations.
In a society, such as I have supposed, all thc^ mcinbcrs of which endcavor to attain happiness by obedience to thc moral code derived from die light of nature, and enforccd by strong saiictions in rcvcalcd religion, it is evident that no such niarriagcs could tukc place ; and thc i)rcvcntion of a r».dund:int population, in this way, would rc- nii)vc onc of thc principal cncouragcmcnts to of- ftii:^ivc war; and at ihc siinic timc tcnd powcrful- 1} r.ü cradicatc thosc two fatal political disordcrs, iniernal tvranny and intcnial tumult, whicli rnu- tually producc cacli oüier.
Indis|X)scd to a war of ofll-ncc, in a w:u" of dc- fcncc, such a society would bc stronjj as a rock ol adamant. WIktc cvcry family possessed ihc nc- ccssarics of lifc in j)lcnty, and a dcccnt portion uf its comfurts and convcnicncics. thcre could net
\
CfVp' U' POPULATION. 329
of moral restraiot«
cxist that hope of cliange, or at best tliat melan- cfaoty and disheartening indifierence to it, which aometimes prompts the lower classes of people to aay, ** let what will come we cannot be worse off *' than we are now.'* Every heart and hand would be united to repel an invader, when each indivi- dual feit the value of the solid advantages which he enjoyed, and a prospect of change prescntcd only a prospect of being deprived of them.
As it appears therefore, that it is in the power of
cach individual to avoid all the evil consequences
to himself and society resulting from the principlc
of population, by tlie practice of a virtue clearly
dictated to him by the light of naturc, and ex-
j^ressly enjoined in revealed religion ; and as we
liave reason to think, that the exercise of this vir-
Cue to a certain degree, would rather tcnd to in-
csrease than diminish individual happiness ; we can
bavc no reason to impeach the justice of the Dcity,
because his general laws make this virtue ncces-
^aiy, and punish our offences against it by the
evik attendant upon vice, and the pains tliat ac*
Company the various forms of premature death.
A really virtuous society, such as I have suppos-
od, would avoid these evils. It is the app.ircat
object of the Creator to deter us from vice by the
. r.
330 ESSAY ON, &?r.
Of the effects on societyi l^c.
|| pains which accompany it, and to lead us to virtue by the happiness that it produces« This obfcct appears to our concepdoiis to be worthy of a bc- ncrvolcnt Creator. The laws of nature respccting population tend to promote this object. No Im- putation thereforc, on the benevolence of the Dei- ty, can be founded on these laws, which is not equally applicable to any of the evils neccssaril}' ncidcntal to an impcrfect State of existcnce.
CHAPTER m.
Ofthe only effectual mode of impraoing the eondi^
tion of the Poor.
HE who publishes a moral code, or System
«f dutiesi however firmly he may be convinced of
the stroDg Obligation on each individual stiicdy
to conform to it, has never the foUy to imagine
that it will be universally or even generally prac*
tised« But this is no valid objection against the
publication of the code. If it were, the same
objection would always have applied ; we should
be totally without general rules ; and to the vices
of mankind arising from temptation, would be
added a much longer list than we have at present,
tf vices from ignorance.
Judging merely from the light of nature if we led convinced ofthe misery arising from a redun« dant population on the one band, and of the evils 4nd unhappiness, particularly to the female sex, arising fit>m promiscuous intercourse, on the other, I do not see how it is possible for any person who admpwledges thfs principle of Utility as the great
^ 332 ESSAY ON ^ Book !¥.
Of the only efiectual mode of
^füundation of morals, to cscape the conclusion, that moral rcstraini, or the abstaining from marri- agc tili we are in a condition to support a family» with a pcrfectly moral conduct during that period, is tlie strict line of dut\' ; and whcn revelation is taken into the question, this duty undoubtedly re« ceives very powerful confirmation. At the samc timc I beÜeve that few of my readers can be less- sanguine in their expectations of any great change in the gencral conduct of men on this subject than I am ; and the chief reason why in the last chapter I allowed mysclf to suppose the imiverBal preva- lence of this virtue was, that T might endeavor to remove any imputation on tnc goodness of the I)e- ity, by showing that tlic evils arising from the princiT^le of population werc cxacttly of the same nature as the generality of other evils which excite fewer complaints, that thcy uerc increascd by human ignorance and indolence, and diminished by human knowledgc and virtuc ; aixl on the sup- Position that räch individual strictly fuliilled his duty, would hc almost totally rcmovcd ; and this, without any gencral diminution of those sources of pleasure, arising from the regulated indulgence of the passions, which have been justlv considered as the principal ingredients of human bappincs».
Chap. HL V ' POPULATION. 333
improvin); the condition of the poor«
If it will answer any puq^ose of illustration, I
see no härm in drawing the picture of a society in
which each individual is supposed strictly to fulfil
his duties ; nor does a writer appear to be jusdy
liable to the Imputation of being visionary, unless
he make such universal or gencral obedience ne-
cessary to the practical Utility of his System, and
to that degree of moderate and partial improve-
ment, which is all that can rationally be expected
from the most complete knowledge of our duties.
But, in this respect, there is an essential differ-
cnce between that improvcd State of society which
I have supposed in the last chapter, and most of
the other speculations on this subject. The im-
provement there supposed, if we e ver should make
approaches towards it, is to be efFected in the
i¥ay in which we have been in the habit of seeing
all the greatest improvements effected, by a direct
application to the interest and happiness of each
individual. It is not required of us to act from
motives to which we are unaccustomed, to puisue
a general good which we may not distinctiy com-
prehend, or the efFect of which may be wealcened
by distance and difFusion. The happiness of the
whole is to be the result of the happiness of indi-
viduals, and to begin first with them. No co-
334 £SSAYON BookJV.
Of the only effectual mode «f
Operation is required. Every step teils. He wbo performs his duty faithfliUy will reap the fuU fruits of it, whatever may be the numbcr of others who £dl. Thb duty is express aiid intelligible to the humblest capacity« It is merely that he is not (o bring beings into the World for whom he cannot find the means of support. When once this sub- ject is cleared from the obscurity thrown over it by parochial laws and private benevolence, every man must feel the strongest conviction of such an oUi^ gation. If he cannot support his children tbe>^ must starve ; and if he nuury in the face of a £d^ probability that he shall not be able to support hi children, he is guilty of all the evils which he thu brings upon himself, his wifc, and his ofTspring. I is clearly his intcrest, and will tend grcady to pro- mote his Iiappiness, to dcfer marrying, tili by in- dustry and economy he is in a capacity to support the children that he may reasonably cxpcct from his marriage ; and as he cannot in the mean timc gratify his passions, without violating an express command of God, and running a great risk of in* juring himself, or some of his fellow creaturcs, con- siderations of his own intercst and happiness will dictatc to him the strong Obligation to a moral con* duct while he rcmains ummarried.
1^
Chap, itl, POPULATION. 335
improving the condition of the poor.
However power ful may bc the Impulses of
passion, they are generally in some degree modified
by reason. And it does not seem entirely vision-
ary to suppose, that if the true and permanent cause
of povcrty were clearly explained, and forcibly
brought home to each man's bosom, it would have
some, and perhaps not an inconsiderable influenae
on bis conduct : at least the experiment has never
yet been fairly tried. Almost every thing that has
been hitherto done for the poor has tended, as if
with solicitous care, to throw a veil of obscurit}'
over this subject, and to hide fh)m them the true
cause of their poverty. When the wagcs of labor
^re hardly suificicnt to maintain two children, a man
marries and has five or six. He of course fuids
liiinself miserably distressed. He accnses the in-
sufficiency of the price of labor to maintain a fa-
nily. He accuses his parish for their tardy and spar-
ing fulfilment of their Obligation to assist him. Hc
acc'ises the avaricc of the rieh, who sufier him to
^wnt what they can so well spare. He accuses the
parüal and unjust institutions of socicty, which
lave awarded him an inadequate sharc of the prc-
duce of the earth. He accuses perhaps the dis-
pensations of Providence, which have assigned to
Iiim a place in socie^ so besel with unavoi Jabic
336 ESSAY ON Book
Of the only efiectual mode of
distress and dependance. In searching fw ol> jects of accusation, he never adverts to the quarter from which all his misfortunes originate« The last person that he would think of accusing is him* seif, on whom in fact the principal blame lies, ex- cept in as &r as he has been deceived by the high- er classes of society. He may perhaps wish that he had not married, because he now feels the in^ conveniences of it ; but it never enters into hi^ head that he can have done any thing wrong. has always been told that to raise up subjec for his king and country is a very meritorious He has done this act, and yet is suffering for i He naturally thinks that he is suffering for righte- ousness sake ; and it cannot but strikc him as most extremely unjust and cruel in liis king and coun- tr)-, to allow him thus to suffer, in rctuni for giv- ing them wliat thcy arc continually dcclaring that they particularly want.
Till these erroneous ideas liave been correclcd, and the language of naturc and reason has been gc- ncrally hcard on tlie subject of popuIation, instead of the language of error and prejudice, it can- not bc Said that any fair experimcnt has been made witli the undcrstandings of tlie common people ; and we cannot juslly accusc them of improvidence
Chap. 111. POPULATION. 337
improving the conditon of the poor.
and \vant of industry, tili they act as ihey do now, aftcr it has been brought home to their coraprehen- sions, that they are thcmselves thc cause of their own poverty ; that the means of redrcss are in their own hands, and in the hands of no other persons whatev'er ; that the societ}^ in which they live, and the govemment which presides over it, are with- out any direct power in this respect ; and however ardently they may desire to relieve them, and what- cver attempts they may make to do so, are really and truly. unable to execute what they benevolent- }gf wish, but unjustly promise ; that when the wa- ges of labor will not maintain a family, it is an in- controvertible sign that their king and country do Bot want more subjects, or at least that they can- aot Support them ; that if they marry in this case, so fer from fulfilling a duty to society, they are flirowing a useless bürden on it, at the same timc that they are plunging themselves into distress ; and that they are acting directly contrary to the will of God, and bringing down upon themselves vari- ous diseases, which might all, or the greatcr part, kave been avoided, if they had attended to the re- peated admonitions which he gives by the general laws of nature, to every being capable of reason. t?o/. ii. XX
338 ESSAY ON JBook IF.
Of die oDly cffiectnal node of
Dr. Paley, in h'is Moral Philosophy, observcs» that ^^ in countries in which subsistence b become ^ scarce, it behoves the State to watch over thc '^ public morak with increased solicitude ; fiir no- ^* thing but the instinct of nature, under thc res- ^ traint of chastity, will induce men to undeitakc ^^ the labor, or consent to the sacrifice of personal ^^ liberty and indulgence, which the support of a ^* fiimily in such circumstances requires.*' * ' Thal it is ahirays the duty of a State to use every exer- tion likely to be effectual in discouraging vice and promotii^ virtuc, and that no temporary circum* stances onght to cause any relaxation in these ex- ertions is certainly tnie. The means therefbre proposed arc always good ; but the particular cnd in vicw in this case^ appears to be ahsolutely cri- ininaL Wc wish to force pcople into marriagc, when from thc acknowledged scarcity of subsist- ence, they will have kttle chance of bcing ablc to support tiieir children* We might as well forot peoplc into the water who arc unable to swim. In both cases we rashly tempt Providence. Nor have we morc reason to believe, that a m'uaclc will bc
* VoL ii« c. xi. p. 353
Ciep. JIL POPULATION. 3S9
improriiii^ Ibe eonditioii of tlie poor«
worked to save us firom the miseiy and mortality resnltii^ frotn oiir comduct in the ooe case^ than in theother«
The object crf^those who reaBy wish to better the conditioo of the Iower classe&of socfety, must be to rase the relative proportion between the prioe of labor and the price of pravisions» so as to enobfe the laborer to command a larger share of äie iieoesBaries and comforts of life» We have bitherto principally attempted to attain tlüs end by cncouraging the married poor, aod conseqoently tocreasing ätenumberoTlaborers^ and overstock- ing the maiHket with a commodity which we still o^" diat we wish to be desHV It would seem to lave lequired no great spirit c^ di vinaticx^ to fxx^- dl tbe certainr faüure of such a plan of proceeding. There is notMng however like experience. It las been tried m many difierent countrles^ and for nany hundred years^ and the success has always )een answend[)Ie to the sature of the schemc. It s really time now to tiy sometlüng eise.
When it was found tbat oxygene, or purc vital VBTy would not eure consumptions, as was expect- sd, but rather aggravated their Symptoms ; a trial vas made of an air of the most opposite kmd. 1
340 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of theonly eflcctual mode of
wish we had acted with the same philosophical spi* rit in our attempts to eure the disease of povertj' ; and having found that the pouring in of fresh sup- plies of labor only tcnded to aggravate the symp. toms, had tricd what would be the cflFect of with- holding a little these supplies.
In all öld and fully-peoplcd states it is from thb methody and this alone, that we can rationally es- pect any essential and permanent melioraticn in the condition of the lower classes of people.
In an endeavor to raise the proportion of thr quantity of provisions to the number of consumers in any country, our attention would naturally be first directed to the incrcasiiig of the absolute quantity of provisions ; but fiiiding that as fast as WC did this, the number of consumers more ihan kcptpacc with it, and that with all our cxcrtions we wcre still as far as cver bchind, wt- siiould Ix! convin- ccd tiiat our cfforts directed oiilv in this wav would never succeed. It would appcar to l>c setting ihc tortoisc to catch the liarc. Finding thcrcfore, ihat from the laws of naturc we could not proportion the food tothe population, our ncxtattcmpt should naturally Ixr to proportion the populaiion lo ihe food. If WC can pcrsuadc the harc to go to slccp
Chap. 111. POPULATION. 341
improi^ing the condition of the poor*
Jie tortoise may have some chaiice of overtaking lier.
We are not however to relax our efforts in in- :reasing the quantity of provisions ; but to com- !>ine another effort with it, that ol keeping the po- pulation when once it has been overtaken, at such i distance behind as to effect the relative propar- don which we desire ; and thus unite the two grand lesiderata, a great actual population and a State of societ}^ in which squalid poverty and dependencc are comparatively but litde known ; two objects which are far from being incompatible.
If we be really serious in what appears to be the object of such general research, the mode of essen- tially and permanently bettering the condition of the poor, we mustexplain to them the tnie nature of their Situation, and show them that die withhold- ing of the supplies of labor is the only possible wSy o^ r^lly rising its price ; and that they them^ selves being the possessors of this commodity have alone the power to do this.
I cannot but consider this mode of diminishing poverty, as so perfectly clcar in theor}% and so in- ^'ariably confirmed by the analogy of evcry other
)imß^^
J42 ESSAY ON, Sfr.
Of the onlf effecttial mode of, tXc*
commodity tfaat U brooght to mtfket^ that noihing but its being shown to be calculated to produce gn?ater evUs than it proposes to remedy, can justi- fy US in not making die attemptto put it inta exe- eution.
CHAPTER IV.
Objectims lo this mode consideretL
ONE objection which perhaps will bc de to this plan, is that from which alone it dc- s its value — a market rather understocked witli 3r. This must undoubtedly take place in a tain degree ; but by no mtans in such a üegrec X) affixt the wealth and prosperi^ of the coun-
The way in which we are going on at pre- t, and the enormous increase in die price of pro- ons, which seems to threaten us, will tend much re eflFectually to enable foreigners to undersell Q the markets of Europe than the plan now pro- ed. If the populätion of this country were bet- proportioned to its food, the nominal price of \T might be lower than it is now, and yet bc icient to msuntain a wlfe and six children.-^ putting this subjectof a market understocked i labor, in tte most unfavorablc point of view , le rieh will not submit to a slight inconveniencc rssarily attendant on the attainment of what
profess to desire, thej cannot really be \u
344 ESSAY ON Jiook IV.
Objections to this mode considered.
eamest in thcir profcssions. Tlieir benevolencc to the poor must be either childish play or h}-po- crisy ; it must be either to amuse themselves or to pacify the minds of the common peoplc with a mere show of attention to their wants* To wish to better the condition of the poor by enabling them to command a greatcr quanüty of the neccs- saries and comforts of life, and then to compbin of high ^vages, is the act of a silly boy %vho givcs away his cake and then cries for it. A market overstocked with labor, and an ample rcmunera- tioh to each laborcr, arc objects perfectly incom* patible with each other. In the annals of th^ World they never cxisted togcther ; and to coupl^ them cvcn in Imagination I^ctrays a p^oss ignt:^ rancc of the simplcst principles of political cconc:^ mv.
A sccond objection that may bc madc to th^ plan is, the diminution of population tliat it woul^^ cause. It is to Ix^ considered howcvcr, ihat ihi^ ^ diminution is mcrcly relative ; and whcn once thE— relative diminution liad been effcctcd, by kecpin^ the population stationär}', whilc ihc supply of fooi^ had incrcascd, it mightthen start afrcsh, and con tinuc incrcasing for ages, with the increasc of food^
Cimp, IF, POPULATION. 345
Objectkms to thts mode considered«
maintaüning always the same relative propoition to iL I can easily conceive, that this country, mth a proper direetion of the national industiy, n^ht, in the course of some Centimes, contaia :wo or three times its present populatioiii, and yet -very man in the kingdom be much better fed and jotfaed tban he is at present. While the ^ings if industry cantinue in vigor, and a sufficient part if that industry is directed to agriculture, weneed >e under no apprehensions of a deficient popula^ wtk ; and nodiing perhaps would tend so strongly o excite a spirit of industry and economy among be poor, as a thorough knowledge that their hap- ^ineas must always depend principally upon tbem« lelTes ; and that if they obey their passions in op- poation to their reason, or be not indnstrious and Bmgal while tfiey are single men, to save a sum Tor ibe common contingencies of the married State, hcf must expect to suffer the natural evils wbich ProTidence has prepared ft»* those who disobey its xpeated admonitions.
A tfaird objectioQ which may be started to this plm, and the only one which appears to me to liave any kind of plausibüity is, thatby endeavor- ing to urge the duty of moral restndnt on the poor, we may increase the quantity of viee velating to the sex. inrf. ii. y y
346 ESSAY ON Book IV,
Objections to this mode considered« -■ ■ -^'™"^^ * -
I should be extremely sony to say any thing, which could either directly or remotely be con- strued unfavorably to the cause of virtue ; but I certainly cannot think that the vices %vhich relatc to the sex, are the only vices which are to be con- sidered in a moral question ; or that they are eveii the greatest and most degrading to the human character. They can rarely or never be comnut- ted without producing unhappiness somewheit or other, and therefore ought always to be stron^- ly reprobated ; but therc are other vices, the cf- fects of which are still more pemicious ; and ther^ are other situations which lead more certainly \x^ moral offences than the refraining from marriage^i- Powerful as may be the tcmptations to a brcacl^ ofchastity, I am incUned to think that they impotent, in comparison of the teniptations aris- ing from continued distress. A largc class of w nien, and many men, I havb no doubt, pass considerable part of their lives in chastity ; but I believe there will be found very fcw who pass through the ordeal of squalid and hopeless pover- ty, or even of long continued cmbarrasscd cir- cumstances, without a considerable moral degra- dation of character.
In the higher and middlc classes of society, it
ip, IV. POPULATION. 547
Objections to this mode considered.
melancholy and distressing sight to observe, unfrequently, a man of a noble and ingenu- disposition, once feelingly alive to a sense of w and integrity, gradually sinking under tlie 3ure of circumstances, making his excuses at with a blush of conscious shame, afraid of lg the faces of his fricnds from whom he may borrowed money, reduced lo the meanest s and subterfuges to deby or avoid the pay- : of his just debts ; tili i^timateiy grown &mi* ^th falsehood, and at enmity with the world^ ses oll the grace and dignity of man • 3 the general prevalence of indigence, and xtraordinary encourogements which we afford 18 country to a total want of foresight and pru- e among the common people, * is to be attri*
4r. Colquhoun, speaking of the poor laws, obscrves, « in spite of all the iogenious arguments which have I used in favor of a system» admitted to be wisely :eived in its origin, the effccts it bas produced in- ;estibly prove, that with respcct to the mass of ihc r, thcrc is something radically wrong in the execu- • If it were not so, it is impossible that there could X in the metropolis such an inconceiv^le portion of lan miscry amidst cxamples of munificence and bc • olonce unparallcled in any agc or country" Po- f Metropolis, c. xiii. p. 359.
S48 £SSAY Ott Aok IT.
Objections to this mode connderad.
buted tbe principal part ofthose continuai idepre- <&tiocis cm property, and odier more attraciooi crimes, which drive us to the painfiil vesource of such a number of executions.' Accnrdmgt» Mr. Colquhoun, above twenty thousand miaefi- bk individuals of rariotis classes rise up evciy moming without knowing how er by what meaoi they are to be supported during the pessing di^, or where m many instances, Üiey are to kidge osk the succeeding nigh^'' It is by these uahappgr persons that the principal depredations on tbe pub- lic are cainmitted;'and aupposing btR few them to be manried, and driven to theae acts» Irom die neoessi^ of supporting their cfaildrcn ; yet still it will not cease to be true, that the too great frequenc}' of marriage atiiong the poorest classes is one of the principal causes of the temp-
in the effects of the poor laws, I fully agree with Mr. Colquhoun ; hut I cannot agree with him in admittin^ that the System was well conceived in its origtn. 1 attri- bute still more evil to the original ill conception» than t« the subsequent ill execiUion*
' Mr. Col(]uhoiin obsenrcs, that " Indif^ence in tlie *^ present State of society, may be contidered as a prtnci« " pal cause of the increase of crime»." Police of Me- tropolis, c. xiii. p. 3S9«
* Id. c. xi« p« ^\2,
Cbo^ H^. POPULATION. 349
Objections to this mode contidered«
taüons to these crimes. A considorable part of these unhapf^ Mrretches will prohably be found to be the o&pring of such marriages, educated in workhouses where cveiy vice is propogated, or bred up at home in filth and rags, and with an utter ignorance of every moral Obligation.» A still greater part perhaps consists of peraons who bring unable for some time to get employment omqg to the fuU supply of labor, have been urg- ed to these extremities by their temporaiy wants, and having thus lost their characters, are rejected, even when their laben* may be wanted, by the wril-lbunded caution of civil society.»
^ Police of Metropolis, c. xi. xii. p. 355) 370«
^ Police of the Metropolis, c. xiii. p. 353 et seq. In
so large a town as London« which must necessarily en-
courage a prodigious infliix of strangers from the countrf ,
fhere must be always a grcat many persons out of werk ;
aad it is probable that some public Institution for the re-
li€f of the casual poor, upon a plan similar to that pro-
poaed by Mr. Colquhoun (c. xiii. p. 371.) would, under
tcrjr judicioiis management, produce more good than
eril. But for this purpose it would be absolutely neces-
ytctj^ that if work werc provided by the Institution, ihe
sum that a man could earn by it should be less than the
irorst paid common labor ; otherwise the claimants would
rapidly increase, and the funds would soon be inadequate
tn their objcrt. In tlic Institution at Hamburgh, which
350 ESSAY ON BooklF.
Objections to this mode considered.
When indigence does not produce overt acts of vice, it palsies evcry virtue. Under the continued teinptations to a breach of chastity, occasional fiul- Qres may take place, and the moral sensibility in
appears to have been the most successful of anj yet eita- blished, the nature of the work was such, that thoogb paid above the usual price, a person could not easilf ean by it more than eightcen pence a week. It was the de- tcrmined principle of the managers of the institution Is reduce the support which they gave, Iower than whatany industrious man or woman in such circumstances could earn* ( Account of the management of the poor in Hain« burgh, by C. Voght, p. 18.) And it is to this principle that they attribute their success« It should be obserred however, that ncither the Institution at Hamburgh, nor that planned by Count Rumford in Bavaria, has subsist- ed long enough for us to be able to pronounce on their permanent good effects. It will not admit of a doubtthat institutions for the relief of the poor, on their first esta« blishment, remove a great quantity of distress. The only qucstion is^ whether, as succeeding gcnerations arise, the increasing funds necessary for their support, and the increasing numbcrs that become dependcnt, are not grcater evils than that which was to be remcdied ; and whether the country will not ultimately be Icft witb as much mendicity as before, besides all the poverty and dcpcndence accumulated in the public institutions. This scems to be nearly the case in England at present« I do not believe that we should have more beggars if we had no poor laws.
(i:hap.jv. Population: 351
Objections to this mode considered*
other respects, not be very strikingly impaired ; but the continued temptations which beset hopeless pover^y and the streng sense of injustice that ge- nerally accompanies it from an ignonince of its true cause, tend so powerfully to sour the disposi- tion, to harden the heart, and deaden the moral sense, that, generally speaking, virtue takes her flight clear away from the tainted spot, and does not often retum.
Even with respect to the vices which relate to the sex, marriage has been found to be by no means a compleie remedy. Among the higher classes, our Doctors Commons, and the lives that many married men are know to lead, sufficiendy prove this ; and the same kind of vice, though not so much heardof aniongthe lower classes of peo- ple, owing to their indifference and want of delica- cy on these subjects, is probably not very much less frequent.
Add to tlüs, that squalid povert}', particularly when joined with idleness, is a State the most un- favorable to chaistity that can well be conceived, — The passion is as strong, or nearly so, as in other situations, and every rcstraint on it from personal respect, or a sense of mordlity is generally remov-
352 ESSAY ON, ÖV-,
Objections to this mode considered«
cd. There is a degree of squalid poverty, in which, if a girl was brought up, I sliould sajr that her being really modest at twenty was an absotate mhracle. Those persons must have extraordinary minds indeed, and such as are not usually fonned under similar circumstances^ wfao can continue to respect themselvesy when no other pcrsm what- ever respects thenu If tbe children thus brought up were cven to marry at twenty, it is probable that they would have passed some ]rears m Ticaoa^ habits before that period.
If after all, however, these arguments ahouM pear insufficient ; ifwe reprobate the idca cf voring to encourage the virtue of moral among the poor, from a fear of producing vice ^ and if we think that to facilitate marriage by al^ possible means is a point of the first consquence to^ the morality and happiness of the pec^k, let us^ act consistently, and before wc proceed, endcavor* to make ourselvcs acquainted with the mode by which alone we can eifect our object
"?=as
CHAPTER V.
Of the consequenccs ofpursutng the opposite mode.
IT is an evident truth, that whatevcr may bc the rate of increase in the means of subsistence, the increase of population must be limited by it, at least after the food has once been divided into the smalkst shares that will support life. All the chil- dren bom beyond what would bc required to keep up the population to this level, must necessarily perish, unless room be made for them by the deaths of grown persons. It has appeared indeed, clear- ly in the course of this work, that in all old states the marriages and births depend principally upon the deaths, and that there is no encouragement to eaiiy unions so powerful as a great mortality. To act consistently therefore, we should facilitate, in* stead of foolishly and vainly endeavoring to impede the Operations of nature in producing this mortali- ty ; and if we dread the too frequent v^itation of the horrid form of famine, we should sedulously encourage the other forms of destruction which wr voL ii. z z
354 ESSAY ON BookF,
Of thc consequcnccs of
comptl nature to use. Instcad of recommending
cleaiilincss to thc poor, wc shoiild encourage con-
trary habits. In our towns, we should make the
streets narrower, croud more people into thc
houses, and court ihe return of the plague. In the
country, we should baild our villages near stag-
nant pools, and porticularly encourage Settlements
in all marshy and unwholesome situations. * But
above all, we should rvprobatc specific rcmcdics
for ravaging diseases, ::iid those benevolent, but
much mistaken men, who havc thought they weit
doing a Service to mankind by projccling Scheines
for the total extirimtion of panicülar disorders.—
If by thesc and siniilur means, thc annual mortali-
• Ncckcr, spcaking of ihc proportion of thc births i» France, »iiukcs use of a ncw and instructive cxpre^sion on this suhjv-ct, ihough he harclly seeins to bc üutncicnüx aware of ii himsilf. ile says, ^' Le nombrc des naissan- '* CCS est accdu dc!» hdbitaiis de un a ▼in^t-ti*ois et viugt- " quatre daiis Icb licux contrarirt fiar im. nuture^ ou fiar " dcM circonstancet morulc» : ce meine rapport dans la plus '* grande partic de la France, est de un a 25, '25 >, and 36.*' Administ. des Finances, tom. L. c« ix. p. 254. 12mo. It would appear thercf >re, that we had nolhing more to do, thdii to sctHe pcpple in marshy situations, and oppres» tj 4 m by a bad government, in order to attain what politj- cUni ba/c hitherto considered as so desirable— a grcat pr' i>ortion of marriages and a grcat proportion of birth«
Chap. F. POPULATION. 555
pui*suiüg tlic opposile mode.
ty were iiicreascd from 1 in 36 or 40, to 1 in 18 or 20, we might prolxibly every one of us many at the age of puberty, and yet few be absolutely slarvcd.
If howc ver we all many at this age, and yet still
continue our exertions to impcde the Operations of
nature, we may rest assured that all our effbrts will
be vain. Nature will not, nor cannot be defeated
in her pur]K)ses. The necessary mortality must
come, in some form or other ; and the extirpation
of one disease will only be the signal for the birth
of another perhaps more fatal. VVe cannot lower
the waters of misery by pressing diem down in
different placcs, which must necessarily make
tbem rise somewhere eise : the only way in which
we can hope to eflfect our purpose is by drawing
tbem oflF. To this course nature is constantly di-
recting our attention by the chastisemcnts which
await a contrary conduct. These chiistisemcnts
are more or less severe, in proportion to the de-
gree in which her admonitions produce their in-
tended effect. In this countn^ at present, these
admonitions are by no mcans entirely neglected.
The preventive check to popuIation prevails to a
considerable degree, and her chastisemcnts are in
356 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of the consequences of
consequence moderate : but if we were all to marry at the age of puberty they would be severe indced. Political evils would probably be addcd to physi- cal. A people goaded by constant distress, and visited by frequent retums of famine, coiild notbc kept down by a crtiel despotism. We should ap- proach to the State of the people in Egy pt or Abys- sinia; and I would ask, whether in that case it ib probable that we should be more virtuous ?
Physicians have long remarked the great chan- ges which take place in diseases ; and that, whilc some appear to yield to the efforts of human cair^ and skill, others seem to becomc in proportioiL more malignant and fatxil. Dr. William Hcber- den published not long sincc, scnic vahiable obsc^- vations on this subjcct dcduced from the London bills of mortality. In his prefacc, speaking oT these bills, he says, " the gradual changes they ex- " hibit in particular diseases, correspond tothe al- '' terations which in time are known to take pbce, " in the Channels through which the great stream *' of mortality is constantly flowing."' In ihc
' Ohsenrations on the Increase and Decrcase of diflcrtni Diseases* Prefacc» p. v. 4to. 180U
. y. POPULATION. 357
pursuing the opposite mode.
of his work ailerwards, speaking of somc :ular diseases, he observes with that candour ii always distir^ishes true science ; " It is : easy to give a satisfactory reason for all tlic inges which may be observed to take place the history of diseases. Nor b it anyjiis- ce to physicians, if their causes are often so dual in their Operation, or so subtle as to elude estigation.''*
lope I shall not be accused of presumption, nturing to suggest, that under certain circum- es, such changes must take place ; and per«- without any alteration in those proximate cau- 'hich are usually looked to on these occasions. s should appear to be üiie, it will not seem ordinary that the most skilful and scientific cians, whose business it is principally to in- i;ate proximate causes> should sometimes h for these causes in vain.
a country which keeps its population at h In Standard, if the averagc number of mar- s and births be given, it is evident that the
bsservations on the Increase andDecreasc ofdiffer- iacaseS) p« 43. 4te. 180U
358 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Of the consequences of
average number of deaths will also bc given ; and to use Dr. Hcberden's mctaphor, the channcb through which the great siteam of mortality is constantly flowingj will always convey off a given c|iiantity. Now if we stop up any of these Chan- nels^ it is most perfectiy clear that the stream of mortality must run with greatcr force through some of the other Channels ; that is, if wc eradi- cate some diseases, others will become proportion- ally more fatal. In this case the only distinguish- able cause is the daming up a neccssarj- outkt ol mortality. * Nature, in the attainment of her greai purposes, seems always to seize upon the weak- est part. If this part be made strong by human skill, she seizes upon tl»c next wcakest pari, and so on in succession ; not likc a capricious deity, with an intention to sport with our sufferings, and constantly to defcat our labors ; but likc a kind though sometimcs severe instructor, with the in- tention of teaching us to makc all parts strong, and to cha^e vice and misery from the earth. b avoiding one fault we are too apt to run into somf
^ The way in which it operates is probably by increaüng poverty« in consequence of a supply of labor too rapid for the demand.
CÄ^. K POPULATION. 55«
J u
pursuing the opposite modc.
)ther; but we always find nature faithful to her ;reat object, at every false step we commit, ready :o admonish us of our errors, by the infliction of iome physical or moral evil, If the prevalence of the preventive check to popuIation in a sufficient iegrec, were to remove many of those diseases Bi^hich now afRict us, yet be accompanied by a considerable increase of the vice of promiscuous intercourse, it is probable that the disorders and anhappiness, the physical and moral evils arising firom this vice, would increase in strength and de- gree, and admonishing us severely of our error, would point to the only line of conduct approved by nature, reason, and reügion, abstinence fix)m marru^ tili we can support our children and chas- tity tili that period arrives-
In the case just st^ted, in which the popuIation and the number of marriages are supposed to be iixed, the neccssity of a change in the mortalit}' cf some diseases, from the diminution or extinc- tion of others, is capable of mathematical demon- stration« The only obscurity which can possibly involve this subject, arises from taking into consi- deration the effect that might be produced by a Äminution of mortality in increasing tlie popub-
360 ESSAY ON Book jl'.
Of the consequences of
grr
tion, or in decreasing the niimber of inarria^> That the removal of any of the particular caui>c* of mortality can have no further eflFect upon popu lation than the rnean^ of subsistence will allow; and that it has little influenae on these means of subsistence is a fact, of whicli I hope the rcader b already convinced. Of its Operation in tendiiig to prevent marriage, by diminishing the dcmand for fresh supplies of children, I have no doubt ; aod there is reason to think that it had this efiect, in no inconsiderable degree, on the extinction of the plague, which had so long and so dreadfully rava* gcd this country. Dr, Heilerden draws a striking picture of the favorable changc observed in the health of the peopleof England since this pcriod; and justly attributes it to the improvements which ha\ c gradually taken place, not only in London l)ut in all great towns ; and in the manner of livii^ tliroughout the kingdom, particularly with respeci to cleanliness and Ventilation ' . But these causes would not have produced the effcct observed, if they had not l^een accompanied by an incrcase of the preventive check ; and probably the spirit of
* Obsen*. onlncond Dcc.of Diseatet, p« 35
••
Chttp.F. POPULATION. 361
pursuing the opposite mode.
tleanliness, and better mode of living, which tben >^;an to prevdl, by spreading mocc generally a lecent and useful pride, principally contributed to lus increase. The diminution in the number of aarriages however, was not sufficient to make up >r the great decrease of mortality, from the extinc- ion of the plague, and the striking reductiön of the eaths in the dysentery. • While these, and some ther discmlers became almost evanescent, con- amption, palsy, apoplcxy, gout, lunacy, and he small-pox, became more mortaL' The widen- ng of these drains was necessary to carry off the population which still remained redundant, not- withstanding the increased Operation of the pre- ventive check, and the part which was annually di^posed of and enabled to subsist by the increase ofagriculture*
Dr. Haygarth, in tfie sketch of his benevolent plan fi)r the extermination of the casual small-pox, iraws a frightful picture of the mortality which las becn occasioned by this distemper, attributes 0 it the slow progress of population, and makes
* Observ. od Inc. and Dec. of Diseases, p* 34«
• Idem, p. 36 et seq.
ol. ii. a a a
362 £SSAY ON Book JF.
Of the conscquencea of
some curious calculations on the favorable efiecte which would be produced in this respect by itstx* termination. ^ His conclusioiis howcver, I fear, would not follow from his premises. I am bj firom doubting that millions and mlllions of human beings have been destroyed by the sinall*pox. But were its devastations, as Dr. Haygarth sup- poses, many thousand degrees greater than the plague,' I should still doubt whether the avcrage population of the earth had been diminished by them. The sniall-pox is certainly one of the chao- nols» and a very broad one, which nature has opcD- ed for the last thousand years, to keep down the population to the level of the means of subsist* ence ; but had this been closed, others would havc btcome wider, or new ones would have been form- ed. In ancicnt times the mortality from war and the plague was incomparibly greater than in nio dem. On the gradual diminutiou of this strea^ of mortality, tlie generation, and almost univer:»^ prevalence of the small-pox is a great and striki^ instance of one of those changcs in the Channels ^
* Vol. i. part ü. scct. v. and vi. ' Id.s. vüi. p. 164.
Viap. V. POPULATION. 363
pnrsuing the opposite mode«
oitality, which ought to awaken our attention, id animate us to patient and persevering investU tion. For my own part, I feel not the slightest Mibt, that if the introduction of the cow-pox ould extirpate the small-pox, and yet the num- r of marriages continue the same, we shall find ^ery^percepiible difFerence in the increased mor- ity of some other diseases. Nothing could pre- nt this eSect but a sudden start in our agricul- re ; and should this take place, which I fear we ve not much reason to expect, it will not be ^ing to the number of children saved from death the cow-pox inoculation, but to the alarms oc- (ioned among the people of property by the late rcities, and to tlie increased gains of farmers, ich have been so absurdly reprobated. I am jngly however inclined to believe, that the num- * of marriages will not, in this case, remahi the le; but that the gradual light which may be ex- ted to be thrown on this interesting topic of nan inquiry, will teach us how to make the ex- rtion of a mortal disorder, a real blessing to us, ^ improvement in the general health and hap- ess of the society. [f, on contemplating the increase of vice which
364 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of the conaequences of
might contingently foUow an attempt to inculcatc Üic duty of moral restraint, and the increase of . miseiy that must necessarily follow the attempts to encourage marriage and population, we conie to the conclusiony not to interfcre in any respect, tut to leave every man to his own free choice, ud responsible only to God for the evil whicb he does in either way ; this is all I contend for ; I would On no account do more ; but I contend that at pit- sent we are very far from doing this«
Among the lower classes, where the point is of the greatest importance, the poor laws afford a di- rcct, constant, and systematical encouragement «> marriage, by removing from each individual tha^ heav)' responsibility whicli hc would incur by tV^^ laws of naiure, for bringing beings into the wor^ which he could not support. Our private benev^^ lence has the same direction as the poor laws, a^^ almost invariably tends to facilitate the rcaring familics, and to equalize as much as possible, t^ circumstances of married and single men.
Among the higher classes of peoplc, the supi*^ rior distinctions which married women recciv^ and the marked inattentions to which single wC^ men of advanced age are exposed, enable maiB>^
*.. -'
». F. POPULATION. 365
purauing the opposite mode.
who are neither agreeable in mind or person, are besides in the wane of life, to choose a ner among the young and fair instead of being ined, as nature seems to dictate, to persons early their ovm age and accomplishments. It :arcely to be doubted, that the fear of being Ml maidy and of that silly and unjust ridicule :h folly sometimes attaches to this name, drives ly women into the marriage' union with men im they dislike, or at best to whom they are eedy indifferent. Such marriages must to ry delicate mind appear litde better than legal stitutions ; and they often bürden the earth 1 unnecessary children, without compensating it by an accessioh of happines and virtue to the ies thcmselves.
rhroughout all the ranks of society, the pre- ing opinions respecting the duty and Obligation narriage, cannot but have a very powerful in- aice. The man who thinks that in going out he World without leaving representatives behind 1, he shall have failed in an important duty to iety, will be disposed to force rather than to »ress his inclinations on this subject ; and when
reason represents to him the diificulties attend-
366 ESSAY ON, Gfr.
Of the conteqoences off (7c.
ing a family, he will endeavor not to attend to these suggestions, will still determine to ventuir, and will hope that in the discharge of what hecoa- ceives to be his dutj, he shall not be dcserted b) Providencc.
In a civilized coimtry, such as England» whor a taste for the decencies and comforts of life prt- vail among a very large dass of people, it is not possible that the encouragements to marriage from positive mstitutionsand prevailing opinions» shoiild entirely obscure the light of nature and reason m this subject ; but still they contribute to Hiakc k comparatively weak and indistinct. And tiD thb obscurity is entirely rcmovedy and the poor arc iindeccived wrth respect to the principal cause of their past poverty, and taught to know that ihei^ futurc happiness or miscry must dcpend chicfl)' upon thcmsclves, it cannot be said that with rcgard to the great question of marriage, we leave eveijT man to his ouii free and fair choicc.
CHAPTER VI.
:ts of the knawledge of the principal cause of paverty on Civil Liberty.
IT may appear, perhaps, that a doctrine h attributes the greatest part of the sufferings z lower classes of society exclusi vely to them- s, is unfavorable to the cause ofliberty, asaf- ig a tempting opportunity to govemments of ^ssing their subjects at pleasure, and laying rhole blame on the laws of nature and the im- mce of the poor. We are not howevcr to to first appearances ; and I am ströngly dis- l to believe that those who will be at the pains nsider this subject deeply will be convinced, lothing would so powerfully contribute to the icement of rational freedom, as a thorough ledge generally circulated of the principal : of poverty ; and that the ignorance of this , and the natural consequences of this igno- form at present one of the chief obstacles to ogress.
!
368 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Effects of the knowledge of
The pressure of distress on the lower classes of people, with the habit of attributing this distress to their rulers, appears to tat to be the rock of dc- fence, the Castle, the guardi in spirit of despotism. It afibrds to the tyrant the fatal and unanswerabfe plea of necessity. It is the reason that every free govemment tends constantly to its destniction; and that its appointed guardians become dafly Icas jealous of the encroachments of power. It is die jreason that so many noble efibrts in the cause of freedom have failed, and that almost every revolu- tion, after long and painful sacrifices, has termioA- ted in a military despotism. White any dissatis- fied man of talents has power to persuade the low- er classes of people that all thcir poverty and dis- tress arise solely from the iniqiiity of the govem- ment, though iKThaps the greatest part of wha]^ they suffer is unconnected with this cause, it is cvi- dent that the seeds of fresh discontents and revolutions are continually sowing. When an tablished govemment has been destroyed, fiiKlin|;^ that their poverty is not removed, their rescntment naturally falls upoii the successors to power ; an4 when these have been immolated without produ- cin^ the dcsired effcct, other saerifices arc called
Qhap. FI. POPULATION. 369
the principäl cause of poverty, &c«
for, and so on without end. Are we to be surpri- sed, that under such circumstances, the majority af well disposed people, finding that a govemment mxh proper restrictions was unable to support it- seif against the revolutionary spirit, and weary and exhausted with perpetual change to which they eould see no end, should give up the struggle in despair, and throw themselves into the arnis of the first power which could aiFord them protection against the horrors of anarchy.
A mob, which is generally the growth of a re» dundant population goaded by resentment for real sufierings, but totally ignorant of the quarter finom which they originale, is of all monsters the most fatal to freedom. It fosters a prevailing tyranny, Ihd engenders one wherc it was not ; and though, in its dreadful fits of resentment, it appears occa- sionally to devour its unsightly ofFspring; yet no sooner is the horrid deed committed, than however unwilling it may be to propogate such a breed, it immediatcly groans with a new birth.
Of the tcndency of mobs to produce tyranny, we may not fje long without an example in this cöuntr}'. As a fricnd to freedom, and naturally an cnemy to large stunding armies, it is with ex- :?»/. ii. b b b
370 ESSA\ ON Book IT.
Effects of the knowledge of
treme reluctance that I am compelled to acknow- Icdge, that had it not been for the great organized force in the country, the dbtresses of the |)eoi)le durin<^ the late scarcities, encouraged by the ex- treme ignorance and folly of many among the bigb- er classes, might have driven them to comnut the most dreadfiil outrages, and ultimately to in- volve the country in all the horrors of famine. Should such periods often recur, a recurrcnce which we have too much reason to apprehend fifxmi t|ie present State of the country, the prospect which opens to our view is melancholy in the extremei The EngUsh Constitution will be seen hasteiung with rapid strides to the Euthanasia foretold by Hume, unless its progress bc interrupted by some populär commotion ; and this alternative presents a picture still more appalling to the imagination. If political discontents wereblended with the cries of luinger, and a revolution werc to takc pbce by the instrumcntality of a mob clamoring for want of food, the consequences would Ix* unceasing cliange and unocasing carnag«*, the bloody carcer of which nothing but the cstablishnient of some complete despotism could arrcsl.
We can scarcely lK*Iicve that the apix/mtcd giii^r
CÄojfr. FI. POPULATION. 371
Ihe principal cause of poverty, See.
dians of British liberty should quietly have acqui- esced in those gradual encroachments. of power, which have taken place of late years, but from the apprehension of these stiU more dreadful evüs* Great as has been the influence of comiption, I cannot yet think so meanly of the country gende- men of England as to believe that they would dius have given up a part of their birthright of li- berty, if they had not been actuated by ä real and genuine fear, ihat it was then in greater danger from the people than from the crown. They ap- peared to surrender themselves to govemment on condition of being protected from the mob ; but diey never would have made this melancholy and disheartening surrender, if such a mob had not ex- isted either in reality or in imagination. That the feirs on this subject were artfully exaggered and increased beyond the limits of just apprehension is imdeniable ; but I think it is also undeniable, that the frequent declamation which was heard against the unjust institutions of socicty, and the delusive argum^nts on equality which were circulated amon^ the lower classes, gave us just reason to suppose that if the vox populi had been allowed to speak it would have appeared to be the voicc •(* error and absiirditv, instead of the vox Dei.
572 ESSAY ON Book U
EiTects of the knowledge of
To say that our conduct is not to be regulated by circumstances, is to betray an ignorance <tf the most solid and incontrovertible principles of mo- ralhy. Though the admission of this princi[de may sometimes affbrd a cloak to changes of opi- nion that do not result from the purest xnotives ; yet the admission of a contrary principle would bc productive of infinitely worse consequences. Tbc phrase of existing circumstances has, I believe, nd unfrequendy created a smile in the English Houst of Commons ; but the smile should have been re- served for the application of the phrase^ and not have been excited by the phrase itself. A very frequent repetition of it has indeed, of itself, rathcr a suspicious air \ and its application should alu-ays be watched with the most jcalous and anxious at- tention ; but no man ought to be jiidged m limine for saying, that existing circumstances had obliged him to alter his opinions and conduct. The country gentlcmen were perhaps too easily convin- ced that existing circumstances calied upon thcm to give up some of die most valuablc privilcges of Englishmen ; but as far as they were really con- vinccd of this Obligation, they acted consistently witK the clcaresi rulc of morality.
CA^. VI. POPULATION. 373
the principal cause of poverty, See*
The degree of power to be given to the civil go- vemment, and the measure of our Submission to it, must be determined by general expediency ; and in judging of this expediency, every circum- stance is to be taken into consideration ; particu- larly the State of public opinion, and the degree of ignorance and delusion prevailing among the com- mon people, The patriot who might be called upon by the love of his countr}- to join with heart and band in a rising of the people for some speci- fic attainable object or reform, if he knew that they were enlightcned respecting iheir own Situation and would stop short when they had attained their de- mand^ would be called upon by the same motive to submit to very great oppression rather than give the sUghtest countenance to a populär tumult, the mcmbers of which, at least the greater number of them, were persuaded that the destniction of the Farliament, the lord mayor, and the monopolizers, would make bread cheap, and that a revolution would enable them all to support thcir families. In this case it is more the ignorance and delusion of the lower classes of people that occasions thr oppression, than the actual disposition of the go- vemment to t)Tanny.
374 ESSAY ON Book IT.
Effects of the knowledg^ of
That there is however in all power a constant tendency to encroach is an incontrovertiblc truth, and cannot be too strongly inculcated. Tbe ehecks which are necessary to secure thc liberty of the subject will always, in some degree, embam» and delay the Operations of the executive govcro- ment. The members of this government feeliiig these inconveniencies, whiie they are exertiD| themseives, as they conceive, in the service of their countr}-, and conscious perha{)& of no iO is- tention towards the people, will naturally be db- posed on every occasion, to demand the mssfOir sion or abolition of these ehecks ; but if once tbc convcnicncc of ministcrs be piit iiUo compctitkjn with thc lil:)ertk's of tl>c pcoplc, and wc get into a habit of relying on fair assuranccs and i)ersonal charactcr, instcad of cxaniining, willi the most scrupulous and jealoiis c;irc, tlic mcrits of cachpa'* ticular casc, thcrc is an cnd of British frccdom. '^ we once admit thc principle, that thc govcmmcnt must know bctter, with rcgard to thc cjuantity ^ power which it wants, than wc can possibly do wUn our limited incans of iiifonnation, and tliat thcrcf^ it isour duiy to surrender up our private judgmcnl*^ we niay just as well at the same tinic surrender '^f
!>.n. POPULATION. 375
the principal cause of poverty^ &c«
whole of OUT Constitution. Government is Harter in which liberty is not, nor cannot rery faithfully preserved. If we are wanting urselves, and inattentive to our great intcrests Ws respect, it is the height of folly and asonableness to expect that govemment will id to them for us. Should the British con- don ultimately lapse into a despotism, as has i prophesied, I shall think that the country lernen of England will have really much morc iswer for than the ministers, 0 do the country gentlemen justice, however, ould readily acknowledge, that in the partial rtion of their posts as guardians of British free- which has already taken place, they have been ated more by fear than corruption. And the apal reason of this fear was, I conceive, the rance and delusions of the common people, the prospective horrors which were contem- d^ if in such a State of mind, they should by revcdutionary movement obtain an ascendant. he circulatioa of Paine's Rights of Man, it is osed, has done great mischief among the lower middling classes of people in this country. i is probably true ; but not because man is
376 ESSAY ON Book
Effects of the knowledg^ of
without rights, or that these rights oughc not to bc known; but because Mr. Paine haa Fallen into some fundamental errors respecting the prindples of govemment, and in many importantpoints hgs shovm himself totally unacquainted wtb the struc- ture of Society, and the different moral effects to be expccted from the physical differencc betwcfn this country and America. Mobs of the suu description as those collections of people known by this name in Europe could not exist in Ame- rica. The number of people without proper^ is there, from the physical State of the country, com- paratively small; and therefore the civil powtf which is to protect property, cannot require die same degrcc of strcngth. Mr. Paine very justly observes, tliat ^\ hatever tlie apparont cause of any riots may bc, the real onc is always want of hap- piness ; but whcn hc i^ocs on to say, it showsthat something is wronij in the system of govemmcnt, that injures the Fdicity by which socicty is lo bc prcscr\ed, he falls into the common error ol^' tributingall want of Iiappincss to govcrnment. ^ is evident that this want of happincss niight hav« cxisUfl, and from ignorance might havc bcentht priiiciniil cause of the riots, and vet bc alino^
'hap. VI. POPULATION. 377
the principal cause of poverty, &c.
faolly unconnected with any of the proceedings r govemmcnt. The redundant population of an id State fumishes materials of unhappiness un- nown to such a State as that of America ; and if I attempt were to be made to remedy this un- ippincss, by distributmg the produce of the taxes \ the poorer classes of society, according to the lan pr(^)osed by Mr. Paine, the evil would be ag- navated a hundred fold, and in a very short time > 8um that the society could possibly raise would t adequate to the proposed object.
Nothing would so eflfectually counteract the lischiefs occasioned by Mr, Paine^s Rights of [an, as a general knowledge of the real rights of lan. What these rights are it is not my business
present to explain ; but there is one right which lan haÄ generally been thought to possess, which am confident he neither does nor can possess, a ght to subsistence when his labor will not fairiy irchase it. Our laws indeed say, that he has ds right, and bind the society to fumish employ- tcnt and foocl to those who cannot gct them in « regulär market ; but in so doing they attempt \ revcrse the laws of miture ; and it is in conse- uence to be expected, not only that they should
o/. ii. c c c
iH^
378 ESSAY ON Book IT.
Effects of the kn^wledge of
fail in their object, but that thc poor who weit intended to be benefited, should suffer xnost cnicUy from this inhuman deceit which is practised upon them.
The Abbe Raynal has said, that " Avant toutes '* les loix sociales l'homme avoit le droit de sub- " sister."* He might with just as much proprietjr have said, that before the institution of social lairs^ cvery man had a right to live a hundred years. Un- doubtedly he had then, and has still, a good right to live a hundred ye<irs, nay a thousand, ifhe ea^ without interfering with the right of others to live; but the a£&ir in both cases is principally an afitf of po^ve^, not of right. Social laws very greatly incrcase this power, by enabling a much greatcr number to subsist than could subsist without them, and so far very greatly enlargc le droit de stibsister ; but neither before nor after tlie institution of social laws could an unlimitcd number subsist ; and be- fore, as well as since, hc who ceased to have the power, ceased to have the right.
If the great trulhs on these subjects were mofc generally circulated, and the lowcr classcs of p^o*
^ Ravnal, Ifist, des Indes, voU x. ^. x. p. 322, Sto-
Ch^. VI. POPULATION. 379
tbe principal cause of poverty, 8cc.
ple could be convinced, thatby die laws of nature, independently of any particuiar insütutioiis, except the great one of property, which is absolutely ne- cessary in order to attain ahy considerable produce, HO person has any claim of rigJit on society for subsistence, if bis labor will not purchase it, the greatest part of the mischievous declamation on tbe unjust institutions of society would fall power- less to the ground. The poor are by no means inclined to be visionary. Thcir distresses are al- ways real, though they are not attributed to the real causes. If tliese real causes were propcrly explained to them, and they were taught to know how small a part of their present distress was attri- butable to govemment, and how great a part to causes totally unconnected with it, discontent and iiritation among the lower classes of people would ahow themselvcs much less frcquently than at pre« aent ; and when they did show Üiemselves, would be much less to be dreaded. The efibrts of tur- bulent and discontented men in the middle classes of society might safely bc disregarded, if the poor were so far enlightencd respecting the real nature of their Situation, as to be aware that by aiding Acm in their sclienies of renovation, thev would
k
380 ESSAY ON Beak JT^
EfiTccU of the knowledge of
probably be promoting the ambitious views others, without, in any respecl, benefitii^ them — selves. And the country gentkmen, and men property in England, might securely retum to whoiesoifie jealousy of the encroachroents of pow- er ; and instead of daily sacrificing tbc libcrties the subject on tlie alter of public safety, might, witliout any just apprehension from the people, not only treud back all their latc Steps, but firmly insist upon those gradual rcforms, which the hq»e oF time and the storms of the poUtical world, hive reudered nccessar}* to prcvent the gradual deslnic* tion ot the British Constitution.
All improvements in govcmment must neces- sarily originate with persons ot some education^ ^ and tlicsc will of course be found among the peo- * ple of property. W'hatevcr may be said of a few, it is impossible to supposc* tliat the great mass of the pcoplc of proiKTty should be really intcrestcd in the abuses of government. Thcy nierely sub- mit to them from the fear that an endeavor U> rc- move them might be productive of greater cvils. Could we but take away this fear, reform and improvcmcnt would procecd with as much £icilit}' as the removal of nuisances, or the paving and
Chap. FI. POPULATION. 38J
the priocipal cause of povcrty» 8cc.
lighting of the streets. In human life \ve are coiitinually calied lipon to submit to a lesser evil in Order to avoid a greater ; and it is the part of a wise man to do this readily and cheerfully ; but HO wise man will submit to any evil if he can get lid of it without danger. Remove all apprehension firom the tyranny or folly of the people, and the tyranny of govemment could not stand a moment. It would then appear in its proper deformit}% with- out palliation, without pretext, without protcctor. Naturally feeble in itself, when it was once strip* ped naked, and deprived of the support of public opinion and of the great plea of neccssity, it would &U without a strudle. Its few interested defend- ers would hide their heads abashed, and would bc ashamed any longer to advocate a cause for which nb human ingenuity could invent a plausible ai^ment
The most successful supporters of tyranny arc ^thout doubt those general declaimers, who at- tribute the distresses of the poor, and almost all tlie evils to which society is subject, to human in- atitutions and the iniquity of govcmmcnts. The -'fid^ty of these accusations, and the dreadful con- sequences that would result from thcir bcinij jr**
\
382 ESSAY ON JBooklf^.
Effects of the knowledge of
iieraliy admittcd aiid acted upon, make it absoluteljr necessar}' tliat thcy should at all events be rcsist* cd ; not only on account of the immediate revo- lutionary Horrors to be expected from a movemeiit of the people acting undcr such impressions, a consideration which must at all times have very great wcight, but on account of the extreme pro- bability that such a revolution would terminate in a much worse despotism than that which it had destroyed. On thcse grounds a genuine fiicnd of {reedom, a zcalous advocate for tlie real rights of man, might bc found among the dcfendcrs of a considerablc dcgrce of tyraiiny. A cause bad in itsclf might bc supportcd by the good and the vir- tuous, incrcly bccausc* that which was op))oscd lo it was mucli worsc ; aiul at the moment, it was absolutclv ncccssarv to makc a choicc betwecn the two. Whatcvcr thercforc may bc the intcntion of thosc indiscriminate accusations against go- vernmcnts, thcir real cft'cct undoubtcdly is, to add a weight of taknts and principlcs to the prcvail- ing poucT wliich it ncvcr would liave received othcrwisL.
It is a truth wliich I trust lias bcen sufiiciently provcd m the coursiL* of tliis work, that under a
ooo
Chap.VI. ' POPULATION. 38
the principal cause of porertff 3cc.
^^^l^idh— Mi»^M*1^ I ■ I ■ ■ _ ■ II ■ ■! ■■! ■ ■
government constnicted upon the best and pur^st principles, and executed by men of the highest talents and integrity, the most squalid poverty and wretchedness might universally prevail from an inattention to the prudential check to popula- tion. And as this cause of unhappiness has hi- therto been so little understood, that the efforts of Society have always tended rather to aggravatc than to lessen it, we have the strongest reasons fbr supposuig tkit m all the govemments with wfaich we are acquainted, a great part of the mi- aery to be observed among the lower classes of the people arises from this cause.
The inference therefore which Mr. Paine and otfaers have drawn against govemments from the unhappiness of the people, is palpably unfair ; and before we give a sanction to such accusations, it is a debt we owe to truth and justice, to ascertain Haiw much of this unhappiness arises from tlit* pirinciple of population, and how much is fairly to t^^ attributed to govemment. When this distinc- Äon has been properly made, and all the vaguc. ir^definite, and false accusations removed, govern- iJ^^cnt would remain, as it ought to be, clearly res- |KMisible for the rest; and the amount of this
384 ESSAY ON Bookir^
EiTecu of the knowledg^ of
would still be such as to make the responsibili^ very considerable. Though govemment has \M little power in the direct and immediate relief poverty, yet its indirect influence on ttie prosperi^ of its subjects is striking and incontestible. And the reason is, that though it is comparatively im- potent in its efibrts to make the food of a country keep pace with an unrestricted increase of popu- lation, yet its influence is great in giving the bett direction to tliose checks which in some form or other must necessarily take place. It has dearijr appeared in the former part of this work, tfaat die most despotic and worst-govemed countries, hofir- ever low they mip^ht be in actual |K>pulationy wcrc unifo? nil} the most populous in proportion to their meiins of subsistence, and the necessarj' eflKxt of this State oF tliincp must of course bc very low wagcs. In such countrics the checks to popula* tion arise morc from the sickness and mortality consequent on poverty, than from the prudencc and foresij^ht which restrains the frequency and iiniversality of early marriap;t*s. The cl^cks arc morc of the ix)sitive and less of the prcventi>T kind.
The first }.';rund requisite to the growth of pru-
K
Chap. VI. POPULATION. 385
the principal cause of poverty^ &c.
[ential habits is the perfect security of property, nd the next perhaps is that respectability and nportance which is given to the lower classes by quäl laws, and the possession of some influenae 1 the framing of them. The more excellent lerefore is the govemment, the more docs it tend > generate that prudence and eievation of senti- lent, by which alone in the present State of our eing can poverty be avoided.
It has been sometimes asserted, that the only »son why it is advantageous that the people iiould have some share in the governmcnt, is that representation of the people tends best to secure le framing of good and equal laws, but that if the une objecc could be attained under a dcspotism, le same advantage would accrue to the commu- ity. If howevcr the represcntative system, by ^curing to the lower classes of society a more ]ual and liberal mode of ircatnitiit fiom their su- Mors, gives to cach individual a greater personal rspectability, and a greatcr fear of personal degra- :ft.tion, it is evident that it will iK)werfully co-op- "üte with the security of property in animaling the v^crtions of industry, anJ in gciierating habits of rudtncc, and llius more powerfuUy tcnd to in. o/. *n. d d fl
J86 ESSAY ON BooktV.
Effects of the knowledg^ of
crease the riches and prosperit}" of the lower class- es of the commiinity, than if the same laws had ex« isted undcr a despotism.
Bat though the teiidency of a free cQnstitution and a good govemment to diminish povcrty be certain ; yet its effect in diis way must necessarily be indirect and slow, and very different from the direct and immediate relicf which the lower dasses oT ])eoplc are too frequently in the habit of looking fonvard to as the consequence of a revolution. This habit of expecting too much, and the irrU tation occasioned by disappointment, continuaOy give a wrong dtrection to their efibrts in &vor of Überty, and constantly tend to defeat the accom- plishnicnt of thosc gradiial reforms in govemment, and tli:\t slow melioration of the condition of the lower cl'\ssrs of socicty, which arc rcally attainablc. It is of ilic vcry highest importcince therefore to know distiüctly what govemment cannot do, as well as what it can do. If I wcre calied upon to luune the cause, which, in my conception, had mü^;e than any othcr contributed to the verj* slow progress of frcedom, so disheartcning to cvcrj liberal mind, I should sav that it was the confusicx) tlut liad existcd respccting die causes of die un- luippincss and discontcnts which prcvail in socio-
I
F{. POPULATION. 387
• r Ä«
the principfll cause of povertyy &c.
nd the advantage which govemments had able to take, and indeed had been compellcd e, of this confusion, to confirm and strengthen power. I cannot help thinking thereforc^ I knowledge generally circulated, that the ipal cause of want and unhapptness is only in- fy connected with govemment, and totally id its power directly to remove ; and that it ds upon the conduct of the poor themselves, l instead of giving any advantage to govem- (, give a great additional weight to the popu- de of the question, by removing the dangers nrhich from ignorance it is at present accom- i ; and thus tend, in a very powerful manner, rniote the cause of rational freedom^
CHAPTER VIL
Phm of a gradual abolition of the Poor Law,
proposed.
IF the principles in the preceding cl should stand the test of examiiiation, and should ever feel the Obligation of endcavoring act upon them, the next inquiry would be, in wajr we ought practically to proceed. The grand obstacle which presents itself ki thh tiy is tlie System of the poor ia\vs, which has justly stated to be an evil, in comparison of whicl^f^'^ tlie national debt, with all its magnitude of terror, is of little moment. * The rapidity with wliich poors rates have increascd of late ycai b, presents indeed with the prospect of such an cxtrai Proportion of paupers in the society, as w< seem to be incredible in a nation flourishing in arts, agriculture, and commerce, and with a govem-
^ Reports of tht Society for betterin{ the conditioo the poor, T«l. üi. p. 21«
ESSAY ON, &c. 389
Plan of a gradual abolkion, ^r.
ment which has generally been allowed to be the best that has hitherto stood the test of experience. > Greatly as we may be shocked at such a pros- pect, and ardently as we may wish to remove it, the evil is now so deeply seated, and the relief given by the poor laws so widely extendcd, that HO man of humanity could venture to propobc their immediate abolition. To mitigate thcir ef- iecta however, and stop their futurc increase, to which, if left to continue upon tlieu* present plan, we can see no probable termination, it has been proposed to fix the whole sum to be raised, at its present rate, or any other tliat might bc dctermin- ed upon ; and to make a law that on no accouut this sum should be exceeded. The pbjection to this plan is, that a very large sum would be still to be raised, and a great numbcr of people to be sup- ported ; the consequence of which would be, that poor would not be easily able to distinguish the
* It has been said that during the late scarcitics, half of Population of the country received relief. If the rates continue increasing as rapidly as they have doneonthe aTerage of the last ten years, how melancholy Ajr« our future prospects? The System of the poor laws bms been justly stated by the French to he ia plair pcUtiquc ^^ i*Angi€ierr€ Ia fiiu9 d/votwite* (Comitd de Mendicilf-^
i
S9Ü ESSAY ON Bookir.
Plmn of a gradual abolition
alteration that had becn made. £ach individiul would think that he had as good a right to be supported when he was in want as any other person : and those who unfortunately chanced to be in distress when the fixed sum had been coUected, would think tliemsehes particiilariy ill used oa being excluded from all assistance, while so many others were enjoying this advantage. If the sum coUected were divided among all that were in want» however their numbers might increase, tfioi^ such a plan would not be so unfair with regard to those who became dependent aftcr the sum had been fixed, it would undoubtedly be very hard up on those who had l)cen in the habit of receiving a morc liberal supply, and had donc nothing to jiis- lify its lieing taken from thcni ; and in l)Oth cascb, it would be ccrtainlv unjust in the society to un- dcrtake tlic support of the ix)or, aiid yct if their numbers increased, to fccd tlicm so sparingt} that they must necessarily die of huiigcr and disease.
I have reflected much on the subject of the poor laws, and hopc thercforc that I shall Ixr excused in venturing to suggest a modc of their gradual abolition, to wliich I confess that at present I caii
"S.
Chap. VII. POPULATION, 391
of the poor laws proposed.
5CC no material objection. Of this indeed I feel learly convinced, that should we ever become nifficiently sensible of the wide-spreading tyranny, iependence, indolence, and unhappiness, which hey create, as seriously to make an effort to abo- ish them, we shall be compelled by a sense of ustice to adopt the principle, if not the plan, which [ diall raention. It seems impossible to get rid rf so extensive a system of support, consistendy ¥ith humanity, without applying ourseives direct- y to its vital principle, and endeavoring to coun- eract that deeply-seated cause, which occasions he rapid growth of all such establishments, and nvariably renders them inadequate to their object ^ a previous step even to any considerable alter- tion in the present system, which would contractu «• stop the increase of the relicf to be given, it ppears to me that we are bound in justice and onor formally to disclaim the right of the poor ^ support
To this end, I sliould propose a regulation to *c made, declaring that no child born from any ic^ttrriage, taking place after the expiratiun of a ^estr from the date of the lau* ; and no illegitimate "Uld born two years from the same date, should ^ver be entitled to paribh assistance. And to give
392 ESSAY ON Book IT*
Plan of a gredual abolition
a more general knowledge of this law, and to en- force it more strongly on the minds of the classes of people, the clergyman of each should after the publication of banns, read a address, stating the strong Obligation on maii to Support his own children ; the impropricQ^^ and even immorality, of marrying without a prospect of being able to do this ; the evils had resulted to the poor themselves, from the at- tempt which had been made to assist by pubücrr institutions in a duty which ought to be ezclu — - aively appropriated to parents ; and the abaolui necessity which had at length appeared, of aban^ doning uU such institutions, on account of thel producing effccts totally opposite to those whi< werc uUcndcd.
This would operatc as a fair, distinct, and L'isc notire, which no inan could well nustake and without prcssing harJ on any particular indi viduuls, would at oncc tlirow off tlic rising gcne ration from that mibcrablc and hclpless dtpcndci upoii the govcrnnicnt and the rieh, the nioral well as pliysical consequcnces of which are iucalculable.
After the i)ubiic nolicc which I havc pro| had becn gi^ en, and the system of poor bws
Ai^. VII. POPULATION. 393
' of the poor laws proposed/
ased with regard to the rising generation, if any an chose to many, without a prospect of being le to Support a family, he should have the most rfi^ liberty so to do. Though to marry, in is case, is in my opinion clearly an immoral act, t it is not one which society can justly take upon elf to prevent or punish ; because the punish- Mit provided for it by the laws of nature, falls lectly and most severely upon the individual lo commits the act, and through him, only more notely and feebly, on the society. When na- ■e will govem and punish for us, it is a very derable ambition to wish to snatch the rod from r hands, and draw upon ourselves the odium of ecutioner. To the punishment therefore of ture he should be left, the punishment of want. 5 has erred in the face of a most clear and pre- e waming, and can have no just reason to com- lin of any person but himself, when he feels the Qsequences of his error. All parish assibtance ould be denied him ; and if the hand of private arity be stretched forth in his relief, the interests humanity imperiously requirc that it should be ministered sparingly. He should bc taught to low that the laws of nature, which are the laws >L ii. ^^ e c
394 ESSAY ON £ookIV.
Plan of a gradual aboUtion
of God| liad doomcd him and his family to suflfcr for disoljeying their rcpeatcd admonitions ; that he had no claim of right on society for the smalkst portion of food, bcyond tliat which his labor would fairly purchasc ; and that if he and his 6- mily were saved from suffering die'extremities d liunger, he would owe it to the pity of some kind bcnefactor, to whom, therefore, he oug^t to bt bound by the strongest ties of gratitude.
If this System were pursued, wc need be undef' no apprehensions that the number of pereons i extreme want would be beyond the power the will of the benevolent to supply. The spher^ for the exercise of private charity would, I antf confidcnt, bc Icss than it is at prescnt ; and th^ oiily difiiculty would bc, to restrain the band uV bcncvolence from assisting thosc in distress in scz indiäcriminate a manncr as to cncouragc indolcnce^ ;incl want of forebight in othcrs.
With regard to illcgitimatc childrcn, after thr ^ proper notice had becn givcn, they should not be aliowcd to have any claim to parish assistancCi but bc Icft cntircly to tlic support of private chi- rity. If the piu"cnts dcscrt thtir child thcy ought to l)c madc answemblc for the crime. The in-
Viap. riL POPULATION. 395
of the poor laws proposed.
tnt is, comparatively speaking, of little value to le Society, as others will immediately supply its lace. Its principal value is on account of its King the object of one of the most delightful pas« ans in human nature — parental affection. But
this value be disregarded by those who are alone i a capacity to feel it, the society cannot be cal- ci upon to put itself in their place ; and has no irtfaer business in its protection, than to punish te crime of desertion or intentional ill-treatment i tiie persons whose duty it is to provide for it
At present the child is taken under the protec- ofi of the parish, ' and generally dies, at least in ondon, within the first year. The loss to the iciety is the same ; but the crime is diluted by le number of people concemed, and the death isses as a Visitation of Providence, instead of sing considered as the necessary consequence of c conduct of its parents, for which they ou^t s be held responsible to God and to socie^.
* I fully agree with Sir F. M. Eden, in thinking that 6 conatant public siipport which deserted children re- ivc, 18 the cause of their very great numbers in the two d«t opulent countries of Europe^ France and England« ate of the Poor« vol. i. p. 339.
396 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Plan of a gradual abolition
The descrtion of both parents, howcver, is not so common as the desertion of one. When a scrvant or laboring man has an illegiümate childt his running away is perfcctiy a matter of course » and it is by no means uncommon for a man with a wife and large family to withdraw into a distant county, and leave diem to the parish ; indeed I once heard a hard-working good sort of man pro-- pose to do Ulis, as the best mode of providing for a wife and six children. ' If the simple b£X these irequent desertions were related in countries, a stränge inference would be diawa^ against the English character; but the wondcr^ would cease when our public institutions were^ cxplaincd.
By the laws of nature, a child is confided di- - rectly and exclusively to the protection of it& - parents. By the laws of nature, tlie mother of a j child is confided almost as strongly and exclusively to the man who is the fatlier of it If these ties
^ " That many of the poorcr classes of the communitj << avail theroselves of the liberality of the law, and leave ** thcir wives and childrcn on the parinh, the reader will " find abundant proof in the subsequent part of this work.*' Sir F. M. Eden on the State of the Poor, vol. i. p. 339.
Chap, VII. POPULATION. 397
of the poor laws proposed.
were sufiered to remain in the State in which na- tura has left them, and the man were convinced that the woman and the child depended solely upon him fbr support, I scarcely believe that there are ten men breathing so attrocious as to desert them. But cur laws, in Opposition to the laws of nature, sayt ^^ if ^ parents forsake their child, other persons will undertake to support it ; or if tlic nian forsake the woman she shall still meet with pro» tection elsewhere; that is, we take all possiblc paihs to weaken and render null the ties of nature, and then say that men are unnatural. But the fact is, that the society itself, in its body politic, is the imnatural character, for framing laws that thus counteract the laws of nature, and give premiums to the violation of the best and most honorable feelings of the human heart.
It is a common thing in most parishes, when tbe £ither of an illegitimate child can be seized, to endeavor to fiighten him into marriage by the texTors of a jail ; but such a proceeding cannot s^xrely be too strongly reprobated. In the first place, h is a most shallow policy in the parish of- fiocrs; for if they succeed, the effect upon the präsent system will generally be, the having three
39» ESSAY ON Book JV.
:ss:
Plan of a gradual abolition
or four childrcn to providc for instead of And in tlie next place, it is dii&cult to conccive a niore gross and scaiidalous profanaticHi of a rdi^ gious ccremony. Those who believe that Ac character of a woman is salved by such a forced cngagcment, or that the moral worth of the man is cnlianccd by affirming a lie before God, have, 1 confcssy very different ideas of delicacy and mo- rality, from tliose which I have been taugfat tt» consider as just. If a man deccive a woman inio a connexion with him under a promise of mar-- riage, he has undoubtedly been guilty of a most trocious act, and there are (c\v crimes which a more severe punishmcnt ; but the last that I shouk^ choosc is tliat which will obligc him to affirm^ anothcr falschood, whicli will probably rcndcr thc*^ woman that he is to be joined to miserable, andM will bürden the socicty witti a faniily of paupers.
The Obligation on every man to support liis-^ cliildren, whetlier legitimate or illegitimate, is so ' clcar and strong, diat it would be just to arm so- cicty with any power to cnforce it, which wouk} Ix! likely to answer the purpose. But I am in- clincd to bclicvc that no cxcrcise of ihc civil power, how tvcr rigorous, would be lialf so cffer-
V
>
>. ril, POPULATION. 399
of the poor Imws proposed«
as a knowledge generally circulated that Iren were in future to depend solely for sup- upon their parents, and would be left only to lal charity if they were deserted.
may appear to be hard, that a mother and i^hildren, who had been guilty of no particular le themselves, should sufier for the ill conduct be father; but tliis is one of the invariable
of nature ; and knowing this, we should k twice upon the subject, and be very sure of ^und on which we go, before we presume ftnatically to counteract it. have often heard the goodness of the Deity eached on account of that part of the deca- te, in which he declares, that he will visit the
of the father upon the children ; but the ob- ion has not perhaps been sufliciently consi- !d. Without a most complete and fundamen- change in the whole Constitution of human ire ; without making man an angel, or at least tething totally difierent from wliat he is at pre- : ; it seems absolutely necessary that such a
should prevail. Would it not require a per- lal miracle, which is perhaps, a contradiction erms, to prevent children from being affected
400 £SSAY ON JiooklF.
Plan of a gradual aboltüon
in their moral and civil condition by the conduct of their parents ? What man is there that bs been brought up by his parents, who is not at tk present moment enjoying something firom their virtues, or sufFering something from their viocs; who, in his moral character, has not been elevated in some degree, by their pnidence, their justice, their benevolence, their temperance, or deprc»ed by the contraries ; who, in his civil condition, hs not been raised, by their reputation, their foc- sight, their industry, their good fortune, or VmX' ed by their want of character, their imprudeooe, their indolence, and their adversity ? And bo^ iniich doe*s a knowledgc of this transmission ^ blcssings coiitribute to excite and invigorate v»'' tuoiis exertion ? Proceeding upon this certxdntj'' how ardent and inccssant arc the cfforts of parei^* to k'ivc their children a good education, and *^ providc for their futurc Situation in the world. -^ a man could ncglect or desert his wife and cl^^ dren without their suflcring any injut}-, how individuals there are, who not being vtry fond their wivcs, or being tired of the shacklcs of trimony, would withdraw from household carr and difficulties, and resume their liberty and i
Chat. rn. ' POPULATION. 401
of the poor laws proposed.
dependeoce as single mcn. But the consideration that children may suffi^r for the faults of their parents faas a strong hold even upon vice, and many who are in such a State of mind as to disregard the con- sequences of their habitual course of life, as far as relates to themselves, are yet gready anxious that their children should not sufier from their vices uid foUies. In the moral govemment of the irorld, it seems evidendy necessary that the sins of the Äthers should be visited upon the children ; uid if in our over-weening vanity we imagine that ore can govem a private society better by endea- trc»ring systematically to counteract this law, I am ndined to believe that we shall find our^lves very pneatly mistaken.
If the plan whieh I have proposed, were adopt- d, the poors rates in a few years would begin very apidly to decrease, and in no great length of time irould be completely extinguished ; and yet, as far s it appears to me at present, no individual would c either deceived or injured, and consequently no crson could have a just right to complain.
The abolition of the poor laws however, is not of :self sufficient ; and the obvious answer to those rho lay too much stress upon this System is, to yoL ii. f f f
402 ESSAY ON Book U\
Plan of a gradual abolition
desirc them to look at the State of the poor in somc other countries, where such la\vs do not prcvail, aiid to compare it with their condition io l'^ngland. But this comparison, it must be ao knowlcdgcd, is in inaiiy respects unfair ; and would by no means decide the question of the Utility or inutilit}' of such a systcm. .England possessa very great natural and political advantagcs, ja which {)erhaps the countries that we should, i& this casc, coniparc with her, would bc found to be pal[)ably dcficicnt. The nature of her soil ani climate is such, that those almost universal (ailures in tlic crops of grain, which are known in soiii^ countries, never occur in England. Her insuU*^ Situation ;uid cxtcnded commerce arc peculiarV! favorahle for iniportation. Her numerous nianu-^ faclinvs eniploy ncarly all die hands tliat arc nC^ engaj^td in agiiculture, and afford the means of regulär distribution of the annual produce of ih^* land and labor to the wholc of her inhabitiuits But abovc all, throughout a ver}* laigc class of lhc::= pcople, a decided taste for die conveniencies aiK^ comforts of life, a streng desirc of bcttering their condition, that inaster-spring of public pruspcrity, and in consequenee, a niost laudablc spirit of b
rhap. rn. Population. 403
of the poor laws ptx>posed.
istry and foresight are obsen^ed to prcvail heie dispositions, so contrary to the hopeless in- Jence remarked in despotic coiintries, are ge- Tated by the Constitution of the English goveni- ent, and the excellence of its laws, which secure every individual the produce of his industr)\ Hhcn therefore, on a comparison with other luntries, England appears to have the advantage the State of her poor, the superiority is entirely be attributed to these favorable circumstances, d not to the poor laws, A woman with one bad Lture may greatly excel in beauty some other, 10 may have this individual feature tolerably od ; but it would be rather stränge to assert, consequence, that the superior beauty of the for- ?r was occasioned by this particular deformit)-. Iie poor laws have constantly tended to counter- t Ae natural and ac<|uired advantages of this untry. Fortunately these advantages have been considerable that though weakened they could »t be overcome ; and to these advantages, to- ther with the checks to marriage, which the laws emselves create, it is owing that England has ÄH able to bear up so long against this penii- ous System. Probably there is not any othci'
404 ESSAY ON BookJF.
Plan of a gradual abolition
countiy in the world, cxcept perhaps Holland be- fore the rcvolution, which could have actcd upon it so completely, for the same period of time widi« out utter ruin.
It has been proposed by some to estaUish poor laws in Ireland ; but from the wretched and d& graded State of the common people, and the tottl ^^ant of that decent pride which in Iilngland pct« vents so many from having rccourse to parish » sistance, there is little reason to doubt that on diC cstablishment of such laws, the wbole of the laoded property would very soon be absorbed, or the tf^^ tem be given up in despair.
In Sweden, from the dearths which are not uot ^ frcquent, owing to the gcneral failure of crops i an unpropitious climate, and the imi)ossibilit}' great importations in a poor countr}\ an attem to establish a system of parochial relicf such that in England, if it were not speedily abandone^ from the physical impossibility of executing it ^ would Icvel the property of the kingdom fironr^ onc end to the othcr, and convulse the social sys-^-- tem in such a manncr as absolutcly to prtvent i from rccovcrinp: its form^^r State on the rrtum o plcuty.
^
Chap. rU. POPULATION. 40$
of the poor laws proposed»
Even in France, with all her advantages of si« tuation and climate, the tendency to population is so great, and the want of foresight among the low- cr classes of the people so conspicuous, that if pow laws were established the landed property would söon wik under the bürden, and the wretch- cdness of the people at the sanSe time be increased. Qn these considerations the committee de Äfendi^ ntiy at the beginning of the revolution, very pro- perly and judiciously rejeeted the establishment a such a System which had been proposed.
The exception of Holland, if it were an excep- itHi, would arise from very particular circum- itances^^her extensive foreign trade, and her nu- nerous colonial emigrations, coihpared with the nnallness of her territory ; and the extreme un- lealthiness of a great part of the country, which locasions a much greater average mortalit}' than s common in other stätes. These, I conceive, verc the unobserved causes which principally :oDtributed to render Holland so famous for the nanagement of her poor, and able to employ and mpport all who applied for relief.
N6 part of Germany is siifficiently rieh to sup- ?ort an extensive system of parochial rclief ; but
4ß6 ESSAY ON JhokIF.
Plan of a gradual abolidon
I am inclined to think, tliat from the absence of it, thc lower classes of the people in some parts of Germany are in a better Situation than thooe of the same class in England. In Switzerland, ftr the same reason, their condition, before the ble troubles, Mras pcrhaps miiversally superior. And in a journey through the dutchies of Holstein and Sleswick bclonging to Denmark, the houscs of the lower classes of people appeared to me to be neater and better, and in general there were few^ indications of poverty and wretchedness amooC them, than among the same ranks ui this countr^- Even in Norway, notwithstanding the disa^' vantage of a severe and uncertain climate« fro^** the little that I saw in a few wccks residcnce thc coiintr}% and thc Information ihat I could c Icct from others, I am inclined to think that ll — ^ poor wcrc, on the a\cragc% bcttcr oft' than in Kn^0 Lind. Thcir houses and clothing wcre superio^^ and though thcy liad no white brcad, thcy har ^ much morc mcat, fish, and milk, tlian our lalxjr^- crs ; and I jxarticularly rcmarkcd, tliat the farmcr^^ boys wcrc miich stouter and hcalthicr lookin^^ lads than thosi' of thc same dcscription in England^ This degrec of ha{)piness, su|x^rior to what cn\ik^
e». VII. POPULATION. 407
of the poor laws proposed*
^xpected firom the soll and climate, arises al- I exclusively irom the degree in which the entive check to population operates ; and the blishment of a System of poor laws, which Id destroy this check, would at once sink the ^ classes of the people into a State of the most trabte poverty and wretchedness ; would di- ish their industr}'^, -and consequently the pro- i of the land and labor of the country ; would ken the resources of ingenuity in times of city ; and ultimately involve die countr)' in all tiorrors of continual femines. *, as in Ireland and in Spain, and many of the bem countries« the people be in so degraded ite as to propagate their species like brutes, ly regardless of consequences, it matters litde ther they have poor laws or not. Misery in ts various forms must be the prcdominant ik to their increase. Poor laws, indeed, wilt lys tend to aggravate the evil, by diminishing general resources of the country, and in such ite of things could ex ist only for a verj' ^ort ; ; but with or without them, no strctch of lan ingenuity and exertion could rescue the peo- from the most extreme poverty and wTCtched-
CHAPTER VIII.
0/ the modes of eorrecting the prevaiäng opinkm
on Population.
IT is not cnough to abolish all the poshht insütutions which encourage population ; but «t must cndeavor at the same time, to correct ik prevailing opinions, which have the same, or ptr- haps even a more powerful effect. This must oc* cessarily be a work of time ; and can only be dooe by circubting juster notions on these subjccts, ia writiiigs and conversation ; and by endcavoring ^^ iinprcss as strongly as possiblc on the public nund« that it is not the duty of nian simply to propags^^ his spccies, but to propagate virtue and liappinc^'* and that« if he has not a tolerably fair prospecC ^ doing thib, he is by no nieans called upon to Ic» ^^ descendants.
Ainong the higher ranks of society, we km- ^ not much reason to apprehend the too great Ö^ quency of marriagc. 'Fhough the circulation ^ juster notions on this subject might, even in ttr^
ESSAY ON, &?r. 409
Of thc modes of corrccting thc, b'c.
part of the Community, do much good, and pre- vent many unhappy marriages ; yet whether wc make particular exeitions for this purpose, or not, we may rest assured that the degree of proper pride and spirit of independence almost invariably con- nected with education^ and a certain rank in life, will secure the Operation of the prudential check to marriage to a considerable extent. All that the Society can reasoijably require of its members is, that they should not have families without being able to Support them. This may be fairly enjoin- ed as a positive duty. Every restraint beyond this riiust be considered as a matter of choice and taste ; but from what we already know of the ha- bits which prevail among the higher ranks of life, we have reason to think that litde more is vvanted to attain the object required, than to award a grcat- j CL^in er degree of respect and of personal liberty to sin- gle women, and to place them nearer upon a level with married women ; a change, which indepen- dendy of any particular purpose in view, the plain- cst principles of equity seem to demand.
If among the higher classes of society, the ob- ject of securing the Operation of the prudential check to marriage to a sufficient degree appear to voL li. g g g
410 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of the modes of correcting the
bc attainable without much difficuky, the obvious mode of proceeding with die lower classes of So- ciety, uhere the point is of the principal import- ance, is to endeavor to uifiisc into them a portioa of that kiiowledge and foresight, which so much facilitates the attainment of this object in the eduoi* ted part of the Community,
The fairest chance of accomplishing this cnd would probably be by the establishment of a Sys- tem of parochial education upon a plan siniilar to that proposed by Dr. Smith« ^ In addition to tbe usual suhjects of instniction, and those which hc has mentioned, I should be disposed to lay coos»- derable stress on the frcquent cxplanation of tl^ real State of the Iowcr classes of socicty, as affcctt:^ by the principlc of population, and their con! quent dependencc on thcmselves for the chief of their happiness or misery. It would be by nieans necessary or proper in these explanations» ^ undcr-rate in tlie smallest degree, the desirablene "^ of marriage. It should ahvays be rcpresented what it really is, a State peculiarly suited to the ture of man, and calculated greatly to advance
» Wealth of Valions, vol. iii.b. v, r. i. p. 187*
Chap, VIII. POPULATION. 411
=3cr.-
prevailing opinions on population.
luppiness, and rcmove the tempüitions to vice ; but like property or any other dcsirable object, its advantages should be shown to be unattainable, except under certain conditions. And a strong conviction in a young man of thc desirablencss of marriage, with a conviction at the same time, Üiat the power of supporting a family was the only con- dition which would enable him really to enjoy its bkssings, would be the most effectual motive ima- ginable to industry and sobriety before marriage, and would powerfully urge him to save tliat super- fiuity of income which single laborers nccessarily possess, for the accomplishment of a rational and desirable object, instead of dissipating it, as is now usually done, in idleness and vice.
If in the course of time, a fcM' of thc simplcst principles of political economy could be added to the Instructions given in these schools, the bencfit to Society would bc almost incalculablc. ' In some
^ Dr. Smith proposes that the elementary parts of geo* metry and niechanics should be taught in these parish schools ; and I cannot help thinking that the common principles by which markets are regulated mightbe made snfficiently clear to be of considerable use. It is certaiuly a subject that, as it intercsts the lower classes of peoplc
412 ESSAY ON Booktl^.
Of the roodcft of correctin^^ the
■^T
conversations with laboring men, during the late scarcitieSy I confcss that I was to the last degfte disheartened« at observing their inveterate preju- diees on the subject of grain; and I feit vaj
nearlfy would be likely to attract their attention* At tbe same time it must be confessed, thatit is impoMiblclobe in any degree sanguine on this point, recoUectini^ hov very ignorant in general the educated part of the comnMli nity is of these principles« If^ howevef , ^litical ecoiMNHf cannot be taught to the common people^ I reaUy thiak that it ought to form a branch of a university cducatioD. Scotland has set us an example in this respect> which we ought not to be so slow to imitate« It is of the very iit> most importance that the gentlemen of the country, ind particularly the clergy, should not, from ignorance, ag* gravate the evils of scarcity every time that it unfortiH nately occurs. During the late dearths, half of the gen» tlemen and clergymen in the kingdom richly desenred lo have been prosecuted for sedition. After inflaming tbe tninds of the common people against the farmers and com-deaiers« by the manner in which they talked of theiBf or preached about them> it was but a feeble Antidote t» the poison which they had infuscd, coldly to obsenre, that however the poor might be oppressed or cheated« it was their duty to keep the peace. It was little better tbaa Anthony 's repeated declaration, that the conspirators were all honorable men ; which did not save either their houses or their persons from the attacks of the mob« Political economy is perhaps the only science of which it may be iaid, that the ignorance of it is not merely a deprivatioA ^f good, but produces great positive eril.
"hap. Vtit. POPULATION. 413
prevailing opinions on population.
rongly the almost absolute incompatibility of a )veminent really free, with such a degree of ig- irance. The delusions are of such a nature, at if acted upon, they must at all events be re- essed by förcc ; and it is extremely difficult to VC such a power to the govemment as will bc ifficient at all times for this purpose, without the »k of its beitig employed improperly, and en- ngering the liberty of th6 subject. We have lavished immense sums on the poor, [lieh we have every reason to think have con- intly tended to aggravate their misery. But in eir education, and in the circülation of those im- Htant political truths that most neafly concem em, which are perhaps the only means in our )wer of really raising their condition, and of aking them happier men and more peaceable ibjects, we have been miserably deficient. It is irely a great national disgrace, that tlie educa- iQ of the lower classes of people in England ould be left merely to a few Sunday schoob, pported by a subscription from individuals, who course can give to the course of instruction in ^m any kind of bias which they please. And -n the improvement of Sunday schools, (for ob
414 ESSAY ON Boot IT.
Of thc modes of corrccüng the
jcctionablc as thcy are in some points orview, and impcrfect in all, I canuot but considcr them as an improvcment) is of vcry late date,
The argiimcnts which have been urged agatnst instructing die peoplc appear to mc to be not onijr illiberal) but to the last degrec fecblc ; and thcy ought, on die contraiy, to be extrcmely forcible, and to be supported by tlie most obvious and strik- ing neccssity, to Warrant us in widiholding tbe means of raising the condition of the lowcr dasses of pcople, when they arc in our power. Thosc who will not listen to any answer |to diese ar- giiments drawn from theor}% cannot, I think« refusc thc testimony of expericncc ; and I wouU ask, whcUierthc advantagc of siipcrior instructiin^ which thc lowcr classcs of jK-oplc in Scotland are knoA\'n to posscss, has appcarcd to have at^y tendcncy towards creating a spirit of tu muh a>^ discontent amongst thcm. And yct from the n^ tural infcriority of its soil and climate» the pre:>5>ii^ of want is morc constant, and thc dcarths are i»^ only more frcqucnt, but morc drcadful than in E land. In thc casc of Scotland, die knowlcdgi* c cidated among the common jx-oplc, though sufficient cssentiallv to l>cttcr their condition bv i
'Juxp. VIIL POPULATION. 415
prevailing opinions on population*
reasing, in an adequate degree, their habits of rudence and foresight, has yet tlie effcct of ma- ing them bear with patience the evils \vhich they iflfer, from being aware of the foUy and inefficacy rturbulence. The quiet and peaceable habits of le instnicted Scotch peasant, compared with the irbulent disposition of the ignorant Irishman, ight not to be without efFect upon evei*}- impartial asoner.
The principal argument that I have heaid ad- nced against a System of national education in ngland is, that the common people would be put a capacity to read such works as those of Paine, id that the consequences would probably be fatal \ govemment. But on this subject I agrce most ardially with Dr. Smith' in thinking, that an in- xucted and well-informed people would Ix: much •SS Ukely to be led away by inflammaton' writings, :id would be much better able to detect Üie falsc cclamation of interested and ambitious dcmago- ucs, than an ignorant people. One or two read- "5 in a parish are sufficient to circulate any quan - y of sedition ; and if these be gained to the de-
* Wcalth of Nalions, vol. iii. b. v. c. i. p. 192.
416 ESSAY ON ßookII\
Of the modes of correcting the
niocratic sidr, they will probably havc the power of doinp^ much more mischicf, by selecting the passagcs best suited to their hearers, and choosing ihc momcnts when their oratory is likely to ha\f the most cfTcTt, than if each individual in the parish had beeil in a capacity to read and judge ofthe wliole work himself ; and at the same time to read and judp^' oF the opposing arguments, whicb we may suppose would also reach him.
But in addition to this, a double weight voukl nndoiibtedly Ik addcd to tlie Observation of Dr. Smith, if thcse schools were made the means of instnicting the people in the real nature of their Situation ; if thcy were taught, wliat is really truc, that wiiUout an increase of their own industn'and priickiMc, no changc of goveninient eould essen- tially l)Lttcr their condition ; that thoiigh thty miujht i^'t rid of somc partienlar grievanee, yet that in l!u' jri cat point of supporting their familK^ thcy woukl Ix; but little, or jxrrliaps not at all bc- nefited ; that a revolution would not alter in thcff favor the proportion of the supply of labor to th dcmand, or the qnantity of fo(jd to the numbcfol the coiisuniers ; and that, if llie supply of tibof were greater tkui the demand, and the demand for food i^ater tlian the supply, they might suf
Ch^. Flu. POPULATION. 417
prevailing opinions on population.
er Ae utmost severity of want, iinder thc freest, be most perfect, and best executed govemment hat the human ima^nation could conceive.
A knowledge of these truths so obviously tends :o promote peace and quietness, to weaken the !&ct of inflammatory writings, and to prevent all mreasonable and ill-directed Opposition to the con- stituted authorities, that those who would still ob- ect to the Instruction of the people may fairly be uispected of a wish to encourage their ignorance, IS a pretext for tyranny, and an opportunity of in- a^easing the power and the influenae of the execu- dve govemment.
Besides explaining the real Situation of the low-* T classes of socikty, as depending principally upon diemselves for their happiness or misery ; the pa* rochial schools would, by early Instruction and the judicious distribution of rewards, have the £urest iiance of tr^ing up the rising generation in ha- )its of sobriety, industry, independence, and pru- jence, and in a proper discharge of their religious lutics ; which would raise them from their pre- lent degraded state, and approximate them, in Kxne degree, to the middle classes of society, vol. ii. h h h
418 ESSAY ON . MookJO'.
Of the modes of correcting Uie
wfaose habits, gencrally speakiiig, are certainly su- perior.
In most countries among the lowtr classes of pcople, tliere appears to be something like a Stand- ard of wretchediiess, a point below wtüch, ibey will not continue to many and pit^xigate tlidr species. This Standard is diflferent in diflfeitm countries, and is formed by various concurring circumstances of soil, climate, govemment, degrer of knowledge, and civilization, &c. The princi- pal circumstances which contribute to raise it are überty, security of property, die spread of know- ledge, and a taste for the conveniencies and thf comforts of life. Those which contribute princi- pally to lower it are despotism and ignorance.
In an attempt to better the condition of the low er ckisses of society, our objcct shouid be to raii this stamlard as high as possible, by cultivating spirit of independcnce, a decent pride, and a tas' for clcanüness and comfort, The effcct of a govenimcnt in increasing the prudentiiil habi and i)crsonal respectability of the lovvcr classes society has already been insisted on ; but certainl ^ tliis effect will aluays be incompiete without ^ good System of education, and indced it may
Chap.VIIL POPULATION. 419
prevailing opinions on population.
MM»
Said that no govemment can approach to perfecti(Mi that does not provide for the instniction of the peo- ple. The benefits derived from ediication are among diose which may be enjoyed withoiit re- striction of numbers, and as it is in the power of govemments to confer these benefits, it is un- doubtedly their duty to do it.
\
CHAPTER IX.
Ofthe (Breciian qfaur eharity.
AN important and interesting inquiiy yet it- mains, relating to the mode of dbrecting cmr pii vate eharity, so as not to interfere with die grtai object in view, of meliorating the condition of die lower classes of people, by prevendng the popuh- tion from pressing too hard agsunst the limits of the means of subsistence.
The emotion which prompts us to relieve our feflow-creatures in distress is, like all our otfier natural passions, general, and in some degree ia- discriminate and blind. Our feelings of compas* sion may be worked up to a higher pitch by a well-wrought scene in a play, or a fictitious tale in a novel, than by almost any events in real life ; and if, among ten petitioners we were to listen only to the first Impulses of our feelings, without making fiirther inquiries, we should undoubtedly g^ve our assistance to the bestactor ofthe par^. It iaevi-
ESSAY ON, GPr. 421
Of the direction of our charity.
nt therefore, that the ihipulse of benevolence, e the Impulses of love, of anger, of ambition, j desire of eating and drinking, or any other of r natural propensities, fnust be regulated by ex- rience, and frequently brought to the test of uti- r, or it will defeat its intended purpose. The apparent object of the passion between the ces is, the continuation of the species, and the mation of such an intimate union of views and erets between two persons, as will best pro- bte their happiness, and at the same tiine secure proper degree of attention to the helplessness in&ncy and the education of the rising genera- Q ; but if every man were to obey at all times : Impulses of nature in the gratification of this »ion, without regard to consequences, the prin- tal part of these important objects would not be lined, and even the continuation of the species ght be defeated by a promiscuous intercourse. rhe apparent end of the impulse of benevolence, to draw the whole human race together, but ire particularly that part of it which is of our n nation and kindred, in the bonds of brotherly e ; and by giving men an interest in the happi- s and misery of their fellow creatures, to prompt
422 ESSAY ON Book IK
Of the directionof ourcharity.
them, as they have poi^ifcr, to mitigate the pardal c^ils arising from general laws, and thus to in- crease the sum of human happiness; but if oar benevolence be indiscriminate, and the d^;Tce of apparent distress be made the sole measure of our liberality, it is evident that it will be exercised d- most exclusivcly upon common beggars, whik modest unobtrusive merit, struggling with una- voidable difficulties, yet still maintaining aomc slight appearanccs of decency and cleanlinesSt wiR l^e totally ncglected. We shall raisc the wortb- less above the worthy ; we shall encouragc indo- lence and check industry ; and in the most mark- cd manncr, subtract from the sum of human luip- pincss.
Our cxi)cricucc has indccd infornicd us ihat the impulst^ of benevolence is not so strong a^ tlie passion between the sexes, and ihat t^ncraHj speaking, tlierc is much less danger to Ix* apprc hendcd from the indulgcnce of the former th^" of the latter ; but indepcndently of this experieiiC^- and of the moral codes founded upon it, a yoU^* of eighteen would Ije as completcly justified i** jiidulf^ing the sexual passion with cvery ol^jc^^ capablc of exciting it, as in foliowing indLscrin^^
Viap, IX. POPULATION. 423
Of the direction of our charity.
ately every Impulse of his benevolence. Thcy re both natural passions which are excited by beir ^propriate objects, and to the gratification f which, we are prompted by the pleasurable ensations which accompany tliem. As animals, r tili we know their consequences, our only bu- iness is to foUow these dictates of nature ; but as casonable beings, we are under the strongest ob- igations to attend to their consequences ; and if iiey be evil to ourselves or others, we may justly oosider it as an indication that such a mode of sdulging these passions is not suited to our State, «• conformable to the will of God. As moral gents therefore, it is clearly our duty to restrain heir indulgence in these particular directions; ind by thus carefuUy examining the consequences rf our natural passions, and frequently bringing hem to the test of utility, gradually to acquire a labit of gratify ing them, only in that waj% which 3QDg unattended with evil, will clearly add to ^e sum of human happiness, and fulfil the appa* ^'ent purpose of tlie Creator.
Though Utility therefore can never be the im- ßtediate excitcment to the gratification of any pasäon, it is the test bv which alone we can
424 ESSAY ON JäookJV.
Of the direction of our charity.
know, whether it ought or ought not to be in- dulged ; and is dierefore die surest foundatioQ d all morality which can be collected from the light of naturc. All die moral codes which have in« culcated the subjection of the passions to reason, have betn, as I conceive, really built upoD this foundation, whether the promulgators of tbem were aware of it or not.
I remind die reader of these truths^ in order to apply them to the habitual direqtion of our cha- rity ; and if we keep the criterion of Utility cqd- standy in view, we may find ample room fiv tbe exercise of our benevolence, without interfcring with the p*eat purpose wlüch we have to accom- plish.
Oiic of the most valuable parts of charity, i^ its effect upon the giver. It is morc blessed l« fjive than to rccci\'c, Supposing it to be allowcd, that the exercise of our benevolence in acts ol charity is not, upon die whole, really beneficial to the poor, yet we could never sanction any endc3- vor to extinguish an Impulse, the proper gratifica- tion of which has so evident a tendency to purify and exalt the human mind. But it is particulariy satisfactory and pleasing to find that tbe mode of
Chap.IX. POPULATIOM. 425
Of the direction of our charity.
exercising our charity, which when brought to the lest of Utility, will appear to be most beneficial to the poor, is preciseljr that which will have the best and most improving effect on the mind of the donor.
The quality of charity like that of mercy,
" Is not stnuned ; " \k droppeth u the genile rain from hcavcn '* Upon the eanh benesth."
The immense sums distributed to the poor in this countiy, by the parochial laws, are improperly called charity. They want its most distinguishing attribute ; and as it mig^t be expected from an attempt to force that which loses its essence the moment that it ceases to be voluntaiy» their effects upon those from whom they are collected are as prejudicial as on those to whom they are distri« buted. On the side of the receivers of this mis- called charity, instead of real relief, we find accu- mulated distress and more extended poverty ; on the side of the givers, instead of pleasurable sensa*- tions, unceasing discontent and irritation.
In the great charitable institutions supported by voluntary contributions, some of which are cer- tainly of a prejudicial tendency^the subscriptions, I am inc;Uned to fear, are sometimes giveti grud^^
vol. U. 111
426 ESSAY ON Jiookir.
or the direction of our charity.
ingly, and rather because they are expected by the World from certain stations and cerUun fortuoes, thaa because they are prompted by motives of genuine benevolence ; and as the greater pait of the subscribers do not interest themselves in tbc management of the funds, or in the fate of the par* ticular objects relieved, it is not to be expected that
*
this kind of charity should have any strikingly be- neficial influence on the minds of the majority who exercise it.
Even in the relief of common beggars, we shall find that we are often as much influenced by the desire of getting rid of the importunities of a dis- gustin^ object, as by the pleasure of relieving it Wc wish that it had not fallen in our way, rather than rejoice in the opportunity given usof assistii^ a fellow-crcature. We feel a painful emotion at the sight of so much apparent miser}' ; but the pittance we givc does not relieve it. We know that it is totally inadc<iuate to producc any essen- tial effect. We know besidcs, that we shall bc addressed in the same manner at the corner of the next Street ; and we know that we are liable to the grossest impositions. We hurry therefore sometimes by them, and shut our ears to their im- portunate demands. Wc give no more tluui wt
%ö/. IX. POPULATION. 427
Of the direction of our charity«
in help giving without doing actual violence to
jr feelings. Our charity is in some degree for- ■d, and like forced charity, it Icaves no satisfacto- r Impression on the mind, and cannot therefore äivc any very beneBcial and improving effcct on le heart änd affections.
But it is far otherwise with that volimtarj' and ::tive charity, which makes itself acquainted with le objects which it relieves ; which scems to feei, id to be proud of the bond that unitcs the rieh ith the poor ; which enters into their houses, ifotTOS itself not only of their walits, but of their ibits and dispositions ; checks the hopes of cla- lorous and obtrusive poverty, with no other re- jinmendation but rags ; and encourages with ade- uate relief the silent and retiring süflferer, labor- ig under unmerited difficulties. This mode of cercising our charity presents a very dlffcrcnt icture from that of any other ; and its contrast ith the common mode of parish relief cannot be etter described than in the words of Mr. Towns- [jd, in the conclusion of his admirable disscrtation n the Poor Laws. " Nothing in natiire can be ^more disgusting than a parish pay-table, attend- ^ ant upon which in the same objects of miserj\ * are too often found combincd, snuff, gin, rags.
428 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Of the direction of our charitjr«
u
vamin, insolence, and abusive laAguage ; nor in nature can any thing be more beautUbl than ^* the mild complacency of benevolence haslening '* to the humble cottage to relieve the wants of in- ** dustry and virtue, to feed the hungry, to clotbe *^ the naked, and to soothe the sorrows of the wi« ^* dow with her tender orplians ; nothing can be more pleasing, unless it be their sparkling eyes, their bursting tears, and their uplifted hands, the << ardess expressions of unfeigned gratitude for un- *^ expected bvcurs. Such scenes will frequendy ^' occur whenever men shall have power to dispose " of their own proper^^'*
I conceive it to be almost impossibk that anr person could be much engagcd in such scenes without daily making advances in virtue. Noex- ercise of our aflfections can have a more evident tendency to purify and exalt the human mind. I^ is almost exclusively this species of charity that blesseth him that gives ; and, in a general view, it is almost exclusively this species of charity which blesseth him that takes ; at least it may be asscrt- ed, that there is hardly any other mode of exercis- ing our charity, in which large sums can be distri- buted, without a greatcr chance of producing cvil than good.
Vup. IX. POPUI.ATION. 490
Of the direction of our charity.
The discretionary power of giving or withhold- ng relief, which is, to a certain extent, vested in Knish officers and justices, >s of a very different ature, and will have a very different effect, from lie discrimination which may be exercised by vo- mtary charity. Every man in this countr) , under lert^ circumstances, is entitled by la^v to parish ssistance ; and unless his disquaülication be clearly jroved, has a right to complain if it be withheld« rhe inquiries necessary to settle this point, and he extent of the relief to be granted, too often yroduce evasion and lying on the part of the peti- ioner, and afford an opening to partiality and op- )ression in the oversecr. If the proposed relief be jiven, it is of course received with unthankfulness ; ind if it be denied, the party generally thinks him- jelf severely aggrieved, and feels resentment and Indignation at his treatment.
In the distribution of voluntary charit}', nothing >f this kind can take place. The person who re- ;:eives it is made tlie proper subject of the plea- surable Sensation of gratitude ; and those who do QOt receive it cannot possibly conceive themselves in the slightest degrce injured. Every man has a right to do what he will with his own, and cannot,
430 £SSAY OK BooklF.
Of thedirection of our charitjr*
in justice bc callcd upon to rendcr a reason why he gives in the one case and abstains firom it in tbc other. This kind of despotic power, essential to voluntaiy charity, gives the greatest facility to thc selection of worthy objects of relief, without bemg accompanied by any ill consequences ; and has further a most beneiicial eflfect from the degrce of uncertainty which must necessarily be attached to it. It is in the highest degree important to tbc gcneral happiness of the poor, that no man should look to charity as a fund on which he may confi- dently de])end. He should be taught that hb own exertions, his own industry i^nd foresi^t, wert his oiily just ground of dc*i)cndc nee ; that if thfsr failcd, assistance in his distrcbscs could onlv bc thc subjcct of rational ho|)c, and that even thc foundation of this hope must bc in his own gtxxl conduct, and thc consciousncss tliat hc had not involvcd himsclf in these difficultics by his indo- Icnce or imprudcncc.
'i'liat in thc distril)Ution of our charity, wc are undcr a strong moral Obligation to inculcatc thb Icsson on thc poor by a proper discriiniiiation, \s a truth of which I cannot fcd a doubt. If all coukl bc complctcly relicvcd, andpovcrty Ixinishcd from thc country, even at thc cxi)ensc of threc-fourtli^
Cbap. IX. POPULATION. 431
Of tbe direction of our charity.
of ihe fortunes of the rieh, I would be the labt to say a single syllable against relieving all, aiid mak- ing the degree of distress alofie the measure of our bounty. But as experience has proved, I believe without a Single exception, that poverty and mi- seiy have always increased in proportion to the quantity of indiscriminate charity, are we not bound to infer, reasoning as we usually do from thelaws of nature, that it is an intimation that such a mode of distribution is not the proper office of benevolence ?
The laws of nature say, with St. Paul, " If u ^* man will not work, neither shall he eat." They ^so say, that he is not rashly to tnist to Provi- ^ence. They appear indeed to be constant and %uifonn for the express purpose of telling him ^^hat he is to trust to, and that if he ^la^y with- out being able to support a family, he must ex- pea severe ^rant. These intimations appear from ^ Constitution of human nature to be absolute! v ^ttessary, and to have a strikingly beneficial ten- ^cncy. If in the direction either of our public or ^Hir private charity we say, that though a man will not work, yet he shall eat ; and though he many witbout being able to support a family, yet his £tmily shall be supported ; it is evident that w e do
452 ESSAY ON BookIF.
Of the direction of our charity*
xnoi mcrely endeavor to mitigate the partial cvik ansing from general laws, but regularly and s}*s. texnatxcaily to counteract the obviously beneficial c&cts of ibese general laws themselves. And wc cumoc eoiJly conceive that the Deity should im- fkwi any passion in the human breast for such a puipose.
In the great course of human events, the best- foundedexpectations will sometimes be disappoint- cd ; and industry, prudence, and virtue, not only fall of their just reward, but be involved in un- merited calamities* These who are thus suffering in spitc of the best-directed endcavors to avoiJ it, and iVom c:uises which they could not be expected to foresce, are the genuine objccts of charity. In relieving ihcse ^e cxercise the appropriate offic« of iKMievolencc, that of mitigating the partial evils arising from general laws ; and in this direction of our cliarit}' thereforc, we need not apprehendany ill conseijuences. Such objects ought to bc rc- lievcd, according to our means, liberally an 1 ade- quatcly, even though the worthless were staning»
\\'hcn indet* d this first claim on our bencfo-
Icnce was satisfied, we might then tum our attcn-
\o the idle and improvident ; but the inttres^
in happiness most cieariy require that tk
hap, IX. POPULATION. 43S
Of the direction of our charity«
lief which we afford them should be scanty, Wc ay perfaaps take upon ourselves, with great cau- \ny to raitigate the punishments which they are &ring from the laws of naturey but on no ao unt to remove them entirely. They are de- rvedly at the bottom in the scale of society ; and we raise them from this Situation, we not c»ily Ipably defeat the end of benevolence, but com«' tt a most glaring injustice to those who are ove them. They should on no account be ena- lü to command so much of the necessaries of ly as can be obtained by the worst-paid common XM". The brownest bread, with the coarsest and mtiest apparel, is the utmost which they sliouid ve. the means of purchasing. It is evident that these reasonings do not apply those cases of urgent distress arising from dis- 3x>us accidents, uncoimected with habits of in« »knce and improvidence. If a man break a leg an arm, we are not to stop to inquire into his 3ral character before we lend him our assistance ; it in this case we are perfectly consistent, and e touchstone of utilitj'^ completely justifies our nduct. By afibrding the most indiscriminate sistance in this way, we are in litde danger of /. ii. k k k
434 ESSAY ON, i^c.
Of the direction of our charity.
encouraging people to break their arms and leg& According to the touchstone of utility, the high approbation which Christ gave to the conduct of Ihe good Samaritan, who foUowed the munedkle Impulse of his benevolence in relieving a stranger m the urgent distress of an accident, does not, in iht smallest degree, contradict the expression of St Paul, ^^ If a man will not work, neither shall hr " eat"
We are not however, in any case, to lose a pc» sent opportunity of doing good, from the mcre supposition that we may possibly meet with a nw- tlüer object In all doubtful cases, it may safi^ be laid down as our duty to follow the natural im- pulse of our benevolence ; but when in fulfiUii^ our Obligation as resonable beings to attend to the consequcnces of our actions, we have, from our own experience and that of others, drawn the ooo- clusion, that the exercise of our benevcdence JB one mode is prejudicial, and in another is benefi* cial, in its effects, we are certainly bound, as moral agents, to check our natural propensities in the one direction, and to encourage them and acquire tbe Habits of exercising them, in the other.
CHAPTER X.
Öifferent plans of impraving thc condxtion qf the
Poor considered.
IN the distribution of our charlty , or in any ^orts which we may make to better the condition >f the Iower classes of society, there is another »oint relating to the main argument of this work, o which we must be particularly attentive. We nust on no account do any thing which tends di- ectly to encourage marriage, or to remove, in any egular and systematic manner, that inequality of nrcumstances which ought always to ex ist between hc Single man and the man with a family* The HVTiters who have best understood the principle of Population appear to me all to have fallen into very importanterrors on thia point,
Sir James Steuart, who is fully aware of what he cadUs vicious procreation, and of the misery that ittends a redundant population, recommends, not- nrithstandingy the general establishment of found- ing hospitals ; the taking of children under certain
436 ESSAY ON Book llT.
DifTerent plans of improving the
circumstances, from their parentSy and supportiii^ them at the expense of the State ; and paiticulariy laments the inequality of condition between the tnarried and Single nian, so ill-proportioiied td their respective wants. ^ He forgets, in tiiese in- stances> that if^ without the encouragement to mul* tiplication, of foundling hospitals, or of public sup^ port for the children of some married persons, md Under the discouragement of great pecuniaiy dis» advantages on the side of the married man, popub» tion be still redundant, which is e%*inced by tbe inabilitjr 6f the pobr to maintain all their ch3ditii| it is a clear proof that the funds destii^ fcr dK maintenancc of lubor cannot properly support a greater population ; and that if further encouragc- ments to multiplication be given and discouragc- ments removed, the result must be, an increase somewhere or other of that vicious procreation which he so justly reprobates.
Mr. Townsendy who in his dtssertatibn on the Poor Laws, has treated this subject with great skiU and perspicuity, appears to me to condude with a proposal which violates the principles on
^ PoUtical Economf ^ vol. i. b. u c<
C3Ä^. JL POPULATION. 43?
condition of the poor considered*
t . ■ ■ ^^
which he had reasoned so weih He wishes to make the benefit clubs, or fricndly societies, which aie now voluntarily establishcd in many parishes, compulscMry and universal ; and proposes as a re- gulatioD that an unmarried man should pay a fourth part of his wages, and a married man with four chil- dren, not more than a thirtieth part. '
I must first remarky that the moment these sub> scriptions are made compulsoryy they will neces- sarily operaic exactly like a direct tax upon labor, which as Dr. Smith justly states, will always be paid, and in a more expensive manner, b}' the coosumer. The landed interest therefore, would reoeive no relief from this plan, but would pay äie same sum as at present, only in the advanced price of labor and of commodities, instead of in the parish rates. A compulsory subscription of düs kind would have almost all the ill effecls oi* die present System of relief, and though altered in name would still possess the essential spirit of the poor laws.
Dean Tucker, in some remarks on a plan of the aame kind, proposed by Mr. Pew, observed, that
^Dissertation on the Poor Laws, p. 89« 2d. edit. 1787.
438 ESSAY ON Book IT.
Different plans of improving the
BB
after much talk and rcflection on the subject, bt had come to the conclusion, that they must bc voluntary associations, and not compukoiy as- semblies. A voluntary subscripiion is like a tax upon a luxury, and does not necessarily raiae Ae price of labor. ' It should be recoliected also, that in a voloa* tar}' association of a small extcnt, over whkh cadi individual member can exercise a superintendanoc« it is highly probable that the original agiecuicn» will all be strictly fulfiUed, or if they be iif)l, vtfXf man may at least havc the redress of withdrawin^ himself from the club. But in an universal oom«'-^ pulsory subscription, which niust ncccbbarily bc come a national couccrn, thcrc >\ould bc no stcu rity whatcver lor the fulfilmcnt of the origiiu^v agreements ; and whcn the funds faikd, whk^V they certainly would do, whcn all ihe idlc anc:^ dissolute were includcd, inbtcad of some of tb«^ most industrious and providtnt, as at prcsent, d larger subscription would probably be dcmandcd, and no nian would liave the right to rcfuse il. The cvil would thus go on increasing as the poor ratesdo now. If indccd the assistance givcn werc always specific, and on noaccount to Ix: incrcascd.
Chap. X POPULATION. 43Ö
condition of the poor considered.
as in the present voluntary associations, this would certainly be a striking advantage ; but the same advantage might be completely attained by a si- miiar distribution of the sums coUected by the paiish rates« On the whole therefore, it appears to me that if the fnendly societies were made uni- versal and compulsory, it would be mcrely a dif- farent mode of collecting parish rates ; and aiiy particular mode of distribution might be as well adopted upon one System as upon the odier.
With regard to the proposal of making singlc
nicn pay a fourth part of their eamings weekly,
^nd married men with families only a thirtieth
pari, it would evidentiy operate as a heavy fine
upon bachelorsy and a high bounty upon children ;
and is therefore directly adverse to the general
spirit in which Mr. Townsend's exccllent disser-
tUaoQ is written. Beforc he introduccs this pro-
fOaal, he lays it down as a general principle, that
ao qrstem for the relief of the poor can be good
wlücb does not regiilale population by the de*
nand for labor ; ' but this proposal clearly tends
to encourage population without any reference to
1 Page 84.
442 ESSAY ON Book IV,
DifTerent plans of improving the
" finitely more flourishing, if she had five or six '* millions less of inhabitants. From her too great " population she presents in every quarter, such " spectacles of wretchedness as are absolutely in- '* consistent with that degree of national felicit) " which she was capable of attaining, evcn under ** die old govemment A traveller much Icss at- '^ tentive dian I was to objects of diis kind, must ^^ see at every turn most unequivocal signs of di9- '^ tress* That diese should exist, no one can '^ wonder, who considers the price of labor and of '^ provisions, and the misery into which a small *^ rise in the price of wheat throws the lowcr " classes."*
" If you would see," he says, " a district wiüi " ab little distress in it as is consistent with tht* *' political System of the old govcmmcnt of France, ** you must assuredly go whcrc there arc no littlc ** propcrtics at all. You must visit the great ** farms in Beauce, Picardy, part of Normandy, *' and Artois, and there you will find no more ix> " pulation than what is regularly cmployed and ** regularly paid ; iuid if in such districts you
^ Travels m Francr, vol. i. r. xvii. p. 169.
\üp. X. POPULATION- 445
condition of the poor considered«
— — *•
diould, contrary to tliis rule, meet with much listress, it is twenty to one but that it is in a 3arish which has some commons, which tempt he poor to have cattle — ^to have property — md in consequence misery. When you are mgaged in this political tour, finish it by seeing England, and I will show you a set of peasants well clothed, well nourished, tolerably drunken 5rom superfluity, well lodged, and at their eas>e ; uid yet amongst them, not one in a thousand has ^ither land or cattleJ'' A little further on, al- fing to encouragements to marriage, he says France ; " the predominant evil of the kingdom is the having so great a population, that she can neither employ nor feed it ; why then encou- R^ marriage ? would you breed more people because you have more already than you know what to do with ? You have so great a compe- tition for food, that your people are starving or in misery ; and you would encourage the pro- duction of more to increase that competition. It may almost be questioned whether the con- trary policy ought not to be embraced ; whether
Id.pa^e 471»
444 ESSAY OK Uook IfT.
Dißerent plans of improving the
" difficulties should not be laid on the marriage of thosc who cannot makc it appear tliat thc) have thc prospect of maintaining the chUdren " that shall be the fruit of it ? But why encounige *' marriages which arc sure to take place in all situ- ations in which thcy ought to take place ? ITieic is no instance to be found of pl^nty of regulär employment being first cstablished where mar- riages have not foUowcd in a proportionate de- " gree. The policy therefore, at best, is usdess. " and may be pemicious/'
After having once so clearly understoojd Ac
principle of popuIation as to express these and
many other sentiments on the subjcct, equally just
and important, it \^ not a littlc siirprisinp^ to find
Mr. Young in a pamphlct, cntitlcd, TV/r Question
of Scarcity plainly stated^ nnd Ifemedies considered^
[publlshed in 1800,) obscrving, that "thcmcans
' which would of all others perliaps tcnd roosl
' surcly to prcvent futurc scarcitics so opprcssive
' to tlie poor as thc prcsent, would be to securc to
' cvery country laI>orer in the kingdon^, that has
^ thrcc childrcn and upwards, half an acrc of laiid
* for potatocs, and cjass c'nr)\i}rh to frrd oiu* of
fu^. X POPULATION. 445
coDdition of the poor considered*
two cows. ' * * * * If each had his ample po- tatoe ground and a cow, the price of wheat would be of litde more conseqiience to them, tban it is to their brethren in Ireland." " Every one admits the System to be good, but the question is how to enforce W^ I was by no means aware, that the exccllence of e System had been so generally admitted. For yself I strongly protest against being included in e general term of every one^ as I should cohsider e adoption of this System, as the most cruel and tal blow to the happiness of the lower classes people in this country, that they had ever re- ived.
Mr. Young however goes on to say, that " The magnitude of the object should make us disre- gard any difficulties but such as are insuperable : none such would probably occur if soniething like the following means were resorted to. " I. Whene there are common pastures, to give \b a laboring man having children, a
light to demand an allotment proportioned to tlie &mily, to be set out by the parish officers, &c.
i Pag« rr.
446 £äSAY ON ßookiy.
1 i L
DifTerent plans of improTing the
" * * * and a cow bought. Such laborcr to han- ^^ both for life, paying 40s. a year tili the pribe of ^^ the cow, &c. was reimbursed : at his death to gn ^^ to the laborer having the most numerous famfly, ^' for life, paying Shillings a week to du
widow of his predecessor.
IL Laborers thus demanding allotments b}
reason of their families to have land assigned and " cows bou^t, tili the proportion so aDotted '^ amounts to one of the extent of tbr
c<
4C
" common.
cc
IIL In parishes where there are no commons, and the quality of the land adequate, eveiy cot- " tager having children, to whose cot-
*' tage therc is not within a given time land suf- " ficicnt for a cow, and half an acre of potatocs. " assigned at a fair averagc rcnt, subjcct to appcal " to the scssions, to have a right to demand ** Shillings per weck of the parish for
" cvery child, tili such land be assigned ; leaviiig " to landlords and tenants the mcans of dobigit " Cows to bc found by the parish, under an anmial •' rcimburscment."
^ Pajc 78.
Chap. X, POPULATION. 447
condition of the poor considered*
" The great object is, by means of milk and " potatoesy to take the mass of the country poor ^^ from the consumption of wheat, and to give '^ them Substitutes equally wholesome and nourish- " ing, and as independent of scarcities, natural and " artificial, as the providence of the Almighty " willadmifi
Would not this plan operate in the most direct manneTy as an encouragement to marriage and bounty on children, which Mr. Young has with so nuich justice reprobated in his travels in France ? and does he seriously think that it would be an eli- g;ible thing to feed the mass of the people in this country on milk and potatoes, and make them as independent of the price of corn, and of the demand R»* labor, as their brethren in Ireland ?
Tbe specific cause of the poverty and miseiy of tfae loiver classes of people in France and Ireland Sj tfaat fix)m the extreme subdivision of property ia the one country, and ^the facility of obtaining a cabin and potatoes in the other, a population is bcought into existence, which is not demanded by the quantit}' of capital and employment in the
1 Page 79.
448 ESSAY ÖN Book IT.
Different plans of improiring the
coiintry; and thc conscquence of which must therefore necessarily be, as is vciy jusdy expits- sed in the report of die committee of mendicitj be- fore mentioned, to lower in generai the pricc of labor by too great competition ; firom which mast result complete indigence to those who cannot find employment, and an inconipletc subsistence even to those who can.
The obvious tendency of Mr. Young^s plan is, by encouraging marriage and furnishing a cheap food» independcnt of the price of com, and of course of thc demand for labor, to place the loircr classes of people exactly in this Situation.
It may i>erliaps be said, that our poor lan-s at prcsent regularly cncourage marriage and children, by distributing relief in proportion to the size of families ; and that this plan, which is proposed as a suixstitute, would merely do the same thingina Icss oiycctionable manner. But surely, in endea- voring to gct rid of the evil of the poor laws, ire ought not to retiiin their most pemicious quality: and Mr. Young must know as well as I do, that the principal reason why poor laws have invanablr been found ineffectual in the relief of the poor is that thcy tend to encourage a population which is
C^ X. POPULATION. 449
aas
condition of the poor conaidered*
•vf
not regulated by the deauuid for labon Mr. Young himself, indeed, expressly takes notice of this effcct Hl England, and observe9^ tfaat notwithstanding die luirivalled prosperity of her manu&ctures, '* po- ** pulation is sometimes too active, as we see clear- * ly by the dangerous incre^se of poor's rates in ^* country viUages." "
But the fact is, that Mr> Young*s plan would be incomparably more powerful in encouraging I pc^ulation beyond die demand fbr labor, than jisT present poor laws. A laudable repugnance 70 tiic receiving of parish relief, arising partly Srom a spirit of independence not yet extinct, and »rtly from the disagreeable mode in which the dief b given, undoubtedJy deters many from mar- yii^ with a certainty of falling on the parish ; and he Proportion of births and marriages to the whole )opuIation, which has before been noticed, clearly nroves that the poor laws do not encourage mar- iage so much as might be expected from theory. Jut the case would be very diflferent if, when a
» Travels in France, voL i. c. xvii, p. 470.
)oL ü. m m m
450 KSSAY ON Book IF.
Different plans of improving tlie
laborer had an early marriage in contemplalioo, thc terriiic forms of workhouses and parish oflicen which might disturb his resolution, were to be exchanged for the fascinating visions of land and Gows. If the love of property, as Mr. Young las repeatedly said, will make a man do much» it would be ratber stränge if it would not make him manjr, an action to which it appears from experienoe, that he is by no means dbinclined.
The population which would be thus called intD being, would be supported by the extended culti' vation of potatoes, and would of courae go oi^ without any reference to the demand forlabor^i«^ In the present State of things, notwithstanding thc?* flourishing condition of our manufactures, and tlK' "" numcrous checks to our population, thcrc is ncss practical problem so dif&cult iis to find cmploy — ment for the poor ; but this difficulty would cvi- dently bc aggravated a hundred fold, undcr thc ' circumstances here supposcd.
In Irckind, or in any other countr)', where thc common food is potatoes, and cvcry man who wishes to marry may obtain a piece of ground sufficient when plantcd with this root, to support
Iiap, X. POPULATION. 451
condition of the poor considered.
£unily, prizes may be ^ven tili the treasury is Jiausted for essays on the best means of employ- g the poor ; but tili some stop to the progress of pulation naturally arising from this State of things Ices place, the object in view is really a physical ipossibility« '
Mn Young has intimated, that if the people ^re fed upon milk and potatoes, they would be 3re independent of scarcities than at present ; t why this shoald be the case I really cannot mprehend. Undoubtedly people who live upon tatoes will not be much afiected by a scarcit}^ of leat ; but is there any contradiction in the sup- sition of a failure in the crops of potatoes? I lieve it is generally understood that they are >re liable to suffer damage during the winter
Dr« Crumpe's prize essay on the best means of find- employment for the people, is an excellent treatisCf contains much valuable informatton \ but tili the ca*
1 of the country is better proportioned to its popula- , it is perfectly chimerical to cxpect success in any icct of the kind. I am also strongly disposed to be*
2 that the indolent and turbulent habits of the lower li can never be corrected, while the potatoe system >les them to increase so much beyend the regulär de- kd for labor.
45« ESSAY ON Book IF.
Diflerent plans of improving tlie
tiian grain. From the much greater qiumtitj of food yielded by a given piece of land, whcn phnt- ed with potatoes, than under any other kind of cultivation, it would naturally happen, that fbr Mme time after the introduction of this root » the general food of the lower classes of people, a greater quantity would be grown than w&sde- manded, and they would live in plenty. Mr. Young, in his travels through France, obaerves. that, ^^ In districts which fcontain immense quan- tities of waste land of a certain degree of fetti- lity, as in the roots of the Pjrreneea, belongin^ to communities ready to seil them, economy industry, animated with the vicws of settlin and marrying, flourish greatly ; in such neigh^ — ■ lx>rhood9 something like an American incrtas^ takes place, and if the bind be cheap little dis-- tress is found. But as procreation goes on rapid--- ly undcr such circumstances, the least check xo subsistence is attended with great misery : as wastes becoming dearcr, or the best portions l>cing sold, or difficulties arising in the acquisi- tion ; all which circumstanccs I met with in those mountains. The moment that anv im«
Viap, X. POPULATION. 453
cmidition of the poor considercd.
pediment happens the distress of such people
will be propOTtioned to the activity and vigor
which had animated population.'' *
This description will apply exactly to what
rould take place in this countiy, on the distribu-
on of smaU portions of land to the common peo-
le» and the introductionof potatoes as their gene-
i food. For a time the change mi^ht appear
cneficial, and of course the idea of property would
lake it, at first, highly acceptable to the poor ;
iit as Mr. Young in another place says, " You
jM^sently arrive at the limit beyond which» the
earth, culüvate it as you please, will feed no more
mouths ; yet those ^mple manners which insti-
gate to marriage still continue ; what then is the
coDsequence but the most dreadful misery ima-
ginable.'^*
When the commons Avere all divided and diffi- uhies began to occur in procuring potatoe grounds le habit of early marriages which had been intro- aced, would occasion the most complicated dis- "ess ; and when from the increasing population,
* Travels in France, vol. i. c« xvii. p. 409,
* Ibid.
454 ESSAY ON BookIF.
DifTerent plans of improving the
and diminishiiig sources of subsistcnce, the avcr- age growth of potatocs w'as not morc than the aver* age consumptioii, a scarcity of potatocs would be, in every respect, as probable as a scarcit}' of wbeat at present, and when it did arrive, it would be be- yond all comparison more dreadfuK
Whcn the common people of a country liw
principally upon the dearest grain, as they do m
England on wheat, they have great resources int
scarcity ; and barley, oats, rice, ches^ soups, and
potatocs, all present thcmselves as less cxpensht,
yet at the same time wholesome means of nourish-
ment ; but when thcir habitual food is the loirot
in this Scale, ihcy appear to hc absolutcly withuut
resourcc, cxccpt in the l)ark of trccs, like tlicpoor
Swcdcs ; and a grcat iK)rtion of thcm miist ncces-
sarily be starvcd. W'^licatcn brcad, roast bcef, aiid
turbot, which might not fall at the same tlmc, arc
indecd in thcmselves unexccptionablc Substitute*
für potatocs, and would probably bc acccpted a^
such without murmuring by the common people ;
hut die misfortune is, that a largc population which
had Ix^en habitually supportcd b} milk and {X)-
tatoes, would fmd it difficult to obtain thcsc sul)-
stitutes in sufficicnt quantitits, cvcn if the wholc
Chap. X. POPULATION. 455
condition of the poor considered.
benevolence of the kingdom were called into actioii fcMT the purpose.
The wages of labor will always be regulated by the Proportion of the supply to the demand. And as, upon the potatoe system, a supply more than adequate to the demand would very soon take place, and this supply might be continued at a ver)-^ cheap rate, on account of the cheapness of the food which would fumish it, the common price of la- bor wöuld soon be regulated principally by the price of potatoes instead of the price of wheat, as at present; and the rags and wretched cabins of Irdand would foUow of course.
When the demand for labor occasionally cx- ceeds the supply, and wages are regulated by the price of the dearest grain, they will generally be such as to yield something besides mere food, and the common people may be able to cbtain decent houses and decefit clotliing. If the contrast be- tween the State of the French and English labor- ere which Mr, Young has drawn, be in any degree near the truth, the advantage on the side of Eng- hnd has been occasioned precisely and exclusively by these tni'o circumsta^ces ; and if by the adop-
456 ESSAY ON Book IV.
DifTerent plans of improTing the
tiou of milk and potatoes as the general food of the common people, these circumstances ^vere tot^Oy altered, so as to make the supply of labor constant- ]y in a great excess abpve the demand for it, and regulate wages by tlie price of the cheapest food, the advantage would be immediately lost, and no efibrts of benevolence could prevent the most ge- neral and abject poverty.
Upon the same principle it would by no meuB be eligible that tlie cheap soups of count Rum- ford should be adopted as the genenü food of the common people. Thcy are excellent inventioos for public institutions, and as occasional resources; but if they were once universally adopted by the poor, it would be impossible to prevent the pria of labor from Ixring regulatcd by them ; and the laborcr, though at first he niight have more ti spare for othcr expenses, besides food, would ul- timately have much less to spare than befbre.
The desirable thing» with a view to the h .pp- ness of the common people, seems to be that thcir habitual food should be dear, and their wages re- gulated by it ; but that in a scarcit}% or other oc- casional distress» the cheaper food should be itadiK
Owp. X. POPULATION. 457
condition of the poor considered*
i>i ^
and chcerfuUy adopted.' Witli a view of rendering this transition easier, and at the same time of making a uscful distinction between those who are dependent on parish relief, and those who are not, I should think that one plan which Mr. Young psoposes would be extremely eligible. This is " to pass an act prohibiting relief, so far " as subsistence is concemed, in any otlier man- " ner than by potatoes, rice, and soup, not merely " as a measure of the moment, but permanent- " ly."* I do not think that this plan would ne- cessarily introduce these articles as the common food of the lower classes ; and if it mercly madc the. transition to them in periods of distress easier, and at the same time, drew a more marked line than at present, between dependence and inde- pendence, it would have a very beneficial cffect.
■ It 18 certainly to bc "wished that cvcry cottage in Eng- land should have a garden to it, well stocked with Tege- t&blea. A little variety of food is in every point of view higbly useful. Potatoes are undoubtedly a most valuable «ssistance» though I should be very torry erer to see them the principal dependence of our laborers.
' Question of Scarcity, &c. p. 80. This mtght be done, at least with regard to workhouses. In assisting the poor «t their own homei» it might be sobject to some practica! difficulties.
voA iL n n n
458 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Diflfercnt plans of impi'ovin«; thc
As it is ackiiowlcdged that Xht introduction of milk and potatocs, or of cheap soups, as the gene- ral food of the lower classes of pcople^ would low- er the price of labor, perhaps some cold politician might propose to adopt the System, witli a view of underselling foreigners in the markets of Europa I should not envy the fcelings which could sug- gest such a proposal« I really cannot conccivc any thing much more dctestable, than the idea of knowingly condemning thc laborers of tliis comi- try to the rags and wretched cabins of Irelandt fo tlie purpose of selling a few more broad dodtt and caücocs« ' The wealth and power of ntiooft
' In this Observation I havc not thc Icast idca of alludin; to Mr. Yoiinjf, who, I firmly bclicvc, ardently wishes tt nicliorale the condition of thc lowcr classes of pcople^ though 1 do not think that his plan would cffcct thc ob- jcct in vicw. Hc either did not sce thosc conscqucnccs which I apprchend from it ; or hc has a bcttcr opiDion oC the happincss of thc common peoplc in Ircland than I havc. In his Irish tour hc sccmedmuch Struck with thc plenty of potatoes which they possessed, and thc abacncc of all apprehension of want. Had hc travclled io I80C and 1801, his impretsions would by all accounts havc been very different. From the facilily which has hithcrto prcvaiied in Ircland of procuring potatoc groundst »car- citirs havc certainly beeo rare, aod all the cffects of dre
Chap, X. POPULATION. 459
condition of the poor considered«
are, after all, only desirable as they contribute to happiness. In this point of view, I should be veiy far from undervaluing them, considering them, in general, as absolutely necessary means to att^ the end ; but if any particular case should
System have not yet been feit, though certainly enough to make it appear very far from desirable«
Mr. Young has since pursued bis idea more in detail, in a pampblet entitled. An Inqtäry into the Profiriety of opftlying WoMteB to the bettet Maintenance and Sufifiort of tkt Foor» But the impression on my mind is still the aame ; and it appears to me calculated to assimilate the condition of the laborers of this country to that of the lower clastes of the Irish» Mr* Youtig seems, in a most unac« conntable manner, to have forgotten all bis general prin- ciples on this subject. He has treated the question of a Provision for the poor, as if it was merely, How to pro- Tide in the cheapest and best manner for a givcn number of people ? If this had been the sole question, it would ncTcr have taken so many hundred years to resolve. But the real question is, Hpw to provide for those who are in want, in such a manner, as to prevent a conti nual accii- molation of their numbers ? and it yi\\\ readily occur to the reader, that a plan of giving them land and cows can- notpromise much success in this respect. If, aftcr all the itomroons had been dividcd, the poor laws were still to con* tinue in force, no good reason can be assigned vhy the rates should not in a few years be as high as they are at present, independently of all that had been expeo{|csl in ihe purchase of l^d and stpcl^.
460 ESSAY ON, &?r.
DiflTerent platis of improving thc» ö'r.
occur, in which they appearcd to be in dircct op* Position to each other, we cannot rationally doubt which ought to be po§tponed.
Fortunately however, even on the narrowest po- litical principlesy the adoption of such a system would not answen It has always been observcd» that those who work chiefly on their own proper^» work very indolently and unwillingly when cm* ployed for others ; and it must necessarily happcDi when, from the general adoption of a very cbop food, the population of a country increases coctt* derably beyond the demand for labor, that habils of idleness and turbulence will be generated, wot peculiarly unfavorable to a flourishing State of im- nufactures. In spite of the cheapness of labor in Ireland, thcre are few manufacturcs which can bc prepared in that country for forcign salc so chcap as in England : and this is in great measure owing to the want of tliosc industrious habits which can only be produced by regulär employment.
CHAPTER XI.
thc necessity qf general principles on this sub-
ject.
IT has beenobserved by Hume, thatof all ces, there is none where first appearances arc
deceitful than in politics. ' The remark is ubtedly very just, and is most peculiarly ap- ble to that department of the science which rs to the modes of improving the condition of >wer classes of society. e are continually hearing declamations against y and theorists, by men who pride themselves
the distinction of being practieal, It must knowledged that bad tlieories are very bad s, and the authors of them useless, and some- i pemicious members of society. But these sates of practice do not seem to be aware, hey themselves very often com^ under this
* Essay xi» vol. u p. 431. 8vo.
46.2 ESSAY ON Book»
Of the necessity of general
description, and that a great part of tliem may bc classed among the most mischievous tlieorists of their time. AVhen a man faithfuUy relates m facts which have come wiihin the scope of his oun obsen-ation, however confined it may have becn he undoubtedly adds to the sum of general knov- ledge, and confers a benefit on society. But when from this confined experience, from the mi- nagement of his own little farm^ or the details of the work-house in his neighborhood, he draws « general inference, as is very frequently the case, hc thcn at once erects himself into a theorist, and k the morc dangerous, because experience being the only just foundation for theor}', pcople are oftea caiight merely by the sound of the word, and dt not stop to make the distinction between that par- tial experience which, on such subjects, is no foun- dation whatcvcr for a just theory-, and that gene- ral experience, on which alone a just theory can be founded.
There are perhaps few subjects on which humai ingenuity lias been more exerted, than in the cn- dcavor to mcliorate the condition of the poor ; and there is certainly no subject in which it has sD romplctely failed. The question between the theo-
hap. XI. POPULATION. 463
principles on this subjecti
St who cails himself practical, and the genuine leorist is, whether this should prompt us to look ito all the holes and corncrs of work-houses, and ontent ourselves with mulcting the parish officers or their waste of cheese parings and candle ends, nd with distributing more soups and popatoes ; )r to recur to general principles which show us at Mice the cause of the fuilure, and prove that the System hiis been from the bcginning radically er- "oneous. Thcrc is no subject to which general ;..- jnrinciples h^ve bcen so seldom applied ; and yet in the whole compass of human knowledge, I ioubt, if there be one in which it is so dangerous to lose sight of them ; because the partial and im- nediate effects of a particular mode of giving as- sistance are so often directly opposite to the gene- ral and permanent effects.
It has been observcd in particular districts, wherc cottagers are possessed of small pieces of land, and are in the habit of keeping cows, that during the iate scarcities some of them were able to support tfaemselves without parish assistance, and others with comparatively little. •
* See an Inquiry into the State of Cottagers in the Coun- lieft of LiDColn and Rutland by Robert Gourlay. Annals tf Agricalture> vol« xxxyii« p. 514.
464 ESSAY ÜN Book Il\
Of the necessity of [^neral
■^' ■ '
According to the partial view in which this bub- ject has been always contemplatcd, a general infer- encc has bten dravvii from such instanccs, tliat if WC couIJ place all our laboixrs in a sinriilar Situa- tion, they would all be equally conifurtublCy and equally independeli^j^ tlie parish. This is an in- ference however, that*y no means follows. The advantage which cottagers who at present ketp cows cnjoy, arises in a grcut mcasure from its be ing peculiar, and would be considerably dimlnish cd if it were made gencrol.
A £u*iner or gcnüeman has, We will suppo».- a certain number of cottages on his farm. Beini, a liberal man, and liking to sce ull the \ku\1 al>out him comforLiblc, hc may join a pica • ' land to his cottajjcs siifficicnt to kccp one ortu cows, and givc bcsidcs Iiijjh w:ij:;c*s. His Ll)ori;^ will of coiirsc live in plciity, Mid l)c al)le to n-: up largc faniilics ; but \\\^ farni m;iy not ri'c|uin many hands ; and thoiigh hc niay choosc to pj} thoso diat hc cniploys well, hc u il! not nniba^I} wish to havc morc laborers on his l:»nd ihiin lii^j work rcquircs. I!e does not llKrefore Iniild nit^r^ hüuses; and the children of Uic laborers \\\v^x\\ \\< cmploys ninst cvidcntly emigratc and scttlt iii o'.her cnuniries. Whilc such a systcm conlinut^
Chap.XI. POPULATION. 465
piinciples on this subject-
peculiar to certain families, or certain districts, the emigrants would easily bc able to find work in other places ; and it cannot be doubted that the individual laborers employed on these fiums are in an enviable Situation, and such as we might na- tunüly wi^ was tlie lot of all our laborers. But it is perfectly clear that ^wch a System could not, / ■ in the nature of things, possess the same. advan*. , tages, if it were made general; because there^ii' would then be no countries to which the chiidren- * ' ' ^ could emigrate with the same prospect of finding^' wcMrk. Population would evidendy increase be- . yopd the demand of towns and manuiactories, and die price of labor would universally falL
It should be observed also, that one of the rea- sons why the laborers who at present keep cows are so comfortable, is, that th^ are able to make a considerable profit of the milk which they do not uae themselves, an advantage whicK would evi- dendy be very much diminished if the System were universale And though they were certainly aUe to struggle through the late scarcities with less assistance than their neighbors, as might na- turally be expected, from their having other re- aources besides the drticle which in those mdivi- v^ iL ooQ
46B ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of thc nccessitf of general
dual years was scarcc ; yet if the System weit universal, there can be no reason assigned why they would not be subject to suffer as much firom a scarchy of gra^ and a mortality among cows, ' as our common laborers do now from a scarchy of wheat. We should be extremely cautkxis therefore of tnisting to such appearances» and of drawing a general inference fh)m this kind of par- tial experience.
The main principle on which the socie^ for increasing the comforts, and bettering the condi- tion of the poor, professes to proceed is excelknt To give effect to that masterspring of industnr, the desire of bettering our condition, is the truc mode of improving the State of thc lower classes; and we may safely agree wilh Mr. Bemard, in
* At present the loss of a cow which must now and ihen happen, is gcnerallf remedied by a pctition and sttb- scription, and as the event is considered as a moft seri« ous misfortune to a laborer, these petitions are for the most part attended to ; but if the cpw System wcre uni- versal, losses would occur so frequently that they co«ld not possibly be repaircd in the same way, and familics would be continually dropping from coniparativc plentr into want.
* Preface to vol. ii. of the Reports.
Ouip.XI, POPULATION. 467
principles on this subject.
one of his able prefaces, that whatever encourages and promotes habits of industry, prudence, forc- sighty virtue, and cleanliness, among the poor, is beneficial to them and to the country ; and what- ever removes or diminishes the incitements to any of these qualities, is detrimental to the State, and pemicious to ttie individual. '
Mr. Bemard indeed himself seems in general to be fully aware of the difficulties which the society has to contend with in the accomplishment of its object. But still ä appears to be in some danger of falling into the error before alluded to, of draw- ing general inferences from insufficient experience. Without adverting to the plans respecting cheaper foods and parish shops, recommended by indivi- duals, the beneficial efiects oi which depend en- tirely upon their being peculiar to certain 'families or certain parishes, and would be lost if they werc general, by lowering the wages of labor ; I shaD CHily notice one Observation of a more comprehen- sive nature, which occurs in the preface to the second volume of the Reports. It is there remark*
^ Prcfacc to vol. üi. of the Reports«
468 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Ofthc necessity of genenl
edy that the experience of the society seemcd (o Warrant the conclusion, that the best mode of re- lieVing the poor was, by assistuig them at didr own homes, and placmg out their children as sood as possible in diflferent emplo3rmentSy apprentioe- sh^ &C. I really believe that this is die best, and it b certainly the most agreeable modCi in which occasional and discriminate asastanoe cn be ^ven. But it is evident that it must be done with caution, and cannot be adopted as a geneni principle, and made the fbundation of umvtnal practice. It is open exactly to the sanie objcc- tion as the cow system which has just been dd- ticed, and that part of the act of the 43d of Eliza- beth which directs the overseers to employ ind provide for the children of the poor, A particular parish, where all the children, as soon as they iicre of a proper age, were taken from their parents and placed out in proper situations, might be vcry comfortable ; but if the system were gencral, and the poor saw that all their children would be thus provided for, every employment would presenth be overstocked with hands, and the conacquena need not be again repeated.
Nothiugcan be more clear tlian that it is withir
Ch^, XI. POPULATION. 469
principles on this subject.
the power of money, and the exertions of the rieh, adequately to relieve a particular fitmily, a particu- lar parish, and even a particular district. But k will be equally clear, if we reflect a moment on tbe subject, that it is totaUy out of their power to relieve the whole country in the same way ; at käst widiout providing a regulär vent for the over- flowing numbers in emigration, or without the prevalenoe of a particular virtue among the poor, which the distribution of this assistance tends obviously to discourage.
Even industry itself is, in this respect, not ver\' difierent from money. A man who possesses a certain portion of it, above what is usually posses* sed by his neighbors, will, in the actual State of things, be almost sure of a competent livelihood ; but if all his neighbors were to become at once as industrious as himself, the abs<riute portion of in- dustry which he before possessed would no longer be a security against want, Hume feil into a stvy great error, when he asserted, that " almost all ** the moral, as well as natural evils of human life, " arise fix>m idleness ;" and for the eure of these ills, required only that the whole species should possess naturally an equal diligence with that which
470 ESSAY ON Book IK
Of the necessity of genenl
many individuak are able to attain 1^ hat»t and reftectkuu* Itis evident thatthispvendq;rceof industiy possesaed by the whöle apecies, if not tombined with another virtue of which he takes no notice, would totally &il of rescuing aocicQr fix>m want and miaery » and would scaitxly remove a sin^ moial or phyucal evil of all thoae to m^uch healludea.
I am aware of an öbjection which will, wilb great appearance of justice, be urged against titt general tenor of theae reasonings. It will be aaid, that to argue thus, is at once to object 10 evc^ mode of aasisting the poor, as it b impoasible, ia the nature of things, to assist people individually, witbout altering their relative Situation in society, and proportionally depressing others ; and that as those who have families, are the persons naturaHj most subject to distress, and as we are certainly not called upon to assist those who do not waot our aid, we must necessarily, if we act at all, re- licve those who have children, and thus encourage marriage and population.
^ Dialogues on Natural Religion, Part xi. p. 319.
'Mp. XI. POPULATION. 471
principles on this subject.
I have already observed however, and I here re- eat it again, that the general principles on these Libjects ought not to be pushed too far, though ley should always be kept in view ; and that ma- Y cases may occur in which the good rcsulting •om the relief of the present distress, may more lan overbalance the evil to be apprehended from le rcmote consequence.
All relief in instances of distress, not arising •cm idle and improvident habits, clearly comes Inder this description ; and in general it may be bserved, that it isonly that kind of systematic2ind TTtain relief, on which the poor can confidently epend, whatever may be their conduct, that vio- ites general principles in such a manner as to lake it clear that the general consequence is wor^ lan the particular evil.
Independently of this discriminate and occasion- l assistance, the beneficial effects bf which I have illy allowed in a preceding chaptcr, I have before ndeavored to show, that much might be expected "om a better and more general system of educa- lon. Every thing that can be done in this way, las indeed a very peculiar value ; because educa-
472 ESSAY ON Book IV.
SS
Of theneccssity of gencral
tion is one of those advantages, ivhich not only aD may share without interfering mth each other, but die raising of one person may actually contribute to the raising of otfaers. If, for instance, a man bj education acquires that decent kind of pride, aod those juster habits of thinking, which will prevcot him from bufdenitijg society with a &mily of children which he cannot support, his conduct, as &r as an individual instance can go, tends evidcntlj to improve the condition of his fellow laboitn; and a contrary conduct from ignorance, would tend as evidently to deprcss it«
I cannot help thinking also, that somethiog might be done towards bettcring the Situation of the poor by a general improvement of thcir coc« tages ; if care were taken, at the same time, not to make thein so largc as to allow of two familics settling in them ; and not to increasc their number faster than the demand for labor required. One of the most salutary, and Icast pcmicious checks to the freqiiency of early marriagcs in this countHi "is tlic difficulty of procuring a cottagc, and tk laudable habits which prompt a laborcr rather to dcfcr his marriage some years in Uie expectation of
Owp. XI. POPULATION. 473
prlnciples on this subject.
a vacanc} , than to content himsdf with a wretch- ed mud cabin, like those in Ireland.»
Even the cow sytem, upon a more confined plan, might not be open to objection. With any view of making it a Substitute for the Poor Laws, and of giving laborers a right to dcmand land and cows in propoition to their families ; or of taking the common people from the consumption of wheat, and feeding them on milk and potatoes, it appears to nie, I confess, truly preposterous : but if it were so ordered as merely to provide a com- fortable Situation for the better and more indus- trious class of laborers, and to supply at the same time, a very important want among the poor hi general, that of milk for tlieir children, I think that it would be extremely beneficial, and might be
* Perhaps, howevcr, this is not often left to his choice^ on account of the fear which every parish has of increas- ing its poor. There are many way» by which our poor laws operate in counteracting their first obvious tendency to incrtase population, and this is one of them* I have little doubt that it is ahnost exciusively öwing to these co'üiteracting causes, that we have been able to pcrsevero in this System so long, and that the condition of the poor has not been so much injured by it as might have been expected.
VoL ii. P P P
474 ESSAY ON Book D\
Of the necessity of general
made a very powcrful incitement to habits of in- dustry, economy, and prudence. With this view however, it is evident, that only a certain portion of the laborers in each parish could be embraced in the plan ; that good conduct, and not mere dis- tress, should have the most valid claim to prefer- ence ; that too much attention should not be paid to the number of childrcn ; and that universally, those who had saved money enough for the pur- chase of a cow, should be preferred, to those who required to be fumished with one by the parish.' To facilitate the saving of small sums of mone]r for this purpose, and encourage young iaborcrs to cconomize their carnings with a view to a provision for marriage, it might be cxtremely useful to havc country banks, where the smallcst sums would Ix* rcccivcd, and a fair intercst paid for thcm. At j)Rscnt, the fcw laborers who savc a little money,
' The act of Elizabeth which prohibited the buildingot oyttages, unless four acres of land were annexcd to thenii is probably impracticable in a manufacluring country likc England ; but upon this principle, certainly the gremlcft part of ihe poor ini^ht posscss land ; because the difficul- ly of procurinq; such cottages would alway» operalc as ^ powcrful check to their increase. The etTect of such > plan would be very diffcrcnt from that of Mr. Younj;.
Chap. XL POPULATION. 475
pnnciples on the subject.
are often greatly at a loss to know what to do with it ; and under such circumstances we cannot be much surprised that it should sometimes be ill employed, and last but a short time. It would pxx>bably be essential to the success of any plan of this kind, that the laborer should be able to draw out his money whenever he wanted it, and have the most perfect liberty of disposing of it in even- respect as he pleased. Though we may rcgret, that money so hardly eamed shouid sometimes be spent to little purpose ; yet it seems to be a case in which we have no right to interfere ; nor if we bad, would it in a general view, be advantageous ; because the knowledge of posessing this libertj- would be of more use in encouraging the practice of saving, that any restriction of it, in prcventing the misuse of money so saved.
One should undoubtedly be extremely unwilling aot to make as much use as possible of that known Stimulus to industry and economy, the desire of, and the attachment to property : but it should be recollected, that the good effects of this Stimulus show themselves principally when this property is to be procured, or preserved, by personal exer- tions ; and that they are by no means so general
476 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Of the necessity of gcneral
under otlier circumstances. If any idlc man widi a family could demand and obtain a cow and somc landy I should expect to see both very often ne- glected.
It has been observed that those cottagers who keep cows, are more industrious and more re- gulär in their conduct, than those who do not This is probably true, and what might natunlly be expected; but the inference that the way to make all pcople industrious is to give them cows, hiay by no means be quite so certain. Most of those who keep cows at present have purchascd them with the fruits of their own industry. It is therefore more just to say, that their industry has given them a cow, than ihat a cow has givcn them their industry ; though I would by no means bc undcrstood to imply, that the sudden possessiou of property nevcr gcnerates industrious habits.
The practical good efFects which have been al- ready cxpericnced, from cottagers kccping cows,' iirise in fact from the systcm Ix^ing nearly such a>
' Inx'iuiry into the State of Cottagers in the countiet» ^* Lirt(»ln ;ind Rutland, by Robert Gourlay. Annais *' Agriculture, vol. xxxvii« p. 514.
&. XI. t>OPULATION. 477
principles on this subject.
onfined plan which I have mentioned. In the icts where cottagcrs of this description most nd, they do not bcar a ver}^ 'arge proportion to jopulation of the whole parish ; they consist in ral of the better sort of laborers, who have been to purchase thcir o\^ti cows ; and the peculiar "orts of their Situation arisc more from the rela- han the positive advantages which they posscss. om observing therefore their industry and brts, we should be verj' cautious of inferring \ve could give the same industry and comforts
the lower classes of people, by giving them ame possessions. There is nothing that has i rise to such a cloud of errors, as a confusion een relative and positive, and between cause rffect. may be said however, that any plan of gcne-
improving the cottages of the poor, or of iing more of Üiem to keep cows, would evi- y give them the power of rearing a greater Der of children, and by thus encouraging po- ion, violate the principles which I liave en- >red to establish. But if I have been suc- ul in making the reader comprehend the priii- bent of this work, he will be aware tlii.t the-
478 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Of the necessity of general
prccise reason why I think that more children oiight not to be bom than the countrj- can Sup- port is, that the greatest possible numbcr of thosf that are bom may be supported. Wc cannot, io . the nature of things, assist the poor in any way, without enabling them to rear up to manhood a greater numbcr of their children. But this is, of all other things, the most desirable, both with it- gard to individuals and the public. Every loss of a child from the consequences of poverty, must evidendy be preceded and accompanied by great misery to individuals ; and in a public view, evcry child that dies under ten years of age is a loss to the nation of all that had bcen expendcd in itssub- sistcnce tili that pcriod. Conscquently, in cvcn point of view, a decrcasc of mortality at all agcs is what WC ought to aiin at. WV- cannot howcvfr t'ffect this übjcct, without first crowdiug the popu- lation in some degrec by niaking more childan i^ow up to manhood ; but wc sliall do no härm in this rcsjK^ct, if, at the samc timc, we can imprcbs thcsc children with the idca that to posscss ÜK samc advantagcs as their parcnts, thcy must dcf<-^ niiuriagc tili thcy havc a fair prospcct of bcing ible to maintiün a familv. And it must be caO-
>. XI. POPULATION. 479
principles on this subject.
f confessecl that if we cannot do this, all our er efforls will have been throwa away. It is n the nature of things that any permanent and ral improvement in die condition of the poor be effccted, without an increase in the preven- check ; and unlcss this take place, eithcr with ithout our efforts, every thing that is donc for poor miist be temporary and partial : a dimi- 3n of mortality at present, will be balanced n increaücd mortality in future ; and the im- ement of their condition in one place, will pro- ionably depress it in anothcr. This is a truth nportant and so little understood, that it can 3ely be too oftcn insisted on. The gcnerality laritable people and of the encouragers of mar- % are not in tlie smallest degrce awarc of the efFects of what they do. n Paley, in a chapter on popuIation, provision, in his Moral Philosophy, observcs, tliat the iition most favorable to the popuIation of a itry, and at the same time to its gencral hap- ss is, " that of a laborious frugal jKoplc mi- stering to the demands of an opulent luxt;ri* nation."* Such a form of society has not, it
^'^ol. ü. c. xi. p, 359, From a passage in Dr. Palcy's
i8ö ESSAY ON Book IT.
Of the necessity of general
inust hc confessedy an inviting aspecL Nothing hut thc conviction of its being absolutely neces- sary , could reconciie us to the idea of ten millioib üf people coademncd to incessant toil, and to the privation of every thing biit absolute necessaries, in Order to minister to the excessive luxuries of the odier million. But the fact is, that sucha form of Society is by no means necessary. It b by no means necessary that the rieh should bc excessively luxurious, in order to support thc manufacturcs of a country, or that the poor shouM be deprived of all luxuries, in order tomakethcm siifficiently niimerous. The best and In tvtnr poiiit ol' vicw thc niost advantagcous nianufactuas in ihis counlrv, arc thosc wliich are consumed bv thc givat body of thc people. The manu&ctua'!(
lale work on Natural Thcology, I am inclincd lo tbnik that bul)se4ucnt rcflecüon has induccd hini to nv»*- «T some ol' his Ibrmcr ideas on thc subject of popula"'»f'' He has statcd most juslly (chap. xxv, p. 53*>.) ihal •.•■*''• Kind will in evtry country breed up to a ccrtitin poiiü i distress. If this bc allowcd, that rountry will cviden' V be the happiest, where the degree of distress at ihispo"'* is the icast, and consequently, if thc spread of luxur)' f'T producinjL^ thc check sooner, tend to diminish Ihis dcysref »f distress, it is certainly desirable.
s.
Chap. XI. POPULATION. 481
principles on this subject.
which are confined exclusively to the rieh, are not onljr trivial on account of the comparative small- ness of their quantity ; but are further liable to the great disadvantage of producing much occasiona} misery among those enjployed in them, from changes of &shion. It is the spread of luxury therefore among the mass of the people, and not an excess of it in a few, that seems to be most ad- vantageous, both with regard to national wealtli and national happiness ; and what Dr. Puley con- siders as the true evil and proper danger of luxury, I should be disposed to consider as its true good and peculiar advantage. If indeed, it be allowed that in every society, not in the State of a ne w colony, some powerful check to population must prevail ; and if it be observed that a taste for the comforts and conveniencies of life will prevent people from marrying undcr the certainty of being dcprived pf these advantages ; it must be allowed that we can hardly expect to find any check to marriage so little prejudicial to the happiness and viitue of society as the general prevalence of such a taste ; jmd consequently that the spread of hixury' in
^ In a note to the tenth chaiHer of the täKt bo^, l hav^ 7'^. ii. Q 4 4
kfiL
482 ESSAY ON Book IT.
Of the neccssity of gcneral
this sense^of the term, is particularly desirable : and one of the best means of raising that Standard of wretchedness alluded to in the eighth chapter of this book.
It has been generally found that the middlc parts of Society are most favorable to virtuous and industrious habits, and to the growth of all kinds of talents. But it is evident that all cannot be in the middle. Siiperior and inferior parts are in tlic nature of things absolutely necessar)' ; and not only necessary, but strikingly beneficial. If no man could hope to rise, or fear to fall in society ; if industry did not bring with it its re^^Tird, and indolencc its punishmcnt ; we could not expect to sec that animatcd activity in bettering our con- dition, wlTich now forms the master-spring of pub- lic prosperity. But in contcmplating the diffcr- ent States of 1 ain)pe, we obscrve a very consider- a!)le difllrcncc in the relative j)roportions of tl)e
mentioned the point at which alonc. it is probable thmt Xwl- ury becomes really prejudicial to a coiintiy. But this point does not dcpend upon the sprcad of luxury as dimi« nishint^ the frecjucncy of marriaj^c amon^ the poor« but upon the proportion which thosc einploycd in preparinfr or procuring luxuries, bear to the funds which are to Sup- port ihcm-
Outp. XI. POPULATION. 483
principles on this subject.
superior, the middle and the infc rior parts ; and from the effect of these differcnces, it secms probable that our best grounded expectations of an increasc in the happiness of the mass oi human society, are founded m the prospect of an increase in the relative proportions of the middle parts. And if the lower classes of people had acquired the habit of proportioning the supplies of labor to a Station- ary o^ even decreasing demand, without an increase of misery and mortality as at present, we might even venture to indulge a hope, that at some fu- ture period the processes for abridging human la- bor, the progress of which has of late years been so rapid, might ultimately supply all the wants of the most wealthy society widi less personal labor than at present ; and if they did not dinuai^h the severity of individual exertion, might» at least, diminish the number of those employed in severe teil. If the lowest classes of society were thus diminished, and the middle classes mcreascd» each laborer might indulge a more rational hope of ris» sing by diligencc and exertion into a better Sta- tion ; the rewards of industry and virtue would bc increased in number ; tlie lottery of human societ)' would appear to consist of fewer blanks and more
iki^.
484 ESSAY ON Book IV.
Ofthe necessity of gencral
prizes ; and the sum of social happiness would b( evidcntly augmented.
To indulge however in any distant views ot this kind, unaccompanied by the evils u^ually at- tcndant on a stationary or decreasing demand for kbor, we must suppose the general prevalenoe of such prudcntial habits among the pow, as would prevent them from maiT)'ing, when the actual pricc of labor, joined to what they might have saved in their single State, would not give them the prospect of being able to support a wife and six childicn without assistance. And in every potnt of vicw, such a degree of prudential restraint would bc ex* trcmely bencficial ; and would produce a very striking melioration in the condition of the lowcr dasscs of peoplc.
It may be said perhaps, that evcn this degree ol prudence might not ahvays avail, as when a man niarries he cannot teil what number of children he shall have, and many have more than six. This is ccrtainly true ; and in this case I do not think tliat any cvil would result from making a certain allowancc to evciy child above this number ; not wiih a view of rcwarding a man for Ins large fa- mily, but mcrely, of relicving him from a sixxics
i '"
Chap. XI. POPULATION. 485
■Ak.
principles on this subject«
of distress, which it would be unreasonable in US to expect that he should calculate upon. And with this view, the relief should be merely such as to place him exactly in the same Situation as if he had had six children. Montesquieu disapproves of an edict of Lewis the fourteenth, which gave certain pensions to those who had ten and twelve cluldren, as being of no use in encouraging po- pulation.' For the very reason that he disap- proves of it, I should think that some law of the kind mig^t be adopted without danger, and might relieve particular individuals from a very pressing and unlooked-for distress, without operating in any respect as an encouragement to marriage.
If at some future period, any approach should be made towards the more general prevalcnce of prudential habits with respect to marriage among the poor, from which alone any permanent and general improvement of their condition can arise ; I do not think that the narrowest politician need be alarmed at it, from the fear of its occasioning such an advance in the price of labor as will ena- ble our commercial competitors to undersell us in
V— — — — _— ^ —
' Esprit des Loix^ lir« xxiii. c* xxrii^
486 ESSAY ON, &fr.
Of the necensity of generali (^r.
Foreign markets. There are four circumstanceb that might be expected to accompany it, which would probably either prcvent or fuUy counter- balance aiiy effect of this kind. These are, Is^ The more equable and lower price of provi^ODS, from the demand being less frequendy above iht supply. 2dly, The removal of that heavy bür- den on agriculture, and that great addition to the present wages of labor, die poors rates. Sdlyr The national saving of a great part of that sum tvhich is expended without retum, in the support of those children who die ^prematurely, fh)m die consequences of poverty. And, lastly, The more gcncral prcvalence of cconomical and induslrious habits, particularly among unmarricd mcn, wliich would prevcnt diat iiidolt:ncc, drunkcnncss, and waste of labor, which at prcücnt are too frcquently a consequcnce of high wagcs.
CHAPTER XII.
Of our rational expectations respectlng thefuture
improvement of Society.
IN taking a general and concluding vIew of our rational expectations respccting the mitiga- tion of the evils arising from the principle of po- pulation, it may be observed, that though the in- crease of population in a geometrical ratio l^e in- controvertible, and the period of doubling, when »nchecked, has l^en uniformlv stated in this work, rather below than above t!ie truth ; vet therc are 8ome natural conseqiicnces of the progress of So- ciety and civilization, which necessarily reprcss its füll eficcts. llicse are, more particularh , great towns and manufucturcs, in which we cau scarcely hope, and certainly not ex pect to see an}- very materuil change. It is undoubtedly our du- ty, and in every point of view highly desirable, to make towns and manufacturing employments as little injurious as possible to the duration of hu< man life ; but, after all our efifortSy it is probable
488 ESSAY ON JiooklV.
Of our rational expectations
that they will ahvays remain less healtby tban country situations and couiitry employments ; and consequently operating as positive checks, wffl diminish in some degree the necessity of the pre- ventive check.
In every old State it is observed, that a cod- siderable number of grown up people renudn for a time iinmarried. The duty of practising ihc common and acknowledged rules of morality da- ring this period, has never been controverted ia theory, however it may have been o{>posed ä practice. This branch of the duty of moral ro- traint has scarcely been touched by the reas(Xiinp of this werk. It rests on the same foundation as before, ncithcr strenger nor weaker. And know- ing how incompletely this duty has hitherto bccQ fulfillcd, it would ccrtainly be visionary to exptct any very matcrial change for the better, in fu* turc.
The part which has been affectcd by the rci. sonings of this work is not therefore, that which relates to our conduct during the period of celiba* cy, but to the duty of extending this period tiU \ve have a prospect of being able to maintain our children. And it is by no means visionary to in-
Chap. XU. POPULATION. 4a9
respecting futurc improvement.
dulge a hope of some favorable change in this respect; because it is foiind by experience, that the prevalence of this kind of prudential res- traint is extremely diflferent in different countries, smd in the same coiintries at different per'ods.
It cannot be doubted, that throughout Eüropc in general, and most particularly in the northem States, a decided change has taken place in the openition of this prudential restraint, since the prevalence of thosc warlike and enterprising habits which destroyccl so many pcople. In later times the gradual diminution and almost total extinction of the plagues which so frequcntly visitcd Kurone in the seventeenth and iIk: beginning of the eigh- teenth centnries, produced a chanjje of the same kind. And in this countr\' it is not to he doubted tfiat the Proportion of maniages has become smallcr since the improvement of our towns, the less fre- quent returns of epidemics, and the adoption of habits of greatcr deanliness. During the late scur- cities it appears that the nuni!:>er of marriagcs di- minished ; and the same motives which prevcnted many peoplc from marrying during such a period, vvould operate precisely in the same way, if, in future, the additional numbcr of childrea reared f)öL ii. r r r
490 ESSAY ON ßookB'
Of our rational expectations
to manhoocl from the introduction of the cow-pox, wcre to be such as to crowd all employments, lower the price of labor^ and make it m(H^ difficult to Support a family.
Universally, the practice of mankind on the subject of marriage has been much superiorto their theories ; and however frequent may havc been the declamations on the duty of entering ioto this State, and the advantage of early unions to prevent vice, each individual has practically foiind it necessary to consider of the means of supportiog a family, before he ventured to take so importaal a Step. That great vis medicatrix reipubKar^ the desire of bettcring our condition, and the fear of makinf^ it worsc, has been constantly in action, and Iias been constantly dirccting pcople into the right road in spitc of all the declamations which tendcd to Icad thcm aside. Owing to this power- ful spring of iiealth in everj' State, which is notliing more than an inference from the general course of the laws of nature irresistibly forccd on cach man's attention, the prudcntial check to marriage has increased in Europc ; and it cannot be unrea- sonable to conclude that it will still make furthcr advances. If this take place, without any markeil
Chap. Xn. POPULATION. 491
• respecting future improveroent.
and decided increase of a vicious intcrcourse with ihe sex, the happiness of society will cvidcnüy be promoted by it ; and with regard to the daiiger of such increase, it is consolatory to remark, tliat those countries in Europe where marriages are the least frequent, are by no means particularly distinguished by vices of tliis kind. It has ap- peared that Norway, Switzcrland, England, and Scotland, are above all the rest in the prevalence of the preventive check ; and though I do not mean to insist particularly on the virtuous habits of these countries, yet I think that no perscm would select diem as the countries most raarked for profligacy of manners. Indeed, from the little that I know of the continent, I should have been inclined to select them as most distinguished for contrary habits, and as rather above than below their neigh- bors in the chastity of their women, and conse- quendy in the virtuous habits of their men. Ex- perience therefore seems to teach us, tliat it is possible for moral and physical causes to counter- act the effects that might at first hc expected from nn increase of the check to marriage ; but allowing all the weight to these effects which is in any de- gree probable, it may be safely asserted, that the
492 ESSAY ON Book IF.
Ol our rational expectations
diminution of the vices arising from indigence would fully counterbalance dicm ; and tfiat aB the advantages of diminished mortality, and supc- rior comforts, which would certainly result firom an increase of die preventive check, may be placcd entirely on die side of the gains to the cause of happiness and virtue.
It is less the object of the present werk to pro- pose new plans of improving society, than to inc»jl- cate the necessity of resting contented wirh i^4 mode of improvemcnt, which is dictated bj tk course of nature, and of not obstructing the ad- vances which would otherwise be niade in Üß way.
It would be undouhtedly highly advantageous diat all our positive institutions, and the whole tenor of our conduct to the poor, should be such as actively to co-operate with tliat Icsson of pru- d; ncc inculcatcd by the common course of human ovcnts; and if we tnke upon ourselv(»s somctimes to miiipT-ite the natural pimishments of imprudence, thnt we should balancc it by incrcasing the re\var(is of an opposite conduct. But much would Ix^done, if merelv the institutions which directly tend to cncourage marriage were gradually changed, and
Chap. SIL POPULATION. 493
rcspecting: future improvement.
WC cc iscd to circiilate opinions and inciilcate doc- trines, which positively counteract the lessons of nature.
Tlie limited good which it is sometitnes in our power to eiFect, is often lost by attempting too nniuch, and by making tlie adoption of some par- ticular plan Asentially necessary even to a partial degree of succtss. In the practical application of the r^^asonings of this work, I hope that I have avoided this error. I wish to press on the recol- lection of the reader, that, though I may have ^ven some new vicws of old facts, and may have indulgcd in the contemplation of a considerable degri^e of possible improvement, that I might not absolutely shut out that prime cheerer hope ; yet in my expectations of probable improvement, and in suggesting the means of accomplishing it, I have been very cautious. The gradual abolitioa of the poor law^s has already oftcn been proposed^ in consequence of the practical evils which have been found to flow from them, and the danger of their becoming a weight absolutely intolerable on ihe landed property of the kingdom. The esta- blishment of a more extensive system of national cducation has neither the advantage of novelty
494 ESSAY ON BooklF.
Of our rational expectations
with some, nor its disadvantages with others, to recommend it. The practical good eflfccts of education have long been experienced in See- land ; and almost every person who has bcen plac- cd in a Situation to judge, has given his testimoof that education appears to have a considerable ef- fect in the prevention of crimes/ and the promo- tion of industry, morality, and regulär conduct Yet these are the only plans which have been of- fered ; and though the adoption of them in the modes suggested would very powerfuUy contri* bute to forward the objcct of this work, and bet« tcr the condition of the poor ; yet if notliing bc donc in this way, I shall not absolutely despair of some partial good cflccts from the gencral tcnor of the rcasoning.
If the principlcs which I have endcavored to
^ Mr. Howard found fewer prisoners in Switzerland and Scotland, than in other countries, which he attribut- ed to a more regulär education among the lowcr clis&es of the Swiss and the Scotch. Durlng the number of years which ihc late Mr. Fielding prcsidcd at Bow-street, only six Scotchmen werc hrought before him. Hc used tu say that of the persons committcd the greater part werc Irish. Prcface to vol. iii. of the Reports of the So- ciety for beltering th« condition of the poor, p. 32.
r^p. XII. POPULATION. 495
respecting future improvemenU
^stablish be false, I most sincerely hope to see htm completely refuted ; but if they be true the mbject is so important, and interests tlie question of human happiness so nearly, that it is impossi- ble that they should not in time be more fuUy cnown, and more generaUy circulated, whether my particular efforts be made for the purpose or aot.
Among the higher and middle classes of socie- y, the effect of this knovvledge would, I hope, be :o direct without relax ing their eftbrts in bcttering he condition of the poor ; to show them what they »n, and what they cannot do ; and that although nuch may be done by advice and instruction, by mcouraging habits of prudence and cleanliness, i>y occasional and discriminate charity, and by any mode of bettering the present condition of the poor, which is followed by an mcrease of the pre- yentivc check ; yet that, without this last effect, dl the former efforts would be futile ; and that, in iny old and well-pcopled State, to assist the poor m such a manner as to enable them to marry as »rty as they please, and rear up large familes, is a >hysical impossibility/ This knowledge, by tend- ng to prevent the rieh from destroying the good
496 ESSAY ON BookJF.
Of our rational expectations
effccts of thcir own exertions, and wasting thcirtf- fbrts in a direction wherc success is unattainalitc, would coiiline their attention to the proper objccts, and thub cnablc them to do more good.
Aniong the poor theniselves, its eflfccts wouW bc still more important. That the principal and most i)ermancnt cause of poveriy , has littk or nö direct relation to forms of govemment, or the un- . equal division of property ; and tliat, as the rieh do not in rcality possess the power of finding employ ment and maintenance for the jxwr, the poor can- not, in the natiire of things, possess the right todc- mand them, are important truths flowing from the principk: of popnlation, which, when properly ex- plaincd, wonkl by no mcans be above the most ordiiian coin;)ii hnisions, and it is evident» that cverv man in the lower classes of soeietv, who bc- camc acciuaiuiecl with th.ese truths, would be div poe^ed to bear iIk distresscs in which he miirhl be i:ivolved \\ ith wjax ritiencc, would feel les>> dis- ronviit auu irriiaiion a» xV.c ir^jvtrnment and ihe hiciicr ela>MLs ol' boruly on acc(jiint of his |X)verty, \NouU be on all oecihion^ kss disiK • •! to insUi-"r- diiiition anrl tur!)ukiux ; and it'he rcceivcd assiat- \i\Y\-. ' iili'jr h'oni uny public ini>litulion, or iVom
Chap. XJL POPULATION. 497
retpectin^ future improveinent.
thc hand of private charitj-, he would receive it widi more thankfulness, and more justly appre- ciate its value.
If these truths werc bjr degrees more generally
known, which in die course of time does not seem
to be improbable from the natural effects of the
mutuai interchange of opinions, the lower classes
of people, as a body, would bccome more peace-
ble and orderly, would be less inclined to tumul-
tuous proceedings in seasons of scarcity, and would
at all times be less influenced by inflanunatory and
seditious publications, from knowing how little the
price of labor and the means of supporting a family
depend upon a revolutioii. The mere knowledge
of these truths, even if they did not (^rate suf-
ficiently to produce any marked change in the
prudenüal habits of the poor, with regard to mar-
nage, would still have a most beneficial effect on
their conduet in a political light ; and undoubtedly
one of the most valuable of these effects would be,
the power that would result to the higher and mid-
dle classes of society of gradually improving their
govemments, ' without the apprehension of thosc^
^ I cannot believe that the removal of all unjust j^round^ voL ü. s s s
498 ESSAY ON Book ly.
Of cur rational expcctations
rcvolutionary excesses, the fear of which, at pit- sent, threatens to deprive Europe cvcn of thit degree of liberty which she had before experknoed to be practicable, and the salutaiy effects of which she had long enjoyed.
From a review of the State of society in fonner periods, compared with the present, I should ccr« tainly say, that the evils resulting from the princi* ple of population have rather diminished than in« creased, even under the disadvantage of an aimofit total ignorance of their real cause. And if we csm indulge the hope that this ignorance will bc gn* dually dissipated, it does not seem unreasonabk to ex pect that they will be still furthcr diminished. The increase of absolute population which will of course take place, will evideutly tend but littlc to wcaken this expectation, as every thing depends
of discontent against constituted authoritics would rtnder the pcople torpid and indifferent to advantages which arc really attainable. The blessings of civil liberty are so greai, that thcy surely cannot nccd the aid of falsc color- ing to make them desirable. I should be sorry tothink that the lower classes of people could never bc animiic^i to assert their rights but by means of such illusory pro- mises, as will generally make the remedy of rcsistancf much worse than the disease tljat it was intcnded to cnrr.
Cfa^. XII. POPULATION. 499
respecting future improvemeiit.
upcm the relative proportions between population and food, and not on the absolute number of peo- ple. In the former part of this work it appeared that the countnes which possessed the fewest people, often suffered the most frpm the effects of die principle of population : and it can scarcely be doubted, that taking Europe throughout, fewer Bonines and fewer diseases arising from want have prevailed in die last Century, than those which preceded it.
On the whole therefore, though our future pros- pects respecting the mitigation of the evils arising from the principle of population, may not be so bright as we could wish, yet they are far from be* ing entirely disheartening, and by no means pre- dude th^ gradual and progressive improvement in human society, which before the late wild spe- culations on the subject, was the object of rational ezpectation. To the laws of property and mar- nage, and to the apparently narrow principle of self-love which prompts each individual to exert himself in bettering his condition, we are indebted fisr all the noblest exertions of human genius, for every tiüng that distinguishes the civilized from tbe savage State. A strict inquiry into the priii-
500 ESSAY ON Book Jf'.
Of our rational expectations
ciple of population obliges us to conclude, that wc shaD never be able to throw down the ladder by which we have risen to this eminence ; but it bj no means proves that we may not rise higher b) the same means. The structure of society, in ils great features, will probably always remain un- changed» We have every reason to beUeve, ttai it will always consist of a class of proprietors, and a class of laborers ; but the condition of each, and the Proportion which they bear to each other, may be so altered as greatly to improve the hannoQj and beauty of the whole. It would indecd be a melancholy reflection, thatwhile the viewsofpby* sical sciencc are daily enlarging, so as scarcclyto be bounded by tlie most distant horizon, the sei ence of moral and political philosophy should be confiued within such narrow limits, or at best bt so fceblc in its influencc, as to be unable to coun- teract the obstacles to human happiness arising froni a single cause. But howevcr formidabk these obstacles may have appeared in some part> of this work, it is hoped that the gencral result of the inquir)' is such, as not to make us give up the improvcment of human society in despair. The partial good which seems to be attainable is wor-
Ouip. XII. POPULATION. 501
respecting future improvement.
thy of all our exertions ; is sufficient to direct our eftbrts and animate our prospects. And although we cannot expect diat the virtue and happiness of mankind will keep pace with the briüiant carecr of physical discoveiy, yet if we are not wanting to ourselves, we may confidently indulge the hope, that to no unimportant extent, they will be influ- enced by its progress, and will partake in its success.
i I
APPENDIX.
IN thepreface to the last edition of this Essay, I expressed a hope, that the detailed manner in which I had treated the subjecty and pursued it to its consequences, though it might open the door to many objections, and expose me to much severity of criticism, might be subservient to the im* portant end of bringing a subject so ncarly connected with the happiness of society into roore general notice. Con- fbrmably to the same views I should always have feit wil< ling to enter into the discussion of any serious objections that were made to my principles or conclusions, to abandon those which appeared to be false, and to throw fiirther lights, if I could, on those which appeared to be true. But though the work has excited a degree of public attention much greater than I could have presumed to expect, yet very little has becn written to controvcrt it ; and of that littlcy the greatest part is so füll of illiberal declamation, and so entirely destitute of argument, as to be evidently beneath notice. What I have to say iherefore at prcsent. will be directed rather more to the objections which have been urged in conversation, than to those which have ap- peared in print. My object is to correct sonie of the mis- representations which have gone abroad respecting two or threeofthemost im portant pointsof the Essay ; and I should feel greatly obliged to those who have not had leisure to read the whole work, if they would cast their eyes over the few foUowing pages, that they may not, from the partial and incorrect Statements which they have heard, mistake the import of some of my opinions, and attribute to me others which I have never held.
504 APPENDIX.
The first g^rand objection that has been made to my principles is, that they contradict the original commaiid of the Creator, to increase and multiply and replenish Üic earth. But those who have urged thls objection have cer- tainly either not read the work, or have directed their it« tention solely to a few detached passages, and have beco unable to seize the bent and spirit of the whole. I am fully of opinion, that itis the duty of man to obey this coBtinand of his Creator, nor is there in my recoUection a Single pas* sage in the work, which, taken with the context, can, to any reader of intelligence, Warrant the contrary inierena.
Every express comniand given to man by his Creator is given in Subordination to those great and uniform lawi of nature which he had previously established ; and we are forbidden both by reason and reiigion to expect that tbeM iawswill be changed in order to enable us to exccute more readily any particular precept. It is undoubtedly tniei thit if man were enabled miraculously to live without food,tlM eat*th would be vcry rapidly rcplenished ; but as we han not the slightest ground of hope that such a miracle wifl be worked for this purposc, it bccomes our positive diitj as rcasonablr crealiires, and with a view of executing the commands ol our Crciilor, to inquirc into the laws which he has cslyhlislucl for the nuiltiplication of the spccic*. And when wc tind nol only froni the spcculative contem- plation of tlicse laws, but from the far more powerfuland impcriou» su^j^cstions of our senses, that man cannot livf without food, it is a folly exactly of the same kind tu »t- tempt to obey the will of our Creator by increa&ing popu* lution without refcrcncc to ihe means of its support, as to litte mpt ib obtain an abundant crop of corn by sowingit on the way side and in hcdges, whcre it cannot rccei\c U' proper nourishment. Which is it, I would ask, ihatbe»t scconds the benevolcnt intcntions of the Creator in covcr- inj» the earth with esculcnt vegciables, he who wilh carf *nd fuiijsighl duly plouj^^hs and prcpares a picce of groun<i
APPENDIX. 505
nd sows no niorc seed than hc expects will grow up to iiaturity, or he who scatters a profusion of seed indißcr- ntly ovcr the land, without rcfercnce to the soll on which : falls, or any previous preparülion for its rcception ?
It is an utter misconception of my arguinent to infcr bat I am an encmy to population. I am only an enemy to ice and misery, and conscquently to that unfavourable roportion betwecn population and food which produces bese cvils. But this unfavourable proportiou has no ne- essary connection with the quantity of absolute populati- n which a country may contain. On the contrary, it is nore frequently found in countiücs which are very thinly «opled, than in those which are populous.
The bent of my argument on the subject of population (lay be iilustrated by the instance of a pasture farm. If a oung grazier wcre told to stock his land well, as on his tock would depend his proRts, and the ultimate success if his undeitaking, he would certuinly have bcen told no- hing but what was strictly true. And he would have to ccuse himself, not lüs advisers, if in pursuance of these istructions he were to push the breeding of his cattle tili hey bccame lean and half-starved. His instructor, when le talked of the advantages of a large stocke meant un- loubtedly stock in proper condition, and not such a stock, s though it might be numerically greater was in valuc nuch less. The expression of stocking a farm well does lOt refer to particular numbers, but merely to that propor- ion which is best adapted to the farm, whether it be a poor •r a rieh one, whether it will carry ßfty head of cattle or ive hundred. Ii is undoubtedly extremely desirable that L should carry the greater number, and evcry effort should »e made to effect this object ; but surely that iarmer could kot be considered as an enemy to a larjge quantity of stock, rho should insist upon the follyand improprietyof attempt- ng to breed such a quantity, before the land was put int* a x>ndition to bear it.
rol. ii. t t t
506 APPENDIX.
The argumenta which I have used respecüiig the iu- crease of population are exactly of the same nature as thcie just mentioned. I believe that it is the iutention of the Creator that the earth snould be replenished* ; butcertain* ly with a healthy, virtuous, and happy population, not an un- healthy, vicious, and miserable one. And if in endearoar- ing to obey the command to increase and niultiply,we peo- ple it only with beings of this latter descriptionf and suffer accordingly, we have no right toimpeach the justice of the command, but cur irrational mode of executing it.
In the desirablenesa of a grcat and efficient populatioo, I do not differ from the wärmest advocates of increaie« l am perfectly ready to acknowledge with the writera of cid, that it is not extent of territory but extent of popubtioa that measurißs the power of states. It is only as to the mode of obtaining a vigorous and efliicient population that I differ from them ; and in thus difiering I conceive my- self entirely bome out by expericncci that great test of all human speculations.
It appears from the undoubted testimony of registerii that a large proportion of marriages and births is by od means nccessurily connected with a rapid increase of po- pulutiün, but is oiten found in countries whcrc it is eithcr stationary or incrcasing ver)' slowly. The population of such countries is not only comparatively inelRcient from the ^encral poverty and misery of the inhabitants, but in- rariably contains a much langer proportion of persons in those siages of life in which they are unable to contribute their share to the rcsources, or the defence of the State.
This is most strikingly illustratcd in an instance which I have quoted from M. Muret, in a chapter on Switzerland, where it appeared that in proportion to the same populati- on, the Lyonois produced 16 births, the Pays de Vaud 1 1*
• This opinion I have expressed, p. 491 of the 4to. edit. and p 315, vd. ii 8vo. edii
APPENDIX. 307
and a particular parish in the Alps only 8 ; but that at the age of 20 these three very different numbers were all re- duced to the same*. In the Lyonois nearly half of the po- pulaüon was under the age of puberty, in the Pays de Vaud one thirdy and in the parish of the Alps only one fburth. The inference from such facts is unavoidable^ and of the highest importance to society.
The power of a country to increase its resources, or de- fend its possessions, must depend principally upon its effi- cient population, upon that part of the popuIation which is of an age to be employed effectually in agriculture, com- merce, or war; but it appears with an evidence liitle short of demonstration, that in a country the resources of which do not naturally call fbr a larger proportJon of births, such an increase, so fair from tending to increase t&is efficient Population, would tend materially to diminish it. It would undoubtedly at first increase the number of souls in Pro- portion to the means of subsistence, and consequently cru- elly increase the pressure of want ; but the number of per- sona rising annually to the age of puberty might not be so great as before, a larger part of the produce would be dis- tributed without return to children who would never reach inanhood ; and the additional popuIation instead of giving addiüonal strength to the country would essentially lessen this strength, and operate as a constant obstacle to the creation of new resources.
We are alittle dazzled at present by the popuIation and power of France, and it is known that she hsis always had a large proportion of births : but if any rcliance can be plac* ed on what are considered as the best authorities on thia subject, it is quite certain, that the advantages whicH she enjoys do not arise from any thing peculiar in the struc* tute of her popuIation ; but solely from the great absolute quantity of it, derived from her immense eztent of £ertile territory.
• Page 271, 4to. edit. aind p 399, vol. i. 8vo. «lit
608 APPENDIX.
The cfleclivc popuIation in this country, compired %vith the whole, is considerably greater than in France; and England not only can, but does employ a larg^r proportioQ of her Population in augmcnting anddefending her resoar- ces, than her great rival. According to thc StatUtiquc ft' iieralc et ftarticulUrc de ia France lately published, thc pro- portion of the popuIation undcr twenty is almost /^ ; in England it is probably not much more than ^^, Conse- quently out of a popuIation of ten milüonsy England would have a million more of persons above twenty than France« and would at Icast have threc or four hundred thousand more malcs of a militaiy agc. If our popuIation wcrc of the same description as that of France^ it must be increas- cd numerically by more than a million and a half in order to cnablc us to produce from England and Wales the same number of persons above the agc of twenty as at present ; and if wc had only an increuse of a million, our cfl^ient strcngth in agriculture, commerce, and war, would bc in the most dccided manner diminished, while at the same timc the distrcsses of the lower classes would be dreadful* ly incrcysed. Can any rational man say that an additioniJ pop\ilation of tbis (lescriplion would be dcsirablc eithrriu a moral or political vicw ? And yet this is thc kind of po- puIation which invariably rcsults from dircct encouraj^c- mcnts to marriagc, or from that want of personal rcspccta- bility which is occasioned by ignorance and despotism.
It may pcrhaps be truc that France fills her armies with greater facility and Icss Interruption to the usual la- bours of her inhabitants than England ; and it must l>c acknowlcdgcd that poverty and want of employment «rc powerful aids to a rccruiting serjeant ; but it would not bc a vcry humane project, to kecp our people always in want, for the sake of cnlisting them cheaper, nor would it bc a vcry politic project, to diminish our wcalth ai»d strcngth with the same cconomical view. \Ve cunnot attain incompatiblc objccts ; if we possess the advnntage
APPENDIX. 509
of being able to keep nearly all our people constantly em- ployed either in agriculture or comtnerce, we cannot ex- pect to retain the opposite advantage of their being always at leisure, and willing to enlist for a very small sum*. But WC may rest pcrfcctiy assured, that while we have the ef- ficient Population, we shall never want men to fill our ar- mies if we propose to them adecjuate motives.
In raany partsof the Essay I have dweltmuch on the ad- vantage of rcaring the requisite popuiation of any country from the smallest number of births. I have stated exprcss- ly, that a decrease of mortality at all agesis what we ought chiefly to aim at; and as the bestcriterion of happiness und good government, instcad of the largeness of the Proporti- on of births, which was the usual mode of jndging, I have proposed the smallness of the proportion dying undcr the &ge of pnberty. Conscious that I had never intcntional- ly Jeviated from these principles, I might well be rather surprised to hear that I had been considered by some as in enemy to the introduction of the Vaccine inoculation, which is calculated to attain the very end which I have uni- Porrnlv considered as so desirable. I have indeedintimat- cd what 1 still continue most firmly to believe, that if the rcsources of the country would not permanently admit of I greatly accelerated rate of increase in the population [and whether they would or not, must certainly depend lipon other causes besides the number of livcs saved by the Vaccine inoculationf)? onc of two things would happen,
* This subject is strikingly Ulustrated in Lord Selkirk's lucid and nasterly observations on the present State of the Highlands, and on th« amses and probable consequences of emigration, to which I can with :onfidence refer the reader.
t It should be remarkcd howcver, that a young person saved from leath is more likely to contribute to the creation of f rcsh resourccs than inother blrth. It 'is a grcat loss of labour and food to begin over again. Kvd universally it is true, that under similar circnmstances, that articie irttt come the cheapest to market which is acc^^mpanied by fcwest fai!- res.
510 APPENDIX.
either an increased mortality of some other diseases» ort diminution in the proportion of births But I have ex- pressed my coDvictioD that the iatter eiTect wou&d Ukc place ; and therefore consistcntly with the opinions whkk I have always maintained, I ought to be, and am, ooc of the wärmest friends to the introduction of the cofr-pos. In niaking every exertion, which I think iikely tobe eiiec- tual} to increase the comforts and diminish the mortküif among the poor, I act m the most exact conformity to mf principles. Whether those are equally consistent, vh» profess to have the same object in view, aod yet measait the happincss of nations by the large proportion of um- riages and births, is a point which they would do well to consider.
It has been aaid by some, that the natural checks to p»> pulation will always be sufficient to keep it within bomuhi without rc sortin g to any other aids ; and one ingenioiii Ayriter has remarked that I have not deduced a Single ori- ginal fact from real observations to prove the inefficidicj of the checks which already prevail*. These remarksarc correctly true, and are truisms exactly of the same kind as the asscrtion that man cannot live without food. For undoubtcdly as long as this continues to be a law of bis ai- ture, what are here called the natural checks cannot posä- bly fail of being effectual. Besides the curious tmism that these assertions involve, they proceed upon the very Strange supposition that the uUimate object of my work i* to check Population, as if any thing could be more destrt- ble than the most rapid increase of populatioD unaccooi- panied by vice and misery. But of course my ultiroateob* ject is to diminish vice and misery, and any checks to po* pulation wlüch may have been suggested, are solelj as
* I shoiild like much to know what description of facts this gratk* man had in view when he rnade this Observation. If I could have ioatk onc of the kind which seems here to be ailuded to, it wouki been truly criginal.
APPENDIX. 51»
neans to accomplish this end. To a faüonal being, the >rudeniial check to population ought to be considered as squally natural with the check from poverty and prema- ure mortality, which these gentltmen seem to think so iotirely sufHcient and satisfactory ; and It will readily »ccur to the intelligent reader, that one class of checks nay be subsituted for another, not only without essentially dminishing the population of a country, but even under a :onstantly progressive increase of it*.
On the possibility of increasing very considerably the affective population of this country, I have expressed my- lelf in some parts of my work more sanguinely, perhaps, han experience would Warrant. I have said that in the :ourse of some ccnturies it might contain two or three imes as many inhabitants as at present, and yet every per- M>n be both better fed and better clothedf. And in the :omparison of the increase of population and fbod at the >eginning of the Essay, that the argument might not seem o depend upon a diflference of opinion respecting facts, I lave allowed the produce of the earth to be unlimited, rhich is certainly going too far. It is not a little curious herefore, that it should still continue to be urged agunst ne as an argument, that this country might contain two )r three times as many inhabitants ; and it is still more :urious, that some persons who have allowed the different ■atios of increase on which all my principal conclusions \re founded, have still asserted that no difficulty or distress ;ould arise from population, tili the producdons of the ^arth could not be further ihcreased. I doubt whether a (tronger instance could readily be produced of the total ab- lence of the power of reasoning, than this asserüon, afler
* Both Norway, and Switzerland, where the preventive check pre- ailt the mott, are increasing with some rapidity in their population i nd in Proportion to their means of subsistence, they can produce more lales of a miUtary age than any other country of Europe.
t Page 512. 4to. edit. p. 350, toI. ii. 8\'o. edit.
^12 APPENDIX.
such a concession, afibrds. It involves a grcaier absurdj- ty than the saying, that bccause a farm can by proper man- age inent be raade to carry an addiüonal stock of ibur head of catde every year, thi^ thercfore no difiiculty or inconve- niencc would arise if an addiüonal forty wcrc pLiced ii it yearly.
The power of the earth to produce subsistence is ccr- tainly not unlimited, but it is strictly speaking indefinite« that is, its limits are not dcfined, and the tinie will proba* bly never arrive when wc shall be able to say, that no far- ther labour or ing^nuity of man could make further additi- ons to it. But the power of obtaining an additional quan- tity of food from the carth by proper managementf and ia a certain timc, has the most remote relation imaginabk to the power of keeping pace with an unrestricted io- crease of population. The knowledge and industry «hkb would enable the nativcs of New Holland to make the bes: use of the natural rcsourccs of thcir country, must« wUh* out an absolute miracle, come to them gradually and ak>v- ly ; and even then,asit has amply appeared, would be per- fectly ineffectual as to the grand object ; but the passions which prompt to the increasc of population are ahvays ir. fuH vi^our, and are ready to produce their füll cflccl tnn in a State of the most helpicss ij^norance and barbariNni. It will be readily allowcd, that the reason why New Holland, in Proportion to its natural powers, is not so populousü^ China, is the want of those human instiiutions which pro- tcct propcrty and encouragc industr>' ; but the miscr\- an«i vice which prcvail almost cqually in both countrics from the tcndency of population toincrease fasterthan the nica»» of subsistence, form a distuictconsideration, and arise fruni a (Ustinct cause. They arise from theincomplctedisciplim of the human passions ; and no person with the slighttrs* knowlcdge of mankind has ever had the hardihood toafhrm. that human institutions could complctely discipline all thr
APPENDIX. 515
human pa^sions. But I have alreadf treated this subject so fully in the course of the worl^ that I am ashamed to add anj thing farther here.
The next grand objectionwhichhas been urged against mC) is my denial of the right ofjthe poor to support.
Those who would maintain this objection with any de« gree of consistency are bound to show that the different ratio« of increase with respect to population and food» which I attempted to establish at the beginning of the Es-: 9kjf are fundamentally erroneous ; as on the supposition of their being true, the conclusion is inev;^table. If it ap-> pear, as it must appear on these ratios being allowed, that il is not possiUe for the industiy of man to produce sufBci- ent fo^ for all that would be born} if every person were to marry at the time when he was first prompted to it by in« dination, it foUows irresistibly that all cannot have a righi to Support. Let us for a moment suppose m equal divisi-- on of property in any country. If under these circum- stances one half of the . society were by prudential habits so to reg^late their increase^ that it exactly kept pace with their increasing cultivation, it is evident that they would always remain as rieh as at first. If the other half during the same time married at the age of puberty, when they ivould probably feel most inclined to it, it is as evident that they would soon become wretchedly poor. But upon what plea of justice or equitycould this second half of the socie- ty Claim a right, in virtue of their poverty, to any of the possessions of the first half. This poverty had arisen en« tirely from their o¥m ignorance or imprudence ; and it vould be perfectiy clear from the manner in which it had come uponthem, that if their plea were admitted^and they were not suffered to feel the particular evilsresulting from their conduct, the whoie society would shortly be involved in the same degree of wretchedness. Any volontary and temporary assistance which might be giren as a measure i)ol. ii. u u u
/
3U APPENDIX.
of charity by the richer members of thc socicty to tbf others, while they wcre Icaming tomake a bcttcmae of thc lessons of nature, would be quite a distinct considentkmr and vrithout doubt mosC properly applied ; btit nothiDf^ likc a Claim of right to support can possibly bc munttinerf tili WC dcny the premises ; tili we affirm that thc Ameri- can increase of population is a miracle, and docs not arise from the greater facility of obtaining the mcans of siibiiit- fence*.
In fact) whatever we niay aay in our declamatiooi ea this subject, almost the whole of oar conduci is ibnnded on the non-existence of this right. If the poor had reaJlf t Claim of right to support, I donot think thatany man could . justify bis wearing broad cloth, or eating as much vicat as he likcs for dinner, and those who asscrt this right, and yet are roUing in their carriages, living erery day luxurioushri and keeping even their horses on food of which thcir fei- low creatures are in want, must be allowed to act vith the greatest inconsistency. Takinganindividual inatancewhh- out reference to consequences, it appears to me that Mr. Godwin's argumcnt is irresistible. Can ii be prctcndcd for a momcnt that a part of the mutton which I cxpect to eat to day would not be much more bcneficially employcd
• It has bccn said that I havc writtcn a quano volume to prov? ihn po{)ulation increases in a geometrical.aad food in an arithmctical mw. but this is not quite true. The Hrst of these propositions I con^idcm) as j)roved thc moment that the Amfhcaii increase was related, and thtf second proposition as soon as it was euunciated. The chief t^jt»:i ci my work wasto inquirc what effects thesc laws, which I considercJii established in the ürst six pages had produced, and werc hkcly to pro- duce on society ; a subject not very readily exhausted. The princi|al fauh of my details is, that they are not suflüciently particular ; bui tUis was a fault which it was not in my power to remedy. It wouUi be i most curious, and to every philosophical mind a most interesting ]iiccc of Information, to know the exact share of thc füll power of increase TV'hich each existing check prcvenu i bui at present 1 see no mode oc qbtaiiüog such infoniution.
APPENDIX. 545
\m some hard-workinglabourer whohas not periiaps tasted aniraal food for the last week, or on some poor family who cannot command sufficient food of any kind fully to sdtis- ff the cravings of appetite ? If these instances were not of a nature to multiply in proportion as such wants were indiscriminately grattfted, the gratification of them, as it would be practicabiey«would be highly beneficial ; and in this case I should not have the smallest hcsitation in most fuUy ailowing the right. But as it appears clearly both from theory and experience» that if the claim were aliow- ed it would soon increase beyond the /loasiöility of satisfy- ingity and that the practical attcnipt todo so, would involve the human race in the most wretchedand universal pover- ty, it foUows necessarily that our conduct, which denies the right, is more suited to the present State of our being^ than our declamations which allow it.
The great author of nature, indeed, with that wisdom which is apparent in all his works, has not left this conclu- aion to the cold and speculative consideration of gcneral consequences. By making the passion of self-love beyond •comparison stronger than the passion of benevolence, he has at once impelled tis to that line of conduct which is es- sential to the preservaüon of the human race. If all that might be bom could be adequately supplied, we cannot doubt that he would have made the desire of giving to others as ardent as that of supplying ourselves. But as under the present constituüonof thing^ this is not so, he has enjoined every man to pursue, as his primary objecto his own safety and happiness, and the safety and happiness of those immediately connected with him ; and it is highly instructive to observe, that in proportion as the sphere contracts, and the power of giving effectual assistance in- creflses, the desire increäses at the same time. In the case of children who have certainly a cladm of right to the Support and protecüon of their parents, we generaUy find
5U APPENDIX.
par^ntal affection nearly as streng as sclf-lovc ; aiid cxccp! in d iew anomalous cases, the last morsel will bc divklcc! into equal shares.
By tbis wisc provision the inost Ignorant arc led to pn>- mote thcgeneral happiness9 an end which thcj wouldlitve totullv failcd to atuln if the moving principle of thc'trcon- duct had been benevolence*. Benevolence indeed, uthc g^cat and constant source of action, would requirc the most perfect knowledge of causcs and effectS} and thereforc caa only be the attribute of the Deity. In a being so skort« aighted as man, it would lead into the gössest errors, um! 8oon transform the fair and cultivated soil of civilized sod- ety into a dreary scene of want aad confusion.
Hut thougb benevolence cannot in the present State d cur bcing be the grcat movhig principle of human actioQS, yet as the kind corrector of the evils arising &om the other stronger passion, it is essential to human happinesS) it is the balm and consolation and grace of human lifei tke tource of our noblest efforts in the cause of Tirtaef and of cur purest and most refined pleasures. Conformably to that System of gcneral laws, according to which the Sa- preme Being appeurs with vcry few exccptions to act, i paüsion so strong and gencral as self-love could not prcraii willioutpioducingniuch partialevil; andtoprcTcntthispxs- sion from dcgenerating into the odious vice of selfishncss!« to makc us sympathise in the pains and pleasures of oui
• In sayingthls Ict nie qot bc supposcd to givc the slightest lancti- on to the s\ Stern of morals inculcated in the FabU oftbc Btxj, a s;s:cin ivhich I crmsider as absoluieK false, and diivctlv conirar\ to ihc i-it definition of virtue. The great art of Dr. Mandeville consifted m m»- nomers.
t It secms proper to make a dccidcd distinction betwccn seif lovt and selH&hness, betwccn that passion wlnch under proper rcgulaiioni is the source of all honourable industry, and of all the nrcessark»» and Gonvenienci'>s of life, and the samc (ntshion pushcd to exccvs, when h become^ u^elcss and disgusting, and consc^ticutly vicioQs.
APPENDIX. 517
I
tellow-creatures, and feel the same kind of intere&t in thcir happincss and misery as in our own, though diminished in degree» to prompt us often to put ourseives in their placei that we may understand thcir wants, acknowledge thcir rights, and do them good as we Have opportunity ; anjd to remind us continualiy, that even the passion which urges US to procure plenty for ourselves was not implanted in us for our own exdusive ad van tage, but as the means of pro- curing the greatest plenty for all ; these appear to be the objects and oilices of benevolence. In every Situation of life there is ample room for the exercise of this virtue ; and as each individual rises in society, as he advances in knowledge and excellence, as his power of benefiting others becomes greater, and the necessary attention to his own wants less, it will naturally come in for an increasing share among his constant motivesof action. In situations öf high tnist and influence it ought to have a yery large sliare, and in all public institutions be the great moVing principle. Though we have often reason to fear that our benevolence may not take the most beneficial directioni we need never apprehend that there will be too much of it in Society. The fbundations of that passion on which our preservation depends, are fixed so deeply in our na- iure, that noreasonings or addresses to our feelings can es- sentially disturb it. It is just therefore» and proper, that all the positive precepts shoold be on tlie side of the weak« er impulse ; and we may safely endeavor to increase and cxtend its influence at much as we are able, if at the same time we are constantly on the watch to prevent the evil which may arise from its misapplication.
The law which in this country entitles the poor to re- lief is undoubtedly different from a füll acknowledgment of the natural right ; and from this difference and the ma- nycounteracting causes that arise from the mode of its ex- ecution, it will not of coursc be attended with the same consequences. But still it is an approximation to a füll
$16 APPENDIX,
acknowlcdgmcnt) and as such appears ta produce mucb evily both with regard to tbe habils and the temper of Üie poor. I have in consequence ventured to suggest a plan of gradual abolition, which, as might bc expecled> has not met with universal approbadon. I can readily undenund any objcctions that may be madc to it, on the plea that tbe right having been once acknowledged in this country, tbe revocation pf it might at first cxcite discontents ; aud should thercfore most fully concur in the propriety of pro- cecding with the greatest caution, and of using tili possiblc means of preventing any sudden shock to the opinions of the poor. But I have nevcr been able to comprchcnd tbe grounds of tbe further assertion whtch l have somctimcs heard.made, that if the poor were reaiiy convinced tbaC they had no claim of right to relief, they would in gencral be more inclined to be discontented and seditious. Ol these occasions the only way I have of judging is to put mysclf in iniagination in the place of the poor man« and consider how l should feei in bis Situation. If I were toki that the rieh by the laws of nature and the laws of the land were bound to support me» I could not, in the 6r8t place« feel mucJi Obligation for such support ; and in the ncxi place if I were given any food of an inferior kind, and could not bcc the absolute necessity of the changc, which \%ould probably bethe case, I should think thatl had good rcason to compluin. I should fecl that the laws had been violatcd to my injury, and that 1 had been ujijustly deprivcd of ni) right. Undcr these circumstiuiccs, though I might bc deterrcd by the fear of au armed forcc from committin^ any ovcrt acts of rcsistancc, yct I should consider mysclf as pcrfcctly jusiified in so doing, if this fear were remov- cd, and the injur}' which I beÜeved that I had suffercd might produce the most unfavourablc effccts on my general dis- positions towards the higher claßscs of socicty. I cannot indcc 1 conccivc any thing niore irritating to the human re<*iin.;s, thiui to cxpcrience that dcgree of distress which«
APPENDIX. 519
ili spite of all our poor laws and benevolencc, is not un- frequently feit in this country ; and yet lo believe that Üiese suflerings were not brought upon mc cither by iny own faults, or by the Operation of those gencral iaws, \vhtch tike the tempest, the biight, or the pesüience> are continu« ally faHing hard on particular individuals, while otliers cn- Urely escape, but were occasioned sölely by the avariceand injustice of the higher classes of society.
On the contrary, if I hrrnly beiieved that by the laws of nature, * which are the laws of God, I had no claim of right to Support) I should, in the first place, feel myself more strongly bound to a life of industry and frugaiity ; but if want, notwithstanding came upon me, I should con- üidcr it in the light of sickness, as an evil incidental to my prescnt State of being, and which, if I could not avoid, it was my duty to bear with fortitude and resignation. I should know from past experience, that the best title I could have to the assistanceof the benevolcnt would bc the Bot having brought myself into distress by my own idle- ness or extravagance. What I receivcd would have the best effect on my feelings towards ihc highfcr classcs. Even if it were much inferior to what I had been accustomed to, it would still, instead of an injury, be an Obligation ; and conscious that I had no claim of rights nothing but the fear of absolute famine, which would overcome all other eonsiderations, could morally justify rcsistance.
I cannot help believing that if the poor in this coun* try were convinced that they had no claim of right to Sup- port, and yet in scarcities and all cases of urgent distress, were liberally relieved, which I think they would bc, the hond which unites the rieh with the poor would be drawn much closer than at present, and the lower classes of soci« etj) at they would have less real reason fbr irritation and discontent, would be much less subject to these uneasy sensations.
Among those who have objected to my declaration that the poor have no claim of right to support is Mr. Young,
5-36 APPENDIX.
who, vfith a harshness not quite becoming a candid inquir- er after trutb> has called iny proposal fbr the j^radual abo- lition of the poor laws a horrible plan« and assicrted that the execution of it would be a most iniquitous procecding. Letthis plan bowever bc compared for a moment vidi that which he himself and others have proposedy of fixing the sum of the poor rates which qji no account is to bc in- creased. Under such a law, if the di&tresses of the poor were to be ag^ravated tenfold, either by the increaae of numbers or the recurrence of a scarcity> the same som would invariably be appropriated to their relief. If tbe Statute which gives the poor a right to support were to re- main unexpunged, we sdould add to the cnielty of stanr- ing them, theextreme injustice of still t^rofc^nng to re- lieve them. If this Statute were expunged or altered ve ahould Yirtually deny the right of the poor to support^ and only retain the absurdity of saying that they had a right to a certain sum ; an absurdity on which Mr. Young justh comments with much severity in the case of France*. In both cases the hardships which they would sufTer would bc
* The National Assembly of France, though they disapprc\-fd <c the English poor laws, still adopted their priiiciple, and deciaird tu.* the poor had a right to pecuniar>' assistance , that th« Assembly ougu* to consider such a provision as one of its first and nio&t sacred doa» and that with this view, an expense ought to be incurred to the aransi- of 50 roilUons a year. Mr. Young justly observes, that he does nct ccc- prehend how it is possible to regard the expenditure of 50 millioos ^ sacred duty, and not extend that 50 to 100 if neccssitj should dena:-J it, the 100 to 200, the 200 to 300, and so on in the same niiserafaie pto. gression which has taken place in England. Tnvds in Fiance, c xv p. 439.
I should be the last man to quote Mr. Young against himself, if I rhought he had ieft the path of error for the path of trutb, as such kird of inconsistency I hold to be highly praiseworthy But thinking on the contrary that he has Ieft tnith for error, it is surdy jusüfiable to rrnuod him of his former opinions. We may recal to a vicious man his iormtx virtuous conduct, though it would be useless and tndelicate to rcmind - virtuons man of the vices which hc had rcUnquishcd*
*^v -
APPENDIX. 52 1
mnch more severe, and would come upon them in a much more unprepared State, than upon thc plan proposed in the Essay.
According to this plan, all that are already married, and cren a)l that are enaged to marry during the course of the year, and all their children would be relieved as usual ; and only those whpmarry subsequently, and who of course may be «upposed to have made better provision for con- tingencies vrould be out of the pale of relief.
Any plan for the abolition of the poor laws must pre- suppose a general acknowledgment that they are essen- üally wrong, and that it is necessary to tread back our Steps. With this acknowledgment, whatever objections may be made to my plan, in the too frequently short-sight- ed Views of policy, I have no fear of comparing it with any other that has yet been advanced, in point of justice and humanity ; and of course the terms iniquitous and horri- ble ^^ pass by me like the idle wind which I regard not.'*
Mr. Young it would appear hasnow given up this plan. He has pleaded for the privilege of being incondstent, and has given such reasons for itthatlam diposedto acquiesce in them,provided he confines the exercise of this privilege to different publications, in the iuterval between whichf he may have collected new facts ; but I still think it npt quite allo wähle in the same publication ; and yeC it appears that in the very paper in which he has so severely con- demned my scheme, the same arguments which he has used to reprobate it are applicable with equal force against bis own proposal, as he has there explained it.
He allows that his plan can only provide for a certain numberof families,andhas nothing to dowith the increase from them* ; but in allowing this, he allows that it dees not reach the grand difhculty attending a provision for the
• Annals of Agriculture, No, 239« p. 219.
vol. ii. XXX
523 APPENDIX.
poor. In this most csscntial point, after reprobaüng nie for sayiiig that the poor have no claim of righi to support« he is compelled to adopt the very same conclusiony and to own that " it might bc prudcnt to coDsider the misery la << which the progressive population niight be subject, ^ w'hen therewas not a sufficient demand for them in towns ^ and manufactures, as an evil which it was absolutelf *^ and physicaily impossiblc to prevent." New the tele reason why I say that the poor have no clum of right to aupporti is the physical impossibility of relieving thb pro« gressivc population. Mr. Young expressly acknowledges t)iis physical impossibility ; yet witb an inconsistency scarce« ly credible, still declaims against my declaration.
The power which the society may possess of reUeving a certain portion of the poor is a consideration perfectly distinct from the general question ; and I anA quite sure I have never said that it is not our duty to do all the good that is practicable. But this limited power of assisting in- dividuals cannot potsibly establish a general right. If the poor have really a natural right to support, and if our pre« sent laws be only a confirmation of this right« it ought ccr- tainly to extend unimpaired to all whoare in distress, to the increase from the cottagers as well as to the coitac^crs themselvcs ; and it would be a palpable injusticc in ihc Society to adopt Mr. Young's plan, and purchase from ihc present gencration the disfranchisementof their posieriiy.
Mr. Young objects very strongly to that passagc of the Essay*, in which I observe, that a man who plunges him- self into poverty and dependcncc by marrying without any prospect of bcing able to maintain bis family« has morc reason to accusc himsclf, than the pricc of labour, the pa- rish, the avarice of the rieh, the institutions of society, and the dispcnsations of Providence ; exccpt in as far as he has bccn dcccivcd by thosc who ought to have instructed
• Book IT. c. iii. p. 506, 4to. edit Vol. ü. p. 339. 8vi.
A>PENDnt. SK
him. In answer to this, Mr. Young says, that thc poor fellow is justified in every one of these complaints, that of Providencc alone excepted ; and that seeing other cot- tagers living corafortaWy with three or four acres of land, he has cause to accuse instituüons which deny him that which the rieh could weil spare, and which wouid giva him all he wants*. I would heg Mr. Young for a moment to consider how the matter would stand, if his own plan were completely executed. After all the commons had been divided as he has proposed, if a labourer had more than one son, in what respect would thisson be in a different Sit- uation from the man that I have supposed ? Mr. Youn^ cannot possibly mean to say, that if he had the very natur- al desire of marrying at twenty, he would still have a right to complain that the society did not gtre him a house and three or four acres of land. He ha^ indeed expressly de« nied this absurd consequence, though in so doing he has directly contradicted the declaration just quotedf. The progressive population, he says, would, according to his System, be cut off from the influence of the poor laws, and the encouragement to marry would remain exactly in that ptt)portion less than at present. Under these circumstanc'^ es, without land, without the prospect of patish relief, and with the price of labour only sufücient to maintain two- children, can Mr. Young seriously think that the poor man, if he be really aware of his Situation, does not do wrong in marrying, and ought not to accuse himself for following what Mr. Young calls the dictates of €k>d« of na- turc, and of revelation ? Mr. Young cannot be unaware of the wretchedness that must inevitably foUow a marriage under such circumstances. His plan makes no provision whatever for altering these circumstances. He must there« fbre totally disregardall the misery ariaing from excessi?e
• AnnaVs of Agncultare, Na 239, p 226. t Wem, p. 2X4/
ö24 APPENDIX.
poverty, or if he allows that these supemumerary memben must necessarily wsdty either tili a cottage with Umd be- comes vacant in the country, or that by emigraüng to tora they can find the means of providing for a funily, all the declamation vhich he has urged with auch pomp against de* ferring marriage in my System» would be equally appUci- ble in his own System. In fact, if Mr. Young's plan realif attained the object which it professes to have in view, that of betteiing.the condition of the poor, and did not deleit its intent by encouraging a too rapid multiplication» isd consequently lowering the price of labour, it cannot be doubted that not oniy the supemumerary members just mentioned) but all the labouring poor must wait longer before they could marry, than they do at present.
The following proposition may be said to be c^>ab]e of mathematical demonstration. In a country whose resourc* es will not permancntly admit of an increase of populatioa more rapid than the existing rate, no improvement in the condition of the people which would tend to diminish mor- tality could fiosMly take place without being accompanied by a smaller Proportion of births, supposing of course no par- ticular increase of emigraüon*. To a person who has cod- ^dered the subject, there is no proposition in Euclid
• With regard to the resource of emigration, I refer the readcr to the 4th chapter, Book üi. of the Essay. Nothing is more easy than to say, that three fourths of the habitable globe are yet unpeopied, bot it is by no means so easy to fiU these parts with' flourishing colonies. The peculiarcircumstances which have causedthe spirit of emigration in the Highlands, so cleariy explained in the able work of Lord Selkirk be- fore referred to,are notofconstant recurrence; nor is it by any messs to be wished that they should be so. And yet without some such dr- cumstances, people are by no means very ready to leave their natire söil, and will bear mucü distress at home, rather than venture oo these distant regions. I am of opinion that it is both the duty and interes: of govemments to facilitate emigration, but it would surely be onjust to oblige people to leave theijr couatry and kindred against their ixKÜnatv ong.
APPENDIX. s'^s
which brings home to the xnind a strenger conviction than this, and there is no truth so invariably conBrmed by all thc registers of births, deaths, and marriages that have ever been collected. In this country it has appeared that accord- ingto the returns of the populaüon act, the proportion of births to deaths is about 4 to 3. This proportion with a mortality of l in 40*, would double the population in 83 years and a half ; and as we cannot suppose that thc coun- try could admit of jnore than a quadrupled population in the next hundred and sixty-six years, we may safely say tliat its resources will not allow of a permanent rate of increuse greater than that which is taking place at present. Bat if this be granted, it foUows as a dircct conclusion, that if Mr. Young's plan, or any other, really succeeded in bcttenng the condition of the poor, and enabling them to rear more of their children, the vacancies in cottages in proportion to thc nuxnber of expectants would happen slower than at prebcnt, and the age of marriage must iiievitably be latcr. Those therefore, who propose plans for bettering the con- dition of the poor, and yet at the same time reprobate later or fewer marriages, are guilty of the most puerile incon- sistency ; and I cannot but bc perfectly astonished that Mr. Young, who once understood the subject, should have in- dulged himself in such a poor declamation about passions> profligacy, buming, and ravens. It is in fact a silly, not to say impious, declamation against the laws of nature and the dispensatioDS of Providence.
With reg^ard to the expression oC- later marriages, it should always be recoUected that it refers to no particular ag^, but is enürely comparative. The marriages in En- gland are later than in France, the natural consequcnce of that prudence and respectability gene rated by a better gov- emment ; and can we doubt that good has been the re- sult ? The marriages in this country now are later than
• Table üL p. 238, 4to. cdit. and Table ii. p. SO voL ii. 8vo. cdit.
526 APPENDIX.
they were befbre the revoluüon, and I feel firmly persmd- ed that the increased healthiness obsenred of late years could not possibly have taken place without this accoinpa» njring circumstance. Two or three years in the a?eragt age of marriage) bylengthening each generation^ and tend- ing, in a smali degree,both to diminish the prolifickness of maniageS) and the number of born living to be manied» maymake a considerable difference in the rate of increasct and be adequate to allow for a considerably diminitbed mortality. But I would on no account talk of any timits whatever. The only piain and intelligible measure witk regard to marriage, is the hanng a fair prospect of being able to maint^ a family. If the posses&ion of one of Mr. Touncr's cottages would give the laboarer this prospect» he would be quite right to marry ; but if it did nett or if he could only obtain a rented house without land, and the wag- es of labour were only sufRcient to maintain two childreoi does Mr. Young, who cuts him off front the influence of the poor laws, presume to say that he would still be right in marrying*?
Mr. Young has asserted that T have made perfcct chas- tity in the single State absolutely neccssary to the succe»»5 of my plan ; but this surely is a misrepresentation. Per- fcct virtuc is indecd absolutely necessary to enable man lo avoid all the moral and physical evils which depend upoo his own conduct ; but who evcr expected perfect virtuc upon carth ? I have said what I conccive to be strictly truc, that it is our duty to defer marriage tili we can fced cur children, and that it is also our duty not to indulge our- selves in vicious gratifications ; but I have never said rhat I expected cither, much less both of these duties to be completely fulfilled. In this and a number of other cascs,
* The lowest prospect with which a man can be josttfied in ma^ rying seems to bc, the i)ower, when in healtb, of eaming such wa^s as at the averige price of com will maintain the average number of living children to a marriage.
APPENDIX* 527
itmay happen» that the violation of one of Iwo duties will enabie a man to perform the other with greater faciiity ; bat ifth^ be really both duties, and both practicable, no power on earth can absolve a man from tbe guilt of violat« ing either. This can only be done by that God who can weigh the crime against the temptation, and will temper justice with mercy. The moralist is still bound to incul- cate the practice of both duties^ and each individual must be left to act under the tcroptations to which he is expesed as hls conscience shall dictate. Whatever I may have Said in drawing a picture profesaedly visionary) for the sake of Illustration» in the practical application of my principles I have taken man as he is, with all his imperfections on his head. And thus viewing him, and knowing that some checks to population must exist, I have not the siightest hesitation in saying, that the prudential check to marriage is better than premature mortality. And in this decision I feel myself completely justified by experience.
In every instance that can be traced in which an improv- ed govemment has givento its subjects a greater degreeof foresight, industry, and personal dignity, these efiects, un- der similar circumstances of increase, have invariablybeen accompanied by a diminished proportion of marriag^s. This is a proof that an increase of moral worth in the ge- neral character is not at least incomfiatible with an increase of temptations with respect to one particular vice ; and the instances of Norway, Switzerland, England, and Scotland, adduced in the last chapter of this Essay, show, that in comparing different countries together, a smaller propor<* tion of marriages and births does not necessarily imply the greater prevalence even of this particular vice. This is surely quite enough for the legislator. He cannot estimate with tolerable accuracy the degree in which chastity in the Single Stute prevails. His general conclusions must be founded on general results, and these are cleariy in his fo^ vonr.
528 APPENDIX.
To tniich of Mr. Younf^'s plan, as hc hasat prcscut ex- plsuned il, I shoiild by no nieans objcct. The peculidr cvil -which I apprchcndcd Irom it, that of laking thc poor froni thc consumption of wheat, and fecding tbem on niiik and potatoes, niight ccrtainly be avoided by a limltaüon of Uic number of cdltages ; and 1 enlirely ag^e with him in thinking, that wc should not be dctcrred from niakint^ 500,000 families more comfortable» because wc cannot ex- tend the same relief to all the rest. I have indeed mysclt ▼entured to recommend a general improvement of cotta- geS) and even the cow System on a limited scale ; and perhaps with proper precautions a certain portion of Ium! might be given to a considcrable body of the labouring classes.
If the law which entitics the poor to support werc to be repealcd, any plan, which would tend torender such repeal more palatable on its iirst Promulgation, I should mo^t highly approve ; and in this view, somc kind of conipaci wilh thc poor might be very dcsirablc. A plan of Iciiin,^ land to labourers under certaiii conditions has latt>!y bctri tricd in the parish of Long Ncwnton in Glouccsteiahirc. and thc rcsult with a general proposal founded on it, iias bccn subn»iltcd to thc public by Mr. Estcourt. Thr pn- scnt siicccss has bccn very striking ; but in this, and c\tr> othcr casc oi thc kind, wc should ahvaysbcar in mind th.' no cxpcrimcnt rcspecting a provision for thc poor cau 1 «• Said to hc romplctc tili siiccccding gcncrations havc arid- en*. I doubt if thcrc cvcr has becn an instancc of any
• In any plan, jarticularly «f a distribution of lawi, a«. a cotrpf ;• sat"H»n for ihf relief givcn by ilie poor laws, the succecding gciuniio':"» would for.Ti the grand difflculty. All others would bc |Krl'fcir tr;\iil in comparif.on. For a timtr evcr>' thing might go on \ery smoothl; . and ihe raUs Ik! much diminiihed; but afterwards, they would rithir üi- crcase again as rapidly as bcforr, or the scheine would be exposed w i; the samc objcctions which have been made to mine, without thc Jiwf »asticf and consibtcncy to palliate theni
m
APPENDIX. 529
ihing like a liberal institulion for thc poor which did not succeed on its first cstabiishment, howcvcr it might have faiied afterwards. But this consideration should by no means deter us from making such experiments. when pre- scnt good is to be obtained by thcm, and a future overba- lance of evil not justly to be apprehended. It should only make us less rash in drawing our inferences.
With regard to the general question of thc advantages to the k>wer classes of possessing land, it should be recol- lected that such possessions are by no means a novelty. Formerly this System prevailed in almost every country with which we are acquainted, and prevails at present in many countries where the peasants are far from bein^^ re- markable for their comforts, but are, on the contrary> very poor, and particularly subject to scarcities. With respect to this latter evil indeed, it is quite obvious that a peasant- ry which depends principally on its possessions in land, must bc more exposed to it, than one which depends on the general wages of labour. When a year of deiicient crops occurs in a country of any extent and diversity of soil, it is always partial, and some districts are more aflect- ed than others. But when a bad crop of grass, com, or po- tatoes, or a mortality among cattle, falls on a poor man whose principal dependance is on two or three acres of land, he is in the most deplorable and helples Situation. He is comparatively without money to purchase supplies, and is not for a moment to be compared with the man who depends on the wages of labour, and who will of course be able to purchase that portion of the general crop, whatever it may be, to which his relative Situation in the Society en- titles him. In Sweden where the farmers" labourers are paid principally in land, and often keep two or three cows, it is not uncommon for the peasants of one district to be almost starving, while their neighbours at a little distance are living in comparative plenty. It will be found indeed
voL ü. y y y
530 APPENDIX.
« generali}', that in almost all the countiiett wliich are pauii-
cuiarly subject to scarcitics and famlneS) either the farms are ver>' small, or the labourers ^ve paid principally in land. China, Indostun, and the former State of the Highlaods of Scotlond fumish some proofs amon^ many olhers of üie truth of this Observation ; and in refercnce to the small properlies of France, Mr. Young himself in his tour parti- cuiarly notices the distress arising from the least fkilure of the crops ; and obseryes that such a deficiency as in En- gland passes almost witliout noüce^ in France is attcnded with dreadful calamities*.
Should any plan therefore of assisting the poor by laod be adopted in this country, it would be absolutely essential to its ultimate success to prevent them from making it their principai dependance. And this might probably be done by attending strictly to the two following rules. Not to let the divisions of land be so grcat as to Interrupt the cottager essentLilly in his usual labours ; and always to stop in (he further distribution of land and cottagcs, whcn the price of labour, independent of any astistance from land» lü'ould not at the average price of com muintain three, or at least two childrcn. Could the matter be so ordcrcd, that the labourcr in %vorkini^ for olhers should still conti- nue to tarn the s;.me reul command over the necessaiies of life tl»at hc did bcforc, u very grcut accession ot comlort and happincss might accrue to tho poor from the po^scb^i- on of land, wilhout any cvil that I can forescc at prcseni. But if thcsc points wcre not attcnded to, I should certoin- ly fear an approximatiou to the State of the poor in France, Sweden, and Ireland, nor do I think that any of the partLd expcrin.ents that have yct taken place aflford the sligbicut presuniption to the conti-ary. The rcsult of these cxperi- nicnts is indeed exactly such as onc should havc expected.
• Travels in France, vol. i. c. xii. p. 409. That coimtr>- will pmba- b!y Ix* the least liablc to scarcitics, in wliich agricnltur^ is lanicd on M fh.e mc^t fionrrshing manu/acturt» of tht statc
APPENDIX. 53»
Whö could cvcr have doubted Ihat if without lowcring the price of labour, or taking the labourer off from his usual occupations, you could g^vc him the produceof one or two acres of land and the benefit ofa cow, you would decided- ly i^aise his conditlon ? But it by no raeans follows that he would retain this advantage if the System were so cxtend- ed as to make the land his principal dependancei to lower the price of labour, and in the language of Mr. Young, to take the poor from the consumption of wheat, and fecd them on milk and potatoes. It does not appear to me sO' marvellous as it does to Mr. Young, that the very same Sys- tem which in Lincolnshire and Rutlandshirc may produce now the most comfortable peasantry in the British doiiii- nions, should in the end, if extended without proper pre- cautions, assimilate the condition of the labourers of this country to that of the lower classes of the Irish.
It is generally dangerous and impolitic in a gorem- ment to take upon itself to regulate the supply of any com- modity in request, and probably the supply 6f labourers form no exception to the genei*al rulc. I would on no ac- touni thercfore proi>o»e a positive law to regubte their in- crease, but as any assistance which the society roight give them cannot in the nature of things be unlimitcd, the line may fairly be drawn where we please ; and with regard to the increase from this point, every thing would be left as before to individual exertion and individual speculation.
If any plan of this kind were adopted by the (rovem- ment, I cannot help thinking that it miti^ht be made the means of giving the best kind of encouragcment and re- ward, to those who are employed in our defence. If the period of cnlisting were only for a limited time. and at the expiration of that time, erety person who had con* ducted himself well wasentitled to ahouse and a small por« tion of Und, if a country labourer, and to a tenement in a town and a small pcnsion, if an artificer, all inalienable, a "vcry Btrong motivc would bc held ont to young men, not
532 APPENDIXr
only to entcr into the servicc of ihcir countiy, but to bc- have well in that servicc ; and in a short time thcrc would be such a martial populaüon at home, as the unfortunalc State of Europc scems in a most peculiar manner to rc- quire. As it is only limited assistance that the aociety can possibiy give, it seenis in evcry respect fair and proper, that in regulating this limit some importantcnd should bc
attuined.
If the poor laws be allowed to remain exactly in ihcir present State, we ought at Icast to be aware, to what cause it is owing that thcir effccts have not been morc pcmici- ous than thcy are obscrvcd tobe, that we may not complaiu of, or alter those parts, without which we should rcally no( havc the jwwer of continuing them. The law which obli- ges each parish to maintain its own poor is open to many objcctions. It keeps the ovcrseers and churchwardcns continually on the watch to prevent new comcrs, and con- stantly in a State of dispute with other parishes. It thu» prcvcnts the free circulation of labour from place lo pKicc, iincl rcndcrs its pricc vcry unccjual in difl'crcnt parts of thr kint^clom. It disposes all landlords rather to pull doi^n thun to buiid cottugcb on thcir cstatcs ; and this scurciu ol hubitations in the country, by drivinij morc to the towns than \v(juld othcrwisc have j^onc, gives a relative discour- agcnicnt to agricuUure and a relative encouragcmcnl lo inunufacturcs. These it must be allowed, are no inconsi- dcrable cvils ; but if the cause which occasions ihcin wcrc removcd, evils of much p;rcatcr magnitude \\ould fül- low. I agrcc with Mr. Young in thinking that ihcrc i* bcarccly a purish in the kingdom, whcrc, if morc cottaj^c» wtr(" built, and Ict at any tolerubly modcratc ixmus, thcy w oiild not be inimediately fillcd with new couplcs. I cvcn ii;^rce with him in thinking that in some places this want of habitations operates too strongly in prevcntingmarriagc. But Ihuvc not the least doubtthat,considei-cdgeneralIy, its Operation in the present State of things is most bencficial i
•7»
APPENDIX. 53:>
and that it is almost exclusively owin^ to this cause^ that we liave been able so long to continue the poor Uws. If any man could build a hovel by the read side, or on the neighbouring waste, without molestation» and yet werc sc- cure that he and bis family would always be supplicd with work and food by the parish, if thcy were not readily tobe obtained elsewhere, I do not belle vc that it would be long beforc the physical impossibility of executing the letter of the poor laws would appear. It is of importancc thereforc lo be aware« that it is not because this or any other society has rcaily the power of employing and suppordng all that might be born, that we have been able to continue the pre- sent System ; but because by the indirect Operation of this System^ not adverted to at the time of ils establishment, and frequently rcprobated since, the number of births is always very grcatly limited^ and thus reduced within tho pale of possiblc support.
The obvious tendency of the poor laws is certainly to cncouragc marriage, but a closer attention to all their in- direct US well as direct effects, may make it a matter of doubt how far thcy really do this. They clearly tend, in ihcir gcneral Operation, to discourage sobricty and ccono- my, to encouragc idleness and the desertion of childrcn, and to put virtuc and vice more on a level than they othcr- wise would be ; but I will not presume to say positively that they tend to encourage population. It is certain that the Proportion of births in this country comparcd with others in similar circumstances is very small ; but this was to be expected from the superiority of the govemment, the more respcctable State of the people, and the more general sprcad of a taste for cleanlincss and conveniences. And it will readily occur to the reader, that owing to these causeS) corabincd with the twofold Operation of the poor laws, it must be extremely difficult to asccrtain, with any degrce of prccision, what has been their cffcct on popula- tien.
5J4 APPENDIX.
The only arg^ment of a general nature againaC the £•- say which strikes me as having any considerable forcc it the following. It is against the application of its princi- ples, not the principles them&elves, and has not, that I know of, bcen yet advanced in its present form. It may be «aid that according to my own reasoning s and the £icts atated in my work, it appears that the diminished propor- tion of births, which I consider as absolutely necessary to the permanent improvement of the condition of the poor« invariably follows an improved government, and the greit« er deg^ee of personal respectabiltty which it g^ves to the ower classes of society. Consequently allowing the desir- ableness of the end, it is not necessary, in order to obtain it) to risk the Promulgation of any new opinions, which may alarm the prejudices of the poor, and the effect of which we cannot with ccrtainty foresee ; but we have onhr to procecd in improving our civil polity, conferring ibe benefits of education upon all, and removing every obsta- de to the general exten&ion of all those Privileges and ad* ▼antages which may be enjoyed in common, and we may be quite sure that the effect which I look forward to, and which can alone render thesc advantages permanent, will follow.
I acknowledgc the truth and forcc of this argumcni, and have only to obscrve in answer to it, that it is difiicult to conccive that we should not procecd with more cclcrity and ccrtainty towards the cnd in vicw, if the principal caiises which tend to promote or retard it wcre gencrally known In particular, I cannot help looking forward toa very decided improvement in the habits and temper of the Iowcr classes, when their real Situation has bcen clearU cxpluined to thcm ; and if this were Hone gradually and rautiously, and accompanied with proper moral and rcli- rious Instructions, I should not cxpcct any danger from ii I am always unwilling to believc that the jj^cncral disscmi- nation of truth is prcjudical. Cuscs of the kind are i:n
APPENDIX. jo5
doubtedly conceivablc, but thcy should be adinittcd \%ith very grcat caution. If thc general prcsutnpüon in fuvour ot the advantagc of truth were once essentlally shaken, all ardoiir in its cause would share the same fale, and the in- terests of knowledge and virtuc most decidedly sufier. It is besides a specics of arrogance not lightly to be en* couraged, for any man to suppose that he has penetrated further into the laws of nature than the great Author of them intended, further than is consistent with the good of mankind.
Under thcse impressions I have frecly given my opini- ons to the public. In the truth of the general principles of the Essay, 1 confess that I feel such a confidence, that tili something has been advanced against them very dif- ferent indeed from any thing that has hitherto appeared, I cannot help considering them as incontrovertible. With rcgard to the appiication of these principles the caseis cer- tainly different ; and as dangers of opposite kinds are to be guarded against, the subject will of course admit of much latitude of opinion. At all events, howeyer, it must bc allowed, that whatever may be our determination re* spccting the advantages or disadvantages of edeavouring to circulate the truths on this subject among the poor, it muftt be highly advantageous that they should be known to all those*who have it in thcir power to influence the laws and institutions of society. That the body of an army should not in all cases know the particulars of their Situa- tion may possibly be desirable ; but that the leadcrs should be in the same State of ignorancc, will hardly I think, be contended.
If it be really true, that without a diminishcd propor« tion of births* we cannot attain any permanent improvc-
* It should alwavfr be recoUected that a diminishrd firoportion of births may take place under a constant annual increase of the absolute number. This is in fact, exactiy what has happened in England and Scotiand dfving the last forn* vean.
536 APPENDIX.
inent in thc health and happincss of the mass of thc pec- plc, and sccurc that description of populaüoDy whicb, by containing a larger sharc of adults, is best calculatcdtocre- Ute fresh resources, and conseqiicntly to cncouragc a coix- tinucd increase of cfRcicnt population, ii is surcly of tiic hig;hcst importance that this should be known, that if we takc no steps directly to promote this efTecti we should noc at Icast, under the influence of the fonner prejudices on this subject, endeavour to counteract it*^. And if it br thought unadviseable to abolish thc poor laws, il cannotbc
• We should bc aware, that a scarcity of mcn owing rithcr to gwat losses, or to some particiliar and unusual demand, is liable to happcn ii cvcry country ; and in no respect invalidates the general principle tlnr has been advanced. Whatever may be the tendency to increaie, it ti quite clear that an extraordinary supply of men cannot be produccd ci- ther in six months, or six years ; but even with a view to a more thn usual supply, causes which tend to dimmish mortality are not only tncn certain but morc rapid in ihcir cfiVcts, than direct encoura^mcnti t» marriage An increase of birtlis may, and often does, take ]ilace, wrrii- out the uhimate accomplishment of ourobject ; but, supposing thc binla to rcmainthe same, it is impossible for a diminished mortality not tobe accompanied by an increase of eflective ]X)pulation.
We arc vcry apt to bc (.Icceived on this subject by the almost cor stunt demand for labour wliich provails in evcrv prosjK-roub counin . hT we sliould consitler that in countrici» which can but just kcep upt^i;: populati'Mi, as the price of labour nnist bc sufficient to rear a fami!;. ■ * a certain number, a single man would have a sujjerHuity, aml Li>-.! would bc in constant demand ut the pricc of the subsistence of an lOH. vidual. It cannot be doubted that in this counrry we could ,»>..on cm- ploy double thc numl>er ot hibourers if .^.t- couid have tium :.t ««-i v.n pricc; hccausc buj)plv will pr'.dii\i- dc.na.id us well as dcn;^;.d »; ;i Thc prc^eut great e.vteiisitin of the cotton trade did not ori^ii.atc in i» cxtnordinary incrcax of ilcmand, ai the former prices, but in an i.in.A% cd supj)ly at a much clicapcr rate, whicli of (uurse immi-diattly pn^lu ed an extended demand. As we cannot hüwevcr obiain mcn ut i^-. j>ence a da;, b;, imj)iovenKnt.s in nuchmcry, we must bubmit to tht i. cessary conditions of their rcaring, and ihcrc ib no man who ha* ih slif;;htc^t fetling for thc happiness of the mosi numeroiii cixss of vjl t. ty, t)r has cvcn just vicws of p(»licy on the subj«.tt, who would uo' »- ther choost tiiat the rec|ui^;le population bhould be obcaincd b) kcc«.
APPENDIX^ 537
•
doubted tbat a knowledge of those general principles, which render them inefiicicnt in their humane intentions, might be applied so fiEtr to modify them and regulate their execution^ as to remove many of the evils with which they are accompanied, and make them less objectionable.
There is only one subject more which 1 shall notice, and that is rather a matter of feeling than of argument. ' ManypersonS) whose understandingsare not ofthat descrip- tion that they can regulate their belief or disbelief by their likes or dislikes, have professed their perfect conviction of the tnith of the general principles contained in the Essay ; Imt at the same time have lamented this conviction, aa throw- ing a darker shade over our views of human nature, and tending particularly to narrow our prospects of future im- provement. In these feelingt I cannot agree with them. If from a revicw of the paat, I could not only believe that a fundamental and very extraordinary improvement in hu- man Society was possible, but feel a firm confidence that it would take place, I should undoubtedly be grieved to find that I had overlooked some cause, the Operation of which would at once blast my hopes. But if the contemplation of the past history of mankind, from which alone we can judge of the future, renders it almost impossible to feel auch a confidence, I confess that I had much rather believe that some real and deeply-seated difficulty existed, the constant struggle with which was calculated to rouse the natural inactivity of man, to call forth hls ^ulties, and invigorate and improve bis mind ; a species of difficulty which it must be allowed is most eminently and peculiarly suited to a State of probation, than that nearly all the evils
price of labour, combined with such habits, as would occasion a very smali mortality, than from a great proportion of births, of which com- paratively few would reacb manhood.
Vol. ii. z z z
3S8 APPENDIX.
of life TTiight vrith the mosi pcrfect facilitf be retnoTe^ but for thc pervcrscn^ss and wickcdness of those wUo in- fluer.cc human institutions*.
A pcrson who hcld this latter opinion must necessarilf live in a constant State of irritation and disuppointmenU The ardent expectations with which he might begin life MTould soon receive the most cruci check. The regiUv propre SS of socicty, under thc most favourable circum- stances, would to him appear slow and unsatLifactory ; but insicad cvcn of this regulär progrcss, his eye would br Tnorc frc';uently prescnted with retrograde moveinents,and thc most dishcctrtening rcversc». The changes to which he had lookcd forward with delight, would bc found big with new and imlookcd-for cvils, and the characten on which he had rcposcd thc most confidence« would be acea frequcntly dcserling his fuvourite cuusci citlicr from the lesBons of cxperience or the temptation of power. In this sl tc of ronblanl fiisappoinlnient, he would be but too apt to atiribi'ti' cvciv ihin^ to thc worst niotives; hc would bc inclinc'l »o j^ivc up ihe cause of impro\cnicni in despair« and "lU'L^iiii; of tlc wIkiIc froiu a piirt, notlüu,< buta pctu- liar ^oodiu'ss of Ijc. rt und amiablcncss of disposition could prcht'nc him Oüiii tlv.it sie klyand disj^ustint;- Uiisünthropy which i> but too frctiucutly thc cnd of such chuructcrst.
)n thc contrary, a pcrson who hcld thc other opinion« as hc wouKl sct out with morc modcratc rxpcctatiunSt W( \il(l of courscbc Icss liablc to disuppoiiument. A com-
• Thc misery and vice arising from thc prcssurt- rf thc [>• pula'i n 100 '.-.Uli a»,arist thc limit^> of sllh.^i.stt•:^co, and thc ir.ibcn and vier r^r *- in^ IV n^ Lromi"« in us intcrc: nrn', iva) Ix* coi.sidtrcd as 'ho Sc. lia ard Chav lül s "f human lifo. Tha- it is p -ssibic for each indivTduaJ rd Stctr v!t..r of h)'h thc-.c r<Kks is ccrtainly irue, and a truth uhich I havc cnlotvc'ir.:.! stniigly to niaintain : but ihat these r:*:ks do not form a .11 ■ • r i :l(.',>v':.dci.t of human institutions» nopcnon with an^ l.nüvi'lcdijC of ihe subjcci can vcniure to assert.
APPENDIX. 5-55
parison of thc best wiih the worst stiitcs of socicty, and the obvious infercncc from analo« y thal thc best wcrc ca- pable of further improvement, would constantly picscnt to his mind a prospect sutRciently animating to Warrant his most persevering exertions. But aware of the diflicuhics irith which the subject was surrounded, knowing how ofl- en in the attempt to attain oneobject somcother had been lost, and that though socicty had made rapid advances in some directions, it had been comparatively stationury in others, he would be constantly prepared for failures. Tnese faiiures, iiistead of crcating despair, would only crc.tc knowledge ; instead of checking his ardou < would only g^vc it a wiser and more successful direction ; and having founded his opinion of mankind ou broad and gcncral grounds, the disappointment of any particular views would not change this opinion ; but even in declining agc hc would probably be found believing as firmly in thc rcality and general prevalence of virtue, as in the existence and ffcquency of vice ; and to thc last, looking forward with a just confidence to those improvements in socicty, uhich the history of the past^ in spitc of all the revcr^es with Which it is accompanicd, seems clearly to Warrant.
It may be true that if i^orance is bliss, 'tis folly to be vdse ; but if ig^orancc be not bliss as in the prescnt in- stante, if all false views of socicty must not only inipede decidedlythe progress of improvement, but noccssarily terminate in the most bitter disappointments to tlic indi- yiduals who form them ; I shall always think that the fecl- ings and prospects of those who make the justest esti- mates of our futurc expectations, are the most consobto- ry ; and that the characters of this description are happier themselves, at the same time that they are beyond compa- rison more likely to contribute to the improvement und happiness of socicty*.
• While thc last sheet of this Appendix was printing, I heard with ^ome surprise, that an argument had been drawn from the Principle of Population in favoor of the slave trade. As the jint conclusion from
540 APPENDIX-
that principlc appears to mc to be exactl/ thc contiary , I caufic W^ sayiug a few words on the subject.
If the only argument against the slavc trade had bcen, that tai thc mortality it occasioned, it was ükcly to uiipeo{Jc Africa, Of aa^ guish the human race, some comfort with regard to these fean migte indeed, be drawn from the Principle of Population ; bot aa thc ty of the aboUtion has never, that I know of, been uiged on tlie of these apprehensions, a reference to the lawt which regulate tfae ia- crease of the human species was certainly most unwiae in tfae friendi of the slave trade.
The aboiition of the slave trade is defended principally by the tva following arguments :
Ist. That the trade to the coast of Africa for slaves, together with their subsequcnt treatment in the West Indies, u prodoctive of to nmk human miser)-, that its continuance is disgracefiil to us aa men and is Christians.
2d. That the culture of the West India islands could go on wiäi equal advantage, and miKh greater seouity, if no farther importatkm cf slaves were to take place.
With regard to the first argument, it appears, in the Esay an the Principle of Population, that so great is the tendency of mankind » increase, that nothing but some physical or moral check operadng iain exccMvc and wiiuuai degree, can permaneiitly keep the populatkmof a country below the average means of subsistence. In the West Indt* islands a constant rccruit of labouring ncgroes is necessary; and cor- sequciitly the immcdiate chccks to population must ojxrratc with rar«.- xifx and unusual force. All the chccks to populaiiuu were found rt- solvable into mnral restraint, vice, and misery. In a State of ^läx-erii moral restraint cannot have much influcnce ; nor in any State u ill u cver continue j>ermancntly lo diminish the |)opulation. Thc whoic cf- fect, therefore, is to be attributed to the excestive and umunal action ol vice and misery ; and a reference to the facts contained in the Essur incontrovertibly provcs that thc condiiion of the slavcs in the U ot Indies, taken altogether, is most wretched, and that the rcprescntatioiu of the friends of the aboiition cannot easily bc exaggcrated.
It will be Said, that the principal reason why the blavcs in the West Indies constantly diminish, is, that the scxcs are not in equal numben, a considerable majority of males being always imported ; but this sttj circumstancc decides at once on the cruclty of their Situation, and must necessurily be one jx^werful cause of their degraded mor^ condition
It may bc said also, that many towns do not kecp up their numbers» and \L't the same objcaion is not madc to them on that accouQt. But
APPENDIX« 541
the cases will admit of no compaiison. If for the sake of )ftntT society or higher wages, pec^le are willing to expose ihemselvei toa less pure air, and gineater temptations to vice, no hardship is sufiered that can reasonably be complained of. The superior mortality of towns falls principally upon children, and is scaicely noticed by people of nuture age. The sexes are in equal numbers, and every man after a few yeais of industry may look forward to the happiness of domestic tife. If during the timc that he is thus waiting, he acquires various habits which indispose him to marriage, he lias nobody to blame except him- 2>clf. But with the negroes the case is totally different. The unequal iiumber of the sexes shuts out at once the majority of them from all Chance of domestic happiness. They have no hope of this kind to sweeten their toils, and aniniate their exertions ; but ace necessarily condemned either to unceasing privation, or to the most vicious excess- es ; and thus shut out from every cheering prospect, we cannot be sur. prised that they are in general ready to welcome that death which so many meet with in the prime of life.
The second argument is no less powerfuUy supported by the Prin- ciple of Population than the Hrst It appears, from a vcry general sur- vcy of different countries, that under every form of govemment, howe* ver unjust and t)-rannlcal, in every climate of the known world howe- ver apparently unfavourablc to health, it has been found that populati- on, with the sole exccption above alluded to, has been able to keep it- self up to the Icvel of the means of subsistence. Conscqucntly , if by the abclition of the trade to Africa, the slaves in the West Indies were placed only in a tolerable Situation, if their civil condition and moral habits were only made to approacb to those which prevail among the mass of the human race in the worst govemed countries of the world, it is contrary to the general laws of natiu^ to suppose, that they would ffiot be able by procreation fuUy to supply the effective demand for la- bour ; and it is difficult to conceive that a population so raised would not be in every point of view prefcrable to that which exists at present. It is perfectly dcar, therefore, that a consideration of the laws which (ovem the increase and decrease of the human species, tends to streng^h* ' en in the most powerful manner, all the arguments in favor of the abolition.
With regard to the State of society among the African nations, it will readily occur to the reader, that in deschbing it the question of the alave trade was foreign to m y purpose ; and I might naturally fear that if I entered upon it I should be led into too long a digression. But cer- tainly all the facts which I have mentioned, and which are taken princi- pally from Park, if they do not absolutely ^^ore that the wars in Africa
543 APPENDIX.
wesdced 91I fcgyivitedty tlie tASe cn tte eout, tmd powcrfuUf to confirm die tmppoütifm, The ttate of Afncm, as I have described it, Is exactly such as we should expect in a cotmtry, where the caprun- of |nen was consideied as a more advantageoas employment than a^ricul- fore or mamifiictiires. Of the State of these nations some huiidred % t.-ars igo it must be conüessed that we have little knowledge *h:it we can dr- penduixm: but allowingthat the regulär pluiiJering excursi ms. which p!ark describes» are of the most ancient date ; jtx it is imp^sstble to sup- pose that any ciicumstance which, like the European traflfic, must givc additional value to the plunder thus acquired, would not powcrfuih x^'- gravate thepit and eflfectually prevent all progress lowards a hapnicf oider of thingi. As long as the nations of Europe continuc barbar m:s cnough to purchase slaves in Africa, we nia> be quiie iure that Atnca «JU continift bvhuoua eaough.tDJUipply thena
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Harvard College Widener Library Cambridge, MA 02138 617-495-2413
Please handle with care.
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