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PROCEEDINGS

or THB

AMERICAN ACADEMY

or

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

Vol. XLV.

FROM MAY 1909, TO MAY 1910.

BOSTON:

PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY.

1910.

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John Wiubom amd Som, Cambbidob, U.S.A.

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CONTENTS.

•\

Page I. Friction in Oases cU Low Pressure, Bt J. L. Hooo 1

II. The Quantitaiive Determination of Antimony by the GtUzeit Method,

Bt C. R. Sangeb and £. R. Riegel 19

III. The Equivalent Circuits of Composite Lines in the Steady State, Bt

A. E. KSNNELLT 29

IV. Ilepi ^«J<rewf. A Study of the Conception of Nature among the

Pre^ocratics, Bt W. A. Heidel 77

V. A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Phosphorus. First Paper. — The Analysis of Silver Phosphate, Bt G. P. Baxter and G. Jones 135

VI. The Reactions of Amphibians to Light. Bt A. S. Peabse . ... 156

VII. Average Chemical Compositions of Igneous-Rock Types. Bt R. A.

Dalt 209

VIII. On the A pplicabUity of the Law of Corresponding States to the Joule- Thomson Effect in Water and Carbon Dioxide. Bt H. N. Davis 241

IX. Notes on Certain Thermal Properties of Steam, Bt H. N. Davis . 265

X. The Spectrum of a Carbon Compound in the Region of Extremely

ShoH Wave-Lengths, Bt T. Ltm an 313

XI. Experiments on the Electrical Oscillations of a Hertz Rectilinear

Oscillator, Bt G. W. Fierce 323

\l XII. The Conception of the Derivative of a Scalar Point Function with

1,

Respect to Another Similar Function, Bt B. O. Peircb . . . 337

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IV CONTENTS.

Paob XIII. The Effect of Leakage cU the Edges upon the Temperatures loUhin a

Homogeneous Lamina through which Heat is being Conducted,

By B. O. Pbibcb 363

XIV. On Evaporation from the Surface of a Solid Sphere, By H. W.

MoBSE , 361

XV. Some Minute Phenomena of Electrolysis, ByH.W. Mobsb . .^369

XVI. Air Resistance to Falling Inch Spheres, By E. H. Hall .... 377

XVII. (I.) A preliminary Synopsis of the Genus Echeandia. By C. A.

Weatherby; (II.) SpermatophyteSf new or reclassified^ chiefly RubiaceaeandOentianaceae, By B. L. Robinson; (III.) Amer' ican Forms of Lycopodium complanatum. By C. A. Weathebby; (IV.) New andlittle known Mexican Plants jChufiy Lainatae, By L. M. Fbrnald; (V.) Mexican Phanerogams, — Notes and new species, Bt C. A. Weatherby 385

XVIII . (LIII .)Onthe Equilibrium of the System consisting of Lime, Carbon,

Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide, By M. D. Thompson . 429

XIX. Discharges of Electricity through Hydrogen, By J. Trowbridge . 453

XX. Buddhaghosa's Dhammapada Commentary, By £. W. Burlin-

GAMB 465

XXI. Records OP Meetings 651

OpPICERS AND COMMITTBBSPOR 1910-11 577

List OP Fellows AND Foreign Honorary Members 579

Statutes AND Standing Votes 591

RuMPORD Prbmixtm 602

Index 603

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 1. — August, 1909.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

FRICTION IN GAS^S AT LOW PRESSURES.

By J. L. IIoGQ.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. Bt J. L. HooG.

Preaented by John Trowbridge June 29, 1909 ; received June 29, 1909.

Under the title " Friction and Force due to Transpiration as de- pendent on Pressure in Grases," there was published ^ some time ago an account of some experiments made to determine the relation be- tween the friction of a gas and the pressure in it, and also the relation between the force exerted by a lamp on a mica vane, blackened on the &ice which is turned towards the lamp, and the mean pressure in the gas in which the vane is placed. The three-fold purpose of the inves- tigation was pointed out there, viz. :

First, to investigate the relation between friction and pressure where the pressures were so small that "slip " is appreciable; second, to de- termine the relation of transpiration force in the special form of appa- ratus described there ; ^ and, third, to make use, if possible, of these two relations to test the validity of the McLeod gauge measurements of pressure, and, if these measurements should prove unreliable, to make use of one of the relations named above to measure gas pressure.

There has been much delay in carrying out the investigation with the apparatus improved in the manner indicated in the closing para- graphs of that paper, but now some results have been obtained in so far as the friction problem is concerned.

As was pointed out in the paper mentioned, the investigation was defective in two respects. It was found that, in spite of the care which was taken to exclude mercury vapor from the apparatus, some of this vapor was undoubtedly present This no doubt was due to the fact that the whole apparatus had to be maintained at a high temperature for long periods to insure dr3ring, and thus the presence of the least speck of liquid mercury would cause, when evaporation took place, the diffusion of comparatively large quantities of the vapor through the

^ Proc. Am. Acad., 42, 6 (1906). * See p. 129 of that paper.

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OQ^

4 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

apparatus. Again, the logarithmic decrement due to the friction in the suspending fibre was not determined directly by experiment, and in the discussion of the results obtained its value was calculated.

The details of the method since used to exclude the mercury vapor and to determine the decrement due to friction in the fibre will ap- pear later. Meanwhile a summary of what has been accomplished is given here.

Firsts the decrement due to the friction in the suspending fibre of the viscosity apparatus has been determined experimentally.

Second^ mercury vapor has been excluded to such a degree that, even when the whole appara^s, in which the presence of the vapor would be objectionable, was kept at a temperature of 150° C, the mercury lines were absent from tbe spectrum of the gas enclosed.

Third, the value of the decrement has been obtained for hydrogen over a range of pressures extending from atmospheric pressure to 0.000016 mm. an indicated by the McLeod gauge.

Fowrth, an equation relating pressure to decrement has been ob- tained which applies well at all pressures below 0.1 mm. as far as pres- sures have been measured. The equation, above mentioned, is of the form of Sutherland's equation given tentatively in the former paper. It is

(z^-O-^

In this equation k and c are constants to be determined from the ob- servations ; / is the decrement due to whatever friction there is in the gas under examination and to the friction in the fibre ; p is pressure ; in is the decrement due to the friction in the fibre. Its value has been measured directly. The significance of the two slightly difiTering values of fs namely, ft = 0.000020 and fi = 0.000022, which are found in the following table, will appear later when the measurement is discussed in detail. The first column of the table contains a series of values of the decrement for hydrogen, each of which corresponds to a definite pressure in the gas. The various values of the pressure are given in the second column. The first three of them were obtained from a manometer, lliose which are marked thus,*, were obtained firom measurements made with the McLeod gauge, while the others were obtained from a curve plotted from the directly observed values of the decrement and pressure. From two values of /?, the corresponding values of /, and the value of /*, there are obtained two equations for the determination of the constants k and c in the above equation. These determined, it is clear that from any value of /, within the range

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HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES.

TABLE I. Htdrooen.

Log. Dec.	p (obscived).	p (calculated) ti - 0.000020.	p (calculated) ta = 0.000022.
0.07942	760.0
0.07937	435.0
0.07927	103.0
0.07768*	8.89*
0.06902*	1.24*
0.05123*	0.410*
0.02861*	0.105*	0.109	0.109
0.01140	0.0300	0.0302	0.0302
0.01056	0.0275	0.0276	0.0275
0.00936*	0.0239*
0.00887	0.0225	0.0225	0.0225
0.00710	0.0175	0.0174	0.0174
0.00620	0.0150
0.00525	0.0125	0.0125	0.0125
0.00434*	0.0102*	0.0102	0.0102
0.00426	0.0100	0.00998	0.00998
0.00306*	0.00704*	0.00702	0.00702
0.00220	0.00500	0.00497	0.00496
0.00112	0.00250	0.00247	0.00246
0.000459*	0.00098*	0.00097	0.00097
0.000215*	0.00042*	0.00043	0.00043
0.000029*	0.000016*	0.000020	0.000015

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b PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

indicated above, the correspondiDg value of /> can be obtained from the formula by a simple calculation. The numbers thus obtained for the various values of / are given in the third and fourth columns.

It would, therefore, seem highly probable that so far as hydrogen is concerned the McLeod gauge can be relied upon for pressures as low as the lowest used, and which are recorded in Table I ; and that, in the case of hydrogen, the measurement of friction can be used as a convenient and accurate method of measuring pressure, provided care is taken to exclude mercury vapor. This matter will be discussed at length later.

The details of the methods used to overcome the difficulties named above follow:

Measurement of Decrement due to the Friction in the Fibre.

Referring to Figure 1 it will be seen that the tube C is inserted in such a position that nothing can pass to the viscosity apparatus from the McLeod gauge, B, or from the pump, which is connected to D, without passing through it. This tube, C, therefore, replaces the tubes of sul- phur and silver whose purpose was explained in the earlier paper. 0 is filled with granular charcoal, and is so arranged that either a cylin- drical electrical heater or a long Dewar vessel can enclose it. When C had been placed in position and sealed in place, the whole apparatus was exhausted through D by means of the mechanical pump, and then dry air was allowed to pass in through an opening placed near the pump. The exhaustion was again performed and the admission of dry air repeated. This exhaustion and admission of air were carried out alternately many times for the purpose of removing the comparatively large quantities of moisture which had been formed in the vessel dur- ing the process of making the various joints in the construction of the apparatus. When it was certain that the whole apparatus had been made fitirly dry, the cylindrical electric heater was placed about the tube C, and while the exhaustion proceeded the tube was raised to a temperature of about 150° C, to hasten the removal of the gas present in large quantities in the pores of the charcoal at atmospheric pres- sure, and which separates frx)m the charcoal rather slowly under re- duced pressure if the temperature is kept low. When the mercury pump had been used to secure a &irly high vacuum the other parts of the apparatus, viz., the McLeod gauge, the viscosity apparatus, and the connecting tubes were heated to about 150° C., for the purpose of removing from the glass the occluded gases. After the pumping had proceeded for some time under these conditions, the heater was re-

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HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES.

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8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

moved from C and the Dewar vessel containing liquid air ^ was substi- tuted for it, and the other part of the apparatus was allowed to cool down. The charcoal was allowed to absorb what it would at the tem- perature of the liquid air. Altogether the liquid air was kept sur- rounding the charcoal for about eighty hours, and from time to time during this interval a measurement of the decrement, /, was made. At first the diminution in the value of the decrement was fairly rapid, but after the first day the change was very slow. This, no doubt, was due in part to the slow passage of the gas towards the charcoal through the somewhat extended form of the apparatus. It was, also, probably due to the &ct, which was noted later in the investigation, that at a given stage of exhaustion the raising of the free surface of the liquid air in the Dewar vessel surrounding C invariably produced a very appreciable diminution in the gas pressure in the apparatus, and the lowering of the free surface as the evaporation of the liquid air pro- ceeded resulted in a distinct rise in the gas pressure. It is to be un- derstood that the free surfiice was never allowed to fall as low as the top of the tube C, so that all of the charcoal was always below the free surface of the liquid air.

The following results show how the decrement changed with the time in the final forty-eight hours :

May 29, 12 M. to 2: 53 A. M. Decrement 0.000051

7; 15 p. M. to 8: 58 0.000037

10: 53 P. M. to 1: 36 A. M. (May 30) 0.000031

May 30, 1 : 36 a. M. to 4: 48 0.000028

11: 11 a. m. to 2:06 P. M. 0.000037*

2: 06 P. M. to 5: 27 0.000024*

5:27 P. M. to 8: 21 0.000028*

8:21 P. M. to 11:49 0.000022

The smallest value of the decrement obtained was 0.000022, and this could be measured moderately well. Its error cannot, I think, be as much as ten per cent. Of course, it is clear that the true value of the decrement due to the friction in the fibre is somewhat less than this, for there is still, doubtless, some gas left to offer resistance to the moving disk, so that the number to be used for /ia in the above equa- tion should be somewhat smaller than ().0(K)022. I have ventured to

* The liquid air used in this investigation was obtained at the Chemical Laboratory, Harvard University.

♦ These were taken in the afternoon when there is considerable jarring of the apparatus and are probably not so accurate as the others.

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HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 9

make use of the yalae 0.000020 as the true value to which the decre- ment will approach as the exhaustion is pushed higher and higher. It will be seen from Table I that the calculations are carried through not only with this value, but also with the actually measured value 0.000022. This is done simply to show what effect such a change in ihe value of fi has on the series of results obtained.

It may be of interest to state that, at the stage of exhaustion when ft = 0.000022 was obtained, the McLeod gauge indicated a pressure certainly less than 0.000001mm. It is, to be sure, of little value to give the measurement of a pressure by the gauge where a column of mercury a fraction of a millimeter high requires to be measured, and especially is tins true where the tube containing the mercury has been heated and cooled repeatedly. The mercury has a habit of sticking to the glass to such an extent that pressure measurements under the condi- tions mentioned are surely not reliable. The value of the pressure given above, then, only indicates the order of magnitude of the pres- sure. Though the &ctor of the gauge used was 95813, yet it was quite inadequate to measure the pressure of the gas in ^he vessel

Removal op Water Vapor and Mercury Vapor from the Hydrogen in the Viscosity Apparatus.

For this purpose it was necessary to make arrangements by which no vapor should be carried into the apparatus with the entering gas, and also all the vapor which was already in the apparatus might be taken out. The following arrangement was finally adopted, Figure 2. E is a U-tube of small bore, and bent so that it may enter the long Dewar vessel already mentioned. For reasons which will appear later it was found necessary for the remainder of the investigation to replace the tube C, Figure 1, by this tube K F is a tube leading from the gas generator. It enters G, which is similar to G of Figure 1. It can be surrounded by a heater or a Dewar vessel as circumstances may re- quire. A connecting tube leads from G to a point on the tube H, which connects E to the viscosity apparatus A, Figure 1. I leads to the pump and McLeod gauge. Anything which proceeds from the pump or McLeod gauge towards the viscosity apparatus must pass through E. Moreover, the gas entering from tiie generator will, with the given arrangement, retard the diffusion of mercury vapor from the pump and gauge towards the viscosity apparatus. If there is no vapor entering with the gas, there can be none entering the viscosity appara- tus without passing through E, and, since throughout the experiment tliis tube was kept surrounded by the liquid air, the pressure of the

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10

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

vapor due to diffasion from the mercury in the pump or gauge could never exceed the vapor pressure of mercury at the temperature of the liquid air. The tube G, when surrounded with the liquid air, was suf- ficient safeguard against the entrance of water vapor with the gas.

The method of removing all water vapor and mercury vapor already in the apparatus beyond the tube E was that of repeated exhaustion _ and filling with the gas to be exper-

imented with, the whole apparatus meanwhile being kept at a high temperature.*

At the first exhaustion, when the pressure had been reduced to a few centimeters of mercury, the tube G was surrounded by the electric heater, and the heat was applied to the oven in which the viscosity apparatus is placed. Practically the whole apparatus, except the gas generator, was kept hot while the pumping proceeded. After a fsdr vacuum was reached the pump was stopped and the hydrogen firom the generator was allowed to enter very slowly, passing first over phosphoric pentoxide, and then over spongy platinum, heated in a combustion tube, before entering the tube G. This filling process was followed by another exhaustion under the same conditions. After the appara- tus had been exhausted and filled a number of times in this way, when it seemed certain that the apparatus and the pores of the char- coal were filled with fitirly pure hydrogen, the heater was removed from G, and the vessel containing the liquid air substituted for it. The same process of alternately exhausting and filling was continued, great care being taken in filling to allow the hydrogen to pass very slowly so that the drying process might be completa Keeping the apparatus at a temperature of about 150® C. served to promote the evap- oration of the mercury, which in all probability adhered to the inner glass surfigu>es. Comparatively large quantities of pure dry hydrogen were allowed to pass into the vessel and were then taken out. Each exhaustion would assuredly sweep out some vapor if it was present.

I

B O

!

Fia.8

* The suspended disk was, of course, lowered before this operation began.

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HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 11

It would DAturally collect at R We shall have evidence as to this later. After some days of incesseoit work ike expected result was at- tained, as the character of the spectrum, obtained from the spectrum tube, S, showed. Even when the temperature of the viscosity appara- tus was 150^0. the mercury lines were absent The apparatus was then very slowly filled with hydrogen. The glass tube connecting G and H was tiien sealed off so that there were left no stop-cock joints to give trouble by leaking.

The Dewar vessel was removed fix)m G, but the one surrounding E still remained. After the apparatus had cooled down to room temper- ature the disk of the viscosity apparatus was raised and adjusted as described in the former paper.^

Method op Experiment.

The investigation of the relation of friction to pressure consists in measuring, for a given density of the gas, the logarithmic decrement of the suspended disk which is made to oscillate as a torsion pendulum between die two fixed plates of the apparatus.® The method of pro- cedure was to measure the gas pressure in the apparatus by means of a manometer when the pressure was large, and by the McLeod gauge when it was small, and then to set the disk of the apparatus swinging and measure the decrement Since the latter can be shown to be pro- portional to the resistance experienced by the disk, one gets data for Uie determination of the relation between friction and pressure.

It may be of interest to state here that in the first arrangement of Uie apparatus for the determination of the above relation instead of the simple bent tube E, a tube containing charcoal, similar to the tube C, was used. With this arrangement the mercury vapor was removed, but when observations on the decrement at different pressures were un- dertaken a difficulty presented itself. Although all of the tube contain- ing the charcoal was immersed in the liquid air, the sur&ce of which was always several inches above the top of the charcoal, yet it was found impossible to obtain a steady condition. As the evaporation of the liquid air proceeded, sufficient gas was given off from the charcoal to produce a large increase in pressure ; as much as thirty per cent was observed. When a fresh supply of the liquid air was added the pres- sure diminished again. The difficulty became more serious as the pressure at which the observations were made became smaller.

The phenomenon was probably due to the fact that ihe fresh supply of liquid air was richer in nitrogen than it was after the process of

* See pp. 133, 1.34. • See pp. 124, 125 of former paper.

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12 ^ PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

boiling bad proceeded for some bours. Tbe nitrogen is tbe more vola- tile, and so tbe boiling will proceed more vigorously just after a fresb supply of air bas been added tban at any otber time. Consequently tbe temperature of tbe boiling liquid will be lower at first tban it is later, and tbe cbarcoal will tbus absorb better at eacb addition of liquid air to tbe Dewar vessel. Tbe cbarcoal is necessary for tbe pbe- nomenon, for wben tbe tube E was substituting for tbe tube containing tbe cbarcoal, tbe effect disappeared, oY became inappreciable.

It was suggested earlier in tbe paper tbat tbere would be adduced evidence to sbow tbat tbe mercury driven out from tbe apparatus col- lected in tbe tube K After tbe measurement of pressure and decre- ment bad proceeded down to tbe least value given in tbe table, tbe supply of liquid air in tbe Dewar vessel in wbicb E was placed was al- lowed to disappear gradually. As tbe evaporation proceeded, it was found tbat the decrement increased mucb more rapidly tban tbe pressure as indicated by tbe McLeod gauge, sbowing tbat vapor was finding its way into tbe apparatus.

Results.

In tbe first and second columns of Table I are contained tbe corre- sponding values of tbe decrement and pressure. Not all tbe numbers given in tbese columns were obtained by actual measurement Only tbose wbicb are marked witb an asterisk were obtained in tbis way. Tbe otbers were obtained as follows: A curve was plotted using the values of tbe pressure which were measured as abscissas and the corre- sponding values of tbe decrement as ordinates. Tbis curve was drawn on such a scale tbat tbe value of tbe decrement, corresponding to any arbitrarily chosen pressure, could be obtained from tbe curve as accu- rately as it could be measured by tbe apparatus. Tbe unmarked num- bers in tbe first two columns were obtained by choosing arbitrarily a pressure and reading off fix)m tbe curve the corresponding value of tbe decrement In no case bas tbis procedure involved an extrapolation.

After failing to obtain an anal3rtical expression for tbe relation between tbe logarithmic decrement and the pressure wbicb would be applicable over tbe whole range extending from very small pressures right up to atmospheric pressure, it w&s decided to find, if possible, an expression wbicb would be applicable up to a certain pressure within tbe range for which it is known tbat tbe McLeod gauge measurements are quite reliable. Rayleigh ^ bas shown tbat Boyle's Law holds down to 0.01mm. of mercury, and Baly and Ramsay® found tbe McLeod

^ Phil. Trans., 196 (1901). • Pliil. Mgg., 38 (1894).

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HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 13

gauge measurements reliable for hydrogen. Recently Scfaeel and Heuse* have applied a membrane manometer, devised by them, to test Boyle's Law, and McLeod gauge measurements for air, and they state that they find both valid down to about 0.0001 mm., provided proper care is taken in drying the gas.

An examination of the results at pressures less than 0.1 mm. showed that the equation given above, viz. :

(/^-0^='''

served the purpose exceedingly well, if the experimentally determined value of fx. given above was used, and if the constants c and k were determined by means of values ofp between 0.1 mm. and 0.0 1 mm. of mercury, and the corresponding values of /.

Tlie pressures chosen for the determination of these constants were 0.0239 mm. and 0.0150 mm., the former of these being a pressure actually measured by the gauge, while the latter was chosen arbitrarily. The measurement of / corresponding to the former was 0.00936, while the value of / corresponding to the latter was 0.00620, and was obtained firom the curve as described above. The values of {he constants calcu- lated from the above data are

c = 0.1491 k = 0.0676.

The equation now takes the form

/ 0.0676 A r...^.

0- 0.000020 -0^ = '-^''^'

How well the equation gives the relatioli existing between p and / can be seen by a comparison of the numbers in the second and third columns of the table. A number in the third column is obtained by choosing a value of / from the first column, inserting it in the equation and deducing the value otp, which is then placed in the third column in the same horizontal row as the chosen value of /. It will be seen that the various numbers in this column agree very well with the corresponding numbers in the second column, except at the very lowest pressure, 0.000016 mm. used, when the diflference is about twenty-five per cent.

• Verhandl. d. Deutsch. Physikal. Gesellsch., 11, 1 (1909).

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14 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

If instead of using the value 0.000020 for /ia, we make use of 0.000022, which was the smallest value of the decrement aotuaUy measured, the values of c and k are

c = 0.1494 k = 0.0677

and the fourth column gives the values of p calculated, in the way described, from the equation with these values for the constants instead of those used in the preceding case. This calculation is carried out to call attention to the magnitude of the change produced by a slight change in the value of the constant, /jl, which is subject to some uncer- tainty, as has been shown. It will be seen that it is only where the decrement^ /, is very small that the difference between the two results is appreciable. The smallest value of /> in the fourth column is nearer to tiie corresponding value of j9, measured by the McLeod gauge ; but ihe measured value is subject to an inaccuracy about as great as the difference between the measured and calculated values of j9.

The results given above make it highly probable that the measure- ments of pressure by the McLeod gauge are reliable in the case of pure, dry hydrogen for pressures as low as the smallest pressure recorded in the table.

It is to be observed that for pressures below, say, 0.01 mm. of mercury the friction with which we have to do is largely external friction, and this is proportional to the density of the gas and the mean molecular speed. The friction, and, therefore, the decrement, corre- sponding to a given pressure will be smaller for hydrogen than for, say, oxygen, or mercury vapor. In the case of mercury vapor the decrement at a given low pressure ought to be about ten times as great as it is for hydrogen at the same pressure, since the molecular weight of mercury is about one hundred times that of hydrogen, while the mean molecular speed is about one-tenth as great as it is for hydrogen.

To be sure it does not follow that the decrement of a mixture of hydrogen and mercury vapor, in such proportions that the partial pressures of the two are the same, is simply the sum of the two decre- ments obtained when the gas and vapor are separate. If one accepts the expression deduced by Meyer ^^ for the external friction of a gas, and applies the same method in considering external friction of mixtures as he does in dealing with the internal friction of mixtures, he will be able better to understand how the external friction of a mixture of

" Kinetic Theory of Gases, p. 210 (Eng. Trans.).

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HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 15

gases depends apon the proportion in which the gases are mixed. Meyer shows that the coefficient of external friction is given by

where tn is the molecular weight of the gas ; N is the number of molecules per unit volume ; O is the mean molecular speed ; and fi is a constant depending upon the solid surface. He gives some experi- mental evidence to show that P is independent of the gas.

In the case of a mixture of gases where there are Ni molecules of one kind and N't molecules of another, in each unit volume we have, if i\r is the total number of molecules in the unit volume,

and the mean molecular weight is given by

Nitrii + Nftnt

m =

N

where mi and mt are the molecular weights of the two gases mixed. Since the temperatures of the two gases are the same,

Therefore,

N mi N

If Boyle's Law holds, which seems a fair inference from the results given above, then we may write

p mi p

where jth and j9s are the partial pressures and p is the whole pressure under the given conditions. If fi is independent of the nature of the gas it follows that the ratio of the external friction of the mixture to the external friction of the gas whose partial pressure is pu if it were in the vessel alone, is

jV«,a/^ + -*-^

NmCl _ ^ ^ p mi p _ N iJpi m^, p% NimiQi "" NimiQi " Ni p mi p'

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16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

If the mixture is one of hydrogen and mercury vapor such thatjoi = /?«, the above ratio becomes about 14. This means that if the pressure is measured by the McLeod gauge, which takes no account of the mercury vapor, the friction of the mixture would be about fourteen times as much as it would be with the same hydrogen pressure as in this case, but with the mercury vapor absent. If pi = 1000/?a, the ratio is about 1.05, and itpi = 10,000^8, it becomes about 1.005.

It might be urged with regard to the method described above for freeing the hydrogen from mercury vapor that the lowest pressure of vapor obtainable by the method used is the pressure of mercury vapor at the temperature of liquid air boiling at atmospheric pressure. This pressure at 0° C is about 0.0005 mm., but what it is at the lower temperature mentioned can hardly even be conjectured. We have simply to fidl back upon the spectroscopic test. The above discussion shows, however, that if this pressure is less than 0.001 of the pressure of the hydrogen it will not very seriously affect the results. If it is as low as 0.0001 of the hydrogen pressure, then the error in the observations will easily be greater than any error introduced in this way. Considering the lowest pressure reached, namely, 0.000016 mm., the vapor pressure of mercury at the temperature of liquid air, boiling under atmospheric pressure, would require to be as low as 0.000,000,016 in order that the ratio of the partial pressures should be 1:1000.

This case serves to show how important it may be to consider mercury vapor when we are dealing with these very low pressures. It indicates that, in all high vacua work where we are considering the properties of a particular gas, it is important that great care should be taken to exclude this vapor. The McLeod gauge, of course, takes no cognizance of it, and in fact serves to introduce the vapor where it is not wanted. In all cases where the vacuum is high, and it is desirable to know the pressure in the vessel, and yet keep the gas pure, it would be desirable to have a gauge which would not introduce any impurity.

If the inference made above as to the validity of the McLeod gauge measurements on gas pressure is allowed, then we can say that reliance may be placed upon the measurements of pressure from decrement measurements in the apparatus used in this investigation. This method need introduce no mercury vapor, but it takes account of all that is in the vessel. Moreover, a discussion similar to that used for mercury vapor will show that in the case of oxygen the decrement, correspond- ing to a certain gas pressure, will be about four times as great as it is in the case of hydrogen. In the case of oxygen, therefore, a pressure of 0.00001 mm. should be measured with an accuracy of from five to

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HOGG. — FRICTION IN GASES AT LOW PRESSURES. 17

ten per cent This woald indicate an absolute error of less than 0.000,001 mm.

The investigation is now being extended to the case of oxygen and nitrogen. The data obtained by using these gases, besides showing whether their behavior is like that of hydrogen, should give some more information regarding the quantity, P^ which enters the foregoing discussion.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass.

VOL. XLV. — 2

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Sanger and Riegel. — Determination of Antimony.

«

M

m

0.5 0.8 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70

Standard Antimony Bands in Micromilligrams of SbiO« Ammonia Development.

Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV.

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'.'■'. • .''8 0'" the ^:aeri .a Lo.no h" cf ^ ^i> au(^ f I; * . -si.

Li U .Ti ■ SvN,,. ^ A^'i. F...^K IV^ V. -x '•

W'lH A Pla: ' .

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(1

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Prooeedingt of tlie American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 2. — Octobbb, 1909.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE.

THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY BY THE GUTZEIT METHOD.

Bt Charles Robert Sanger and Emile Raymond Rieqel.

With a Plate.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE.

THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OP ANTIMONY BY THE GUTZEIT METHOD.

Bt Chables Robert Sanger and Emile Ratmond Riegel. Presented August 31, 1909. Received August 31. 1909.

The application of the so-called Outzeit reactions to the quantitative determination of arsenic has been studied by Sanger and Blaok^, vho were able to use the general method of Outzeit^ for the convenient and reasonably accurate estimation of small amounts of arsenic. In study- ing the interference of the hydrides of sulphur, phosphorus, and anti- mony with the reaction of arsine on paper sensitized with mercuric chloride, the po^ibility of the quantitative determination of antimony by this method was apparent

The action of stibine o)i mercuric chloride was first investigated by Franceschi', who obtained a white body, to which he gave the formula SbHHgiCli, analogous to the red compound formed by the action of arsine on mercuric chlorida This substance decomposes easily in moist air, turning dark, probably from the separation of mercury. When stibine is allowed to act upon sensitized mercuric chloride paper, as shown by Sanger and Black^, no color is given to the strip from amounts of antimonious oxide up to about 70 micromilligrams (mmg.). Hjrdrochloric acid develops no color. But if the strip is treated mih ammonia^ a black band ensues, the length and intensity of which are proportional to the amount of antimonious oxide present. On this re- action we have based the following method for the determination of small amounts of antimony.

» These Proceedings, 43, 297 (1907); Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 26, 1115 (1907); Zeitsch. f. anorg. Chem., 68, 121 (1907); Suppl. ann. enciclop. chim., 24, 372 (1907-08).

« Phann. Zeitung, 24, 263 (1879). In the original Gutzeit method, the evolved arsine was allowed to act upon paper containing argentic nitrate. From FlUckiger in 1889 (Archiv d. Phann., 227, 1) came the suggestion of using mercuric chloride.

» L'Orosi, 13, 397 (1890).

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22

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Thb Method.

The procedure does not vary greatly from that used in the determi- nation of arsenic as described by Sanger and Black^. Some details, therefore, of that methgd are necessarily repeated here.

Sensitized Mercuric Chloride Paper. A smooth filter paper of close texture, or a Whatman drawing paper of about 160 grams per square meter, is out into strips of a uniform width of 4 millimeters. The strips are sensitized by drawing them repeatedly through a five per cent solution of recrystallized mercuric chloride until thoroughly soaked. They are then dried on a horizontal rack of glass tubing, and,

Owhen dry, are at once cut into lengths of six to seven centimeters. The small pieces are kept in the dark until > needed, in a stoppered bottle over

calcic chloride. The Reduction Apparatus. (See Figure.) For rea- sons that will be explained later, the construction of this differs slightly firom that used in the arsenic method. It will be easily seen from the figure. The bottle is of 30 C.C. capacity, closed by a pure rubber stopper with two holes. The thistle tube, which is constricted at its lower end to an opening of about 2 mm., passes to the bottom of the bottle and has a length of 17 to 18 cm. In the second hole of the stopper is inserted a straight- walled funnel tube of 17 to 20 mm. bore, carrying a pure rubber stopper, through which passes a right angle depo- sition tube, 9 to 10 cm. in length, the inner diameter of which should be as near 4 mm.as possible, but not less. Beagents, These are exactly the same as in the arsenic method, and are entirely firee from antimony. The zinc. Bertha spelter, is from the New Jersey Zinc Company of New York, and has been proved by re- peated tests to be free from arsenic. The hydrochloric acid, from the Ba- ker and Adamson Company of Easton, Pennsylvania, contains not over 0.02 milligram of arsenious oxide per liter. The quantity of diluted acid (one part to six of water) used in the analysis would not contain over 0.00004 milligram of arsenious oxide, an amount beyond the ab- solute delicacy of the method as applied to arsenic and hence of no influence in the determination of antimony.

Moisture Conditions in the Deposition Tube. As in the arsenic method, the moisture of the evolv^ hydrogen has an important bearing on the uniformity of the color bands. While excess of moisture must

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8ANGEB AND RIEGEL. — DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. 23

be avoided in the arsenic method by a cotton wool filter, it is necessary to have a much greater degree of sataration in order to obtain compact and uniform deposits on the strips from stibine. If the hydrogen is partially dried by cotton wool before impinging upon the sensitized paper, the bands are long, irregular and not comparabla By increasing the saturation and by maJking it as uniform as possible we have suc- ceeded in determining the conditions under which the bands are shorty regular, and perfectly comparable.

To effect this and at the same time to hold back any hydrogen sul- phide which might be formed in the reduction, we use disks of lead acetate paper inserted in the straight-walled funnel tube and moistened with a definite amount of water. These disks are of filter paper of medium thickness, cut in quantity by means of a wad cutter or cork borer so as to fit loosely the bore of the funnel tube. They are saturated with normal lead acetate, dried, and kept in a well stoppered bottle.

Procedure. The deposition tube and funnel tube of the apparatus are cleaned and thoroughly dried. A lead acetate disk is then inserted in the funnel tube and moistened with one drop of water, delivered on the centre of the disk, so that the water spreads evenly to the circum- ferenca Three grams of uniformly granulated zinc are placed in the bottle, a strip of sensitized paper is slipped wholly within the deposi- tion tube to a definite distance, and the apparatus is put together. Five or ten cubic centimeters of diluted acid (1 to 6 ; normality, about 1.5) are then added through the thistle tube and allowed to act for about ten minutes. The acid is then poured off and fifteen cubic centimeters of fresh acid added. This procedure ensures a uniform degree of moisture saturation in the deposition tube, and the absence of arsenic in the reagents and apparatus is assured. The zinc is also rendered more sensitive, and a regular flow of hydrogen is quickly ob- tained on the second addition of acid.

In five minutes after this addition, the solution to be tested is intro- duced, either wholly or in aliquot part, which may be determined by weighing or measuring. In case it were necessary firom the nature of the analysis to prove the absolute freedom of the apparatus and reagents from arsenic and antimony before adding the solution, the evolution of hydrogen would be continued for a longer time and the strip developed. The absence of contamination being thus assured, a fresh strip would be substituted before adding the solution to be tested. In ordinary work, however, this precaution is quite unnecessary.

After the solution is introduced, the reduction is continued for 30 to 40 minutes. No effect on the sensitized paper is observed unless the amount of antimony added is above 70 mmg., when a slight gray

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24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

color may appear. Larger amounts would turn the paper still darker. If any color appears, it is an indication that the amount will be difficult to estimate, and hence another trial should be made with a smaller portion of the solution, or from less of the original substance.

The strip is now placed in a test tube and covered with normal ammonic hydroxide, which is allowed to act for five minutes. A black band is slowly developed, somewhat duller and considerably shorter than would be obtained from the same amount of arsenic, the latter diflference being chiefly due to the moisture conditions in the deposi- tion tube. The band is then compared with a set of standard bands. The amount of antimony in the entire solution follows from that deter- mined in the aliquot pait

Standard Bands, A standard solution is made from pure, recrys- tallized tartar emetic, shown to be free from arsenic. 2.3060 grams are dissolved in water and made up to one liter. This solution (I) contains 1.0 mg. of antimonious oxide per cubic centimeter. From this, by dilution, are made two solutions containing respectively 0.01 mg. (II) and 0.001 mg. (Ill) per cubic centimeter. From definite por- tions of solutions II or III a series of bands is made by the above procedure, using a flresh charge of zinc and acid for each portion. The lower half of the Plate shows the actua} size and shading of the set of bands, corresponding to the following amounts of antimonious oxide in micromilligrams : 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70.

These bands have shown a fair degree of permanency, but &ule slowly on exposure to moisturp and light. They may be sealed in glass tubes with quicklime, if desired, as in the case of the corresponding ammonia- developed arsenic bands, but we have found it sufficient to mount them on a dry glass plate, which is covered by a dry plate of the same size. The two plates are then cemented together and bound with passepar- tout paper. The set thus mounted, if kept in a desiccator away from the light, will last for some time. In case a fresh set of standards is not available, a band may be approximately estimated from the accom- panying. Plate ; the more accurate determination being made, if neces- sary, by comparison with freshly prepared bands from selected amounts.

Analytical Notes.

General Precautions. As in the arsenic method, the solution to be reduced should contain no interfering organic matter, except that any oxide of antimony obtained in the preparation for analysis may be eventually dissolved in tartaric acid. Sulphur in any form reducible to hydrogen sulphide should be removed as completely as possible, but

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SANGER AND RIEGEL. — DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. 25

small qnantities of hydrogen sulphide will be completely retained by the lead acetate disk. There is little danger from phosphine, for phos- phites and h3rpophosphites would be oxidized in any treatment of the substance to be analyzed which would convert the antimony to the oxide. Traces of phosphine would be readily recognized in presence of antimony*, but are likely to interfere with its estimation. It is obvi- ous that there must be a very thorough separation from arsenic.

The Evolution qf Stibine in the Reduction Bottle, Sanger and Gib- son^ have shown that amounts of antimony under one milligram are practically all converted to hydride in the presence of zinc and hydro- chloric acid, hence a retention of antimony by precipitation upon the zinc is not to be considered in the estimation of the small amounts pro- vided for by this method.

Special Precautions. In order to be certain of uniformity in length and density of bands from the same concentration of solution, the fol- lowing points must be observed :

1. The reduction bottles must be of equal capacity, and other parts of the apparatus of equal dimensions.

2. The amount of zinc must always be the same, similarly sensitized, and the granulation must be uniform.

3. The volume and concentration of the acid must be definite.

4. The moisture conditions in the deposition tube must be carefully regulated, as explained above.

In the " Analjrtical Notes " of the article by Sanger and Black^, many suggestions will be found which will contribute to a clearer un- derstanding of this method as well, but which are not included here for the sake of brevity.

Analytical Data.

The method, as &r as it concerns the determination of antimony in a solution properly prepared for reduction, was tested by the analysis of solutions containing varjring amounts of antimony, which were un- known to the analyst See Table, p. 26.

We do not claim for the method a greater accuracy than within ten per cent

The Delicacy of the Method.

Amounts of antimony as small as five micromilligrams are readily recognized by use of the 4 mm. strip. Less than this quantity may be

* See Table II, Sanger and Black*.

» These Proceedings, 42, 719 (1907) ; Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 26, 585 (1907) ; Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem., 66, 205 (1907).

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26

PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

TABLE.

No. of Analysis.	SbjO, tak- en. Tar- tar Emetic Solution.	Total Weight Diluted Solution.	Wt. Diluted Solution taken for Analysis.	Reading of BancT	Fountl.	Found. Mean.	Per Cent Found.
4	mg. 0.06	gm. 25.15	gm. 4.67 8.62 10.63	mmg. 8 15 25	mg. 0.043 0.044 0.059	mg. 0.049	82
2	0.12	25.92	4.31 2.61 7.11	20 10 35	0.120 0.099 0.128	0.116	97
6	0.20	23.04	2.59 1.72 4.23	25 17 40	0.222 0.228 0.218	0.223	112
2, a	0.25	26.07	5.18 3.43 1.05	45 35 10	0.227 0.266 0.248	0.247	99
9	0.60	21.63	0.79 0.97 1.09	22 26 32	0.602 0.580 0.635	0.606	101
8	1.20	23.74	0.81 0.84	35 35	1.03 0.99	1.01	84
8, a	1.50	24.30	0.46 0.61 0.59	30 40 40	1.58 1.59 1.65	1.61	107
7	1.60	21.32	0.39 0.27 0.53	35 20 45	1.91 1.58 1.81	1.77	111
4, a	2.50	27.76	0.44 0.44 0.44	45 40 45	2.84 2.52 2.84	2.73	109
3, a	3.00	29.99	0.56 0.56 0.54	50 60 60	2.68 3.21 3.33	3.07	102
		Average	Percentage				100

indicated, but the estimation is difficult. By using smaller strips, how- ever, a more accurate reading of the band may be obtained and the delicacy of the method increased. These small strips, as in the arsenic method, are made by cutting the large strip in two and again dividing

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SANQEB AND RIEGEL. — DETERMINATION OF ANTIMONY. 27

these pieces lengthwise, giving a piece 2 mm. wide and 35 mm. long. This is inserted in a tabe of 2 mm. diameter, affixed to the usual depo- sition tube by a rubber connector. A series of standards is then made of any amounts of the smaller quantities of which it may be desirable to get an approximate estimate. The upper part of the Plate shows the bands obtained from amounts of antimony equivalent to 0.5, 0.8, 1.0, 2.0, 5.0, and 10.0 nmig. of antimonious oxide.

The bands obtained from 0.5 and 0.8 nmig. are perfectly distinct, but not always differentiated with clearness. From amounts below 0.5 mmg. we have not been able to obtain any indication on the 2 mm. strip. It is safe, therefore, to set the practical limit of the delicacy of the method at 1 mmg. (0.001 mg.) of antimonious oxide (0.0008 mg. of antimony). The absolute delicacy, however, is very nearly half of this amount^ — 0.0005 mg. of antimonious oxide, which is equivalent to 0.0004 mg., or one twenty-five-hundredth of a milligram of an- timony.

Sanger and Gibson^ were able to detect and identify by the Berzelius- Marsh method 0.005 mg. of antimonious oxide, but the deposit in the tube from 0.001 mg. was fkiat It will thus be seen that the " band " method is much more delicate than the *' mirror " method. It is also more convenient and accurate, for the bands are subject to no irregu- larity of formation comparable to the difficulty of obtaining a mirror of metallic antimony entirely free from oxida The mirror method, how- ever, is still of value as a confirmation of the other and a check upon its results. The two methods can be applied, if desired, to different portions of the solution which has been prepared for analysis.

The application of the method to the analysis of products containing antimony is under consideration in this laboratory, but we have con- tented ourselves for the present with showing that very small amounts of antimony may be estimated by it in a solution properly prepared for analysis. A study of its application should include the separation of small amounts of arsenic or antimony from relatively large amounts of the other, concerning which we have now no reliable information.

Harvard UNiVERsnT, CAMBRmoE, Mass., U. S. A., August, 1909.

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Prooeedings of fhe Ammioan Academy of Arte and Sdenoet. Vol. XLV. No. 3. — November, 1909.

THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES IN THE STEADY STATE.

By a. E. Kennelly.

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THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES IN THE STEADY STATE.

By a. E. Kennellt. PraMntad October 2, 1909; Received October 4, 1909.

Definitions and Purposb.

A composite line may be defined as an electrically conducting line formed of two or more successive sections, each section having its own length and its own particular uniformly distributed resistance, induc- tance, capacitance, and leakanca Each such section, considered sepa- rately, may be described as a single line, A composite line is, therefore, a successive connection of single lines which differ in linear constants.

It has been shown by the writer in a preceding paper ^ that any uniform single line, operated in the steady state, either by single- frequency alternating currents or by continuous currents, may be externally imitated by a symmetrical triple conductor. The triple conductor which can be substituted for a single line in a steady sys- tem of electric flow without disturbing the potentials, or currents, at or outside of the line terminals, may be defined as an equivalent circuit of the line. A star-connected equivalent circuit, with two equal line branches and a single leak, may be called an equivalent T ; while a delta-connected equivalent circuit with two equal leaks, and a single line-resistance or impedance between them, may be called an equiva- lent n . It is the object of this paper to extend the laws of equivalent circuits firom single lines to composite lines, with or without loads, and also to present formulas for the distribution of current and potential over such composite lines.

Important Practical Application qf the Problem,

An important application of this problem is found in telephony. With given sending and receiving apparatus, the commercial opera- tiveness of a telephonic metallic circuit apparently depends only on the strength of alternating current, at a certain standard frequency, in

> "Artificial Lines for Coixtinuous Currents in the Steady State." See appended Bibliography.

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32 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

the receiver. That is, it depends on the "receiving-end impedance" of the circuit, or the ratio of the impressed standajrd-frequency alter- nating emf. at the sending end, to the current-strength at the receiving end. If this receiving-end impedance of the circuit, including the im- pedance of the receiving apparatus, is not greater than 25,000 ohms (12,500 ohms per wire), at the angular velocity « = 5000 radians per second, commercial telephony will readily be possible with the standard Bell telephone apparatus used in the CFnit^ States ; unless the dis- tortion of the speech-waves, due to unequal attenuation at different frequencies, is unusually great. If the circuit receiving-end impedance exceeds 200,000 ohms (100,000 ohms per wire) at <i> = 5000 radians per second, even expert telephonists will ordinarily be unable to converse with this apparatus over the line.

It is easy, with the aid of formulas given in the above-mentioned preceding paper, to find the equivalent fl of a simple single telephone line of given length, uniform linear constants, and assigned terminal conditions. But for most practical purposes this is not enough. Most long telephone lines in practical service are not single, but composite. Consider the case of a subscriber A, in Boston, talking to a subscriber B, in New York. First there is the terminal apparatus at A ; then, say, a few kilometers of underground line in Boston. Next comes the long-distance overhead line firom Boston to New York, perhaps con- sisting of more than one section and size of wire. Then come one or more sections of underground wire in New York, before we end the circuit in B's apparatus. At two or three intermediate exchanges in this circuit there may also be casual loads, formed by supervisory re- lays, or other instruments. The critical receiving-end impedance must not be exceeded in this compositer circuity if the talking is to be of sat- is&ctory quality. Actual trial of the line by conversation will deter- mine, with a &ir degree of precision, whether the limiting permissible receiving-end impedance has been exceeded by the line. But the de- signing telephone engineer seeks to know, in advance, whether a certain projected composite line will, when constructed, fall within the per- missible limit of receiving-end impedance. If working formulas can be developed, that are not too lengthy and complicated, for determining the receiving-end impedance of composite lines, they may help the designing engineer to decide questions of line construction.

In this paper the discussion will be principaUy confined to direct- current composite lines. The formulas thus derived are all easily presented, grasped, and checked by Ohm's law, since they involve only real numerical quantities. In the direct-current case the hyper- bolic quantities used are all functions of simple real numerics, for which

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIKCUTTS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 33

published tables are available. Identically the same formulas are, how- ever, applicable to siugle-frequency alternating-current cases, by ex- panding their interpretation from real to complex numbers ; or fit)m one space-dimension into two, using impedances for resistances and plane-vectors for potentials and currents. Unfortunately, however, we have no tables of hyperbolic sines, cosines, and tangents available, as yet, for complex arguments except for the particular case of semi- iinaginaries,^ or plane-vectors of 45** ; so that in working out the alter- nating-current cases, as, for example, in telephony, the engineer is de- layed by having to assume the duties of a computer, and to work out his own hyperbolic sines, cosines, and tangents. However, even thus handicapped, it is claimed that the formulas here presented will not be too lengthy for the engineer to use in important cases. If hyper- bolic tables of complex arguments were worked out and published, the formulas could, with their help, be applied almost as quickly and con- veniently to alternating-current cases as they can be applied at present

^»La

-•B

FiGUBE 1. Uniform line with distributed resistance and leakance.

to direct-current cases. If, however, attempts are made to obtain alternating-current results of like precision without the use of hyper- bolic functions, there seems to be no hope of helping the engineer. Only specially trained mathematicians could handle the long and com- plex resulting formulas.

Preliminary Review op Single-Linb Formulas.

In order to pass to composite lines, we may first briefly review the laws of equivalent circuits for single lines. The fundamental formulas will be given for direct-current (D. C.) and for alternating-current (A. G.) circuits, in parallel columns.

Let AB, Figure 1, be a uniform single line operated to ground, or zero-potential, return circuit. L = the length of the line in kilometers (or miles).

* See Table appended to *' The Alternating-Current Theory of Transmission- Speed over Submarine Cables/' referred to in the Bibliography. VOL. xlv. — 3

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34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

r = the linear resistance of the line (ohms per wire km.). g = the linear leakance of the line (mhos per wire km.). / = the linear inductance of the line (henry s per wire km.). c = the linear capacitance of the line (farads per wire km.). n = the frequency of the impressed emf at A (cycles per second). CD = 2 TT n, tiie angular velocity of the impressed emf at A (radians per second).

The attenuation constant of the line is

D.C. a=V^ ^; A.C. a=V(r+i&o)07+ica,)^'Z.

(1) In the D. G. case a is a real numerical quantity which we may, for conven- ience of subsequent operation, define as a " linear hyperbolic angle/' or " hyperbolic angle " per km. of length. Although it is a simple numeric per unit length of line, yet, since it forms the basis of argument in hyper- bolic tables, we may call it a " hyperbolic angle " per unit length of line, and denote a hyperbolic unit angle as a ** hyp." In the A. C. case d is a plane- vector "hyperbolic angle," or complex quantity, per unit length of line. The hyperbolic angle subtended by the line AB is

D. C. 6 = La hyps; A. C. 0 = La hypsZ. (2)

^ is a real numeric for the D. C. case, and a plane- vector, or numeric at a definite angle in the reference plane, for the A. C. case. The surge- resistance, or surge-impedance, of the line is

D. C. ;? = i/- ohms ; A. C. ;^ = a/L±J^ ohms Z. (3)

The surge-impedance of an A. C. line is the impedance that the line offers at any point of its length to the propagation of waves of the fre- quency considered. It is a vector resistance, or impedance, often closely approximating numerically to a^I/c, The surge-admittance of a line is the reciprocal of its surge-impedance.

In wave-propagation theory, and also in the steady-state theory here considered, 0 and z^ the h3rperbolic angle and surge-impedance of a line, are its ftindamental characteristics ; while r, ^, /, and c are its sec- ondary or incidental characteristics.

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 35

Single Line Freed at Distant End.

If the line AB is freed at B, its resistance at A, measared to ground, is

R^^ = z coth Q ohms. (4)

In the D. C. case the hyperbolic angle ^ is a simple real quantity, z is a simple numerical resistance, and coth 0 is the h3rperbolic cotangent of ^, a real numeric, obtainable from tables of hyperbolic functions. Consequently, Rf^ is a simple resistance in ohms. In the A. C. case, however, 2; is an impedance, or vector resistance, 0 is also a vector quan- tity, and the hyperbolic cotangent of this vector is not ordinarily ob- tainable from any tables thus fiu* published. It must be computed, say, with the aid of formula (142). The product of z and this cotangent is, therefore, a vector resistance, or impedance, R/a- Similarly, all the remaining formulas of this paper may be regarded as applying either to D. G. or to A. G. cases ; but the D. G. reasoning will be followed, for simplicity of numerical check.

At any point P (Figure 1) along the line, distant X km. from B, its hyperbolic angular distance from B will be

8 = fa hyps. (5)

The potential at P is

tt, = fi^cosh8 volts, (6)

where u^ is the potential at the &r free end B, defined by the condition

tt^ = fi^/coshtf volts; (7)

whence

The curve of potential, or voltage to ground, plotted as ordinates along the line AB is, therefore, a curve of h3rp. cosines, or a cate- nary. In the A. G. case the curve of vector lengths, or numerical values, of potential, plotted as ordinates along AB, is a sinusoid superposed upon a catenary.

The current-strength at the point P is

. sinhS ,^.

*' = '^55h^ amperes, (9)

where i^ is the current entering the line at A. The curve of current- strength plotted as ordinates along AB is, therefore, in the D. G. case, a curve of hyp. sines, or curve of catenary-slope.

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36

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The resistance of the line, at and beyond the point P, measured to ground is

Mfp = zoothS ohms, (10)

or

cothS

Mfp = Hi

'^^ QOthO

ohms. (11)

Single Line Grounded at Distant End.

If the line, instead of being freed at B (Figure 1), is grounded at B, its resistance at A is

Bg^ = z tanh $ ohms. (12)

At any point P, angularly distant S hyps from B, the line resistance beyond P, measured to ground, is

Bgp = z tanh <

or

Bgp = jRft

tanhS

'^ tanh^

The potential at P, in terms of the potential w^ at A, is

sinhS

Up = Uj,

sinh^

ohms, (13) ohms, (14)

volts. (15)

The current-strength at P, in terms of the current-strength i^ enter- ing the line at A, is

cosh 5

tp — tj,

cosh^

amperes. (16)

For example, consider a line, AB, Figure 1, of Z == 100 km., with a linear resistance r of 20 ohms per wire-km., and a linear leakance g of 20 X 10"* mho per wire km. (20 micromhos per km.), corresponding to a linear insulation-resistance of 50,000 km-ohms. The attenuation- constant of this line is a = 2 X 10"^ hyp. per km. by (1), and the hjrperbolic angle subtended by the line is ^ = 2 hyps, by (2). The surge-resistance of the line \n z— 1000 ohms by (3). Then the re- .sistance ofifered by the line at A, when freed at B, is, by (4),

Bf^ = 1000 coth 2 = 1000 X 1.037315 = 1,037.315 ohms, and when grounded at B, by (12),

Bgj^ - 1000 tanh 2 = 1000 X 0.964026 = 964.026 ohms.

/Google

KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 37

EQinvALKNT Cmcurrs op Single Link.

The eqaiyalent T of this lino is a star-connectioa of three resist- ances AO, GO, BO (Figure 2), two of which — the line-branches AO, OB, — are eqoal ; while OG is a leak-

age-resistance to ground. This equivalent T, when correctly pro- portioned, has the property of ^* being able to replace the uni- formly leaky line AB, without disturbing in any manner the system of potentials and currents outside the terminals ABG. Let ^ = \IB! be the conductance of the leak OG'; then

/ = y sinh Q mhos, (17)

where y = \lz mhos, the recipro- cal of the surge-resistance. We Figxtbs 2. may call y the surge-conductance (A. C. surge-admittance). Let p' be the resistance of each line-branch AO, OB ; then

J-3J3xr!.	W)3xW-».
	^ '■
o^	v>
5	J3
X	o
s	«^
B^	««
n	w
*A

•B

G

Equivalent T of imif orm line.

= z tanh ft = «

% m	yo\36Z6'86'^		A T3
	;^ E-75JE05x)0-*«	^
	tt' y	tt	■»
		s^	*«d^
0\	C*	2^	u>
5;	iZ	^	•
X o 1 9	• t	X 9	t

Figure 3.

and

Equivalent n of imifonn line.

cothtf-^ = ^/-^ mhos. (18)

Thus, for the line above con- sidered, / = 0.001 X sinh 2 = 0.001 X 3.62686 = 3.62686 X 10-* mho ; while B' = 1// = 275.7205 ohms. p'=1000coth2 — 275.7205 = 761.594 ohms.

The equivalent n of the line is a delta-connection of three resistances AB, AG", BG" (Figure 3), the two " pillars " or leaks AG", BG", being equal conductances of g" mhos each, and the "architrave " AB being the line-resistance p".

p" = z sinh 0 ohms (19)

$

/' = 1/^' = y tanh - n mhos

= ycoth^-y" = (y^-y' mhos, (20)

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38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

where y" = \lg" is the acchitrave conductance, and Gg = \IBg is the conductance to groand of the line at one end, when grounded at the other end.

Thus, for the line considered, p" = 1000 sinh 2 = 3626.86 ohms, and /' = 0.001 coth 2 - 2.757204 X 10"* = 7.6159 X 10"* mho.

Single Line Corresponding to a Symmetrical t or n.

Reciprocally, any star connection of three resistances AO, GO, BO (Figure 2), having two equal line-branches AO and OB of p ohms, with a leak to ground oi R = 1// ohms, corresponds to some smooth uniform line of angle,

d = 2 sinh-^ j/-^ hyps, (21)

and of surge-resistance,

z = Vp' (p + 2ie) ohms. (22)

Likewise, any delta-connection ABG"G" (Figure 3) with two equal grounded leaks of resistance R* = \/^' ohms, connected by an archi- trave of p'' ohms, corresponds to a smooth uniform line of angle,

tf = 2 tanh-^ \^2R'"x p" ^^' ^^^^

and of surge-resistance,

z = R' tanh - ohms. (24)

Equivalent Circuits op Single Line in Terms op Resistances of Line Free and Grounded.

If the line be first freed and then grounded at one end, say B (Figure 1), and the resistance of the line be measured correctly at the other end in each case {R/ and Rg respectively), we have for the equivalent T of the line,

p' ^Rf(l- \/ \^?l\ ohms, (25)

R = Rf\/ l-^ ohms. (26)

Rf

Similarly, we have for the equivalent n of the line,

p" = Rgl\/ 1 - ^Ii ohms, (27)

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KENNELLY, — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 39

From which

Ilf' = B^fl + ^l-^\ ohms. (28)

^' ^^' ^Rj. ohms. (29)

rig = B:'p' = iTp" = RfR^ = ^ (ohms)^ (30)

tf = Za = tanh- V§ liyps- (31)

The last two formulas serve to evaluate z and 0 for any single line, when the sending-end impedances of that line {R/ and R^ have been correctly measured.

Looped or Metallic-Return Single Circuits.

If we consider single metallic circuits, like those of wire-telephony, or of single-phase power- transmission.

Let r„ = the linear resistance (ohms per loop km.).

^„ = the linear leakance (mhos per loop km.). /„ = the linear inductance (henrys per loop km.). c„ = the linear capacitance (farads per loop km.).

Then

r„ = 2 r	ohms per km. "\|
g^^ = 5^/2	mhos per km.
/„ = 21	henrys per km.
c„ = c/2	farads per km. ^

(32)

where r, g, l, and c are the corresponding linear constants per wire km. Substituting in equations (1), (2), and (3), we have

a„ = a hypa per loop km., (33)

0„ = 0 hyps, (34)

and z„ = 2z ohms. (35)

That is, the attenuation-constant^ and the angle subtended by the looped line> are respectively identical with the attentuation-constant and angle subtended by one wire only operated to zero potential. The surge-impedance of the metallic circuit is double the surge-impedance of one wire to ground, or zero potential. The voltage impressed upon the loop is, however, double the voltage impressed on each wire singly

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40

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

worked to zero-potential plane, so that the current-strength in the circuit is the same with either method of computation. The above conditions are illustrated in Figure 4, where ABB'A repre-

-3 . -2^— «.

K B

12. '-; Z^M

1' B'

tm•ny^si^n'.ls'

A 2iO»JfPfr^ir 2W'f*T^*r>r Jt

mfxwofrr 240>74f Br^

A tW^T^ranr Z^iT^isui^B'

Figure 4.

Equivalent circuits of lines with ground return and metallic return.

sents a simple metallic-return telephone circuit with a transmitter induction coil of impedance Zs at A, and a receiver of impedance Zr at B. One half of this circuit, with only one wire and ground return, is indicated at AB on the right hand. The length of the circuit has been taken as X = 50 km. (31.068 statute miles), and the following linear constants have been assumed:

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT aRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 41

r„ = 55.92 ohms per loop km. (90 ohms per loop-mile) ; ^„ = 0 /„ = 0.70 X 10"* henry per loop km. (1.126 millihenry per loop-mile) c„ = 0.049,7 X 10^ farad per loop km. (0.08 X lO"* &rad per loop-mile): Yalues which correspond to

r = 27.96 ohms per wire km.

/ = 0.35 X 10"^ henry per wire km.

c = 0.099,4 X 10-^ &rad per wire km.

Sahstituting the above values in (1), (2), and (3), we obtain at cu = 5,000 radians per second :

a„ = a = 0.117,976,6 /46° 47' 26'" hyps per loop km., or per wire* km.

e„=0=^ 5.898,83 /46° 47' 26'^ hyps for both the double line and the

single line. «„ = 474.755 \43" 12' 34" ohms for the loop circuit z = 237.377,5 \43° 12^ 34" ohms for the single Una

The equivalent n and T of one wire are indicated at AB6G' and A0B6 in Figure 4. The architrave impedance AB is 6,736.96/156" 51' 15" ohms, which is also the receiving-end impedance of each line, exclud- ing the receiving instrument Zr ; because, if we ground the line at B, the current which wiU flow to ground at B will be the impressed poten- tial at A divided by this architrave impedance.

The equivalent circuits of the loop line are indicated at ABB" A" and AOBB'O'A' (Figure 4). The former is a rectangle of impedances, and the latter an I of impedances. It will be seen that the rec- tangle ABB" A" is merely a doublet of the single line n, ABG'6; while the I, AOBB'O'A' is merely a doublet of the single line T, AOBG. The receiving-end-impedance of the loop-circuit is evidently 2 X 6,736.96/156" 51' 15" = 13,473.92/156" 51' 15" ohms, excluding the receiving instrument Zr-

Since, then, the equivalent circuits of metallic-circuit or loop-lines are mere doublets of those for their component single wires, and the latter are easier to think about and discuss, we will confine our atten- tion to the latter.

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;|og

GdoQle

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

COMPOSITE LINES.

First Case. Sections of the same Attenuation-Constant and of the same Surge- Impedance.

If a line AB (Figure 5) of 2^ km. is connected to a line CD of Z2 km., and each has the same attenuation constant a, and the same surge- resistance z ohms (conditions which imply the same linear constants), the line angles will be ^1 = Lia and B^ = -£«« hyps respectively. Then, if we free the composite line at D, the resistance at A is

7?/ = « coth (^1 H- e^ ohms, (36)

while, if the composite line be grounded at D, the resistance at A is

Rg — z tanh (^1 + 0^ ohms. (37)

ft b;c ft.

Figure 5. Composite line with sections-of the same attenuation- constant and surge-resistance.

Reciprocally, freeing and grounding the composite line at A, we get resistances Ry^ and Rg at D, respectively the same as in (3G) and (37). It is evident^ then, that the composite line differs in no way, except in length, from either of the component sections. The angle subtended by the whole line KD is the sum of the component section line-angles.

Second Case. Sections qf different Attenuation-Constant but of the same Surge- Impedance,

If a section CD (Figure 5) of Z, km. be connected to a section AB of Zi km., and their respective linear constants rs, ^s, and n, gi are such that their attenuation constants ai, oj differ ; while their surge-resist- ances z are the saiue, we a.-^sigu the angles subtended by the sections 61 = Liai and 6^ = L^a^ hyps. The angle subtended by the whole line will then be ^1 + ^a, as in the preceding case. That is, except for a disproportionality between the section-angles and their line- lengths, two sections of different attenuation-constant, but of the same surge-resistance, connect together like two sections of one and

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 43

the same type of line. This is for the reason that in the unsteady state, or period of current building prior to the formation of the steady state here discussed, there is neither wave reflection nor discontinuity of wave propagation at the junction BC, when the surge resistance or impedance z is the same on each side thereof.

In order, however, to simplify the transition to complex cases later on, we may pause to consider the following case of two sections, with different a but the same z.

ii = 100 km., fx = 20 ohmsAm., ^i = 2 X 10"* mhoAm. ij = 100 km., rj = 10 ohmsAm., g% = 10~* mhoAm.

Whence ai = 0.02 hypAm., z^ = 1000 ohms ;

a, = 0.01 hypAm., z^ = 1000 ohms.

Merger Equivalent Circuits qf Composite Lines.

Figure 6 shows the two lines at AB and CD respectively. It also shows the fl and T equivalent circuits of AB at A"B"G"G" and A'OFG', likewise of CD at C'D^'G^G" and C'OD'G'. If we connect the sections together at BC, into a composite line AD, we virtually connect together some one pair of the combinations of equivalent cir- cuits Hj^DcD, Tab^cdj ^AB^cDi '^ AB ^ CD- Thc first two combinations are shown at ABCDGGG and A'OBCOIXG'G'. If we merge together the two elements of any such pair by known formulas,^ we arrive either at the equivalent n, ADGG; or the equivalent T, AODG, of the com- posite line.

The equivadent PI or T of a composite line, computed by the merging of the ris or Ts of the component sections, may be called the " merger n " or "merger T" of the line, to distinguish them fix)m the n or T com- puted directly fix)m the composite lines by the formulas to be presented later. The latter may be called, for distinction, the " h3rperbolic n " or T. For a given degree of precision, it will be found much easier to compute the hyperbolic PI or T of a composite line than to compute the merger fl or T. In all the examples given in this paper the equiva- lent n and T of the various composite lines considered have both been derived hyperbolicallyi but have also been checked by the merging process.

• "The Equivalence of Triangles and Three-Pointed Stars in Conducting Networks," A. E. Kennelly, Electrical World and Engineer, Vol. 34, No. 12, Sept. 16, 1899, pp. 413-414.

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44

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

ft«2

-5

A»l

l^mtOOO"

\mi0OO*

or

G-

tiT^.ttft*

jMmwxio-^.

P' Q\t^t'»rC

or

f^

MMtvi

3*

^ •

Au

ft»2

^afOOO*

BO ^>*f

It* 1000*

A

J«X«-M> B

p fffJlCi"

p

MnzoAKn.

B'SOil$XlO-*m

1

c

2 g ft G

► G

s

St

t

nSfo

A'^i^xit^O «g»70^*^O^<2^w^|x>

jHOKifm

#^i7fttvirt.

G'

6'

A		rwi^T**		D
		MfttlU'XlO'^i
i	3		1	s o
:5 4	f 1		5	t
r
<!	t		G	1

ygy' 149*0 yo»i4»*

|.}OH«fO*'«

MOHXOi

it-

Figure 6. Composition of two sections with the same suige-resistanoe but with different attenuation-constants.

Equivalent D.

In order to oompnte hj^rbolically the equivalent n of the composite line AD (Figure 6) we proceed as follows:

Ground either end of the composite line AD, say the end D. Assign the junction-angle 0^ at BG. Then the angle subtended by the com- posite line at A will be 3^ = ^^ -f ^s hyps. The sending-end resistance of the composite line at A is, by (12) and (37),

BgA = zi tanh 8^ ohms (38)

= 1,000 tanh 3 = 995.055 ohms.

Ggjt = l/SgA = yi ooth 8^ mhos (39)

= 0.001 X coth 3 = 10.049,7 X 10"* mha

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KZNNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 45

Then the architraye resistance AD of the composite fl will be:

p" = zi sinh 8^ ohms (40)

= 1,000 sinh 3 = 10,017.87 ohms, j/' = l/p" = 0.998,212,5 X 10"* mho.

The conductance /'^ of the leak at A is, by (20),

g'\ = yi coth 8^ - y" mho (41)

= 9.051,49 X 10-* mho.

K we ground the composite line at A instead of at D, the angle sub- tended by the whole line at D will be Si, = ^i + ^i = 5^. The archi- traye resistance DA will be the same as that given in (40). The sending-end resistance Bgj, and conductance Ggj, will be identical with Bg^ and GgA respectively, by (38) and (39) ; so that the leak-conduct- tance </'i> at D will be identical with ^\ by (41). This completes Uie hypo-bolic Fl, ADGIG of the composite line.

Equivalent T.

To find the hjrperbolic equivalent T of the composite line AD (Figure 6), free the line at one end, say D. Then the angle subtended by the line at A will be, as before, 8^ = ^i + 6t hyps.

The sending-end resistance of the line at A will be, by (4),

B^^ = z ooth S^ ohms (42)

= 1,000 coth 3 = 1,004.97 ohms.

The conductance of the leak OG is, by (17),

/ = y sinh 8^ mhos (43)

' = 0.001 sinh 3 = 10.017,87 X lO"* mhoa

and its resistance is

^ = 1// = 99.821,25 ohms.

The resistance of the AO branch is, then, by (18),

P ^Bf^-lX ohms (44)

= 1,004.97 - 99.821 = 905.149 ohms.

Similarly, if we free the composite line at A, instead of at D, the angle subtended by the line at D will be 8j). As before, 82, = ^2 + ^i = K

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46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

hyps. The sending-end resistance offered by the Uoe at D will then be, by (4) and (42), identical with that foand previously at A. The condactance of the leak will, by (17) and (43), be the same as that found firom A. Finally, the resistance of the DO line-branch will, by (18) and (44), be identical with that of the AO branch (905.149-). This completes the T of the composite line.

"We may infer from the above reasoning, and it may be readily dem- onstrated formally, that when a composite line is composed of sections differing in linear constants, but having the same surge-impedance, the angle subtended by the whole line is the same at either end, and whether the distant end be freed or grounded. Consequently the equivalent n and T of the composite line will be symmetrical That is, the two leaks of the n are equal and the two line branches of the T are equal

CJonversely, it follows, fix)m equations (21) to (24), that any com- posite line made up of sections differing in attenuation constant, but with the same surge-impedance, may be replaced by an equivalent single line of uniform attenuation and linear constants.

Third and General Case. Sections with Different Surge- Impedances,

Let a section AB of 100 km. (Figure 7) be connected to a section CD of 300 km., and let their respective linear constants be as follows:

n = 20 ohms/km. ; ^i = 20 X 10^ mho/km. r, = 10 ohms/km. ; g^ = 2.5 X 10"* mhoAm. fix)m which

tti = 0.02 hyp/km. ; ^i = 2 hjrps ; Zi = 1,000 ohms ; o, = 0.005 hyp/km. ; B^ = 1.5 hyps ; Zt = 2,000 ohms,

so that the surge-resistance of the two sections are unequal It follows that the angle subtended by the composite line will differ at the two ends, and will also differ according to whether the distant end is fi^ed or grounded.

Equivalent 11.

Let us ground the end As of the composite line AsDs (Figure 7). Then by formula (12), the sending-end resistance at B of the section BA grounded, will be

-Bp* = «itanh^ ohms (45)

= 1,000 tanh 2.0 = 964.026,5 ohms.

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KlINNELLT. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OP COMPOSITE LINES. 47

The angle of the section AB, at its end B, is 3^ « 2 hyps. At the junction BC, however, the line-angle changes abruptly, owing to the change in sarge-iesistanoe, and at C, just across the junction it is

Sc = tanh-^ (^ tanh ^i^ = tanh"^ (^\ hypa (46)

J^^

Z| » f 000*

Bxmt-f

Z^mi900*

^^^

*^

^5

z»«iooo*

^•2000« i^ ^» ^.fOOO** 2^^2000*' '^

0^mt

2^ « 1000"

if I

siS I

B9 ^''-^ JR

SiatM*-

o:tr

I

^»g ap ft«>y

^./ooa**

Zj-Z^OO*

-IV.

D-

jjfwiJT'Ofifriir

lo-ioffxioM	MflflltlO'V
^^
M
a	:ii
	^
w	o*
><	M
O	?
1	«

o*

FiGUBE 7. Composition of two sections of different surge-resistances and different attenuation-constants.

That is, the hyp-tangent of the new angle is the ratio of the sending-end resistance at B to the surge-resistance of the new section CD. In this

8c= tanh-^ (^^ty^) = **^"' 0.964,026,5 ;

or, by tables of hyperbolic tangents, 8c "« 0.525,608 hyp. We mark tWs angle opposite to C on the line AjDi (Figure 7). The angle sub- tended at Ds by the composite line is, therefore,

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48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

5^ = ^, + Sc = 2.025,608 hyps.

The sending-end resistance of the grounded composite line is then, at Da, by (12), (37), (38), and (45),

RgD = *2 tanh 8 J, ohms (47)

= 2,000 tanh 2.025,608 = 1931.58 ohms,

and the sending-end conductance,

GffD = ^t coth 8p = l/BgD mhos (48)

= 0.000,517,71 mho.

The formula for finding the architrave resistance of the equivalent n of the line AD is

p' = Zi sinh Sx, • — ~TrY ohms (49)

cosh 2 0 = 2,000 sinh 2.025,608 X — . . r.^^^. ' * cosh 0.525,608

= 24,553.55 ohms and /' = 1 V = 0.407,273 X 10"* mho.

Formula (49) differs from the corresponding formula (40) of the pre- ceding case by the application of the ratio ' , ^^ or the ratio of the

cosines of the line-angles across the junction BC.

The formula for finding the conductance of the leak at D is, as before (20) and (41),

^'n = G,n - /' = l/B,n - /' mhoS (50)

= 4.769,785 X 10"^ mho.

In order to complete the equivalent D of the line AD hyperbolically, we must repeat the above process from the opposite end, by grounding the end Di, as shown at AiDi (Figure 7). The line angle at C is Sc = 1.5 hyps. Across the junction BC this angle changes suddenly to

S, = tanh-^(5^-^^) hyps (51)

= tanh-' 1.810,296.

This involves at first sight an impossible result ; but in all cases of a hyperbolic tangent greater than unity, we may resort to the following formulas:

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 49

sinh la^±j-]=^± jooshar^

oosh [a:±jj-\=± jsinh x \ J

tanh ( ^ ± i - ) = ooth x coth ( ^ ± i- j = tanha?

nameric. (52)

We thos obtain

and

3.-^2 = ^* A— i;—)

= coth-^ 1.810,296 = 0.621,818 hyp

8^ = 0.621,818 +i| hyp.

hyps (53)

This difficulty with seemingly impossible antitangents or antiootangents is not enooantered in the A. G. case.

We inscribe this valae of S^ opposite B on the line AD. The angle subtended by the whole line at A will then be

,ir

^1 + 8* = 8^ = 2.621,818 +ir hyps-

The sending-end resistance of the groonded composite line is then at Ai, by (12), (37), (38), and (47),

BgA = ^1 tanh 3^ ohms (54)

= 1,000 tanh (2.621,818 +i^ J

= 1,000 coth 2.621,618 = 1,010.64 ohms,

and the sending-end conductance, as in (48),

G^^ = yi00th8^

= yi coih { 2.621,818 + i^ j

= 0.001 tanh 2.621,818 = 9.894,966 X 10-* mho.

The architrave resistance, as in (49), is

VOL. XLV. — 4

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50 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

p" = zi sinhS^ • — r^ ohms (55)

= 1.000 eoBh 2.621.818. ^j^^|yA_ .

= 24,553.55 ohms and y" = 1/p" = 0.407,273 X 10-* mho.

The oondactanoe of the 11 leak at A is, as in (50),

= 9.487,693 X 10"* mha

Equivalent T.

To oompnte the equivalent T of the composite line AD (Fignre 7), free the line at one end, say Dg, and find the sending-end resistance at C in this condition. It is, by (4), (36), and (42),

=±= 2,000 coih 1.5 = 2,209.59 ohms.

The line-angle changes abruptly at the junction BG from 8c = 1.5 to S3 = 0.487,935 hyp, by the condition

&s = coth-^ (^^-^) = co^-^ (^) typs (56)

= coth-^ 2.209,59 = 0.487,935 hyp.

The line-angle at the end A, is thus ^1 4- 8^ = 2.487,935 hyps. The sending-end resistance at A« is finally, by (4),

B/A = zi coth 8^ ohms (57)

= 1,000 coth 2.487,935 = 1,013.897 ohma The conductance of the leak OG' is, by (43),

/ = yi sinh8^ • ^^ mhos (58)

= 0.001 X sinh 2.487,935 X f^^,!l^^^^ = 12.537,3 X lO"* mho.

COSn 0.48 7, 935

The resistance of the leak OG' is, therefore, ^ = 1// = 79.762 ohms. The resistance of the AO branch is then, by (18) and (44),

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KENNELLT. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUTTa OP COMPOSITE LINES. 51

p^^Bf^ — Bf ohms (59)

= 1,013.897 - 79.762 = 984.135 ohms.

In order to complete the eqaivalent T of the line AD, we must repeat the above process from the opposite end, by freeing the end A, as shown at A4D4 (Figure 7). The line-angle at B is S^ = 2.0. Across the janc- tion BG this angle changes suddenly to

Sc = ooth-("-i^') hyps (60)

= ooth-' (^1^) = ooA- 0.518,657,5.

In order to avoid an impossible operation, apply formula (52) Sc -i 5 = tanh-^ 0.518,657,5 = 0.574,50 hyp Sc = 0.574,5 +i| hype. The line-angle at the end D^ is thus O^ + ^c^^ 2.074,5 + j^ hyps. The sending-end resistance at D4 is finally, by (4) and (57), Rfj^ = zt coth 82, ohms (61)

= 2,000 coth ( 2.074,5 +i| ) = 2,000 tanh 2.074,5 = 1,937.873

^ ^ ohms.

The conductance of the leak 06' is^ therefore, by (43) and (58), ^ = y, sinh hj, ' — 1-~ mhos (62)

= 0.001 sinh ^2.074,5 +j^\

cosh 2.0

cosh

^0.574,5 +i^)

= 0.001 cosh 2.074,5 • .??^,f:^, = 12.537,3 X lO"* mho. ^ smh 0.574,5

The resistance of the leak 06' is, therefore, B' = 1// = 79.762 ohms. The resistance of the DO branch is then, by (18) and (59),

p' ^Bfn — B! ohms (63)

= 1,937.873 - 79.762 == 1,858.111 ohms.

This completes the T of the composite line.

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52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

It may be inferred from the preceding reasoning that for the case of a composite line of two sections with different surge-impedances, the receiving-end impedance of the line in the absence of r^eiving instru- ments, which is the architrave of the line-FI, has the same value from each end of the line. The leak of the composite line-T has also one and the same value, computed from either end. Both the fl and the T are, however, dissymmetrical. Each requires two separate computa- tions and line-angle distributions, one from each end.

Summary qf Two-Section Formulas.

If we expand formulas (40) and (49), we obtain for the architrave of the composite line fl

p" = zi sinh Ox cosh 6^ + z^ cosh Ox sinh B^ ohms (64)

= ^^-^ sinh {0, -f 6^) + ?^=-^ sinh (Ox - ^,) ohms * (65) = zx sinh Ox . . ^ ohms (line grounded at A) (66)

'c

sinh 3, cosh3j|

= Z2 sinh S/, — y-j- ohms (line grounded at A) (67)

= Zi sinh 62 . y^ ohms (line grounded at D) (68)

= Zx sinh 8^ — r-r- ohms (line grounded at D). (69)

Similarly, if we expand formulas (58) and (62), we obtain

/ = yi sinh Ox cosh O2 + y^ cosh Ox sinh 0^ mhos (70)

= ^^^-y^ sinh (Ox -f- ^,) -h ^-^^^ sinh (^1 - 0^) mhos (71)

= yx sinh Ox , .^ mhos (line freed at A) (72)

= y^ sinh hj, — ^ mhos (line freed at A) (73)

= yt sinh 0^ . .J^ mhos (line freed at D) (74)

= yx sinh 8^ — r-^^ mhos (line freed at D). (75)

* Formulas (64) and (65) were first published as receiving-end impedances of a two-section composite line by Dr. G. dl Pirro. See Bibliography.

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 53

Single Lines Equivalent to a Dissymmetrical n or T.

It is evident that formulas (21) to (24) apply only to a symmetrical n or T. Moreover, it may be seen that no single smooth and uniform line can correspond to a dissymmetrical D or T. This means that, in general, no single smooth and uniform line can be the counterpart of a composite line having sections of different surge-resistance. ' But if we reduce a di8S3rmmetrical fl to a symmetrical n and a terminal leak, we may apply equations (23) and (24) to transform the sjrmmetrical fl into an equivalent single line. It follows that any composite line may be resolved into one and only one uniform smooth line of the same length with a leak permanently applied to one end ; or to an infinitude of such single uniform smooth lines having a leak at each end.

Similarly, the T of a composite line may be reduced to a symmetrical T plus a line-impedance at one end. By the use of equations (21) and (22), we may substitute a single smooth uniform line for the symmetri- cal T. Consequently, any composite line may be resolved into one and only one uniform smooth line of the same length with a line-impedance at one end ; or, to an infinitude of such single uniform smooth lines having a line-impedance at each end.

CoBiPosiTB Line with Three Sections of Different Surge- Impedances.

A three-section composite line is indicated in Figure 8.

AB has a length Lx of 100 km. CD " " is of 300 km. EF " " ^ of 50 km.

The respective linear constants are

n = 20 ohms/km. ; r, = 10 ohms/km. ; rg = 25 ohms/km. ^1 = 20 X 10"* mho/km. ; g^ = 2.5 X lO"' mhoAm. ;

^» = 4 X 10~' mho/km. ai = 0.02 hyp/km. ; a, = 0.005 hyp/km. ; a. = 0.01 hyp/km. tfi = 2 hyps ; 6^ = 1.5 hyps ; Bt = 0.5 hyp. Zi = 1000 ohms ; z^ = 2000 ohms ; Zt = 2500 ohms.

Equivalent fl. First Method.

We proceed to compute the equivalent n of the composite line AF in the same manner as in connection with Figure 7. Ground the end Fl and develop the line-angles towards Ai. As before.

8„ = tanh-^ [^^ and 8^ = tanh"^ {j^\ hyps.

(76)

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64

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

M^m IPOO-

*B

\-«

•X

I?

1:5^

••2

AJ '-i^ Bjc »*» DJE&v ^1 ' »-« — Bic_jLi:iiiiiEva^

^* 2^« 1000*' ^. sooo* iH»Vr* ^» 4^.1000* ^.topo- 5.«m-**

?:5 ?;

44J47*

O*2260«4x;o~^*

O O G'

Figure 8. Composition of three sections of different surge-resistances.

The architraye resistance is then, following (49),

o" = z sinh 8 x ^^^^^ x ^^^^^ * "* cosh 8^ coshSi,

.^r.r. 1. « r^^ -« cosh 2.158,924 = 1000 cosh 2.567,48 X . ^ ^ .^j .^ X

ohms (77) cosh 0.5

sinh 0.567,48 cosh 0.658,923,6 = 44,247 ohms.

The sending-end resistance at A is, as in (47),

BgA = zi tanh 8^ ohms (78)

= 1,000 coth 2.567,48 == 1,011.84 ohms

The conductance of the n leak at A is, as in (50),

g'^ = 1/RgA - 1/p' mhos. (79)

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KENNIXLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OP COMPOSITE LINES. 65

In order to complete the n, we ground the line at As (Figure 8), and develop the line-angles towards F^. The architrave resistance is then

,t • u © v^ ^sh 8u cosh 8^ , . _ ^v

p = z^ sinh hw X — r-5- X — r-^ ohms (80)

'^ • coshS^ cosh 8c

= 44,247 ohms.

The sending-end resistance at F is

i?,,= 2r, tanh8, ohms (81)

= 2,500 tanh 1.526,83 = 2,274.71 ohms. Again,

/'^=: \IB,,- 1/p" mhos. (82)

Equivalents. Second Method.

An alternative method of arriving at the architrave resistance, which we may call the second method, is by following (66) and (68). Grounding at As, we have

and, grounding at Fi,

= 44,247 ohms.

Equivalent T. First Method.

"We proceed to compute the equivalent T of the composite line AF m the same manner as the T in Figure 7. Free the end Fs and develop the line-angles towards A«. As before,

8^ = coth-* f^\ and 8^ = coth"* C^^ hyps. (85)

The T leak conductance is then, following (58) and (75),

cosh 8^ cosh8x> cosh 1.888,071 cosh 0.5

^=«™'"-^-^. "^w

= 0.001 sinh 2.519,86

cosh 0.519,860 cosh 0.388,071 = 19.2016 X 10-* mho If = 52.079 ohms.

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56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The sending-end resistance at At, as before, is

Ji^^=,zi cothS^ ohms (87)

= 1,013.04 ohms.

The AO line branch is therefore Ru— R = 960.961 ohms.

Repeating the process from A4 towards F4, we have for the T leak condactance, as in (80),

The sending-end resistance at F is likewise

R/F — s^ coth h, ohms (89)

= 2.500 tanh 1.533,091 = 2,277.39 ohms, from which the resistance of the line branch FO followa

Equivalent T. Second Method.

The second method of arriving at the T-leak condactance is by fol- lowing (83) and (84). Freeing at A4, we have

, • 1 /» sinh S^ sinh 8^ , ,_ . .

^ = y' «"^<'' • iSETc • ^Skh. '^•^ <*^>

and filing at F„ after developing the line angles, we have

, ... sinh 8c sinh 8^ , .

^ = ^» ^^^' ' riih^ • sinhi; "^^ (^^>

Composite Line ofn Sections.

To compute the equivalent fl of a composite line of n saccessive sections, ground the line at the A end and develop the line-angles towards the opposite end, following the process of (76). Find the architrave impedance according to formula (80) or (83). This may be regarded as formula (19) modified by the application of (n — 1) ratios of cosines in (80), or of (n — 1) ratios of sines in (83). The opposite end leak admittance will then be the sending-end admittance minm the architrave admittanoa The process must be repeated afber ground- ing the line at the distant end and developing line-angles towards A.

To compute the equivalent T, free the line at the A end and develop the line-angles towarids the opposite end, following the process of (85).

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIBCOTTS OP COMPOSITE UNES. 57

Pmd the T-leak admittance by following formula (88) or (90). This may be r^arded as formula (17) modified by the application of n— 1 ratios of cosines in (88), or of n— 1 ratios of sines in (90) ; that is, one such ratio for each junction. The opposite-end line-branch impedance will then be the sending-end impedance minus the leak impedance. The process must be repeated after freeing the line at the distant end imd developing line-angles towards A.

One complete equivalent circuit, say the n, of a composite line of n sections calls then for the determination n— 1 line-angles first in one direction and then in the other. The formulas are well adapted to logarithmic computation. If, however, only the receiving-end impe- dance of the composite line is required, then we need only develop the line Ingles in one direction over the line so as to apply one of the architrave formulas, and neglect the pillars of the fl.

Loaded Gompositb Lines. Dejinittans,

Loads in a line may be either regular or casual Uvular loads are such as are applied at r^ular intervals, in order to improve the cur- rent delivery on telephone lines. Casual loads are of an irregular or incidental character, such as might occur at section-junctions or at the ends of a composite line. In the former case they would be inter- mediate casual loads, and in the latter case, terminal casual loads. Only easual loads will be here discussed ; because it is easy, with the aid of formulas already known, to substitute an equivalent smooth unloaded line for any uniformly loaded line.

Loads may also be divided into two classes; namely, (1) those applied in series with the line, or impedance loads, such as coils of impedance or resistance, and (2) those applied in derivation to the line, or leak loads.

Intebiiediate Impedance Load&

The case of an intermediate impedance load, of 100 ohms, inserted at the junction BG in the composite line last considered, is presented in Figure 9. The system differs firom that of Figure 8 only in the additioh of this load.

Equivalent fl. First Method.

To compute the equivalent n, A''F'GG (Figure 9), hyperbolically, ground the line at one end, say as at Fi, and develop the line-angles towards Ai. The only change in this process affected by the load is at the junction GB. The sending-end impedance at G is

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58

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Rgo = zt tanb 8(7 ohms (92)

= 2,000 tanh 2.158,924 = 1,947.385 ohms.

Consequently, if o- is the impedance of the load BG in ohms, the sending-end resistance at B is

I^gB = o- -^ Z2 tanh 8(7

= 100 + 1,947.385 = 2,047.385 ohms,

ohms (93)

K^t

^mW9tr

I *

i4 %i 4

Z, • lOOO*

f i

•#wft

i 3

^ I

•«■«

^«WM-

«l.«

II,

I.

?? ?

2 ?

1^ «

A-		f J 744- J*		jr*
	O'tlVKM'*.
r	*•		t	M

	!*		«	O
			w	4
5	9		X	".
••			•*

c	»		C	1.

Figure 9. Three-section composite line with an intermediate impedance load.

hyps (94)

and the new line-angle at B is

= tanh-(H^

Having established the angle of the whole line at Ai, the architrave impedance follows by formula (77) without further change. The A-leak is also obtained by formulas (78) and (79). In order to obtain the F-leak, and complete the n, the line is grounded at the other end as at As and the line-angles are developed towards Fs. At C, we have

047.385 000

)=0.

534 +i^ hyp.

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KENNEUT. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 69

Formulas (80), (81), and (82) then apply without change.

Equivalent n. Second Method,

The altematiye method for computing the arohitraye resistance of the line when grounded at At, and developed in angles, is

«'' — ^ «;,,k/j si^^D sinhSj. E,o i^„ /q^n

' =^'^°*^^^'^Shi;'s"Sh8-/:«r. ohms, (95)

and when grounded at Fi it is

That is, the effect of the load i^ to increase the architrave impedance in the ratio of the change of sending-end impedance across the load. In (95) this ratio is 1,064.026/964.026, and in (96) it is 2,047.385/ 1,947.385.

Equivalent T. First Method.

To compute the equivalent T of the loaded line in Figure 9, free the line at one end, as at Fg, and develop the line-angles towards As, as in (85). The only change effected by the load is in the angles at and beyond B. The sending-end impedance at C is

B^^ZtOothSo ohms (97)

= 2,000 coth 1.888,071 = 2,093.82 ohms.

The sending-end impedance at B is, therefore,

^/i = 0- + Zt coth So ohms (98)

= 100 + 2,093.82 = 2,193.82 ohms. (98)

The new line-angle at B is then

8, = coth-*r^) hyps (99)

= <^^"{^^) = 0-^92,025 hyp.

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60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The T-leak admittance is now

, . , 5, cosh Bo cosh 8, G/c i /- ^^v

^ = ^^«^^^^^-^^^/^^shy/^ mhos (100)

= 0.001 -sinh 2.492,025

cosh 1.888,071 cosh 0.5 2,193.82

cosh 0.492,025 cosh 0.388,071 2,093.82 = 19.815 X 10-» mho.

Formula (87) then applies without change.

Repeating the process from the opposite end of the line, as at A4F4, we have

, . , «, cosh Sj, cosh h^ Gf^ 1 / ^ V

= 19.815 X 10"* mho.

Formula (89) then applies without change.

The efifect of the load on the T-ieak admittance formulas (86) and (88) is to alter them in the ratio of the impedances or admittances across the load, applying the said ratio in such a manner as to increase the result in the direct-current case.

Equivalent T. Second Method,

Formulas (90) and (91) of the alternative method are not altered by an intermediate impedance load, after the line-angles have been prop- erly assigned.

Equivalence 0/ Alternating-Current Tran^ormers to Impedance Loads.

It may be observed that since the insertion of a transformer into a circuit, as, for example, the insertion of a " repeating-coil " into a tele- phone circuit, is theoretically equivalent to the insertion of impedance into the circuit without rupture of continuity, all cases of line trans- formers are capable of being dealt with by substituting for such trans- formers their equivalent intermediate impedance loads.^

Terminal Impedance Loads.

A terminal impedance load is likely to present itself in a composite line, owing to the presence of terminal apparatus. The architrave im- pedance of a composite line n, computed without any terminal load, can only represent the receiving-end impedance of the line when the

• "On the Predetermination of the Regulation of Alternating-Current Transformers," A. E. Kennelly, Electrical World and Engineer, Sept. 2, 1899, Vol. 34, p. 343.

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE UNES. 61

reoeiying apparatus is short-circaited. For example, in the case of Figure 4, if we short circuit the receiver Zr the receiving-end impe- dance of each line is 6,736.96/156" 5V 15" ohms. With the receiver Zr inserted, the receiving-end impedance is considerably changed, and this is the condition met with in practice. By applying half the im-

1 100-

^•2

;:5

■uw

F,

\« »ooo-

^mfiOOO*'

«.«

loo" lA

e,«g

e..iy

1

\m 1000*

Z^mZOOO"

♦M»90l"

CO

a*

5

, HJto-96ro«J«5r _

o■^osi^^ x io"*» :2 f

W O

^ o 8

X

o

<

0-449)nxilV

3

to •1

Figure 10. Three-section composite line with a terminal impedance load.

pedance of the receiver as a terminal load to the line, the architrave of the new equivalent n gives the receiving-end impedance with the receiver included. If this is the result sought, it becomes unnecessary to compute the values of the leaks of this n.

Equivalent d. First Method,

Figure 10 represents the three-section composite line of Figure 8, with a terminal impedance of 100 ohms applied at A. To compute

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62

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

the equivalent ri of the loaded line, ground F, as at Fi. Develop the line-angles towards A in the usual way. No change from the corre- sponding conditions of Figure 8 occurs until after we have reached 8^. We then have

RgA = Zx tanh 5^ ohms

= 1,000 coth 2.567,48 = 1,011.607 ohms,

and if (T he the impedance of the terminal load at A^

BfMi ^fr + zi tanh 8^ ohms (103)

= ^0 tanh 8^ ohms (104)

= 1,111.84 ohms,

where a^ is the apparent surge-impedance of the line at A^ ; or

Zo = zi-j- a coth 8^

= 1,098.829 ohms. The architrave resistance is then, following (77),

,, • 1. o cosh 8c cosh 8^

=x 48,619.7 ohms. The A-leak of the n, as in the case of Figure (8), is

ohms (105) ohms (106)

ohms (107)

mhos. (108)

To complete the n, we ground the loaded line at A, as at A^Fji, and develop the line-angles towards F, commencing with

8^ = tanh

■ii)

hyps (109)

= tanh-^ (^) = 0.100,336 hyp. The architrave impedance is then

ff . t e cosh 82, cosh 8^ cosh 0 , ,,,.v

p" = ..8mhS,.3^^^.^3^^.^3^^ ohms (110)

= 48,619.7 ohms.

The F-leak is then computed as in (82).

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E£NN£LX.T. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 63

Equivalent n. Second Method. The alternatiye method gives

„ sinhS^ siDhSp sinhS, , .^.^^

// -1/1 sinhfic sinhS^ Rgj^ , /<<ft\

with the line groiinded at A^ and

p" = Z9 sinh with the line grounded at F.

Equivalent T.

To arrive at the equivalent T of a composite line loaded with a ter- minal impedance, all that is necessary is to find the T of the same line unloaded, by preceding formulas, and then to add the terminal impe- dance to the proper line-branch of this T.

ac Dg

^^^»w<¥»M ^B^— 1^1^^— a^M— £L»

4tM7'

-P it.M-1'

^»VWWV»AAjfci^—— —— lllfc lip ^5^(6 •S*'

^P Pi ^,?C^ ^ 45;6fO*

■^S SE y..i«r,^ Hin-

FiGiTRB 11. Diagram showing the influence of the location of an impedance load on the receiving-end resistance of a three-section composite line.

Influence op Location op an Impedance Load on the RECEiviNa- End Impedance op a Composite Line.

It has been shown in a preceding paper that if a single smooth uni- form line is terminally loaded with a given impedance, the change in the receiving-end impedance due to the load is the same, whichever end of the line the load may be applied to ; i. ^., whether the load is applied at the sending or at the receiving end. In the case of a com- posite line, however, this proposition generally Mh. The effect of a resistance coil of 100 ohms on the receiving-end resistance of the three- section composite line above discussed, is shown in Figure 11. With-

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64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

out the load, the receiving-end resistance of the line, or the architrave of its equivalent n, is, by Figure 8, 44,247 ohms. If the load is added at the A end of the line, the receiving-end resistance becomes 48,619.7 ohms ; but if added at the F end, it is only 46,192. When the same coil is inserted as an intermediate load, its influence on the receiving- end resistance is not so great. In A. G. composite lines, the opportuni- ties for such variations are more marked. In all cases, however, the application of a terminal impedance cr to a line (single or composite), increases the receiving-end or architrave impedance of that line in the

ratio — ^p— ; where Rg is the sending-end-impedance of the line at

the loaded end before the load is applied. This is true whether the loaded end is made the sending or receiving end of the circuit For single lines, Rg has the same value at either end, and therefore the ratio of increase in receiving-end impedance is the same at whichever end of a single line the load o- is applied ; whereas, for composite lines, we have seen that Rg is dififerent, in general, at the two ends.

Intermediate Leak Loads.

Equivalent D. First Method,

Suppose a leak load to be applied at a junction between sections such as at DE (Figure 12). We proceed to compute the equivalent n of the loaded composite line by grounding one end, as at Fi. We develop the line-angles towards Ai. On arriving at E we have R,E = zi tanh 0^ = 1,155.292 ohms. Hence G>^ = I/R^e = 8.655,82 X 10'^ mho. To this sending-end admittance we add the admittance y of the leak ; so that the sending-end admittance at D, including the leak, is

Ggj,=^y+ GgM mhos (113)

= 13.655,82 X 10-* mho.

Consequently the sending-end resistance at D, including the leak, is

RfD-l/GgD ohms, (114)

= 732.289 ohms. The line-angle at D is then

8^ = tanh-^r^) hyps (115)

=r 0.383,964 hyp. The remaining line-angles are found in the regular way.

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT aRCUITS OP COMPOSITE LINES. 66

The architraye impedance is then p" = zi sinh 8^

ooshSc C08h8, ^, ohms (116)

MgD

cosh Bjg cosh Sj, = 60,240 ohms.

The A-leak is computed regularly from (78) and (79),

Stmt

\m lOCO'

•B

<^« 1 s

-D

Jj.iOOD-^.

X^»20OO*

^.

I

:

<i.»

^•1000*

«.<

I,, woe'

I

Bin 4->^ D-E»i-

I

•T

?! I

BO h-» DEV"

fcoz^o"

0-i66doix 10**

A'-

HV^U" O m9'19*

Minixjo'*

I

Figure 12. Composite line of three sections with intermediate leak load.

To complete the n, ground the line at the opposite end, as at As, and develop the line-angles towards Fs, in the same manner as above. The architrave impedance is then

" ^ -;^k * coshfi^ ooshSj Ego

OM

= 60,240 ohms.

The F-leak is computed regularly from (81) and (82).

VOL. XLV. — 5

ohms (117)

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66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Equivalent n. Second Method.

In the alterDatiye method we have the regular formulas (83) and (84), unchaDged by the intermediate leak load.

Equimlent T. First Method.

To complete the equivalent T, free one end of the line, say F, as at Fs (Figure 12), and develop the line-angles towards At. At the loaded junction DE we have

Gfj,^y+GyM mhos, (118)

= 6.848,47 X 10-* mho, and, following (114) and (115),

8„ = coth-^ (^\ hyps, (119)

= 0.928,914 +i^ hyp.

The remaining line-angles follow regularly. The T-leak conductance also follows from (86) without change, and the line-branch AG is com- puted regularly by (18), (57), (59), and (87).

To complete the T, free the other end of the line as at Ai, and pro- ceed, as above, to develop the line-angles towards F4. The T-admit- tance must then conform to (88), and the line-branch impedance FO to (89).

Equivalent T. Second Method.

The alternative method of arriving at the T-leak admittance is by following (83) and (84). Freeing at A4 (Figure 12), we have

, . , ^ sinhSi, sinhSjp G/a , ,,^^.

^ =y« '""^^^ • SEES. • ^ • ^ "^^ <i2<»

and similarly, freeing at F4, we have

Terminal Leak Loads.

Equivalent fl.

To arrive at the equivalent n of a composite line loaded with a termi- nal leak, such as that represented at AF in Figure 13, first compute

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KENNELLT. — BQUIVALENT aRCUlTS OF COBCPOSITE UNES. 67

the equivalent 11 of the same line anloaded, by preceding formulas, and then to the proper leak of the n add the terminal load leak, numerically in the D. G. case, yectorially in an A. G. case.

Equivalent T. First Method.

To compute the equivalent T, free one end of the line, say F, as at Ft (Figure 13), and develop the line-angles towards A. We commence with

^

St»f0O0*

if

^•1000*

l^.MMT V

j* ^

7. •AMI* c.>«B^ *

15

44247"

O'tii004 ntOm

9- t

s

i

FiQUBB 13. Composite line of three sections with terminal leak load.

S, = coth-^ (^^ hyps (122)

.^

= 1.098,6 +i- hyps,

where y is the admittance of the load in an A. G. case or conductance of the load in the D. G. case (mhos). The T-leak admittance is then

, . , 5, cosh Sc coshS, coshO , /-^«v

flr' = vi sinh 8^ • — t--^ • — r-^ • — r-z- mhos (123) ^ ^* ^ cosh 8, coshSx, cosh 8^ ^ ^

= 41.066 X 10-» mho, and the line-branch impedance AO follows at once from (87).

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68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

To complete the T, the line is freed at A, as at A4 (Figure 13), and the line-angles are developed toward F. We then have for the sending- end admittance at F,

Gj, = yt tanhS, mhos. (124)

The sending-end conductance at F^^ including the leak admittance

Gft^ = y + y, tanh 8, mhos. (125)

The apparent surge-admittance y^ at Fq is defined by the condition,

Gjg^ = y^\^hh, mhos, (126)

whence

yo = y» + y «>* *^ ^^^^ (127)

The T-leak admittance will then conform to

and the line-branch impedance FO follows at once from (89).

Equivalent T. Second Method.

By the altematiye method, the T-leak admittance, when the line is freed at A, is

J .1/1 sinh SjT) sinh 8. Gf». , ,^ .^v

= 41.066 X l(r» mho.

Similarly, when the line is freed at Fq (Figure 13), and the correspond- ing line-angles are set,

. sinhd. sinh Sc sinhS^ , /.«.v

^ = ^«^3^,-riSh8;-iiSS-, mhos. (131)

The line-branch impedances are determined in the regular way.

R&UM^ OP Rules applying to Casual Loads in Composite Lines.

In the accompanying Table the changes effected by loads in the formulas for p' and ^ are collected together as an aid to computation.

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KENNELLY, — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 69

It will be seen that there is a certain symmetry in these changes that assists their application. Moreover, it is possible, after consulting the Table, to select in some particular case a method which avoids addi- tional computation. Thus, in dealing with an intermediate leak, the first method calls for the application of the impedance ratio across the leak, to the formula for fl' ; whereas the second method calls for no change in its formula.

Table showing Changes made bt Casual Loads in the Composite-Linb

fobmulas fob the equivalent tt- architrave and

Equivalent T-Leak.

Nature of Load.	Change in the Fonnula for ^'.	Change in the Formula for 0^.
By First Method.	BvSecx>nd Method.	ByFirat Method.	BySec»nd Method.
Intennediate impedance Intermediate leak	None Rfn/RgN	R9MIR9N None	Ggm/Ggi, None	None G.mIG.^
Terminal impedance: At far end At near end	coshO/coshdj^ R.AO/R0A or subst. 2o for Zi	Subst.: sinh Zs-x coshdivo for sinh Bn RfAo/RfA
Terminal leak: At far end At near end			co8h0/coeh«jr GfA^GjA or subst. Vo for vi	Subst.: sinh 3jr_i cosh^Ao for sinh 9g GfAo/GfA

The ratios RgM/Rgir and Ggn/Gga denote respectively the ratios of sending- end impedance and sending-end admittance across the load, the ratio being taken in each case such that in the D. C. case it is greater than unity.

The far end is in all cases the end of the composite line which is to be con- sidered as freed or grounded for the purposes of the computation, and the near end is the opposite end, or the end towards which the line-angles are developed.

It has been assumed for the purposes of the Table that the A end of the line happens to be the near end in all cases, and the N end the far end.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Plurality op Loads.

When several oasaal loads exist simultaneonsly in a composite line, each requires to be considered separately in the formulas for p' and ^, although no special treatment is inyolved thereby in computing ^' or p'. A particular case of this kind is shown in Figure 14, where the

A*

Of 2

.u>oo-

^■1000

-B

15

fl^sir

\<miM0''

ills if?! ;

\\

il

H«if

^•too<r

fl^.u

^•2000'

T-D

=^

8:

S3 5!

?5 5

A-

gi-* ^«c.«C ^-'^ DJ:^^!^

^•lOOOl"

til 11

»H

:S

/ »•'

2^«I0P0*

\Mtoo«r ^'^ud

rifciy-o"

o/w?******^

H"

Figure 14. Composite line of three sections with two tenninal and one intermediate load.

composite line of Figure 8 is loaded with an intermediate resistance of 100 ohms at the junction BG, a terminal resistance of 200 ohms at F and also with a terminal leak of 5000 ohms at F. The presence of the terminal resistance OH, however, converts the leak into an intermediate leak so fieir as concerns the process of computation.

Equivalent n. First Method,

In order to compute the equivalent n, ground the line at one end, as at k% (Figure 14), and develop the line-angles towards H by preced- ing formulas. Referring to the Table, we have (a) one intermediate impedance at BC ; (b) one intermediate leak at F6, and (c) one termi- nal impedance at the near end H, the distant end being grounded.

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KENNELLY. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 71

Consequently, so &t as concerns the first method, we should make no change in the formula for p' on account of (a), but introduce the ratio Rgr/Rgoiov (b) and substitute z^ for Zt on account of (c). Conse- quently, following (77) with these changes,

„ . , ^ cosh^/) cosh 8^ Rg, , /,o«\

,no/,o, -utroco,™ C08h2.092,95 C08h2.0 1809.74

= 1.936.87 siBh 1.535.312 • ^^ 1.035.31 " cosh 0.592.95 ' 156514 = 51,615 ohms. The H-leak is then found in the usual way.

Equivalent TT. Second Method.

Similarly, by reference to the Table, for changes in the p" formula under the second method, we should introduce the ratio Rgc/RgB for (a), make no change for (b), but introduce the ratio Rgg/Rgo for (c). Consequently, following (83) with these changes,

,f . , >, sinhS/) sinhSjp Rgc RgH i /,oo\

= 51,615 ohms. The A-leak is then computed in the regular manner. If now we ground the line at the H-end, we obtain similarly, by the first method,

coshSc cosh Sg coshO Rgo , .

p -.,o.uuu^ ^^^^	cosh ^D	cosh 2	F RqF
= 51,615 ohms.
and by the second method,
,, ^ sinhSjp sinhSc	sinh 8^	i?,.	G„
^ '* sinh 6p sinh Bj,	sinh Sb	RgC	GgO

-^ ohms. (135)

Equivalent T. First Method, Freeing the line at H, as at AjH (Figure 14), we have J ' Y.^ cosh 8c coshSjp cosh So G>c i /,o/.\

^ = y» ^'"'^ «^ • S3^. • c-3^ • ^3ihy, • ^ '°'^«« (136)

= 0.001 . 8inh2.504,81 - ^^^^, ■ ^SS " cosh 0.504,81 cosh 0.733,54

1 2,146.46

cosh 0.549,31 * 2,046.46 = 28.851,7 X 10-» mho,

i

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72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

and freeiDg the line at A, as at Ai, we have

, . , 5, cosh Bf, cosh Bjg G/b Gr, i /- o-v

g —Vfi sinhS^ • — r-^- t-^ ' tt^ ' tt^ rsAxa^ (137)

^ ^" cosh 8, cosh 8c G^a G/g ^ ^

Equivalent T. Second Method. Freeing at H, we have

, sinhS^ sinh8c sinh 8^ , . .

^ = ^'SS^h8;' SKh8^ • Sh8; "'^^^ (^^^>

and freeing at A,

, • L /I sinh 8/) sinh 8jf G/q , ,, .^v

flr=y.8inh<»..^^^^.^j^^.^ mhos. (139)

Methods of Cobiputation adapted to Alternating-Curebnt Gases.

There is especial need for brief methods of computation when A. C. cases are dealt with,® owing to the complexity of the vector arithmetic. In practice, the degree of precision desired will usually be much lower than that aimed at in the arithmetical examples of this paper, where the numerical values have been carried to six significant digits. Graphical methods may be frequently used with advantage, especially in the vector addition of complex hyperbolic angles. Trav- erse Tables as used by navigators may also be used with advantage for the resolution of vectors into complex quantities.

The following formulas are also useful:

cosh {p ±jq) = Vcosh^/? — sin'g /± tan'^tanh P - tan q) (140) sinh (p ±jq) = Vsinh'jp -f sin^^/± tan-^coth p * tan y) (141)

tanh(p±i7) ^""^^^ ±j , "°^g (142)

tanb->(,iy,) = ilog.4/^{^+i| l±^i U_d ■

(143)

• A table of hyperbolic tangents of a vector variable or of tanh r/B, is being prepared by the writer for values of r between 0 and 6, by steps of 0.1 or less; and for virtually all angles B^ by steps of one degree.

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kennellt. — equivalent circuits of cobipoaite une8. 73

Conclusions.

Any composite line of any nnmber of sections, with or without loads of any kind, operated in the steady state either by a direct current^ or by an alternating current of one frequency, has the same receiving-end impedance from each end ; so that, if one volt be applied to each end in turn, the current strength received at the other end will be the s&ma^

The equivalent circuits of such lines may always be computed either for the D. C. or A. G. case by the formulas given in this paper. That is, any such line may always be replaced by one delta connection or by one star connection of impedance, without disturbing the electrical conditions outside of the line.

Notation Employed

a, a^^ ai, os, a, .... attenuation-constants of a single line, of a

loop-line, and of different sections of a composite line (hyps, per km.).

c, Cj.y c^c^yCt linear capacitance of single line, loop-line,

and sections (£urads/km.).

8, 8^, 8^ the hyp. angles of points on a line (hyps).

Gi Gg, Ggj^, ... G>> G/4, ... the sending-end admittance (D. C. conduc- tance) of a line, the admittance beyond a point on the same, when the faa end is grounded, and when the faa end is free (mhos).

ffi ff/j9 9u ^s» ^t • • • • linear conductance of single line, loop-line,

and sections (mhos/km.).

^ = l/B^ conductance of leak of a T (mhos).

^' = 1/Bf' conductance of leak of a n (mhos).

y conductance of a leak load (mhos).

t, (a, ip current strength, at the sending-end, and at

a point on the line (amperes).

J V-1 .

/, l^^ liy lit Iz linear inductance of single line, loop-line, and

sections (henrys/km.). Z, Zi, Z2, Zs length of a line and of sections (km.).

^ An exception should be noted in the case of any part of the composite line not obeying Ohm's law, as, for example, a fault in the insulation ; so that the current through the fault is not proportional to the potential at the same.

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74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

t distance of a point on a line from its &t end

(km.).

n frequency of single A. C. (cycles per second).

0) angular velocity of A. C. (radians per second).

p^q cartesian coordinates of a point in a plane.

r, r^fl rj, r^^r% linear resistance of a single line, loop-line,

and sections (ohms/km.). 5, Rg, Rg^ ..., Rfi Rfj, ... resistance of a line beyond a point on the

same, the resistance when the fiir end is

grounded, and when the far end is free,

A. G. impedance (ohms). R! = 1/^ resistance (A. C. impedance) of leak of a T

(ohms). RI' = 1//' resistance (A. C. impedance) of leak of a n

(ohms), p' = i/y resistance (A. C. impedance) of line-branch of

T (ohms), p" = l/y" resistance (A. C. impedance) of architrave of

n (ohms). <T resistance (A. G. impedance) of impedance

load (ohms). ^> ^//> ^h^'^^% .... hyperbolic angle subtended by a single line,

loop-line, and sections (hyps). y = \lz surge-admittance (D. C. conductance) of a

line (mhos). if = 1/p' admittance (D. C. conductance) of a line- branch of a T (mhos), y = 1/p'' admittance (D. C. conductance) of architrave

of a n (mhos). ^i^An^F potential, at the sending-end, and at a point

on the line (volts). Zr^Z, impedance of a terminal receiver, of terminal

sending apparatus (ohms). «^» «//. ^> z^^^t .... surge-impedance of a line, a loop-line, and

sections (ohms). Zo apparent surge-impedance of a line to which

an impedance load is prefixed (ohms).

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KCNNELLT. — EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF COMPOSITE LINES. 75 BiBLIOQRAPHY.

O. Heavlflide. Eleotrioal Papers, ii, 248. London, Macmillan & Co.,

1892. BC I. Pnpin. Propagation of Long Electrical Waves. Trans. Amer.

Inst Electr. Engrs., 1899, xvi, 93. Wave Transmission over Non-Uniform Cables and Long-Dis-

tance Air-Lines. Trans. Amer. List. Electr. Engrs., 1900,

xvii, 445. Wave Propagation over Non-Uniform Conductors. Trans. Amer.

Math. Soc., 1900, i, 259. M. Ifeblanc. Formula for Calculating the Electromotive Force at any

Point of a Transmission Line for Alternating Current Trans.

Amer. Inst Electr. Engrs., 1902, xix, 759. O. A. Campbell. Loaded Lines in Telephonic Transmissions. Phil.

Mag., 1903, ser. 6, v, 313. O. Roeasler. Die Femleitung von Wechselstromen. Berlin, Julius

Springer, 1905. O. Di Pirro. Sui Circuiti non uniformi. Atti dell' Assoc. Elettrotech.,

1909, xii. No. 6; La Lumi^re Electrique, 1909, ser. 2, vii,

227. A. B. KenneUy. A Contribution to the Theory of Telephony. Electr.

World, 1894, rriii, 208. Resonance in Alternating Current Lines. Trans. Amer. Inst

Electr. Engrs., 1895, xii, 133. Electric Conducting Lines of Uniform Conductor and Insulation

Resistance in the Steady State. Harv. Eng. Joum., 1903, ii,

135. The Alternating Current Theory of Transmission Speed over

Submarine Cables. Trans. Intemat Electr. Cong, of St

Louis, 1904, i, 66. High-Frequency Telephone Circuit Tests. Trans. Intemat

Electr. Cong. St Louis, 1904, iii, 414. The Distribution of Pressure and Current over Alternating

Current Circuits. Harv. Eng. Joum., 1905, iv, 149. The Process of Building up the Voltage and Current in a Long

Alternating Current Circuit These Proceedings, 1907, xlii,

701. Artificial Lines for Continuous Currents in the Steady State.

These Proceedings, 1908, xliv, 97.

Harvabd University, Cambridge, Mass., September, 1909.

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Froceedingi of the Amflrican Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 4. — January, 1910.

IIcpl iia^w.

A STUDY OF THE CONCEPTION OF NATURE AMONG THE PRESOCRATICS,

By Wiluam Arthur Heidel, pBorB880R or Qbeek in Wbslktan Uni^'cbsitt.

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IIcpl §il<rc<»$.

A STUDY OF THE CXDNCEPTION OF NATURE AMONG THE PRE-SOCRATICS.*

Bt William Arthxjb Heidel. Present«d 1^ M. H. Morgan, October 13, 1909; Received November 3, 1909.

Professor John Burnet says : ' "So far as I know, no historian of Greek philosophy has clearly laid it down that the word used by the early cosmologists to eicpress this idea of a permanent and primary sub- stance was none other than <l>vai^ ; * and that the title Ilcpl </>vo-€o>9, so commonly given to philosophical works of the sixth and fifth centuries B. c.,* means simply Concerning the Primary Substance, Both Plato and Aristotle use the term in this sense when they are discussing the

* This paper was begun in the spring of 1908, and was read in substance befoi-e the Classical Clul) of Princeton University, Dec. 17, 1908.

« Early Oruk Philoaophy, 2d ed., 1908, p. 12 foil.

* Burnet, ibid,, p. 13 foil., p. 57, n. 1, rejects the traditional view that Anaxi- mander so used dpx^t which, he says, "is in this sense purely Aristoteliau." This statement, and the other that **To Anaximnnder dpx^ could only have meant begin- ning,** are open to question ; cp. Hippocrates, 11. i^oiatcw, 61 (7, 684 Littre) iurb tGjv dpx^ SdffTarai Cjv €tpriKd ol vdm-a, and ibid. (7, 690 Littr^) 5icwj ipyd^otrrat al dpxal tIjv 04pfirfP Kal Ttiv rapax^ ti^ ^pI* Owdyovffai ii vovaov. Cp. Philolaus, fr. 6 ivel Zk raX dpxal inrdpxo^ ovx ifjLOuu oW 6/t50vXot (ffffcUf fr. 8 iipup puovdi wj di* dpxh o^a irdrrciw, fr. 11 dpxd koL dycfidov, though 1 lay no stress on these, believing that all the so-called fragments of Philolaus, excf'pting fr. 16, which occurs in the Eudemian Ethics, are spurious. Cp. also note 166, below. This use of dpx'h - causal principle may well have been old ; cp. irifyij and jiij^iM — oroix^lov. The * Aristotelian * sense of dpx^ occurs in Plato, Tim, 48 B ; cp. Diels, ElemaUum, p. 20. Burnet also says (p. 66) **That Anaximander called this something [i.e. his "Aretpov] by the name of ^<J<rtf, is clear from the doxographers." This statement likewise may fairly be challenged.

* Burnet here adds in a note : **I do not mean to imply that the philosophers used this title themselves ; for early prose writings had no titles. The writer men- tioned his name and the subject of his work in the first sentence, as Herodotus, for instance, does." As the titles were, in all probability, added later it is interesting to note the words of Galen, de Elem. see, Bippocr. i. 9, p. 487 Kiihn : tA ydp tQjv iraXatwr firoi^a irepJ ^i^€(at iTiy^pavrai^ rd MeXiffffov, tA HapfMylSov, tA *E/utc8o- icXiovs, *AXKfjLaU<aif6s re koI Topylov, kcU UpoSlKOVf ical r(a» HXKiav dTdvT<ap, It was there- fore, as we shall see, a sort of blanket- title.

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80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

earlier philosophy,* and its history shows clearly enough what its origi- nal meaning must have been. In Greek philosophical language, ^vo-cs always means that which is primary, fundamental, and persistent, as opposed to what is secondary, derivative, and transient ; what is 'given,' as opposed to that which is made or becomes. It is what is there to begin with."

" There is one important conclusion," says Professor Burnet^* " that follows at once from the account just given of the meaning of <t>v<n^^ and it is, that the search for the primary substance really was the thing that interested the Ionian philosophers. Had their main object been, as Teichmiiller held it was, the explanation of celestial and meteorolog- ical phenomena^ their researches would not have been called^ IIcpl

<fkv<r€iai ioTopirj, but rather IIcpl ovpavov or IIcpl fiCTcaipaiv."

Considering its source, this declaration is of sufficient importance to justify an extended examination for its own sake, especially as it has not been adequately met by students of Greek thought ; • but the pur- pose of this study is somewhat different The words quoted from Fro- fessor Burnet serve, therefore, chiefly as a point of departure It is proposed to consider three subjects, which are of importance in relation to the works entitled IIcpl ^vcrccus : (1) the historical relation of the studies so entitled to mythology and poetry ; (2) the senses in which <tvVi? was employed before 400 b. a ; (3) the probable connotation of the title IIcpl <;^wr€(i»9, judging by the direction of interest of the writers as indicated by the problems they raised.

Before proceeding to the consideration of these questions, however, it may be proper to touch briefly on several subjects suggested by the

» Burnet here refers to Arist Phys, 193 a 21 foil, and to Plato, Legg. 892 C ^^uf poj^Xorrai X^euf yivtaiw r^v repl rA rpunxi. Here he interprets y4v€<nv with tA ii o5 ylyvtrau Though this use of 7^i^<rtf is as old as Homer (S 201, 246), and though Plato could employ it in allusion to Homer ( Tfieaet. 180 D), it would be ill- chosen to explain ^^is. Ast in his ed. (vol. in. 158) has, as it seems to me, cor- rectly rendei^d the words: **Volunt illi naturam dici generatiouem eorum, quae primum orta sint," unless one prefers "quae prima sint." Cp. inrip rijs rdy aroixtlwv ^Offcm, Diels, Forsolcr, ii. 511, 15. Burnet might have referred with more propriety to Plato, Legg, 891 C, but it is to be noted that <p{fais is singular.

• Ibid. p. 14.

• Burnet here refers to Plato, PJiaedo 96 A and Eurip., fr. 910. We may add Theophrastus, Ph. 0. fr. 5 (Diels, Dox. 480, 7) and fr. 9 {ibid, 485, 1). In the latter case if r. ^t^o-eus laropla is opposed (speaking of Plato) to ^ xpay/xarela Tcpl rift Tpiinfft <^\o<ro^at, Cp. n, 206, below. From Theophrastus the phrase was imssed on to the doxographers. Thus Simplic. in Phys, (p. 28. 29 Diels) says : OaX^s W TpQnot Tapa848oTai r^ T€pl ^Caews laroplop rois'^Wrfcaf iK^rjpai,

• Burnet's view has been briefly criticised by Professor Millerd, On the Interpreta- tion of Empedocles, Chicago, 1908, pp. 18 folL

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HEIDEL. — IIcpl ^^criMf. 81

TTords quoted from Professor Burnet It is probably true that early prose writings had no formal titles ; but our information on this point is really too scanty to admit of dogmatic statement.* It is reasonably certain that philosophical works were £a.miliarly quoted as bearing the title Ilcpt <l>va'€iaq some time before the close of the fifth century, as we may see from the works of Hippocrates ; ^® and from the time of Xeno- phon, Plato, and Aristotle ^^ onwards it must have been the accepted designation. In regard to the scope of the title IIcpl <f>v(r€m and Pro- fessor Burnet's attempt to limit it narrowly to the meaning Concerning the Primary Substance, and to distinguish it, as if coordinate, from such titles as IIcpl ovpavov and IIcpl ficrcoipojv, we shall be in better posi- tion to decide at the conclusion of our inquiry. But, while it is clearly impossible, without writing a history of Greek philosophy, to reftite his

* Besides Herodotus, we have incorporated titles from Hecataeus (fr. 332 Miiller), Antiochus of Syracuse (fr. 3 Miiller), Alcmaeon (fr. 1), and Thucydides. It is possi- ble that the Mucpdr AidKOfffiot of Democritus had such a title ; cp. Diog. Laert. ix. 41. Wc have, however, what are said to be the opening wonls of other works, but mention neither the name of the author nor the subject ; e. g. Heraclitus, fr. 1 ; Archytas, fr. 1 ; Anaxagoras, fr. 1 ; Protagoras, fr. 1 and 4 ; Diogenes of Apollonia, fr. 1. For those who hold the fragments attributed to him to be genuine I may add, Philolaus, fr. 1. One may, of course, assume that the incorporated title was in these cases disregarded, either because a formal title had been substituted for it, or because it was considered negligible. The works of Hippocrates, however, do not have incor- porated titles naming the author ; but have in some cases an introductory sentence which announces the subject : e. g. E. yvi^atKelrfs ^i^tof (7, 312 Littr^) irepi U ttjs ywaucelrft ^^los koI vociifidTwv rdSe X^w ; similarly Democritus, fr. 165 X^w rdSt x€pi T«r ^viirdrrw, Cp. also Hippocrates (Littr^) 8, 10 ; 8, 408 ; 8, 466 ; 8, 666 ; 8, 612.

*• Hippocr. n. dpX' IrrrptKrjit. 20 (1, 620 Littr^) relpci dk a&roU 6 X670J ii ^i\o<ro- ^rip, KoJBdTtp 'E/tredoicX^f ^ dXXoi ol Tcpl ^6ffios ycypd^aiP. iyu) Si toOto /u^, 8<Ta Tipi €tprrjfrai ij (ro^torj ^ IrrPV ^ yiy pairrai vtpl ip6<notf 1i<r<ror vopi^ tJ Irp-piicj r^x^ wpov-fiKfUf fj ry ypa^iici. U. aapKMP, 15 (8,604 Littr^) kuI €1(tI rivts ot fKe^av ^6auf (uyypd^om-et 8ti 6 iyK4<pa\6i icrof d ^x^^^* I" Hippocrates we find such titles as n. ^Offios 6<rr^«r, H. tpiaiot TcuSloVf U. ^i^tos A»Bpii)irov, H. tf»i<Tioi ywaiKeirfs, The meaning of these titles will be seen, I trust, in the sequel. It may excite com- ment that I quote Hippocrates indiscriminately. I do so because to do otherwise were to prejudge a question not yet settled — hardly even fairly put. I incline to , the opinion that the works of the Corpus Eippocrateum (with possibly one or two exceptions) belong to the fifth century ; at any rate, the conceptions and points of view they present show few traces of the influence of Soci-atic thought.

^ Xen. Mem, l. 1, 14 tCjp re repl riji ruir irdin-wp tf»6<r€bn fiepipjfihmav ; Plato, Legg, 891 C ; Phaedo 96 A (see above, note 7) iydf ydp, i^fij (sc. 6 ZuKpdrrji)^ v4oi ujv BavfMorGn on iweOifirfaa ra&rris rijs <ro4>tai ^p dij KoKotkri re/oi ^6<r€us UrropiaVy which is of great importance since in this connexion Plato most clearly defines the relation of tiie Socratic- Platonic philosophy to that of the ^hhfikoI ; for Aristotle it is hanlly necessary to do more ^han refer to Bonitz's Index under the expressions ol ^nxriKolt ol wepl ^(^ecM, ol ^wTuiKiiyoii (pwnoKoy^Xp, VOL. XLV. — 6

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further statements that " the search for the primary substance really was the thing that interested the Ionian philosophers" and that " Greek philosophy began, as it ended, with the search for what was abiding in the flux of things ;" it must be said that so to define the scope of Greek philosophy were to reduce it to terms which are well-nigh nugatory. Greek philosophy did, indeed, seek the permanent amid the flowing ; but, as the first determined efibrt of the human mind to frame a sci- ence, it sought an explanation of the fleeting phenomena. This ex- planation it found ultimately in that which abides, and gave to it various names : but it was not the permanence, but the causality, of the \nroK€Lfi€vov to which, as scientists, the Greek philosophers devoted their chief attention.^* Aristotle was clearly right in refusing to regard the Eleatics, in so far as they adhered to their metaphysical principles which excluded causality and motion, as <^vcrtKoi.

I.

" One may say that primitive man has only religious apperceptive masses.'' "No matter what historical phenomenon we may trace to a remote past, we come at last to religion. All human conceptions, so far as they fall within the intellectual horizon of a pre-scientific age, have developed out of mythical conceptions ; but religious ideas con- stitute the content, or at least, the garb of myth." These words from the pen of the lamented Professor Usener ^' strike the key-note of this portion of our study.

As later Greek philosophy, so fer as it was a philosophy of nature, grew out of the teachings of the pre-Socratics with only here and there a clearly marked infusion of metaphysics, ultimately derived from So- crates : so Greek philosophy as a whole was not a creation e nikilo. Long before the dawn of philosophy, properly so-called, the reflective thought of the Greeks had busied itself with many of the problems which later engaged the attention of the philosophers.^* Even if we had no evidence to prove it, we should still have to assume it as a fact We are not, of course, in position to trace even in the most general

*^ In my study, TTie Necessary and the Contingent in (ke Aristotelian System, Chicago, 1896, pp. 7-10, I gave a brief analysis of the movement of pre-Socratic thought in logical tenns. Somewhat more at length a similar study appeared in 7%« Logic of the Pre-Socratic Philosophy, published as Chapter IX. of Studies in Logical Tlitory, by John Dewey, Chicago, 1903.

** Vortrdge und Aufsdtze, pp. 43 and 45.

** There is much philosophy held in solution in Greek mythology ; but it is impossible to utilize it for historical purposes, because the early history of the myths is unknown. Unfortunately this is likely always to be the case.*

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outlines the stages in the process of organizing the confused mass of primitive human experience into a unified world of thought. We may be sure, however, that there never was a time when the human mind held even two wholly unrelated experiences ; and there will never come a time when all human experiences shall constitute a perfect Koafios. Somewhere between these limits history moves, the mind now energeti- cally striving to achieve a synthesis, now supinely acquiescing in " the cult of odds and ends."

When the curtain of history rises on the Greeks, we find in Homer a strange condition. In the foreground there is a relatively well or- dered society of gods and men ; while in the shadows of the background lurk remnants of an ancient barbarism. Politically society is in unsta- ble equilibrium, momentarily held together by a common cause : par- ticularism clearly preceded, particularism follows. One can with difficulty banish the thought that the union of the Greeks under the suzerainty of Agamemnon was only a poet's dream, — an ideal never realized and perhaps never to be realized. Homeric religion is in much the same case : Zeus is king of all the gods, but even after his vic- tory over the turbulent sons of Earth, his rule is precarious. The Titans fume ; and the wife of his bosom nurses thoughts of treason.

As for the occurrences of daily life, they are the expression of divine powers ^* lurking everywhere and acting more or less capriciously. Noth- ing that occurs occasions much surprise, ^* and a ready explanation for even the most unexpected event is suggested by the inscrutable oper- ations of the gods. This is not the atmosphere which surrounds and stimulates the birth of philosophy. But while Homer, on the whole, writes for entertainment and tells such tales as may fitly cheer a pleas- ant feast, there are not wanting in the Hiad passages which show that the Greeks of that age sometimes thought in a less light-hearted vein. Two portions in particular, the Aw 'A^an; ^^ and the ©coftaxto, !• con- tain unmistakable vestiges of earlier theogonic and cosmogonic poem^ The tendency here appearing in Homer finds increasing fisivor with Hesiod and the cosmogonists of the eighth and seventh centuries b.c.

For reasons hardly intelligible to me it has become common to dis-

*• Cp. Adam, The lUligioiis Teachers of Greece, p. 22. If Thales said rdm-a rXiipri 6€Qm^ it WIS a survival of * Homeric ' thought out of harmony with the new philo- sophical movement. Such survivals, however, are common in all ages.

*• Cp. Adam, ibid,, p. 24.

^ n, XIV.

^ II, XX, XXI. That this passage is cosmological was seen by Theagenes in the fdxth century, B.C. (see Schol, H. B on T, 67), and emphasized by Murray, JRisc of the Greek Epic, p. 239 ff., and by Gilbert, Die mcUorologischen Theorien des griechi- wchem AlUrtums, p. 25, n. 2.

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tingnish these interesting early thinkers from the illostrious company of the philosophers, headed by Thales, as if they belonged to different orders of existence. Certain it is that Aristotle was not aware of any such fundamental difference. " Even a lover of myth," he says,^* " is in a sense a philosopher." Thales he calls the founder of the school of philosophy which inquires into the material cause of things ; but he adds,'® almost in the same breath, that "some think that the ancients who lived long before the present generation, and first framed accounts of the gods, had a similar view of nature." By late writers no distinc- tion whatever is made between the two classes of thinkers ; thus Hip- polytus says,'^ "The poet Hesiod himself declares that he thus heard the Muses speak IIcpl <;^ixr<(i>9." Plato, on the other hand, says in a playful vein of the early philosophers,** ** Each appears to me to re- count a myth for our entertainment, as if we were children. One says that the things that are are three in number, and that certain of these somehow go to war with one another firom time to time ; then again they become reconciled, contract marriages, beget children, and rear their offspring. Another says there is a pair, — Moist and Dry, or Hot and Cold, — and gives away the bride and lets the pair cohabit The Eleatic tribe out our way, however, going back to Xenophanes and even £a.rther, recounts its tales as if all beings, so called, were one." However we may interpret the passage in detail, it is obvious that Plato notes and emphasizes the fundamental identity in point of view between the early cosmogonists and the golden tribe of philosophers. He shows how easy it is to state philosophical conceptions in mytho- logical terms, and suggests by implication that the opposite procedure is equally easy.

Aristotle also clearly correlates tfeoXoyoi and OtoXoyia, with <f>wrvoKoyoi and <l>vcrio\oyia in such sort as to show that in his view words and concepts run alike parallel.'* He likens the earliest philosophy to a lisping child,'^ and makes repeated attempts to restate in more accept- able form the opinions of his predecessors.'* He would doubtless have

" Met. 982* 18.

»• Met. 983* 20 and 27 foil., transl. Ross. It is noteworthy that, though Aris. totle does not expressly assent to the interpretation of the myth, be evidently has no thought of refuting it.

» Philo8. 26 (Diels, Dox. 674, 14).

» Plato, Soph. 242 C. For this passage see Diels, Fortokr.* 40, § 29.

» Cp., e.e., Met. 1071* 26 foil.. 1076* 26 foil.

•• Met. 993* 15 foil. Cp. the interesting prelude to the myth, Plato, Polit. 268 E. This conception powerfully stimulated the tendency to allegorical interpretation, and accounts for Aristotle's freedom in reinterpreting his predecessors.

s* I directed attention to several instances of somewhat violent reinterpretation

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offered a like apology, only with larger charity, for the still earlier oosmog- onists. Theophrastus ** in the same spirit remarked upon the ' poetic ' diction of Anaximander because he referred to the matual encroach- ment of the elements as ' injustice.' Indeed, the mythical cast of much of the earlier philosophy is so marked as to constitute a serious prob- lem to the historical student, who desires to interpret fairly the thought of the age. This &ct, duly considered, throws light in both directions. It shows, on the one hand, that theogonists and cosmogonists em- ployed the names of divinities to designate philosophical, or at any rate, quasi-philosophical concepts ; but it also shows that the philoso- phers were not themselves conscious of a complete break with the past Thus, while the theogonists pictured the origin and operations of the world in terms of the history and behavior of mythical characters, often so vaguely and imperfectly conceived '^ as at once to betray their £su3titiou8 nature, the philosophers applied to their principles and ele- ments names and epithets proper to the gods.'* This course was, indeed, extraordinarily easy and natural to the Greeks, whose religion was in its higher phases essentially a worship of Nature.'* But this very worship of Nature in her more significant aspects was in itself one of the chief influences which predisposed the Greeks to a philoso- phy of Nature.

There are certain picturesque effects of this intimate historical con- nexion of speculation on nature with theology (in the Greek sense), which are perhaps worth noting. Aristotle repeatedly uses the ex- pression KocfjLov ycwov alongside icoo-fioTroiciv or Koa-fiovoua in reference

of his precanors in my stady, Qualitative Change in Pte-Soeratic Philosophy (Archi7. for G«8ch. der Philos., 1906). There seem still to remain a few scholium who, even after the illustrations of this tendency noted by Natorp (e. g., Philos. Monatsbefte, XXX. 345) and Bamet, are unaccountably blind to it.

«• Apud Simpl. In Phys. I. 2, p. 24, 20 (Diels).

^ See, e.g., Diels, Parmenides Lehrgedieht, p. 10 ; Bohde, Psyche, n. 114 and 115, n. 2; Ed. Meyer, Oesch. dee AUertume, I, a (2d ed.), p. 100 foil.; Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy, (2d ed.) p. 74 foil.

^ Gp. Otto Gilbert, lonier und Elealen, Rh. M., N. F., 64, p. 1S9. Empedocles deifies the Sphere, the elements, and the efficient causes, Love and Strife. The practice continues throughout Greek thought. The question is where religious belief ends and metaphor begins : see Millerd, On the InterprettUion of Empedocles, p. 84. I do not doubt that Professor Millerd, as well as Gilbert (1. c. and Meteorol, Theorien, etc., p. 110, n. 1) and Adam, The Religious Teachers of Oreeee, pp. 184-190, 248, 250, go too far in accepting as sober belief what was in fact ' poetic ' metaphor. See Burnet, p. 74 folL, p. 288 foil. Rohde says {Psyche ii. 2) " Wer unter Griechen unsterblich sagt, sagt Oott : das sind Wechselbegriffe." This statement certainly requires quali- fication ; but this is not the place to discuss the matter at length.

s* Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des AlUrtums, I, a (2d ed.), pp. 97-100, distinguish'es, — aside from purely magical beings,— two classes of gods: I. universal gods, con-

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to philosophioal accounts of creation ; '^ and deriyatiye forms of exis- tence are called Icyovoi or d^dyovot of the elements.*^ In other words, the philosophers were in effect giving the genealogy of the world.*'

ceived as presiding over certain spheres of the (physical or intellectual) world every, where and for all men ; II. particular gods, having locally or tribally circumscribed spheres. There is, of course, a certain overlapping. The gods of the first class exist as permanent beings by reason of the eternally identical activities proceeding from them ; those of the second class attain permanence and personality by reason of the institution of a fixed cult Many gods of the first class poMsess little or no cult, but stand as representatives of natural laws. '*No one," says Professor Burnet, p. 75, n. 1, *' worshipped Okeanos and Tethys, or even Ouranos." Since the superior gods of Greece are largely of this class, it is not difiicult to see how i-eligion proved a schoolmaster to lead the Greeks to philosophy.

•• For examples see Bonitz's Index, 150* 7 foil. Cp. such expressions as 7«vw<r« 8i [xaBriTtKad Swdfuii] t6 Otpft^ koI i^vxP^ Kparoxhrra rrjt OXi;f, Meteor. 379* 1 ; M^rd W ro^TTovi KoX rAf roia&ras dpx^h <^ «^X ^ojrw o(fff(a¥ ytnnjffai r^ tCjv tmaif 0i^tr, Met. 984^ 8. Cp. Plato, TheaU. 153 A.

•* Similar expreasions abound, as, e.g. tA bk (DCKa ix ro&ruv. See my article. Qualitative Change in Pre-Socratic Philosophy, notes 86 and 41.

•* In this connexion it is proper to refer to the beginnings of Greek historiography — both are laroplai. In each case it is the desire of the tarup to go back to first principles. Professor Millerd speaks of Empedocles' Il€pl 4f^€ui as a '* world story ; " such in truth it is. History appears to have grown up among the Greeks in con- nexion with Genealogy, dealing with icrlaeis and other similar events. In Xeno- phanes, according to tradition, the two interests of Urropla were naturally united. His physical derivation of the present world constituted his natural philosophy ; on the historical side, he is reported to have composed poems on the founding of Colophon and the colonization of Elea. While this latter statement may be ques- tioned (see Hiller, Rh. M., N. F. 88, 529) on external grounds, it is not per se improbable. The Book of Genesis similarly unites interest in creation and the derivation and early history of a people. It seems to be natural to the human mind to put explanation in the form of a story ; even where it is a question of explaining how present phenomena occur, it is usual to cast the answer into the form of origines. This tendency has misled historians of Greek philosophy at many points into the vain endeavor to distinguish between the current cosmic processes and the story of creation. Another matter of much interest is the relation of creation-story and genealogy, which are thus united in Urroplri xepi ^i^eo^, to the religious Upbs Xiyos or gospel. Of this I have spoken incidentally in another con- nexion ; but it is obvious, even at a glance, that in Genesis, for example, they are virtually identical. In later schools of Greek philosophy the naiurae ratio was clearly and consciously felt to be a gospel. It is therefore interesting to note that of the four Christian Gospels, three in various ways link the gospel story proper with the story of creation. Mark, the ** human Gospel," omits this essential link. The later Gospels supply it : Matthew is content to trace the genealogy of Jesus to Abraham, from which point the story was familiar ; Luke carries it back to Adam, "the son of God;" John goes back to the "beginning" and finds the A670J, or Gospel Incarnate, with God before, and preparatory to, creation. Hence he can dispe'hse with a genealogy. One must bear in mind the supposed compelling force of genealogy in prayers. Among many peoples we find the practice of addressing

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The iDtimate oonnezioii of physical philosophy with theogony and cosmogony has thus been emphasized because it appears fundamental to any intelligent inquiry into the meaning and nature of the former ; yet no one would deny that there is a distinction to be drawn between these cognate forms of speculation on the origin and operations of the world. The important point to determine is just wherein the essential difference consists.

In Plato there is a clear distinction drawn between fiv$o^ and Aoyo? ; with him fivOoKoyla is associated with iroirjai^^ and, when contrasted with Xoyos or urropia^ denotes that which is fictitious as opposed to sober truth. Herein Plato reflects the spirit of the sixth and fifth cen- turies, B. c, which brought science to the birth. Of that period Xeno- phanes is an interesting representative. We have seen that he com- bined the various interests of urropio, and he naturally found himself in hostility to Homer •• and all for which Homer stood. Homer stood for epic poetry, and epic poetry stood for fivOo^. To the mind of Xeno- phanes the myths of Titans, Giants, and Centaurs are vkdo-fAara rlov wporifHoy , . . tomt' ov&h^ xprforov o'cori. Indeed, what could such fic- tions profit an age that was busily engaged in sweeping the mists firom the crest of Ol3rmpus to let in the dry light of reason ? Hecataeus, an- other child of the sixth century and a Xoyoypa^os or devotee of 'urropLo, in the introductory sentence of his Genealogies, says : •* "I write the following as it seems to me in tnith ; for the tales (Aoyoi) of the Greeks are many and, as I think, absurd.'' He employs the term Xoyoi where a later writer would probably have said fAvOoi ; for he refers to Greek mythical genealogies. Yet Xoyo$ had even in his day come to mean prose •• as opposed to epic composition, and Hecataeus proposed to use the new vehicle of artistic expression in the service of sober truth or toTopto.** It is noteworthy that he criticises the stories of "the

the gods in prayer and enforcing the fnlfilment of the request by giving the genealogy (or as Herodotus, i. 132 says, the deoyoviri) of the divinities. This is in turn con- nected with the magical procedure, which consists in ''assigning the cause" and telling how that which, e. g., produced the wound (say, iron) originated, thus con- trolling the cause and effecting a cure. On this see Stewart, The Myths of Plato, p. 10 folL, who calls this the **aetiological myth."

•• See Diels, Parmenides Lehrgedichl, p. 10.

»* Fr. 832. MUUer.

•• What the substitution of prose for verse meant to philosophical thought can be best appreciated, perhaps, in connexion with Parmenides and Em])edocles. Par- menides tried to write verse like a philosopher, and was ridiculed as a shabby poet ; Empedocles tried to write philosophy like a poet, and is regarded as a fifth-rate thinker for his pains.

•• For IffToplri see Stein on Hdt. i. 1 ; for XAyof, ibid,, i, 21. For the whole matter, see Bury, Ancient Greek Historians, p. 16.

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Greeks," •^ finding them utterly ridiculous. The new era of travel and research had brought to light many an evidence that things were not what they seemed, at least that much which passed for true and un- questionable among the Greeks was differently conceived or otherwise done in other lands.** The age of the Sophists merely made common property what had for a hundred years exercised the wits of the great leaders of the new thought.

We have seen that Greek religion in the Homeric age harbored two conceptions which contained the promise of disintegration, though they « still dwelt peacefully side by side. According to the one conception every event was equally divine and so equally " natural," occasioning no surprise ; according to the other, certain provinces of the world, physical and intellectual, were apportioned to the " wide-ruling gods " of Olympus. The former tended to dull the fiwulty of curiosity, the latter to stimulate it For, in a sense, the Olympians were personified laws of Nature. With the increasing organization of experience came greater emphasis upon the " Gotterstaat " and overlordship of Zeus, who assumed more and more the title of 0co9 par excellence and subordinated the lesser gods to himself, reducing them in the end to expressions of his sovereign pleasure. But back of Zeus, even in Homer, lurks the mysterious power of MoTpo, before whose might even the " pleasure " of Zeus avails littla As Zeus subdues the lesser gods, so Fate or Law subdues Zeus to her inexorable will. But the bright patterns woven into Greek mythology, based as they were upon personal caprice and

•T Bernays, Abh. der Berl. Akad., 1882, p. 70, refers to Anaxagoras (fr. 17 Diels : rd 8i yUf€(r$ai kuI dv6\\vir6ai oitK dpSCis pofil^ovffip ol 'EXXiyi^es), to Hecataeus (fr. SS2), Philodemtis (II. eifjeptlas p. 84, Gomp.: Ihrovs 4>aaltf ol IlaviWrpftt tfeoi/f) and adds : *' Es ist die Tornehme Art der Philosophen von dem Volk zii reden." Compare also Empedocles, fr. 8 and 9 (Diels). The feeling is deeper than mere pride : it marks the exaltation of the philosophical Xinyos, as the statement of ^^is, over the popular X&fos which stands for »6fios and fivBos, Bury, Ancient Greek Historians^ p. 51, n. 2, remarks that when Herodotus quotes aud criticises oi 'EWipfts he is contrasting the Greek tradition with that of Phcenicians, Persians, or Eg}'ptian8, and ''is really quoting criticisms of Hecataeus on oL 'EWiTrcf, that is, on the current mythology of epic tradition."

•• It would be foolish to claim for any one cause the determining influence in giving direction and scope to the nascent rationalism of the sixth century. Travel and research could furnish the content and supply the materials for reflective thought ; but both presuppose the divine curiosity which is the parent of philosophy. Many influences conspired to produce the revolution in thought ; but travel may well have contributed most to convert curiosity into astonishment The curious collections of strange and shocking customs, of which we find echoes in Herodotus, Hippocrates, the AuiX^^etf, etc., clearly originated in the sixth century, and supplied the arsenal of the militant Sophists.

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anUiropomorphic passions, ill comported with the growth of reason which demanded submission to universal law. Greek religion experi- enced the inevitable conflict between the imagination, the flowering of the capricions fisMmlties of yoath, and the reflective reason, in which the maturing powers assert their right to fixed habits of thought

Now ifnxrvoXoyia is simply Xoyo? or Urropia wc/ji ^vcrcco^, — ^ the child of the maturing age which set itself to discard or disregard childish things and to see things as they are. Thus Xoyos vtpl Ktiwrtoys succeeds fivOoq wtpl Oaav. The transition is natural ; but it involves an element of opposition which could not help but be painful and even bitter as the extent and bearings of the inevitable conflict came to consciousness. The history of pre-Socratic philosophy is the history of this conflict ; bat the opposition was not final The strain of conflicting ideals re- salted in a new synthesis. Plato and Aristotle sought to effect such a 83mthesis, and the endeavor to perfect it is the characteristic of the main current of post- Aristotelian philosophy firom the Stoics to Flotinus.

Gibbon's sajring,** " Freedom is the first step to curiosity and knowl- edge," nowhere finds fuller application or illustration than in the history of Greek philosophical thought; and nowhere did the early Greek thinkers so much feel the need of asserting their freedom as in the sphere of opinion where there was an actual or possible clash with the received theology in the guise of fivOo^. From the first, philosophers had broken with it in intention, however much haunted they might have been individually or collectively by presuppositions formulated in their mythology. It should occasion no surprise to find inconsisten- cies and lapses firom their principles ; for such are common in all ages, because of the imperfect fluidity of the mental content^ which refuses to be reshaped at a cast Nor should we expect to find the principles operating to the regeneration of thought explicitly stated at the be- ginning : it is the rule that the clear enunciation of principles follows, often t£krdily, the tacit application of them. Plato speaks of the ancient feud between poetry and philosophy ; and the point of contention con- cerns fivOo^,^ Plato also well expresses the fundamental difference be- tween the two. To him the poet is a OeTo^ avT^p,^^ a seer who works by inspiration ; ^' the philosopher must follow the argument, even against

•• Decline and Fall, ch. 66.

*• Bepub. 607 B. See Adam's note ad loe. and TKe Eeligioui Teachers qf Greece,

2 foil., 401 foil.

^ Kqnib, 868 A (with Adam's note).

«s Jpol. 22 A foU., etc.

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his inclination : 6 yap Aoyo? 17/Mas jjpci, he says of himself*' in apol- ogizing for expelling Homer from the ideal state of the philosopher- king.

In the Epicurean Epistle to Pythocles ** a distinction is drawn be- tween such phenomena as admit of but one rational explanation and such as admit of several explanations equally consonant with the data of sense. In the former, the conclusion must be categorically affirmed ; in regard to the latter, one must suspend judgment : "for one must conduct investigations into the operations of nature, not in accordance with vain dogmas and ex-cathedra pronouncements, but according as the phenomena^demand. . . . But when one fails to state one possible ex- planation and rejects another that is equally consonant with the data of sense, it is evident that one fedls wholly outside the breastworks of science and lapses into ftvtfo«." *•

From the first <^v<rtoXayta or urropla ir€p\ ^vo-cws is characterized by the &uot that it wholly disregards religious authority ** (yofio6€a'ia of

*• Repiih. 607 B. Following the lead of the argument is a commonplace in Plato : cp. Euthyph. 14 C, Theaet. 172 D, Oorg. 627 E, Phaed, 82 D, 115 B, Hepub. 865 D, 894 D, 415 D, Legg, 667 A.

** Diog. Laert. x. 86-87.

*• The fear of fivdos was ever-present to Epicams and his followers. See my Epicurea (American Journal of Philology, xxiii. p. 194) and compare Ei)puii A6^i, xi.-xiii. and Lucretius i. 68 foil., 102 foil., 151 foil., v. 1183 foil. See also Zeller, Phil, der Gricchen, in. (a), 397, n. 2. . Epicurus was, however, herein only following Democritus, fr. 297 (Diels) : htoi Bprjrijs <p6<r€<as SidXinrtp oi/c elSbres dtfOpunroty ffw€idi^€i Si TTJs iv Tip pi(fi KaKOirpaytiOff^rjs, rbv Tr}t Piottjs xP^^of iv rapaxcui xal 06/3oif raXoiirci^ piovffi, ^ciJ5ea xepl rov fierd rijv TeXevrijp fivdowXaffTioyrci XP^^^' Bohde, Psyche j II, 171, n. cast suspicion on the genuineness of this fragment ; but it has been well discussed by Nestle, Philol. 67, 548. Epicurus required that one judge concerning what cannot be seen {rd ASriXa) on the analogy of that which is visible. In this also he followed the pre-Socratics. See Sext. Emp., vii. 140 At&rifios di rpla Kar avrhv (i. e. Democritus) ^€7€i' itvai KpiT'^pia • t^j fih rOv dfiiJXwy icaraXiJ^ewt rd (pawhpuepo, ' ** ^^tf 7df) rCiv dJiJXwi' rd 0au'6/t«u," Cn ^ifaiM 'Ava^y6pai (fr. 21 a, Diels), df irl ro&rtp Atf- fA6KptTos ivaiMei. The same injunction was given to the physician ; see Hippocrates, n. Sialrris ; 1. 12 (6, 488 Littr^). Epicurus was ridiculed for offering explanations which were foolish : cp. the delectable skit in Usener's Epicurea, p. 854, 27 foil., where he is taunted with believing a fwOapltp ypaiiSei, But the charge was disingenuous, since the explanation in question was only one of several among which he allowed his followers to choose, since the matter was not one of which strict account was required of the faithful.

*• It would be impossible to prove this without showing in detail — what is easy but requires more space than can be allotted to it here — how the conclusions of phi- losophers ran from the first counter to the fundamental assumptions of the received theology. The philosophers therefore came to be regarded as a godless crew : cp. Plato, ApoL 18 B C, 19 B, 23 D j Xen. Mem, i. 2, 31 ; Plut. Pericle*, c. 82 (law of Diopithcs, 482 B. o.).

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Epicurus) and prejudice (ScartScu/ima),*^ luid endeavors to explain natural phenomena on the basis of well considered facts and analo- gies,^ assuming the constancy of nature and the universal reign of law.*« Aristotle says that the early philosophers did not believe in chance,** and we find objection raised even to the conception of spon- taneity,'^ which is made relative to human ignorance.

If one would catch the spirit of that age one must read the priceless repository of fifth century thought contained in the Hippocratean cor- pus and the fragments of the Sophists. So little remains to us of the

** Rohde, Payehe ii. p. 90 draws attention to the conscioos opposition of philos- ophers to the magicians, etc. The same opposition developed among the philosophical and practical physicians, whence they also have been traditionally denounced as a godless crew. An interesting document in this regard is Hippocrates n. Uprjs wo^ov, quoted below, n. 133. See also II. irapi^cWcav (8,468 Littr^) : rj *Afyr4/uSi al yvmiKes dXXa re roXXd, dXXd 8}j koI rd TovXtrreX^ffrara tQv liMrloav Kadiepovffi twv yvpaiKciujVf K€\€v6pTiMt¥ TiOf fidrrewiff ^(airarec^Moui. II. €^xVI^<^^St 5 (9, 234, Littr^) : The author says one must carry philosophy into medicine, and vice versa. The difference between the two disciplines is slight : among other things they have in common is dd€undcufu»flrj ; but medicine is not disposed to try to dethrone the gods — each in its own sphere !

*• See Rohde, PsyeJie, ii. 137. The pre-Socratic literature (including Hijipo- crates) is a remarkable repository of interesting observations and analogies, including a few carefully considered experiments.

*• See Rohde, Pgyche, ii. 138 ; Milhaud, Lemons sur les Origins de la ScUnce Oreeqtte, p. 11 folL Aristotle says Phys. 261^ 25 : 4>v<rtKbp ydp r6 6fLoiu>s ^etv ip &vd<raxt. Hippocr. II. 0(><rtof &p$pi^ov, 6 (6, 42 Littr^) in order to prove that some- thing is #fOT4 ^^ip says : icai ravra roti^et <roi wdma xatrav iifiiprip kcU v^ficra koL Xetftw^* foi 9ip€0t, fUxPts ttp dwarbs j t6 vyevfia HXkcip is iofvrbw Kal rdXtv fudUvai, dvparbs di (<rrai f<rr (Lp rivoi rovriwp <rrepri$i rCw ^vyyeyov&rwp. Who could give a better statement of the constancy of natural law applied to a given case ? n. dialTrjt I. 10 (6, 486 Littr^) tO/d, Sxep rdm-unf iTiKparieratf diivov Atram-a jcord <pCfftP. Leu- cippus (fr. 2 Diels) : oitdh xpVfJ^ fJLdrnjp yiyrrcu, dXXd rdyra ix \&yov re xal inr dtfdyKijs, Hippocr. n. d^/Kaf, 22 (1, 66 Kiihlewein) : ylverai di /cord <f>ii(rtp Uatrra, Epicurus and Lucretius (1, 150) regard the dictum " nuUam rem e nilo gigni divinitus umquam " as the cornerstone of a rational view of the world : Aristotle repeatedly affii-ms that it was the common postulate of the early philosophers. Once {de Gen, et Corr. 317 »> 29) he hints that the intervention of the gods was to be thereby excluded : & fidXurra <l>o^o6fuvoi SieriXeffop ol wpQroi ^i.Xo<ro<f>-fiaain€% rb ix firiSevos ylyeffOai Tpovirdpxovros,

»• Arist., Phys, 196 • 5-11. This means, of course, that the philosophers believed their principles suflBcient to account for things. When later writers charge the Atomista, for example, with having recourse to chance, this is said from the point of view of teleology : a purely physical cause was thought to be no cause at all. On the practical side, chance is luck. The physicians thought they could dispense with it ; see below, n. 152 and 153.

•^ Hippocr. n. T^KiTf, 6 (6, 10 Littr^) rb a^bfiarw o6 tfxilyercu oMtjp Ix<w oitdefUjjp^ dXX' ^ oCpofUL fioupop, Cp. n. Tpo<f>r}s, 14 (9, 102 Littr^) avrbfiaTot xal ovk adrbfAaroi, iffup fih ai/ToiAaroi, alrl-Q 5' o(Jk ainbimroi. In the popular sense rb avr^fxarw is allowed, H. poOjup, A, 7 (6, 152 Litire), H. x^f^^, ^ (5» 486 Littr^).

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authentic utterances of the philosophers of the sixth and fifth centu- ries B.C., thai we should study with especial interest the body of liter- ature emanating in great part firom the pamphleteers who assimilated and disseminated the teachings of the great masters. The latter were, as is the wont of true men of science, more reserved than the motley crowd of pseudo-scientists who caught up their half-expressed conclu- sions and published them in the market places to eager laymen, for whom the scientists entertained only an ill-concealed contempt** No opinion was so well established that they would not sap its roots ; no question was too obscure to baffle explanation. A certain decorous respect was still shown for the gods ; but they had in &ct become su- pernumeraries so &r as concerned the explanation of the world. Thus Hippocrates '' says: " In matters human the divine is the chief cause ; thereafter the constitutions and complexions of women " ; but while the divine is then dismissed, the constitutions and complexions of women are considered at length and made to account for everything. In other cases, as, e. g., in the treatise n. l^^ vowrov, the gods are definitely ruled out as a particular cause, and only the elemental substances, which rule in the human frame, are recognized as divine.'^ Thus the divine working becomes another name for the operation of Nature.

A good illustration of this procedure is found in Hippocrates, n. difxay vSarcDv roinav. After remarking that the Scjrthians worship the eunuchs because they attribute their estate to a god and fear a like fate for themselves, the author says:** ''I myself regard this as divine, as well as everything else. One is not more divine nor human ** than another ; but all are on the same level, and all are divina Yet every one of these things has its natural cause, and none occurs without a natural cause. I will now explain how in my opinion this comes about" Whereupon the author proceeds to give a purely naturalistic explana- tion. You will note here the words Ikootov . . . c^ct <l>wnv t^v cavrov •^

** See above, n. 87. For the physicians, see Hippocr. II. dpdpioy, 67 (4, 280 Littr^), UpoppjrriKbv, 2 (9, 10 Littr^), II. Wx^f, 1 (6, 2 Littr^).

»» n. ywauceliit <f>tMTios, 1 (7, 812 Littr^). Similarly UpoyvwrrtK^tf, 1 (2, 112 Littr^) it is required that the physician stady the nature of the disease to see whether it is too powerful for the strength of the body, Apu di Kod etn BtTov iyeffrt h r^t poi^ouri, Kal Tovriov r^v rp^yotar iKfuu^dweuf, Yet, the main business of the physician is with the disease and its natural causes, which he must combat.

•* Hippocr. n. Upijs ro^ovt 18 (6, 394 Littr^) : raOro 5* i^rl BtuLt &aT€ firfiip UtaKfAvwrra r6 voOcJiiia deiArtpof rcoc \oiirCap lOVfffifMiTW ropdi^etp, dXXd Tdirra $€ia Kal ivOpunrtpa wdrra * 0i^(y 6i (x^i tKOffrov Kcd 5ijvafWf i^* itavrou. For the last phrase see n. 57.

w Ch. 22, p. 64 Kuhlewein. •• Cp. n. 64.

'^ Natorp, Philos. Monatshefte, 21, 581 detects in these words a protest against teleology. I think he is in error : it is rather a protest against the supposition of

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fcoi ovScv oi^cv ^ixrios ytvcrcu. — " Every thing has its natural caase and nothing oocors without a natural cause.'' Natare has usurped the power of deity. Lest any should &il to catch his meaning, the writer, after detailing his naturalistic explanation, repeats: "but as I said above, diis is equally divine with other things ; but everything occurs in accordance with natural law." Elsewhere '* Hippocrates suggests tliat it is ignorance alone which inclines the vulgar to regard epilepsy as a divine visitation. It is in keeping with this view that teleol- ogy is excluded ; even where a modem scientist would involuntarily slip into modes of expression which imply final causes, the pre-Socra- tics, though at a loss for a satisfisu)tory explanation, offer no such sug- gestion.** To the Socratics it was a scandal that Anaxagoras made no teleological use of his Novs.*<^

When nature was thus interpreted, it is dear that the gods must suffer. One recourse was to attribute the organization of the world to them, and then to have done with theuL This is suggested by Hip-

a direct intervention of the gods in the regnlar course of nature. The scientific assumption of proximate, special causes is perhaps an outgrowth of the suppositions of magic, for which see Ed. Meyer, Oesch. des Alterturtxs, i. (a) p. 97. Heraclitus, fr. 1 (Diels) btaipiiav fKCurroi' «rard 0i^tv Kal ^pd^ Skus ^ei appears to mean that the philosopher proposes to give in his philosophical Xiyos both the general law or cause (for 0iJ<rtj includes both ; cp. 11. lepijs po^ov, 1 (6, 352 Littr^) ^i^criv /xiv ^et (epilepsy) Ifp xal rdi Xoixd pova-j^fiaray Wev yiverai ' 4>^<ruf 8i airrj xal Tp6<f>aauf ktX.) and the proximate, particular cause. This latter promise he failed, of course, to keep ; but that is true of every philosophy that has been, or ever will be, devised.

•• n. UpTjs Poi^oVf I (6, 352 Littre) icard. fUp rrp iwoplrpr ainoiai tov fi^ yiyiinrKew t6 B€io¥ avrj diaff<»>^€rai. The similarity of this case with that of tiJxi? and t6 airrb- fiaTO¥ (see above, n. 50 and 51) is at once apfmreut. Science can dispense with chance and God, in proportion as it apprehends the proximate causes of things. The religious bearings of this position need not be developed.

•• Cp. Hippocrates, 11. <p(i(nos waiSlov, 19, 21 (7, 606 and 510 foil. Littr^) in regard to the nails on fingers and toes, and in regard to the rising of milk to the breasts of the mother at parturition. Almost countless other examples might be citiMl. The significance of thi» fact is made clear when one thinks of the constant opposition of t6 o5 heica to t6 dj^ayKoiop by Aristotle (Hist. Animal., Partt. Animal., etc. ) and Galen {De Usu Partt. ), the latter being the point of view of the pre-Socrat- ics, the former that of the Socratic. Plato, Tim, 46 C foil, regards physical causes as mere avwalTta, off 0€6t imjpeTovffiP XAT^** ''^ "^^^ dplffrov irord tA hvvarbv lb4ap

•• See Diels, Vor9okratiker, Anaxagoras, § 47. Rohde, Psyche ii. 192, n. 1 gives the impression that Anaxagoras employed teleology. Such a statement would be absurd. Our sources are explicit on this head. Proclus ad Tim, (ed. Diehl. i. 1) says : *Aw|., tti^ doKei Kad€v66yT<i>v rwp dXXbw rbw vovv atriov itrra rCiv yiyrofi^vup tdtiv, o^Sip iv rats dvoS6^€(rt ir^ocrxp^Tat t$ vf. I add the passage because y it is omitted by Diels. Cp. Gilbert, AristoteUs mid die ForsokrcUiker, Philol., 68,

892-895.

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pocrates,*^ and was, apparently, the r61e assigned by Anaxagoras to his NoOs. Disguise it as he might, Aristotle could find no better solution of the problem. Plato ** puts the question sharply as between Gk>d and Nature, and says that the majority iavor the latter. Such, indeed, was for the moment the logical outcome of the pre-Socratic movement of thought. It might be allowed that the idea of God was innate ; •• but, like all other ideas, it was more likely to be regarded as haying a history, and as requiring explanation along with the other immediate (<^vcris) or mediate (vdfto?) products of nature. Thus, among others, Critias *^ explained belief in the gods as a deliberate fiction concocted by a clever statesman to enforce morality beyond the reach of the law, supporting it with the natural fears inspired in man by ra ficrectf/Hz. It is not necessary here to rehearse the fiamiliar story of rationalism as applied to religion in the fifth century, B.C.; *' but it is not too much to say that philosophy had deliberately enthroned Nature in the place of God.

But nature, thus completely depersonalized, could not so remain indefinitely. Conceived as the power that brings to pass all the events constituting the sum of experience, nature became in fact a Creator and Governor, only deprived of reason and purpose, and identified with the sum of existence.** The Greek mind, with its plastic imagin- ation, was not likely, however, permanently to acquiesce in this imper- sonal view of nature, although ^wri^ was extremely late in attaining personification as a deity. *^ Yet, as we shall see,** a good beginning was made in the pre-Socratic period. The transfer of the functions and attributes of the ancient gods to ^wri^ by the philosophers of the

*^ n. SialrriSj I. 11 (6, 486 Littr^) 4>^uf B^ rdm-wp 0€oi SuKdfffittffOP.

** Soph, 265 C i^ijn d^ wdirra Omfrii xal S^i kclI ^vrd . . . fiuv dWov rufbt ^ Otov drffuoupyoDirros if>i^otiep IkrTepop ylyvtaSai xp&rtpw oi>K /Jrro ; ff rf tCjp roXXuw dSyfiaTi Kol ^'^fJMTt xp^fJ^^oi . . . r^ ^ifiTtp aitrd ycwoM dir6 rivot atrlas airrofidTrfi koX Am(V diayolas ^voiarit, 1j /ierA \6yov re xal iTiffufffifis Betas dwb d€ov yiyvofi^mis ;

•• Hippocrates, n. €^<Txvt^i'0<r6yrjt, 6 (9, 284 Littre) koX ydp fidXurra ^ wtpl d(Q¥ tVhtais h wdtp a^j) ifiTXiKcrai,

•* In the Satyr drama Sisyphus^ fr. 25 (Diels).

•• See Decharme, La Critique des Traditions Religieuaes ehez les Orecs^l^i,

•• Cp. XL 62. With the necessary additions drawn from that passage the follow- ing definition of ^icn by lamblichus (Stobaens, i. 80, 9 Wachsinuth) well expresses the conception of the pre-Socratics : ^6auf 8i Xiyta t^ dx(6/ot<rroy cUrlaw roO k6<thov KoX dx<apl<mat xcpUxovffOP rd% SKat alrlas Trjs ycp^ffeun, Cp. also Hermes (Stobaens I. 289, 26 Wachsmuth) ^ 0(^is rdprw, ^^vaa rd yiyvSiupo^ <pu'qv {^ ^i^iv) rap^xd Tois ^vofiipois.

w See K. Preisendanz, Philologus, XLViix. (1908) pp. 474-5. *«J<rtf is worshipped in the tenth Orphic Hymn.

M See below, notes 106 folL

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sixth and fifth oentaries eventaally bo charged Nature with personal- ity that the Socratio teleology was a foregone conclusion. From Plato onwards, with few exceptions, philosophers proceed with the Sjmthesis: the gods act according to the laws of nature, and Nature assumes the divinity of the gods.

11.

After thus sketching the setting of those works which by common consent bore the title n^l <^v(r€<i)9, it is proposed in this section to con- sider the use of the term <^u(rts among the Greeks of the pre-Socratic period. Although this study is based upon a collection of passages nearly if not quite complete, it is not intended to treat the subject ex- haustively, classifying each occurrence of the term. Such an exhibit^ if carefully and intelligently made, would serve a valuable purpose ; its main uses would, however, be lexicographical rather tham historical and philosophical The purpose of this section is the more modest one of determining somewhat roughly the range of the term ^ixrts, in the period under discussion, as an index of the scope of the conception of Nature. While the chief emphasis will properly fiJl on works to be dated before 400 b.c., we shall have occasion to use, with proper pre- cautions, also certain writings of later date, such as those of Plato and Aristotle. Indeed, the careful student is not likely to be greatly mis- led in this matter by any text of ancient Greek literature. The reason is already clear. The philosophy of the Greeks prior to 400 b.c., with the sole exception of that of Socrates, may all be properly described as concerning itself Tr€pl <^vo-€a>9. As such it is sharply contrasted with the later systems, the main interest of which, with few and relatively nnimportiuit exceptions, lies elsewhere : to wit, in the spheres of logic, ethics, and metaphysics. This new interest did not date from Socra- tes, but had, like all conceptions, an interesting history. If we were here concerned with this history we should have to retrace our steps, 'beginning once more with Homer and the popular notions of the Greeks embodied in religion, mjrthology, and moral precepts. But all this would yield at most a Vorgeschichte ; for the method, which alone is of importance in philosophy proper, was created by Socrates.

There are, strictly speaking, only two periods in the history of occi- dental philosophy, the pre-Socratic and the Socratic. The first took ei^temal Nature as its point of departure, and fixed for all time the fundamental conceptions of physical processes. Even where it con- sidered biological and intellectual processes, it started with mechanical notions and arrived in the end at materialistic conclusions. We may, if we choose, speak of the ethics or metaphysics of the pre-Socratics ;

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bat every careful student will be conscious of a fundamental difference. Socrates, by introducing the logical method of definition, based upon induction and employed in the interest of deduction, discovered a new order of existence, which was subject not to mechanical, but to teleological laws. Teleological facts were known from the beginning of time, and, as we have seen, Nature herself became, in the latter part of the pre-Socratic period, charged with personality in a measure which made a new interpretation of her operations a foregone conclu- sion ; but teleology, considered as a method qf eaplaTuUion, was a dis- covery of the Socratics,

The significance of this tact can hardly be measured ; certainly it has not been appreciated hitherto by historians of philosophy. Among the pre-Socratics conceptions have been found which were certainly alien to their range of thought ; and the fundamental significance of the revolution wrought by Socrates still awaits the appreciation which is its due. Henceforth the world is definitively divided into two spheres, one subject to mechanical, the other subject to final, causes. The latter alone is really " intelligible " ; of the other we may say ore, not Siori. The later Greek systems owe their basic physical concepts ulti- mately, and almost exclusively, to the pre-Socratics: where these con- ceptions were in any way modified, the reasons for the change are commonly to be sought in obviously logical or metaphysical considera- tions traceable to the Socratics. Hence the two discrete streams of philosophical thought, though externally united, flow in the main peacefully side by side, clear and transparent everywhere save at the line of contact, where they become a trifle turbid. Plato and Aristotle constantly betray their dependence upon the predecessors of Socrates for their physical concepts ; and where the post- Aristotelians departed from the specifically Platonic- Aristotelian doctrines^ they harked back firankly to one or another of the pre-Socratics for their physical theories.

In the following sjmopsis the attempt has been made to classify the uses of the word ^vo-ts in such sort as to suggest their relations one to another and to the root-meaning, which is assumed to be "growth." The scheme makes no claim to finality or completeness, being intended primarily as a means of displaying in a more or less logical order the chief connotations of the term. The inner history of the semasiology may be left to others whose interests incline them to such studies.**

•• I regret to say that I hiTC not been able to obtain Der Begriffder Physia in der gruchiaehen Philosophies I Tbeil, von K Hardy, Berlin, 1884. I know it only at second hand, chiefly through the reviews of Natorp (in Philosophische Monatshefte, 21 (1885), pp. 672-598) and of Lorteing (in Bursian's Jahresbericht, 96 (1899), pp. 228-225). There is a brief study of ^6cis in Ch. Huit, La Philosophie de la Nature chez U»

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97

)»rimary meaning, "^ growth.

I. ^6<nt as a process.

II. <p6(nt as the be^D- uing (» a process.

Synapsii of the U$e$ of 4>6<nt,

tA. in the concrete : growth as a phenomenon or fact B. in the abstract : growth as a law, principle or * force * of nature.

'A. the starting point of the process considered imperson- ally as phynical element, original condition, or place of origin. (Aristotle's ** material cause.")

NcUura crcalrix, ' e&cient cause.'

B. regarded as a person or originator. (Aristotle's "efficient cause.")

III. 0<^it as the end or result of a process. (Aristotle's "final cause," which, in the com- plete circle is identified with the "efficient cause.")

A. regarded from

/'I. individual, — 0ui^, (U/xi), (Aris-

B. regarded from within, as char- ^ acter or consti- tution.

totle'a hncKix^ia). :±"al 1JZ\ 2-X''''= - generic. -/««. yi^. or constitution. ^

v8. uniyersal, — KSafi^i.

1. physical: 'chemically* define<l or analyzed into its constituent elements in pre-Socratic times, regarded with reference to its origin ; (by the Socratics defined teleologically, with reference to its meaning or end).

^a. regarded positively, as power, talent, in- stinct, native endow-

2. mental -< ""^o*- . regarded negatively,

as natural limita- tions.

Let US now tarn to the uses of ^vo-cs, following the order of the syn- opsis and noting the implications involved in them. Etymologically ^ixrts means "growth : " as an abstract verbal its first suggestion (I.) is that of a process. The process of growth may be regarded concretely

AncienSt Paris, 1901, pp. 65-69. Somewhat fuller is Woodbridge, The Dominant Conception, of the Earliest Greek Philosophy, Philas. Rev., 1901, pp. 369-374, which was brought to my attention, after this article was in the hands of the printer, by Lovejoy, The Meaning of 4>6<ns in the Oreek Physiologera, Philos. Rev. (July), 1909, pp. 369-383. Professor W. A. Merrill's study of The SignifiecUion and Vm of the Word Natura hy Lttcretius (Proceedings of the American Philol. Ass'n, July, 1891, vol. 22, pp. xxxii-xxxiv) will serve as an interesting illustration of the influence of pre-Socratic usac^e. The same may be said of the articles nature^ kind, and kin, in the Oxford English Dictionary. One cannot overlook the lexicographical stadies of ^t^tf found in Aristotle's Phys, B, 1 (and in briefer form. Met. A, 4). Reference will be made to his distinctions at the proper points in the survey. There are several wonls of similar origin and meaning which should be studied in connex- ion with ^(kth if a really exhaustive account of the word is to be given from a lexi- cographical point of view. Among them may be mentioned ^vii and y4iva. Of cnuree ^iJfU' in all its uses is of the utmost importance ; but, for our present purpose, these may be disregarded, except for occasional illustration. VOL. XLV. — 7

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(I. A) as a tact or phenomenon. This conception was to the Qreeks so obyioQS ^^ that the £sbct of natural growth lay at the foundation of their thought Growth implies life, and life implies motion. This is true of Greek thought always. The growth denoted by ^ixrts refers to animal as well as to vegetable life ; wherefore <I>vt6v appears originally to have applied to the former as well as to the latter. It is noteworthy that ^vo-is, as implying motion, seems always to denote a process or a phase of such process ; that is to say, specifically the process itself, taken as a whole,^^ or its beginning, progress, or end. It does not lend itself, therefore, to use as an absolute 0^x17 : it is consequently always opposed', or subordinated to, creative force as such.^* These ideas clearly hark back to the pre-Socratic period. In Empedocles we find <^i^i9, in the sense of absolute origination, denied ;^' in Aristophanes ^^ we find ^vo-ts in the sense of origin. It is difficult to classify certain uses of f^vo-ts, where it may be rendered birth, descent, age, lineage, etc., but they may be set down here for convenience.^' But ^v(ri9, as a process, may be viewed abstractly (I. B) as natural

^* Arist. Phys, 193* 3 ws 5' icriv if ^d<ns T€ipcUr$at dccici^at yeXaiiop, These words apply to <t>C<ns as a whole, which, according to Aristotle, is a process.

^ There is an interesting passage in Plato's Phaedo 71 E foil., where he is apply- ing to the soul the principles of the pre-Socratica : ovk drrairodd>aofxep t^p ivojrriop y4y€ffiM, dXXA Ta&rjj x^^h ^(frat ij 4>6<ns ; 1j dvdyxrf dvodoOtm r^ iiirodrQ<rK€w ivayriop TUfik y4y€ffip; , . , t6 dyapubffK€(T$ai. Here 0i^(f is the circular process as a. whole.

^* Thus Arist. can say if biffuovp/y-fiaaaa 0i^if, De Parti, Anim, 645*9, but that is said metaphorically ; habitually ^i/<rcf is opposed to diVa/tus and r^io;, in that they operate from without, whereas ^tArcf resides within : De Cael. 301^ 17 iwcl 8i tp^an lUv iffTW ij hf oi)r# hwdpxovaa KUfifaetai i^x^» S^tufus i^ ij ip &\\(i> -f &\\o, Cp. Met. 1049*8. Met. 1070* 7 if fihf odv rix^ ^PXh ^ ^XXy, if 6i if>6<ns dpxh ^ ai>rf?. As the Stoics regarded God as immanent, they could speak of Zeds Tcxf^lrris. In Plato, Tim. 41 C even the $€ol 0€wp are bidden : rpireffdc icard ^iaip OneTs iirl tV tup ^t^ drifuovpylop. Without discussing whether Plato's Siffuovpryis was regarded as a creator me^rly icar* iwlpoiop or not, it is clear that nature is supposed to proceed according to her own laws, and * creation * is not drX^ ^A^o-tf.

^* Fr. 8 (Diels) ; <p6<ns oiievds iaruf inrdjmav \ Ovrp-Qv^ oif54 ris oitXofx^ov OapaToio TfX«in-iJ, I dXXd fi6pop fd^is re SidWa^ls re fuyirrufp \ i<rrlf 0i^cf 3* ixl rotf dpofidf^erai dpOpunrouriM, Aristotle, Met. 1014*35 curiously misinterprets ^i^ts here, equating it with TpiifTfi <riJi^€<rtf, possibly because he misquoted Uwrtav for drdirraw, quoting (as usual) from memory. The slavish commentators do not correct him. Empedocles implies that laymen understand ^tVcr as dTkri 7^0-it, which the philosophers one and all denied. Aristotle recognizes 0i^cf « yive<n% Phys. 193* 12 #r( b* ij ^Otris ij \eyotUvri lin yimrts Ms 4<rriP els 4>6aiy («- els oiMriav^ cp. Met. 1003* 7). Met. 1014* 16 fpvffis Xtferoi . , . if Twr ^^vofUnap yiveffts.

^* Ao. 691 ^lATU' olu)i^ yivevip re deiop. This occurs in the so-called *Oi-phic cosmogony.'

^' Op. Soph. Ant, 726 ol Ti?Xtifo/5e koX 8t8a^Sfie<r$a 8/) I ^pw€iv (nr* d^dpbs Tri\tKou9€ t)p ^Offiu; 0. C, 1295 dr ^^ei nJrrepot* Track, 379 fj Kipra Xafixpd koI rar ti^ofM

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law, principle, or force. As we have seen, ^vo-ts and ff>v€w seemed to imply a growth from within, directed not by an external force or power, bat obedient to its own laws. The importance of this conception can- not easily be measared. It expresses succinctly the opposition of urropta ir€fH if>v<r€m and fiv$<K ircpl 0€Qiv. As Aristotle well puts it^ Phys, 192*" 8 : TCI ftcK C0T4 <fiva'€if Ta 8c St' aXXjos cuTw. That which is ^wrci is auto- nomous, or, as the Socratics would say, avroftarov. The pre-Socratics, when they use to avrofiarov strictly, deny its existence in nature, since every thing has its cause, though we may be ignorant of it The law of nature is an inner constraint or dvaym^J* Hence ^vo-t?, besides be- ing the embodiment of all natural laws, is also tbe mode ^^ of operation, or Tp<nro9, and so comes to mean the customary. ^^ Indeed habit becomes a " second-nature," ^* and thus approaches vd/io9.*<> It was apparently

Kcd ^{fffof. Probably the last (« lineage) should be classed under III. A, 2, but many cases present difficulties.

^* Eurip. Troad, 886 ZeiJt, cfr' difdyicTf 0i5<reof efrf wDf Pporuif, Here, as often, it is difficult to distinguish whethei it is the mode or the force which predominates in the conception of law. The conception of 0i5<rtj as comparable to ivdyKii is neatly shown in Hippocr. II. dudrrjSf A, 28 (6, 502 Littr^) i/vx^ M^ odv aUl d/xolrf ical iv fU^ovi Koi i¥ iXdiraovi ' o^ yhp iWoiovrai o(iT€ did <f>Cffiv oUrt bC di,vdyK7iv autfui Si oifS^- KOT€ Tiah-b oiht «rard <p6fftif odd* hx* dpdyKr)S. As has been already said, the Socratics did not really understand what the pre-Socratics meant by saying that a phenomenon occurs d^dyiq) ; as it was opposed to what occurs according to design, it was rashly described almost indifferently as due to no- cause at all, to tuxv* or to r6 a^S/mroif. Cp. such popular phrases as ij dyayKoia r{rx,% Soph., Ai. 485.

^ Hippocrates, n. dcriutv ^iJ<rtoj, 18 (9, 194 Littre) ^ ik ix tQv dpLtmpGw <p\4\f/ . . . rV a^ifp i>tuciP ippli^iorai rj iv rotai Se^idiffu'. If one compares the analogous use of dt^pafjuM, e.g. Hippocrates, H. 5ta/Ti?j, A, 10 (6, 484 Littr^) 6a\dfffffis SOmfitv, and the common adverbial use of dlicrfy, one is naturally struck by the circle of ideas from which the usage springs. The comparison shows the need of caution in inferring etymology from particular senses of a word. Cp. Soph., PhiL^ 164 f. piorrji <P\lktip (— rp^w),

^* The association of ^^is with t6 eluBSs is common ; see, e.g. Hippocrates, II. leprjs poOffov, 14 (6, 888 Littre) ff rt dWo ir€ir6p$rj wddos wapd t^ ^^ip 6 fiij iibdti. Hpo- ywtaartK6pf 2 (2, 112 ff. Littr^). It is the best sign in regard to the symptom, €l 6px>i.b» itm Tcliffi rOtf {rfuuvbvTtaVy fidXiirra 8i el airrb iu>vTi<t>, oOna ydp Ay efrj dpivroVy rh hk ipamiinarop rod bpjotov^ dew&raToy, (For t6 <f>6(r€i in relation to likeness, see Proclus in Platon, CrcU,^ pp. 7, 18 ff., Pasquali.) Ibid, passim rb ^^pri$€t is regarded as /card ^>^uf. [Arist.] Ftobl. 949»31 tA rdXtp e/s rd tlwdimi iXOcuf Ciarripia yivrrai avrois Cxnrep c/f ^Cffews Kardaraaaf, Thueyd, II. 45, 2 (advice to women) ttjs re ydp inrap- Xo^ijt 4>^etas fiij x^^P^^^ y€v4<r0ai ifup fieydXri ij d6|a.

^ Democritus, fr. 33 ^ <f>6(ns kcU ij Sidax^ xapaxXijirUiv iffru koI ydp ii Stdaxh fternpwrfUH rbv ^jfOpwrov, firrapvfffiowra 8i 4>v<noToui. [Arist.] Prohl, 949* 27 Ai^a lUv Ti xal t6 fOos iarlv iKdarois • ^6ini ydp Ifiri yivcrat. Theophrastus, C P, il. 5, 5 t6 ydp fOos (referring to plant life) ClxTTep ^o-ls y4yope. Cp. Nauck, Poet. Trcig. Fr, Adespota, 516 ; Xen. Lacon, 8, 4.

** The fact that the pre-Socratics contrasted ^i^is and v6tMt is instructive. They

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on the analogy of such words as ivaymy,*! voftos, airto, 84107, ^<>ro«i etc^

that the ubiquitous constructions #caTa ^wiv, irapa ^wriv, ^tKTCi, <l>v(riv

Ix^iVi*' were built Though they often connote other notions, such as cause, their fundamental reference seems to be to what we call law. The fi^uency of such phrases is significant of the prevailing suggestion which ^v(rt9 had for ^e investigators ircpl <^v(re(09. There is here a marked contrast between the implicit and explicit signification of terms. S^ch phrases as vapa ^vo-iv have no proper sense except in relation to a teleological interpretation of nature ; *' but it is obvious that the pre-Socratics were not aware of this implication. They built up a structure of conceptions which of necessity led to teleology, but |t was

felt instinctively the i>arallelism of human and physical law, hut the latter was con- sciously their point of departure. Yet in trying to interpret physical law, they necessarily imported conceptions derived from human law, as, e.g. the dlxri of Anax- imauder and Heraclitus. When Simonides said d^dyKgi d' o{fS^ Otol fidxom-ai he meant much the same as the (intermittent) tyranny of Motpa in Homer. I can- not but think that Pindar (Plato, Gorg, 488 C, 484 B) p6fios 6 vdtnrcw paaiXeifs Bparwif T€ Kcd ddcLydrufp — d7€t dtKoiiOf t6 ^tai'jrarov vTeprdrgL x^^P^ meant the same thing : cp. also the overruling God of Heraclitus, who is also A/in;. So, at any rate, Plato interpreted the saying {Oorg. 483 C, Legg. THE), as did Hippocrates, H. 701^^, 1 (7, 470 Littr^) vSfios /Up wdvra Kpar^i, and the Anonymus lamblichi (Diels, Forsokr.^ 6S2y 31 foil.). Of course, in an age when 4>6(ns and wofjLOi were contrasted, the opposite interpretation would also be found ; cp. Plato, Protag. 387 C foil., Hdt., III. 38, V I. 104, Critias, fr. 25 (Diels). Cp. Galen, i>« Usu Partium, xi. 14 (in. 905 f. Kiihn), and Nestle, Neue Jahrb. fiird. klass. Altert., 1909, p. 10 foil. Zeller, Ueber Bcgriff u. BegrUndang der sittlichen Gesetze, Abh, d. Berl. Akad., 1882, cites some interesting phrases characteristic of the blending of ^(nrit and pb/un. Cp. Arist. Ciiel 268* 13, Ariua Did. (Diels Lhx, 464,24 if.). The latter, siieakiug of the Stoics, says Kounapiav J* inrdpxfu^ rphs dWi/jXovs Sid t6 Xiryov furix^ip^ 6% itrri 4>(f<r€i p6/ios. The common possession of reason is here the basis of law : conversely in Hippocrates, n. hrrafxiivovy 9 (7, 460 Littr^) the possession of a common physical composition is the foundation of the inexorable law that all must die : Kal ye 6 Odvaroi 5td rijp fioiprip fXax^f'' ^&tfTe vapdSeiyfUL toTj ircUriP elpoif ^t irdrro <f>v<Tty ix^ii ^k tCjp aMwp ijvTo^ fiera^oXdt fx^^ ^^ XP^"^" ^<^ Upov/Upiop, Here iiolpa has become expressly a physical law inhering in matter.

•^ Cp. Thucyd. v. 105 rfyo^neOa ydp t6 re $€iop 86^-(f t6 dy6pdnr€i6p re aa^tws iid xaprbs vir6 0(^(rewf dpayKcUrfSy oC dy /cparj, d/)x««' • Kal iifuU oCre Ohrti t6p p6fiop kt\. Cp. Plato, Gorg. 483 E ; Eurip., Troad. 886 ; Hipjiocrates, H. <rap<cwr, 19 (8, 614 Littr^) ttjs di 4)6<nos rijp dpdyKTjp^ ^iirt ip hrrd ro&reujp fKaara dioiKeirai, iyC» <f>pd<r(i) ip dWoifftP. U. 5ta/7^j, A, 6 (6, 476 foil. Littre) wdvra ylprrai fit* dpdy/cTfp Oelrjp is said from the point of view of Heraclitus.

** With ^6<rtp (x^ip one should class such uses as ^0i/, Soph. Elect, 860, where it stntes a natural law. One also meets dpdyicrpf ix^tp Cxn-e c. inf.

•• Natorp, Philos. Monatsh. 21, p. 575 rightly refers to this fact ; but he fails to observe that the pre-Socratics did not draw the obvious inference. In Aristotle, of course, the thought is clearly expressed, e.g. Phys, 193* 32 {i<rT€p rixp^i Xfyrrat rh Kard rix^nfPf oOrw koX 0i^ts t6 Kard p^tP Xiyerau

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the Socratics who seized the import of their labors, and, by introducing the teleological method, reconstituted philosophy. Even in the post- Socratic period teleology, because seen essentially from the pre-Socratio point of view, became, for example among the Stoics, an idle play-thing, being purely external**

The step is short and easy from <^ixrw, regarded as a process eventu- ating in a result, to ^vo-t? considered as the author or source of that which so results (II.). The distinction must lie in the degree of em- phasis laid upon the beginning of the process as distinguished from its end, and, by consequence, in the degree of disruption visited upon the process as a whola Such a separation is the result of analysis, and the relative prominence of the members into which the unitary process £bi11a may reasonably be supposed to indicate the direction of interest of those who used the terms. This is, however, a point extraordinarily difficult to determine in a satisfactory way. It is safe to say that the layman is chiefly interested in ^vo-t^, the result of the nature-process : he takes it for granted — his not to question why. It must^ therefore, occasion no surprise that by far the most numerous uses of <^v(7i9 belong to this class (III.). The philosopher, also, must begin with the finished product and from it reason back to ita source. In a peculiar way ^vo-t9 in this sense (II.) will occupy his attention ; but it is obvious that the distinction between cause and law must be difficult to draw. Even in the philosophical and scientific literature of our day it is almost im- possible to maintain a sharp distinction between them. We *may be inclined to lay this to the charge of the Aristotelian usage ; but this solution would fiJl short of historical truth. As we shall see, the four- fold causation of Aristotle, united in <f>va-K, is rooted in pre-Socratic usage, though Aristotle reinterpreted the pre-Socratic X0709 fttifcws, or chemical definition, converting it into a Xdyo? oia-w as the result of logical definition, and at the same time made explicit the unconscious teleology of the pre-Socratics by recognizing in the logical definition the final cause.

Touching the beginning of the process, the philosophers were chiefly interested in what Aristotle styled the "material cause" (II. A). There is no reason to doubt that the pre-Socratics used ^wris in this sense.*' Aristotle speaks of Thales as the founder of the philosophy

•* From certain points of view modern philosophy, from Kant onwards, may be said to be the attempt to interpret the world in terms of teleology consciously conceived as the method of human thought. At bottom Pragmatism is hardly any- thin;; more than an effort to do this consistently, leaving no Absolute outside the teleological process.

*' It is one of the many services of Baruet (see above, n. 8) that he directed

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which deals with the material cause,** and says thai the majority of the first philosophers regarded material causes as the sole causes of all things.*^ Empedocles ** uses ^vo-ts of the substance contributed by the parents to the birth of their oflFspring, and Hippocrates •• does so likewise in the same connexion. In another passage Hippocrates well illustrates this force of <^v(ri9. He is engaged in a polemic against the monists, who assert that all is one, and makes the point that a living being does not arise from even a multiplicity of substances unless they are mixed in the right proportions,** and hence d fortiori^ could not arise from a single substance. He then proceeds : *^ " Such being the

attention to this usage, though I cannot but differ from him in the interpretation of individual texts. It would serve no useful purpose to specify further instances. But it should be noted that 0iJ<rts in this sense means * natural kind,* and hence is proba- bly denved from iii. A, 2. Op. IS^ai^ n. 89, and ef5co, n. 113.

»• Met. 983»» 20, interpreted by 983* 7 foil.

•^ Met, 988* 7 : tQv 5 J) vpthnap <^i\o<ro<prf<TdPT09w ol irXetOTO* rdf iw CXrit €{3ci fiAi^s ifi-fldr^oM ipx^f ^^"ox wimav, Proclus in Tim, (Diehl, I. p. 1) says to the same effect cl fih ToXXoi rw vp6 ToO HXdruvos ^wriKtop vepl rffv CXrpf bUrpiyj/w, Cp. Gilbert, Aristoteles und die Vorsokratiker, Philol. 68, 368 foil.

•• Fr. 63 dXXA SUffTatrrai fuX^ufP 0i^(f • ■^ ftiv iv dydp6s. Diels renders : **der Ursprung der Glieder liegt auseinander ;" Burnet : **the substance of (the child's) limbs is divided between them, part of it in the man's and part in the woman's (body).'* Here I agree in the main with Burnet. The phrase fieXiufp ff>6ffit occurs also in Farm., fr. 16, 8, where Burnet gives it the same sense, whereas Diels renders : "die Beschaffenheit seiner Organe." In this case I agree with Diels.

•• n. 7or^t, 11 (7, 484 Littre) iTr)tf Si rl oi p6<r7}fia Tpoa-iri<rg kuI toO iiypoO a&roOf d0' o5 t6 (rxipfia yliKTaif ricnrapes ISiai ioOffat, 6K6<rai iv tp^ati. inrrjp^^ tV yov^iv oOx SXtpf irapixovauff ktX,

•• IT. <pOfftot dy0p(^ov, 3 (6, 38 Littr^). There is much in this discussion which applies the reasoning of Empedocles, for the interpretation of whose thought it is of extreme importance. It clearly presupposes and combats the theory of Diogenes of Apollonia (cp. espec. fr. 3, beginning). For the interpretation of Empedocles the statements regarding fit conditions of mixture for yip€<ns are of especial interest, since they imply definite proportions and the admixture of all four elements. The intimate relation of Empedocles to the medical schools should be constantly borne in mind. Medicine, so far as it consisted in the ministration of medicaments, was essentially the art of interfering in the roicrocosmic ir6X6juos, which reproduced in miniature the cosmic ir6XefU)j, and of preventing irucpdrcia of the several elements by combatting the overbearing and assisting those which were in danger of succumbing. One might be misled into supposing that Greek prescriptions were not precise, because few such are found in Hippocrates. The reason, I believe, is that Hippocrates insisted on a minute study of the individual case, for which precise prescriptions for general distribution would be unsuitable. That prescriptions were given by formula we know : cp. Hippocrates, 11. tifCxniMc^t^ 10 (9, 238 Littr^) xpoKaroffKcvdcdta 64 <roi , , . woT-^fULTa TifiM€iP SwdfJLeva i^ dvaypct^^s iffxtvafffiiwa wpbt rd yiP€a, These are classified prescriptions.

*^ n. 4>6(rtot dy$piJ^ov, 3 (6, 88 Littr^).

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constitation (4^wni) of the universe and of man, it follows of necessity that man is not one substance, but each ingredient contributed to his birth keeps the self-same force (3vva/us) in the body that it had when contributed.** And each must return again to its natural kind (eh r^ iujvTov <l>wny), when man's body ceases to be, — the moist to the moist, the dry to the dry, the hot to the hot, and the cold to the oold. Such is the constitution (^vo-ts**) of animals and of all things else ; all things originate in the same way, and all end in the same way ; for their con- stitution is composed of the aforesaid substances and terminates in the same in ihe aforesaid manner, — whence it sprung into existence, tiiither also does it return.'' ^

Here we find peacefully side by side two uses of <^u(ri9, (1) that of elemental constituent and (2) that of the resultant constitution. Among the strict monists there would be no real distinction, and thus there would be a show of reason for Professor Burnet's main contention if one limited its application to the lonians and insisted on a strictly monistic interpretation of their thought ;*^ but where a multiplicity of elemental constituents are recognized, the two uses must differ at least

** This is interesting and important in view of its evident dependence upon Empedocles. Those who incline to regard Empedocles as a shifty and inaccurate pseudo-philosopher and decline to take seriously his doctrine of /li^tt, as does Profes- sor Millerd, Chn the Interpretation of Empedocles, p. 89 foil., should reckon with Hippocrstefl instead of relying entirely on scraps of his philosophical poem, espe- cially when Aristotle agrees with Hippocrates. The fact that Aristotle found Em- pedocles' doctrine of the elements inconsistent with Aristotle's own misinterpretation of Empedocles' ** union into one " (Millerd, p. 40) means absolutely nothing to those who know how prone the Stagirite was to find his own "indeterminate matter" in his predecessors. (See my essay Qualitative Change^ etc. , and Burnet, 2d ed. p. 57.) The fact is, and it ought to be emphasized, that the significance for the pre-Socrat- ics of a knowledge of Hippocrates has been too much neglected even by scholars otherwise competent. The study of Qualitative Change which I published in 1906 would have gained immensely in value if I had then realized the evidential value of the Hippocratean corpus and of general Greek literature for these subjects and had incorporated the materials drawn from these sources which were then at my command. This is not, however, the proper occasion for a rehandling of that whole question, and it must therefore be postponed.

** This [lassage well illustrates the fact that, while the philosopher does speak of the elemental substance as 0i^ts, when he uses the term in a general way, as, e.g. the 0i$(rtt of a man or the 0i^it of the universe, he means the ''constitution" of things. This agrees well with the conclusion of Professor Millerd, On ihe InUrpre* UUion of Empedocles, p. 20.

^ Such an interpretation I cannot accept for the lonians (see my QuaJitaHve Change, etc.), since strict monism implies the interpretation of r6 li' as t6 S/juhop, which appears distinctly first in the Eleatios. Even Diogenes is not to be regarded as a consistent mooist, since he admitted distinctions in his One.

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in this, that in the second sense (fiva-K is a collective comprising the individual ^vo-as •• of which it is the sum.**

It is probable that Democritus also spoke of the atoms as <^v(ri9 in the sense of elemental constituents of things, though this is not alto- gether certain.*^ Burnet likewise discovers this meaning in a frag- ment •• of Diogenes of Apollonia, though as a would-be consistent monist Diogenes could ill distinguish. Closely allied to this force of <l>v<n^ is that in which ^vVts appears as the natural or original place or condition of a thing. Thus Hippocrates** speaks of a joint, in dislocation, as leaving, and on being replaced, as returning to, its 4>v(ns. It will be recalled that^ according to Aristotle, each element has its ouccios roTTos to which it betakes itself as naturally as a cat returns home. Thus we find ^ Apxaia <f>v(n^ denoting the original form or condition in Plato, ^** and <l>v<nq coupled with apxaCa icaToorcurt? ; but these turns lead naturally, if indeed they do not belong, to the use of <^v<n^ as constitution.

•• The plural 0i5(rcif, in this sense, is rare, cp. Arist, Met. 987*17 ; [Arist.], De Mnndo, 896M4 ; Philodem., De Morte (Diels, ForsoAr..^ 385, 17). [PlatoJ Epm, 981 D, uses the singular, not the plural, as one might gather from Diels, Elementiim^ p. 22.

•• The recognition of this is common ; e.g. Hippocrates, II. <ff6<nos ij^Bpilncovy 4 (6, 38 foil. Littre) rb di (rufixi roO difdpii)wov ix^i iv itaxrr^ aXfM Kal ff>\4yfia xai x<>^V*' ^avB^ T€ KcU fiiXaiyatff Kal ravr' icrrlp aM<fi ij <f>i&ait tov atbiMTOS, kqX 5td ravra dX^^et Koi Oyiaiv€u Cp. also Plato, Phil. 29 A.

•' Democr. fr. 168. But the words of Simplicius are a comment on Arist., Phys, 265^ 24 5tA Si rb K€Pbv KivcTaBaL ipaa^ip • Kal ydLp oCroi (the Atoraists) tt^v Karik totov Klpr}(ruf Ktyelcrdai rqv <f>Ociv \4yovaiy and may have no other warrant. But rJ^r ^0<raf in the Aristotelian passage means, alnwst certainly, ** Nature," as Prantl renders it. On the other hand, Epicurus calls rb- k€v6p (which differe fi-om rb vaarbv^ acconling to Democritus, only as (i-qSh from Siv) by the name of dw^?;s 0t^tt, though this may only be a periphrasis for rb dva^s. But see Arist., i/e^., 985* 4 foil.

•• Fr. 2 frepof dv rj Ibiqi 4nj<r€i, This Burnet renders : "by having a substance peculiar to itself ; " Diels says "anderes in seinem eigenen Wesen," which is probably the true meaning, implying constitution (composition ?).

•• n. &p0puv, 30 (4, 144 Littre) ; ibid. 61 (4, 262 Littr^).

^^ Syinp. 191 A. ii (pfjcit Slxa irpL-ffit} ; 191 C ^<rrt ... 6 ^p«f ffupvTos dXXi^Xov Tois dpdpunroit Kal rrjt dpxa^os <f>va€(as <rvvay(ay€i>s Kal iirix^ipQp Toiij<rai fr iK dvoif xal IdLffacrBai rijv <p6<TUf tjjp dpOpoyirlprjp ; 192 E ^ dpx^^^ ^t^ais ; 198 C elsT)jp Apxalajf dreX- $ufp <p6<np. Cp. Repub. 547 B ivl t^p Apxaiajf KardaraffiP. In Democritus, fr. 278 we find dxb <p6(nos Kal KaraffTdffios dpxairft. Protagoras (Diels, Vorsokr, ii. 627, 1) is reported to have written a work II. rrjt ip dpxv KaTaardaetas (perhaps a sort rif n. <p{f(r€U)s dpdpunrov) from which Nestle, Neue Jahrb. fiir klass. Altert., 1909, p. 8, thinks Plato freely transcribed the myth in the Protag. 320 C, foil. Hdt. viii. 83 says ip dvdpu)7rov ipOai Kal KaTdffa(ri. Here belongs also Aristotle's Trpun-n ff^pStffis (see n. 73) and Hippocrates* ^ i^ dpx^s ajjcTociSj U, buUrTitf A, 2 (6, 468 Littr^).

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We have seen that in the world of Homeric thought every event was regarded as due to the activity of the gods, and that, as the conception of Nature replaced that of the gods as a basis of explanation, ff>v(n<: was conceived as the source of the manifold activities of the world. The phenomena of life, cosmic and ifiicrocosmic, seeming to occur spontaneously and without external cause ^^^ and direction, naturally engrossed the attention of ^ the philosopher and might well make it appear possible to dispense with a special cause of motion. Aris- totle ^^^ complains that the first philosophers did not concern them- selves with this question, confining themselves to the investigation of the material cause ; and such anticipations of his efficient cause as he finds in the early cosmogonists and cosmologists bear the stamp of vital and psychic agencies, hardly distinguishable firom the personifica- tions of mythology. From these facts divergent conclusions have been drawn, some assuming that the m}thical conceptions continued essen- tially unchanged, others finding a refined animism to which they give the name of hylozoism or hylopsychism. The first conclusion is shown to be false by the mechanical interpretation put upon the activities of the mythically named agencies ; ^®' the second presupposes distinc- tions which developed only at a later period. ^^^ In general the phil- osophers appear to have contented themselves with the recognition of the autonomy of nature, assigning no ground for her activity, since she seemed herself to be the sufficient explanation of events. The strict exclusion of divine agency not unnaturally suggests a conscious effort to eliminate such interference, though this inference might be wrong ; on the other hand the habit of saying that certain phenomena occur " of themselves " or " of necessity " or " by chance '' gave, as we have seen, great offense to the teleological Socratics. A modem philoso- pher, conscious of the difficulties presented by an attempt to define causality and necessity, would judge these early thinkers with less severity. But the constant criticism of pre-Socratic philosophers by their Socratic successors, due to the teleological prepossessions of

"* Spontaneous generation of animal life, for exani]ile, seems to have been gener- ally accepted for lower forms. As philo80|)hy advanced the higher forms of life were iiicladed, at least at the beginning of the worUl.

*•• Aristotle, Met. 984» 18-985* 22. Cp. Gilbert, Aristotcles unddie VorsokraWcer, Philol., 68, 878 foU.

*•* In Empedoclea this is obvious to all who regard him as a philosopher and consider the evidence ; it is equally clear in regard to Parmenides. Cp. my Quali- iative Change^ n. 89, and see also ibid. un. 55 and 65.

!•* For thja see Burnet, ed. 2, p. 15 folL

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the latter, ^<^* is suggestive of the tardiness with which they came to ooDsider the implications of causality and the laws of nature.

The use of <^u(ri9, with more or less personification, as the author of a process (11. B), appears relatively late, as we should expect.^^^ Hip- pocrates speaks of Nature as arranging the vitals in the inner parts ; ^^^ says of the auricles of the heart that they are instruments by which she takes in the air, adding that they seem to be the handi- work of a good craftsman ; i®* refers to the vis medicatrix natwras^ Nature having discovered tiie methods without understanding and un- taught ; ^0* she makes glands and hair ; ^^® she can prepare the way for and ofiier resistance to instruction '^^} she is all-sufficient ; ^^^ she

*•• It is perhaps unnecessaiy to cite passages, but the intrinsic interest of the following may justify one in quoting it Arist. De Partt, Animal. 641^ 20 : ol di tu» flip r<JK^ ^icaoTOP <l>C<T€i ipturlp elmt koI y€v4a$aij rhp di oitpophp drd t&x.'H^ f*^ ''o*' o.\rrO' fidrov ToiovTOP ffwrrrjpoi, h ^ dwb ti/x'T* «f«i ira^Lat oW* 6tioGp ^xUprrai. Topraxov Si T^e TOvd€ Ivc/ca, 6tov Bm tpalprjrat riXos ri irpbs i if Klprfffit irfpalvti /xrjdf-pbt ifiroSt^op- roi. &aT€ €lpai <paP€p6p 6ti iari ri ToiovroPf i d)} xal KaXovficp <f>6(rLP, o^ ydp S)) 5ti tnrx!^ i^ iKdiTTov ylpercu airipfMTOt, dXXd t6B€ iK toD56, oirdi trwipfui t6 tvx6p iic rod Tvx^os (TtbfMTos, ^PX^ ^^ '^ roiTfTiKitP ToO i^ avToO rb awipfM, ^i^ei ydip ravra <f>tkrat yovp iK to&tou. dXXd fiffp (ri ro&rov wp&repop t6 o5 rb awipfia • yip€ffis fUp yh.p t5 aripfia, ovela 8i t6 tAoj. Op. Ed. Meyer, OeschichU des Altert. I. (a), p. 106 : ** Vielleicht noch verbreiteter (than the belief that divinities reside in inanimate ob- jects, such as stocks and stones) ist der Glaube, dass die Gotter in Tieren ihi*en Wohnsitz haben. Die Tiere sind lebendige Wcsen, die eine willenstarke Secle haben wie der Mensch ; nur sind sie nicht nnr an Kraft dem Menschen vielfach iiberlegen, sondern vor allem viel geheimnisvoUer, unberecheubarer und dabei zugleich durch ihren Instinkt viel sicherer und zielbewusster in ihi-em Auftreten als der Mensch : sie wissen vieles, was der Mensch nicht weiss. Daher sind sie fur die primitive Anschauung recht eigentlich der Sitz geheimnisvoUer gottlicher Machte." Tliese same qualities of animals, as we shall see, shared in the development of the idea of 0i;(rtf which took the place of that of the go^Js for purposes of explanation.

*•• Not all the passages cited emphasize the agency of Nature, and the degrees of personification differ ; but personification in any degree implies or suggests agency, and for convenience, if for no other reason, the uses should be considered together.

*W n. 6»aTOfi7i% 1 (8, 538 Littrd) rd /it^ i^ d^d pAcoP irrbs ^lArtt iKoapL-ffiri, Cp. Bonitz, Index Arist. 836» 26.

*•• n. Kopdi-ns, 8 (9, 84 Littre) i<m di Spyat^ rotai ii 4>^is d/nrd^ci rbp ijipa, xal- Toi boKiio rb TolrjpLa xftp^»««fTOj dyaOoO.

lot *Eri8ripi. VI. 5, 1 (5, 814 Littre) poj^up <f>6ffi€t IrfrpoL dpevpl<rK€i ^ ^6<Tit a^ij iuvrS rdf i<f>6bovSy oCk ix diapolrftf clop rb ffKapdapLinrffeiPf Kcd if y\(a<r<ra inrovpyiei, Kal 6<ra dXXa rotoDra • diredbevTos ^ tpinris iovca Kal oi> fiaOovaa rd Siopra TOii€i. H, rpo<pn% 39 (9, 112 Littre) (f>{Hrus wdprutp dblbaKTOi. II. bialrrjs, A, 15 (6, 490 Littr^) rj <pvjit airropLdrrf ravra itrltrrarai, Cp. n. 117.

"• 11. dbipuiP^ 4 (8, 558 Litti-^ ^ ydp <f>v(Tis roUfi dbipas koI rplxat.

^* N6/iOT, 2 (4, 638 Littr^) rrpCrrop fUp ofnr rdpTUfp bei ^{htios (talent, natural apti- tude) • ^ijffiot ybip dpriTprfffffOJ^ffrjt, K€P€b. irdvra • ipOaios bi it rb dpurrop bbrjfy€oOffris^ bidaffKaXlrf rix*^t yLptrai.

1" n. rpwprjs, 15 (9, 102 Littr^ <t>^is i^pKiei Tdvra reurti'.

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produces nataral species and legislates language; ^^' in disease she may withhold signs^ but may be constrained by art to yield them ; ^^^ the means employed by her are likened to the means m use in the arts.^1' Such is the picture we find drawn of </>v(rt? at the close of the pre-Socratic period. In the earlier writers such expressions are rare. Heraclitus ^^^ says that "nature loves to play at hide-and-seek," and Epicharmhs ^*^ says " Eumaeus, wisdom is not confined to one place, but all living things have intelligence. The tribe of hens, if you will note sharply, does not bring forth living ofiTspring but hatches eggs and causes them to acquire a living souL This bit of wisdom — how this comes about — Nature alone doth know ; she was self-taught"

Aside firom such utterances as these ^^® we are reduced to inferences from the general doctrines of philosophers, but it is not our plan to pursue this subject here. It may not be amiss, however, to remark that the type of pantheism found in Xenophanes, ^^* vaguely anticipat-

*^ n. T^inp, 2 (6, 4 Littr^ ol/iat 5* fy&ryc «o2 rd drSfiara ai^rdt (sc. rAt T^vas) did rd etdea Xa/Seir • dXcyop yikp d.vb tQp dpofidrow rd eWea iiy€i<r$ai /SXatrrdi^ty, koI iMforw • rdL fikv ydip Mfmra <f>6<not vofjLoOeHifjiaTd ieri, rd ^k cfdco ou wofiJoBcT))tMra^ iWh. fiXaun-^fMTa. Cp. Plato's Cratylus, It is noteworthy that p6fios is here de- rived from 0(^ts, its products as only in n secondary degree accounted the result of Nature. Alongside this view ran the other which distinguished sharply between 0i^(f and p6fiott though here ahio p6fios is secondaiy. Hippocrates, II. dialTrjs, A, 11 (6, 4S6 Littrd) says : ydfu>$ yiip Kai <f>ij(riSt otei rdrra Siaxprffftrdfudaj oirx, 6fAo\oy4€Tai 6fio\ciy€6fi€Pa * rdfjutp ydip i0t<ray Ib^piaxoi avrol iuvroiaaf, ov yuKtXTKoyres xepl &v i0€<rav ■ ^6fftp di irdrrurp (doubtless including man) Oeol di€K6<rfirf<Tav • d fUv otfv AvSpwroi ideaap, ot/d^Tore (card rdurb ^ci oCre 6pdCn oUrt p.ij dpOCoi • dxixTa Si Oeol (Bcfrav^ del dpOCis ^x^*»

*** n. T^x^h 12 (6, 24 Littr^) tfroi' Si ravra fi^ firi»i6tayrai, fxifS' airrrj ij ^Cffts iKoOaa d^jf, d^dyicat eOprjKev (sc. ij t4x^), ^w ^ ^6aii di^/uos ^laffOetaa fuSlrjaiv.

^^ n. T^xi^f S (6, 14 Littr<0 &f ydp iartp ^fuv roial re tw rrxyiujv 6pydvoi% ixLKparkuf. 11. Swirrii is full of comparisons between the operations of nature and those of the arts.

**• Fr. 123 ^tJtf-tf Kp&irT€<r$ai ^tXet. I interpret this sapng as referring to the game called KpvTTipSaj and regard it as parallel to fr. 52 a/Jir irait i<m iral^wvy irer- reiuv^' waiSbs if paaiXrilvi, Bemays (Abh. der Akad. Berl., 1882, p. 43) said of the latter: **H. hatte seinen Zeus, insofem er unablassig Welten baut und Welten zerstort, ein 'spielendes Rind' genannt ; der tiefsinnige Naturphilosoph wablte dieses Bild, um das Wirken der Naturkrafte alien menschlichen Fragen nach dem Zwecke zu entriicken." Heraclitus probably had little reason to fear teleological interpretation of nature. Perhaps the altSjp is playing a game of solitaire or playing against a dummy, now winning {KSpos), now losing (Kifidt), Cp. Stein on Hdt. ii. 122, 3. On similar lines one might explain the game of Kpinrrlfda,

^\ Fr. 4 (Biels). Cp. n. 109, above, and Ar., Fesp,, 1282. The genuineness of the fragment is not above suspicion.

*" Cp. Eurip. fr. 920 ^ 0i5<rit i^oCXeO*, j y6fiw oifSh fU\€i,

"• Cp. Burnet, 2d ed., p. 141 and Adam, Tfie Edigioua Teachers of Oreece, p. 209 foil. I incline to think that Adam somewhat overemphasized the degree of

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ing that of the Stoics, iDevitably contributed indirectly to the develop- ment of the conception of Nature as of a power more or less personally conceived but devoid of definite anthropomorphic attributes. This view of Nature was henceforth to prevail in ever-widening circles.

We now turn to consider ^vo-i? regarded as the end of the process (III.). As has ahready been said the number and variety of cases which fall under this head are very great compared with the foregoing. In most respects there is little occasion for special remark in this connex- ion, since the usage of the pre-Socratic period coincides in the main with that of later times. Yet there are implications involved in this same usage which were drawn out and made explicit only in the Socratic age. Most interesting of all, perhaps, is the complete inver- sion of the conclusions of homely common sense and common usage in- troduced by the doctrine of Aristotle. Thus, e. g., he says : ^*® " From what has been said, then, it is plain that <^vo-t9, in the primary and strict sense, is the substantial entity (ova-ia = c^wri? III.) of things which have in themselves, as such, a source of movement ; for the matter is called ifivaiq (11. A) by reason of having a capacity to take this on, and the processes of becoming and growing (<^u<ri9 I.), by reason of being derived firom it." In the circular process of the Socratic the end has become the beginning ; that which the pre-Socratic called the reality has become a bare potentiality. Neither premise nor conclusion of this view would have been acceptable or even intelligible to the pre- Socratic, although, with one exception, the conceptions upon which the new view rests were common property. Yet that one exception is the comer-stone of Socratic philosophy.

When the pre-Socratic asked what a thing was, the answer he desired, if given with ideal completeness, would have presented its chemical formula. Now a formula is, I suppose, in origin and intention, a pre- scription. In the pre-Socratic schools, closely associated as they were with the schools of medicine, this procedure was natural : furthermore it was adequate, since the " things " they sought to define were ma- terial. But, as we have already seen, the Nature which the philosopher studied became at the end of the pre-Socratic period so charged with spiritual meaning, and in particular in the kingdom of vofioq, the son of <^vo-i9, there was so much, non-material in character, which called for analysis, that a method of definition suited to the new objects of study became an urgent necessity. If the old method sought a defini-

personality with which the 0€6s of Xenophanes is invested, especially as the negation of the popular view of the gods is so pronounced. What remains after the denials, while containing elements of personality, appears shadowy. "• Met 1015* 13 foil., transl. of Ross, modified.

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tion of the material thing, jdelding, as its final result, the fonnula of its production or origin with a view to its possible reproduction, the new method proposed to define the idea of the thing. Henceforth it mat- tered little whether the thing was material or not ; nor did it matter whether it was actually or only " potentially " existent These distinc- tions did not and could not arise until the new method supplanted that of the pre-Socratics.^*^ The thing itself has a beginning, a source, and a history : it is transient The idea of the thing (for the Socratic) had no relation to beginnings or history : it is eternal The idea of a key, for example, is totally different firom the key itself. The key is of brass or of iron : that is to say, it is defined with reference to its material source : the definition of the idea of a key, however, looks inevitably to its purpose, or end. Thus the limits of the process of <^v(ri9, erected by this two-fold method of definition, are polar opposites. In either direction the quest was for the truly existent, and, the human mind being constituted as it is, the ultimate existence must be the first cause. To the Socratic the first cause must be the end or purpose ; but, since historically this conception was a cadet and could not wholly supplant the first-bom, the end must be in the beginning, even if it be only " potentially '' present there. Like most Socratic ideas, the conception of the causality of </>wri9, as the end of a process, was involved in many pre-Socratic expressions, though their significance was not realized. Attention was directed above to instances of personification (involving agency) of ^vcns in the sense of constitution, talent, etc., falling under III. The same implication belongs to ttcc^vkc and <f>v(ri.v ^ci with the infinitive. Nature thus becomes, as it is by Aristotle expressly re- garded, a circular process, in which the end of one cycle is the begin- ning of another : SvOpum-o^ avOpwirov yevv^ The kvkXo^ yevco-cco^ thuS established is, however, for the pre-Socratic a real process, with a clear history, comparable to the Orphic cycle, in which the immortal soul experiences the vicissitudes incident to sin. In Aristotle, where the process as a whole is all in all, the single moment tends to assume the guise of something having a reality only for the theorist, — a kind of psychologists' fallscy.

*** Hippocrates, 11. rixinp, 2 (6, 2 foil. Littr^) is an iuteresting discussion of the ** existence" of arts, which could not have taken the form it actually takes if the Aristotelian distinction?* had been current. "Potentiality" and ** actuality" have DO significance in relation to things which have a real history ; the temis acquire meaning only in relation to an ideal construction, such as we find in the Aristotelian system, where the definition of the oi/<r(o of a thing has reference to its realization of an end as seen from without. Teichmiiller, strangely enough, imported these con- ceptions into the pre-Socratics.

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It has already been said that the practical man is concerned chiefly with the product, which he takes roughly for granted without too much curiosity as to its origin ; but he is intensely interested in its uses, what- ever they may be. He does not reflect upon even this circumstance, however, proceeding in his pragmatic way to do the work in hand. When therefore he speaks of ^vons it is generally some aspect of nature as it is that he has in view. From this attitude springs the common usage of philosophical and quasi-philosophical circles, which regards chiefly things as things, without too much implication of further ques- tionings. In so £9ir as there is a suggestion of further questions, they concern the "constitution" of the thing — that is, "what it is" ex- pressed in terms of "what it is made of." This is the regular sense of the phrase Trcpl ^ixrccus as applied in titles of the works of Hippo- crates,^'* and there is no reason to think that it bore a difierent sense when used as a title of distinctively philosophical Avritings.

If it were our purpose to treat fully of the uses of i*^'^^ we should have to gather and discuss here the multitudinous meanings of the term which fell under the third head. This we could not do, however, with- out unduly and unprofitably increasing the bulk of this study ; for most developments of <^v(rt9, regarded as the end of the process (III.)> &fe of slight interest for the particular purposes of our inquiry. We may therefore here content ourselves with a summary glance at the ramifica- tions of this main branch, adding such observations as may serve to throw light on philosophical and scientific conceptions.

We may then regard <^v(ri9, as the end of thef process, firom. without or from within. As seen from without it is the outward constitution or frame of a thing (III. A) ; viewed from within, it is its inner consti- tution or character. Under the former head we may distinguish (1) the individual frame,^*' (2) the specific or generic,*** (3) the uni-

"* See above, n. 10 and n. 93. The titles of Hippocrates are probably not origi- nal, since in many instances they are in doubt, some works that bear specific titles being clearly parts of larger wholes. This is in keeping with the facts mentioned below, n. 204, relative to philosophical works. But in the case of Hippocrates the title in most cases merely repi-oduces in abbreviated form the subject as stated in the body of the work ; and the invariable meaning of 0i^tf, when used by Hippocrates in reference to the subject-matter of discourse, is "constitution."

**• In the individual, <f^O<ns denotes primarily the (perfect) stature attained, e/j A^dpa TActov, e/f fUrpw ifXuclas, as Paul says, Eph. 4, 18. This is Aristotle's /rrcX^eia, for which the whole creation groaneth. Aesch., Pers. 441 dicfiouoi <f>ij(rtp shows that this association of ideas was popular.

*■* This head includes 0jJ(rtf in the sense of * birth,' * lineage,' 'family,* and 0iJ<rtt as sex ; for sex is a ydvoi. It also embraces 0infr^ 0i^t$, Democritns, fr. 297, Soph., 0. T. 869, fr. 516, and Aesch., Ag, 6ZZ x^ovbs <t>^(ruft • earth's brood. ' As (a) under this head should be classed <f^6cis denoting not the yivos itself but the

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versal ^'* frame of things. Difficult, and in some cases impossible, it is to distinguish clearly between the outward frame or constitution and the inner constitution or character of things (III. B). Each <t>wn^ or frame has its inner constitution corresponding to it, which will of course vary according as the (f^va-L^ in question is individual, generic, or uni- versal. Description or definition of the fftvcri^ relates the individual or generic to the universal. Of course the crude methods of description and definition in use in the pre-Socratic period were not consciously generalized ; but there was an evident desire, manifested most clearly in the parallel drawn between the microcosm and the cosmos, to find the universal in the particular. In accordance with the chemical mode of definitioYi in vogue this desire assumed the form of the postulate that the constitution of individual things was the same as that of the world as a whole. We may, if we choose, denounce this procedure as crude logic, but it was instinctive logic, or logic in the making, for all that. The differentiae specificae were found chiefly in the propor- tions of the \oyo9 fu^c(i>9, although this method was to a limited extent supplemented, though perhaps nowhere wholly supplanted, by the differentiation introduced in the universal through rare&ction and con- densation, or — what practically amounts to the same thing — through heat and cold. As to the universal, the wide-spread conviction that each thing shares the attributes, or rather the constituents, of the world one and all in varying proportions, served as a bond of union, making things, on the physical side, capable of interaction, and, on the intel- lectual side, capable of being comprehended. The motive that inspired the postulation of a common principle for the explanation of the mani- fold data of sense is particularly evident in the case of the Pjrthagor- eans, whose postulate that all is at bottom number or numerical relation has no meaning except that of rendering phenomena intelligible. This is clear even without accepting the so-called fragments of Philolaus, in which it is expressly stated. To Aristotle this principle descended in two forms. For physical theory, it provided a basis of interaction,

spei*i6c differentiae, of which we have an early example in Horn. Od. 10, 303, the 4^ati of the plant /twXu pointed out to 0«lysseu8 by Hermes ; later we find, in the same class, <f>i<ni denoting the characteristic differentiae of Rex. Under (2) we might likewise include many uses in which 0t^(f — dt/ra/Lut, since the fih-pa of <ft{nTii and 9(fwatui are specific differentiae. Gp. n. 85 above and n. 118, where natural kinds are called ^6<no% pXaxn-fntaTa.

^^ In this sense ^{mth practically ^ KSfffios. For the uses of K6fffu>s see Bemays, Abb. der Akad. Berlin, 1882, p. 6 foil. In this universal sense 0t^(s « rd 0u6/Aem, 0iJfftt Tuw SXtM^t etc. For instances see Archytas, fr. 1; Eurip. fr. 910; Critias, fr. 19 (Diels); Auraol Aiyoi {Bialexeis), Diels, Vorsokr, II. 647, 15; Hippocrates, n. dpxctlrft Irp-ptxris, 20 (p. 24 foil., Eiihleweiu).

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since, in order to interact, things must, according to his theory, be generically alike, though specifically they may be opposite or neutral in character. For logical theory, again, the universal is the foundation of the intelligible world.

It was said above that while the inquiry ircpi </>wr€o)? regarded pri- marily the constitution of the world, viewed as a given fact, it did naturally imply a question as to its constituents and hence as to its origin. To this we have now added that this implied question in- volved for nearly all philosophers of early Greece the conception of <^i;o-i9 as a Xoyo9 fu^cws.^** In effect we had already adverted to this fisuct in referring to the chemical definition of things as a congener of the med- ical prescription. In a curious passage **^ Aristotle dimly perceives that the Xoyo? ^i^ccds, which he appears to recognize only in Empedo- cles, is intimately related to logical definition, though he seems more fully aware of their differences than of their fundamental likeness. Chemical definition seeks to determine what matter entered into the making of the thing. Whether this matter is of one or more kinds makes little difference ; since even the monist must somehow give variety to his unitary substance, and the Greek monists in particular appear to have conceived of concrete things as ' blends ' of the deriva- tive forms of matter. Logical definition, on the other hand, aims to discover what meanings or marks (teleologically interpreted) constitute the idea of the thing. Each method arrives at a \6yos : the first at a Aoyos ftt^cws ; the second, at a Aoyos ovo-ias.^** In the Aristotelian scheme </>u<rt9, as the Aoyo? ovo-ias, is the " formal cause." Among the pre-Socrati«s, the Aoyo? /iiifcw? of the cosmos was the object of scienti- fic inquiry ; and it was <t>v<n^ in this sense which, as we have seen, appears in the titular IIcpi ^vo-ccds.

Thus far we have considered chiefly the physical ^^uVt? or constitu- tion (III. B, 1) ; but we must not overlook the feet that with the

"• Cp. n. 90 above. For <f^6(Tis involving \6ryos /a/^cws see Pamienides, fr. 16 and E[)icharmus, fr. 2. The latter fragment, whether rightly or wrongly attributed to Epieharmus, clearly reflects the thought of Heraclitus, a siipposed monist. On this subject see my study of QualUalive Change.

**^ J)e Partt. Ayiimal. 642 • 2-31. The passage is too long to transcribe, but will well repay study.

**• I cannot help feeling that the periphrastic use of 0iJ<r«f is a by-product of logical definition and hence essentially peculiar to the Socratic period. The presence of such phrases as d ru) dpiO/xCj ^t^crif, ras rd dwelpu) koL dyoi^ta Kal dX^yta <f>ij<rios alongside dpiOfibs Kal d toOtoj ovala and rgi tw dpiOfxta ycvegi (fr. 11), in Philolaus casts grave suspicion on the supposed fragments ; for ovaia in the pre-Socratics means not * essence,' but * reality.' Natorp, to be sure, in Philos. Monatshefte, 21, pp. 577, 582, finds a deep significance in these same phrases.

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growth of interest in the microcosm <^v(rt9 as the mental constitution (III. B, 2) assumed considerable importance. Now <^wri9 (like its great rival, vofioi) opt^ci ; and every delimitation implies a positive claim as well as a restrictive limitation. Thus ^uW positively regarded (III. B, 2 a), is as (native) endowment, talent, instinct, power, etc., opposed to (acquired) virtue, art, experience, wisdom ; i** negatively con- ceived (III. B, 2 b), 4>v<n^ marks the bounds set by nature to every creature, beyond which it may not pass.^'®

III. A glance at the survey just given of the uses of <^ro-t9 will satisfy anyone that the conception of Nature in the pre-Socratic period was developed to a point at which little remained to be added. Certainly little was added in the course of subsequent Greek thought. Already our conclusion as to the connotation of <t>v<n^ when used as a compre- hensive term has been stated ; but it is desirable that this conclusion be confirmed by a consideration of the questions raised by those who wrote Ucpl <f>wT€m. Many a word having a wide range of meanings in the course of its development receives at different times an emphasis

**• Examples of native endowment, talent, or power, are exceedingly common ; cp. Protagoras, fr. 3 ; Epicharmus, fr. 40 ; Critias, fr. 9 ; Deniocritus, fr. 21, 33, 176, 183, 242, etc. Of <l>v<rit =» instinct we have an instance in Democritus, fr. 278. In Democntns, fr. 267 (t>v<Tis means * birthnght.*

MO <*Xhe metes and bounds of providence" furnish a fdvorite theme to singers and sages of all ages and peoples. Cp. for example, Psalm 104. Greek mythology foand a text in the extravagance of the elemental water and fire respectively in the flood and in the conflagration of the worhl due to the escapade of Phaethon. Anaxi- mander and Heraclitus called in the cosmic dUri to curb such transgression. Xenophanes also recognized this principle in the ]>eriodicity of cosmic processes. With later philosophers it was a common theme. Democritus, fr. 3, couples SOva^s and <t>6<ns; cp. also Archytas, fr. 1, and Herodotus, 8, 83. In Herodotus, 7, 16 o, it is said that the winds do not suffer the sea ipOci ry iuivrijs xP^<^^^h which is explained afterwards by reference to Uppn. On this see ray review of Hii*zel, Themis^ Dike, und VerwaiidUs, in A. J. P., xxix, p. 216 foil. In Thucydides, 2, 35, 2 inrkp ryip 4>6<riv is set definitely in relation to <f^06vost which opens up the kindred subject of the jealousy of the gods visited upon all who transgress their proper fi^rpa, as we find it developed in the tragedians and Herodotus. In fact all things have their limitations, even God, according to the Greeks. There is an interesting pass- age in Hippocrates, II. rixvrit, 8 (6, 12 Littre), where, after rebuking unreasonable critics of the art of medicine, the author says : cl ydp m ij rixvriv^ it A p.^ r^trri, ^ 4>6fftM, is A fi^i <p(Hn% wi<f>VK€P, d^nixreu S^voffOaif dyvo€t Ayvoiav dpMovffav /xavi-fi /taWov 1j dfJM0i-g. d>y ydp iarip ripXv rdtai re rOtv <l>v<ri<ap Toiffl re rtav rtx^iiJiv 6pyd»oii irucparieiPy rovriujp iarbf ijfjuv iri^ovprfoh flwit, 6XK(av 8i oCk iarir. As limitation and definition are the basis of intelligence and the guaranty of sanity, the Greeks had an antipathy to all extraragance. This appears most clearly in their aversion to the dreipop in all forms. VOL. XLV. — 8

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felling now on one meaning, now on another, cwcording to the direction of interest from time to time. We have had occasion to note this tendency in regard to <^var4$ and have seen, for example, that the per- sonification of Nature has a clear history, arriving at the close of the pre-Socratic period at a stage that rendered the subsequent teleologi- cal interpretation of the world a foregone conclusion. It behooves us, therefore, to inquire what were the principal questions asked concern- ing Nature in the pre-Socratic period, in order, if possible, to deter- mine the direction of interest upon which depends the selection of meanings attached to the term ^v<ri$.

We may prosecute this inquiry in either of two ways. First, we may study the fragmentary remains of the literature of pre-Socratic philosophy and extract ficom its implicit logic the answer to our ques- tion. Or we may approach the matter indirectly, asking what were the ideals of science in that age as we find them reflected in the non- philosophical or only quasi-philosophical literature of the time and of the following period which received its inspiration from the pre- Socratics. Strictly both methods should be followed conjointly ; for only thus could we arrive at a conclusion that might be justly regarded as definitive. But a moment's thought will convince any reader that the limits of such a study as this could not possibly be made to yield to a detailed examination of the individual systems with a view to deducing firom them the interests of their propounders. So compre- hensive a review must be undertaken in connexion with a history of •early Greek philosophy, which is not, and cannot be, the scope of this study. Our attention shall, therefore, be directed to the second means of approach, with only an occasional glance at the systems of the pre-Socratic philosophers themselves. We may pursue this course with the better conscience because it is self-evident that the scientific ideals of the age were, or soon became, common property, to the defini- tion and development of which every man of science contributed what he had to ofier. Nowhere does the unity of pre-Socratic thought more clearly appear than in this field, where philosophers and medical theorists cooperated in \a,jing broad and sure foundations.

Hippocrates gives us the best glimpse of the scientific ideals of the age ; and it will prove worth our while to pause for a moment to learn what he has to teach us. The true physician is called the child of his art ; m he is disinterested in his devotion to it, since the love of one s art involves necessarily a love of mankind.^*' The charlatan was

"* IIopo77eX/at, 7 (9, 260 Littr^) Irjrpdi iya$6t . . . 6fjUtT€xvos KoXeSfuPos, ^* Among the virtues which the physician is said to )>ossess in common with the philosopher in n. €(f<rx,'nyioc^% 5 (9, 232 Littre) is d^Xapyvplrf, U, Irp-pov, 1 (9,

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particularly despised, and his histrionic deportment decried. *'• The physician who desires to appear in public and address the people, should refrain from quoting the poets : such a procedure merely argues inca- pacity for honest work.^'* In public speech or writing, however, one must begin by lajdng down a proposition to which all may assent ^^*

204 Littre) the physician is bidden r6 di fjOos ehat KaXbf Kal dyaOdv^ roioOrov d* dvra xfluri Kcd eeiu^bv koX (piXdySponrw. Uapayy^Xlaij 6 (9, 258 Littre) rls ydp & wpbi At6f ifSeX^fUpot (called brother, because belonging to the fraternity: cp. Isocr. 19, 80) IrfTpbs IrjTpci^tM r€tff0€lri drepanMlij ; The brotherhood of the fraternity leads to the fraternity of man ! Ibid. 6^ Ijy di Kaipbs €trj x^PVy^V^ ^^V t^ ^^* f^oX djcopiovri^ ftdXicrTa hrapKieip rdiffi ToiovrdouriP, Ijy ybip irapi (f^iXavOputTLrj wdp€<rri Kal ^iXorexc^i?. Xen. Mem. I. 2, 60 refers to Socrates* refusal to receive remuneration for his informal instmction as evidence that he was <f^iXdyOp<aTot and SiifioriKbt. In like manner Plato, Evihyph. 8 D, explains hia lavish expenditure of wisdom as due to ^iXavBpioirla^ which would not only refuse to accept remuneration but would even display itself in paying the listener to boot. It seems evident that the exalted and even extravagant disinter- estedness of Socrates reflects, though it doubtless carried beyond the common practice, the teaching of the medical schools, and possibly also of the early philosophical schools. In the medical "OpKOi (4, 628 foil., Littre) the physician swears to regard his teacher as a father, sharing with him his substance, and his teacher's sons as his brothers ; if they desire to learn medicine, he swears dtdd^civ tJji' T^x^nv raOrrfv . . . df€v lucOov KoX ^uYypcupTJs. Socrates, like Paul, was a debtor to all men : he could receive pay from none ; for Socrates is the first great cosmopolitan. That the Sophists departed from this custom was one of Plato's severest charges against them. They were like the men of whom Xen. Afem. I. 2, 60 complains, who departed from the philanthropic and demotic way : oOddya Tdnrort fu<r$^ rrjs ffwov^las irpd^To^ dXXd TcuTiif &<f>06i^s iiriipKu tQv iavrod • t&v tu^j fiiKpii fUpri Tap ^Kelvov (Socrates) Tpolica Xa^furret voXXov roh dXXots ^irtiXow, ifoi ohx ^<ray CMTwep iKCivos di^fioriKol. Cp. Hippocrates, 11. e^irxrjfJ^off^irriSf 2 (9, 226 Littr^) irdaai ydp al fifj fur al<rxpoK€pd€lrjs KoX dffxrifitxrivTii (sc. r^wt) KaXal. These are the truly ** liberal " arts.

"» n. Irrrpov, 4 (9, 210 Littr^) ; H. lep^s voiJcrov, 1 (6, 864 Littr^) iixoi W ioKiovffUf cl wpuTOt TovTo rd p6arifia dtp'.epdxrayTes toiovtoi e&at Aydpcrroi otoi koI vv¥ clai fxayoi re Kol KaOdprai Kal dy(/prax koI dXa^^ves, 6x6901 SP; irpocrwoiiovTai. <r<f>68pa Oeocepiet elvai KoX xXiw Tt €lSipai * oOtoi roivvv •irapaiiTex6pxvoi koX Tpo^XX6fi£Poi t6 Seiov rrjs dfirjxa- pirit rod fii} tffx^iP 8 ri wpoffevdyKoyret (lxp€Xiff<roviTi», (hs /x^ KaTddrjXoi iwffof ovdh iriard' ficiHX, Up6p Mfuaav tovto r6 xddos elwt, Kal X6yovs iwiX4^asrr€s iiriTrflklovt r^v trf<rip Kar€(rHiaaPTO is rb d<r<f>aXis ff<f>lffiv a&rot<ri, KaOappain irpo<r<t>ipoPT€s koI iiraoidds, ktX, (With this passage cp. Plato, Repub. 364 B foil.). Ibid., 18 (6, 896 Littr^). Cp. also the portrait of the spurious philosopher, H. €i;<rx'?/Ao<riVi7f, 2 (9, 226 foil., Littr^). Cp. n. 47, above.

"* UapayyeXlai, 12 (9, 266 foil., Littr^). I read <pi\oropirjs with the vulgate ; Littr^ reads ^tXoxw'fiy.

*•• n. ffapKWP, 1 (8, 584 Littr^) iyCb rd fUxP*^ '''^^ Xiyov ro&rov KOipy<rt yp(!)fii[i(n Xfiiofuu Mptop T€ t{jp ifiTpocOep, drdp koI ifieufvrov. (Littr^ misinterprets this; it means that he shares the common assumption of his predecessors !) dpayKolus ydp (x^i KOUf^pf dpxh^ vToOiaOat ryffi ypthfi'Qffi povX6fi€POP ^vpOeiPoi t6p X&yop t6v8€ wepl riji rix^Vi TTJs Irp-piKrjs, ktX, Cp. n. 0iVcos dpOpiiwoVy 1 (6, 82 Littro) for the common assump- tion of the predecessors of whom he speaks at length in what follows. II. t^kt;?, 4 (6, 6 Littr^) iarl fUp oirp fioi dpxh f'oO \670v, Ij koI 6/*o\o7i7^^cr8u wctpd vdatp, Cp.

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The physician will not indulge in useless dialectics, ^'^ but if he knows bis art he will prefer to show it by deeds rather than words. ^'^ Life is fleeting, art is long, ^'* and a cure may depend upon the moment.^** Hence the physician must not restrict his attention to rational inference but must resort to the rule of rote to- gether with reason ; i*® he must therefore have a knowledge of prac- tice as well as of theory.**^ The main object of medicine is to eflFect a cure; ^^' above all the physician should avoid making much ado and accomplishing nothing.**' The art of medicine is not, however, a mere routine ; a good share of the ability of the physician is shown in his capacity to judge correctly touching what has been written ; *** for science is constituted by observations drawn from every quarter and brought into a unity.**' An art or science attests its reality by what it accomplishes.*** The art of medicine cannot always arrive at absolute certainty ; but far from disputing the reality of medicine as an art or science because it does not attain strict accuracy in all things, one ought to praise it because of its desire to approximate it and to admire it because from extreme ignorance it has proceeded to great discoveries well and rightly made, and not by chance.**^

Diog, of Apollonia, fr. 1 : Xiryov Tcan-bs ipx^fJi^f^v doKei fioi xP^w" «^' "^^^ ^^PX^ 6»at^ia§-fjfrrrrw ira/)^x«<^^«*> "^h^ ^^ ipfiriyelatf &T\rju ical ffefju^. The latter ideal com- ports with the portrait of the true philosopher, II. ei/a-xiyAwwiJi^t, 3 (9, 22S Littr^)

"• n. ei5(rx'?Mo<"Ji^t, 1 (9, 226 Littr^).

w» n. Wx»"^. 18 (6, 26 Littr^).

"• 'Aipopi<rfjLol, 1 (4, 458 Littre).

"• napary€\iai, 1 (9, 250 Littr^).

1*^ UapaYyeXlaif 1 (9, 250 Littr^) 5et ye /xijv ravra ttS&ra fi}j \oyurfif wpSrepov Ti^oKW Tpoffixoyra l-qrpivtiv^ dXXA rpi^y fi€T6. \&yov. Plato and Aristotle oppose rpi^ifl to Wx*"? ; but this rpi^iff is not Arexifoi (Plato, Phaedr. 260 E), but firrA \byov, . *** n. ApOpccVy 10 (4, 102 Littr^) ovk dpK^ci fiouvov X47v «^3A^t t'^jp r^n/r roiJrip, dXXd Kal 6fu\l-j^ dpuX^eip,

i« n. ApOpufp, 78 (4, 312 Littr^).

*** n. ApSpuv^ 44 (4, 188 Littrd) alrxP^^ fUvroi koX iv irdtry t/x*T7 *<^^ ^^ liKurra iw IriTpiK^ vovK^v 6xX^i **i toXXt)!' ^^tv, Koi vovKbv \irfov xapa<rx^i^o-i firtira firfdiw tlnfteXtjirai,

*** II. KpurlfxufP, 1 (9, 298 Littr6). Cp. n. dtalrris. A, 1 (6, 466 Littr^).

**• UapaYY^Xlaif 2 (9, 254 Littre) oDru; 7^^ doxita r^^y ^vfiiracrap t^x*^ dpadttx^^frai^ iJiA tA i^ CKdiTTOv ToO riXovt rrjpriOTp^i Kal els rairrb ^vvaXurdrivai,

**• n. T^x^h 5 and 6 (6, 8 foil. Littr^). We even find a suggestion of definition in terms of the purpose of an art, II. r^x^^^i 3 (6, 4 Littr^) Kal rrpCrrbv ye diopuOfiai i vofil((a IrfTpiK^jp eXvaiy t6 d)j wdfixap draXXdaaeiy tup voaebimaw roi>% KOfidrovif ktX, Tliis and several other matters incline me to the opinion that 11. t4x^^ belongs to the fcui-th century, though its general value for our purposes is not thereby appreci- ably affected.

"^ n. dpxalrjt IrjTpiKiit, 12 (1, 696 Littr^) oi ^ttX 5Jy bid toOto 3e2p tV f^f^ ^

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" There be," we read,*** " who have reduced vilifying the sciences to a science, as those who engage in this pursuit opine. I think not so ; but they are giving an exhibition of their own learning. To me it ap- pears that to make a discovery, that were better made than left undis- covered, is the desire and function of understanding, and to advance to completion that which is half finished, likewise ; but to essay with ungentle words to shame the discoveries of others, oneself bettering nothing, but casting reproach upon the discoveries of those who know before those who do not know, this appears to me not the desire and function of understanding, but argues natural depravity even **• more than want of science." Another interesting passage is the following : i'® " Medicine has long had an established principle and a method *** of its own invention, in accordance with which the many excellent discov- eries were made in the long lapse of time and in accordance with which also the rest will be made, if one, having proper capacity and a knowl- edge of past discoveries, shall take these as the point of departure for his quest. But whoso, casting these aside and rejecting all, shall essay to investigate after another method and in other fashion, and shall say that he has discovered aught, is deceived and deceives others ; for that is impossible." Elsewhere we are assured *'* that the science of medi- cine has nothing left it to discover, since it now teaches ever3i;hing, characters as well as proper seasons. He who has learned its teachings will succeed with or without the favor of fortune.*'*

From this it will be seen that the ancient art or science of medicine had not only developed the spirit of science and formulated in general its ideals, but that in some minds it had attained to a position of such in- dependence that it might lay claim to finality. The fact that the claim

oy#c iov<ray oi/5^ xaXQs ^to^vriv Tqv d.pxai'n*' diro^aXiffdai, €l y.)) ^x^i wepi rrdtn-a &Kpi' /Ki/y, dWd ToXd /xaXXov, did t6 iyyv^, ol:iaL, tov drpeKecTTdTou 6/xov dvvaadai iJK€iv Xo7«r/i^ Tpoffieffdaif xal ix iroXX^s dyv<afflTji Oavudj^ctM rd i^€vpr)fiivaf <bs koXws koI 6p$un i^€6prfTatt Kcd oifK drb rixv^'

"• n. T^x»"7», 1 (6, 2 Littr^.

**• I read in /uaXXov, and drcxWiyf.

"• n. dpxodrjs IrrrpiKTJs, 2 (1, 672 Littr^.

W* Cp. n. €V(Txvf^<rvvrit, 2 (9, 226 Litti^), and above, n. 147, Kal oIk dxb rijxrjt.

^" n. T&irufy Twv Kard dvdptaxoVy 46 (6, 342 Littr^) lr}TpiKij StJ /mi Sox^ei ijdrj dy€V' pTjcdai 5X17, ffrtt oOrfjis ^X"» ^*^ dt8d(TK€i ^Kaffra Kal rd i$€a Kal toj>s Kaipotjs. 6s ydp oCtwj IrfTpiK^ hrioTaraif i\dxt<Tra rqv T^r)v iirifjjp€i, dWd Kal dveu tijxv^ 'f^'i ^^ T&XV €^Tfonj6€Lr) &k ^i^i)K€ ydp IrfrpiK) irSuTa, Kal ^a/yrrat twv <ro<pt<rfidT(t)y rd /rdXXi- era ip aini <rvyK€ifX€va iXdx^ffra T^rjt ScTffdai ' ij ydp r^x't avroKpartji Kal ovk Apx^raif oifd' iw* eCxv i<fTiv ain-)i» (an avrrit ?) iXBily ' ij 5^ iviffrififirj dpxeral re Kcd eurvx'^t icrrip, 6ir!rray /3oi/Xi7rat 6 ixiardfievos xfiV^^^'-h f^^-

"» Cp. n. T^ioyf, 4 and 6 (6, 6 and 10 Littr^. II. eCurxvP^^f, 7 (9, 258 Li^tr^ the charlatans are said to depend on lack.

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was preposterous must not be allowed to obscure the significance of its being made ; for at any time, past^ present, or future, such assurance must be essentially subjective, based upon the sense of inner congruity or harmony of the world of thought organized and interpreted by the system. It was just this feeling of independence to which we attributed the growing sense of the autonomy of Nature that made it possible for philosophers to dispense with the intervention of the gods. The scien- tific movement in philosophy and medicine runs parallel courses with constant interaction. How constant and important this reaction of one npon the other really was we can never know. In the present state of our knowledge it would be foolish even to attempt to say ; but that it is a fact, and a fact of large significance, none will deny. The physicians could not overlook the relation of the individual human organism to the world. They devoted themselves with keen intelligence to the study of atmospheric and climatic conditions ^'^ affecting the health of man, and in so doing could not avoid trenching on the domain of the physi- cal philosopher. In countless other ways subjects of prime importance to the philosopher came within the purview of the writer on medicine. For all these questions the works of Hippocrates are for us an inex- haustible source of information, though they rarely enable ,us to refer an opinion to its responsible author. It is therefore a matter of interest to see the intimacy of the relation between these kindred disciplines recognized by the physicians.

The Hippocratean treatise On Decorum ^^^ sketches in ideal por- traiture the man of science (especially the physician) and the philoso- pher and contrasts with them the charlatan, who appears in the colors familiar to all in the Platonic portraits of the Sophists. There the physician is called a god-like philosopher,*'® since he combines theory and practice of all that is true and beautiful. Philosopher and physi- cian have the same virtues ; their differences are slight ^'^ Elsewhere, however, a distinction is drawn between the physician and the physical philosopher in respect to method. " There are those," we are told,*'* " who have essayed to speak or write concerning medicine, basing their argument on the hot or the cold, on the moist or the dry or any thing

W4 Cp. especially the treatise II. &4pw, itddrwi^, t6twp (2, 12 foil. Littrtf ; I, 38 foil. Klihlewein).

"• n. eiJcrxiy/tMxrtJriTf (9, 226 foil. Littr^.

^•^ Ibid, c. 6 (9, 232 Littr€) dib Set , . . fierAyttP r^w ffOi^lrpf h tV IrrrpiKiiP ical

TTJP IrfTpLK^P is T^ ffO^TfW, ItfTpbt 7*^ ^iXScO^S lff6$€0S.

"^ Ibid. oO ToW^ yh.p 5ia<f^op^ hrl rd frepa ' Kal ydip hi Td Tp6s ao^rp^ h lirrpuc^ Tdtn-a, d<f>i\apyvplrff etc.

"• n. dpxalris Inrpucijs, 1 (1, 570 foil. Littrtf ; 1, 1 foil. Kiihlewein).

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else they choose, reducing the causes of human diseases and death to a minimum, one and the same for all, basing their argument on one or two ; but in many of the novelties they utter they are clearly in the wrong. This is the more blameworthy, because they err touching an actual art which all men employ in tiie greatest emergencies and in which they honor most the skillful practitioners. Now there are prac- titioners, some bad, some excellent ; which would not be true if medi- cine were not actually an art, and no observations or discoveries had been made in it All would be equally unskilled and ignorant of it, and the cure of diseases would be wholly subject to chance. As a matter of fSiCt, it is not so ; but, as artisans in all other arts excel one the other in handicraft and knowledge, so also in medicine. Therefore I main- tained that it had no need of vain hypotheses, as is the case in matters inaccessible to sense and open to doubt. Concerning these, if one es- say to speak, one must resort to hypothesis. If, for example, one should speak and entertain an opinion touching things in the heavens or under the earth, it would be clear neither to the speaker nor to those who heard him whether his opinion was true or &lse ; for there is no appeal to aught that can establish the truth." While tlie resort to hypothesis in medicine is here denounced there are instances of such use in the works of Hippocrates, notably in IIcpl <f>va-uivA^^

One more passage *•• relating to philosophy we may properly quote here. " Whoso is wont to hear men speak concerning the human con- stitution beyond the range of its bearing upon medicine, will find the following discourse unprofitable ; for I do not say that man is wholly air, nor fire, nor water, nor earth, nor any thing dae that is not clearly present in man. This I leave for whoso wills to say. Yet I think that those who say this are in error ; for they agree in point of view, but not in statement. Nevertheless the argument in support of their point of view is the same ; for they say that all that exists is ona This is tiie One and All ; but they give it different names. One calls the One and All air ; another, fire ; a third, water; still another, earth. And each supports his argument with proof and evidence, which amounts to nothing. For, seeing that they are all of one mind, but say, one man this thing, another that, it is clear that they have no knowledge of the

*•• Littr^ 6, 90 foil. The treatise is a Sophistic exercise, intended to prove that air, particularly the air in tlie body, is the cause of all diseas^ps, and employs hypoth- esis avowedly. Cp. c. 15 (p. 114 Littr^. The treatises 11. ^iViot &r&p(&rov and n. ipxf^V^ lijrpuciit aim their polemic at such exercises, as Littr^ justly obtterves, 6, 88.

^•0 n. i>^iot dr^pc^ov, 1 (6, 32 foil. Littr^. Littr^, 6, 88, thinks the author of this treatise had definitely in mind, among others, the essay II. i»wm.

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matter. Of this one would be most thoroughly convinced if one at- tended their disputations ; for when the self-same men dispute with one another in the presence of the self-same auditors, the same man never thrice in succession prevails in argument ; but now one prevails, now another, and again he who has the most flowing speech before the mob. Surely it is fair to demand that he who claims to have the right opinion about things should cause his argument always to pre- vail, assuming that his opinion is true and that he properly sets it fortL As for me, I think that such men for want of understanding refute one another by the terms of their very argument and establish the contention of Melissus."

If, now, we recall to mind those ideals and conceptions anticipated above in the first section of this study, we shall have a feir notion of science as it was conceived among the Greeks of the fifth century b. c. But we have still to inquire just what questions the scientist addressed to nature ; and to this quest we may now turn.

Science essays to determine the facts and to explain them. The one thing depends upon the other. If you find a rock and ask what it is, it becomes necessary to discover whether it is in position or not It proves to be a boulder, and examination shows that it is metamoi;phic in character : finally it is identified as Laurentian, and its presence here is explained by reference to glacial action. The definition of the fact involves the explanation ; but explanation is the motive of the sci- entific study of the fistct, in contrast to the practical interest which leads merely to classification. The curious child, no less than the philoso- pher, asks the question. Why? £ut^ while almost any answer, judi- ciously framed, will satisfy the child, the philosopher knows that the question may receive very different answers according to its specific intention. To ask why is to demand an explanation ; and ' cause ' is our generic name for explanation. Different as individual attempts at explanation may be, they are reducible to a few kinds. We are &mil- iar with the four-fold causal principle of Aristotle, and with the £sM;t that, while recognizing four kinds of causation and insisting that in ex- planation one should adduce all causes, he did not find it possible to reduce all to one, but was compelled to content himself in the ultimate analysis with two.^®^

This is, of course, not the place to discuss matters of metaphysics except so far as they pertain or contribute to our purpose ; but there is here a point of some interest for us. We have noted that of Aris- totle's causes, the material points to the past It is that which is

1" Cp. Ritter-PreUer, §§ 395-896.

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there to begin with. "In the beginning," sajrs the materialist, "was matter." " No," replies the theist^ " in the beginning God created matter ; " and thus a pre&ce is placed before the beginning. The tele- ologist and the pragmatic explain all with reference to the end, which justifies the means. All alike endeavor to define the fact in the hope of explaining it ; but it remained for a Socratic to detect the teleologi- cal import of logical definition and hence practically to identify it with the final cause. We have referred to the principal classes of philoso- phers with tiie exception of the positivist. If the materialist defines things with reference, so to speak, to the past, and the teleologist, with reference to the future, the positivist asks neither whence nor whither, but how. Definition for him becomes description, and description in universal, timeless terms. Such at least is the logic of his position. The reason why Aristotle did not find it possible to reconcile his ulti- mately two-fold causation in his ' formal ' cause is that historically he was the heir of the pre-Socratic and the Socratic methods, of which the former deified the material, the latter the final, cause. ^^* The degree of advancement in the formulation of the positivist attitude was not such as to compel a recognition in logic and metaphysics, although it would not be unfii.ir to say that there was much of the pos- itivist spirit in the scientific thought of the fifth century. Apparently it was the concreteness of Greek thinking, more than anything else, that obscured the significance of the scientific impulse as such. Every process, as we have seen, no matter how abstract, assumed in the thought of the Greeks the form of a series in time, or of a history with a proper beginning. How much of this was conscious device, how much instinctive procedure, we shall never know. Even the ideal con- struction of the world in Plato's Timaeus was, however, taken as an intended vera historia by the literal-minded Aristotle.

Accordingly we are not surprised to find that Aristotle sets down the pre-Socratics as mentioning only the material causes of things. This means, however, as we may now see, that they did not bring forward efficient causes — that is, chiefly, (Jod — nor formal causes — that is, definitions or descriptions — nor final causes, as sufficient principles of explanation. It does not mean that they were not interested in the processes of nature as such or in their precise methods and laws. This no one would deny ; but it is a point of prime importance, whose significance is firequently overlooked. What Hippocrates says of the monists is true of them all. " They agree in point of view, but not in statement." Why the difference in language 1 Because one kind of

^* The logical aspect of this situation I sought to set forth in luy essay on The Neceuary and the Contingent in the Aristotelian System,

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primal matter seemed to lend itself better than another to the explan- ation of phenomena. The elements were interesting only as means to an end. It was the regularities of phenomena more than anything else that drew the attention of the philosopher ; presumably it was this aspect of nature which counted* most strongly in fii.yor of a single pri- mary substance. But the tendency to simpUiy was indulged too &x and led ultimately to the opposite extreme.

Science, then, in attempting to explain things, assigns the cause and interprets the &ct8 in accordance with analogies drawn from expe- rience. In Hippocrates, n. ^wcuv, c. 15 we read : "Airs, tiien, have been shown to be most mischievous in all diseases : other causes are only accessory and ancillary, but this has been shown to be the real cause of diseases. I promised to declare the cause of diseases, and I have shown that wind (iivcvfia) lords it over otiier things and particu- larly over the bodies of living beings. I have applied the reasoning to known maladies, and in them the hypothesis has been shown to be true." " It is the function of the same intelligence to know the causes of diseases and to know how to treat them with all the resources of the art of healing. "^'^ What applies to the microcosm,^** is equally true of the cosmos. The causes must be sought everywhere ; for as Plato says,^*' citing Hippocrates as his authority, one cannot know the nature of man without knowing the nature of the whola We are accustomed to think that strict science, based upon the knowledge of causes, dates from the age of Plato and Aristotle, but such is not the case.^** In the Republic i*^ Plato suggests that in the eflFort to read

"» Hippocrates, H. Wx»^. H (6, 20 Litti^).

^^ The comparison is old (cp. Auaximeues, fr. 2), though the expression only occurs later ; cp. Democritus, fr. 84.

"» Phatdr, 270 B foil.

"• Cp. Arist. De PartU Animal, 640*4 foil. ; De Sensu, 486»15 <ca2 M loi ^<^- Tos ' wept iDv dftaptfriov rl re ^icatrroy ai^runr, koI Sid rlwit alrlat trvfJifkUifti, 4*vauco0 6i Kul Tepl iryulai xal vixrov rAj wpurrai IStuf dpxdt (cp. Hippocrates, 11. dpxcUrft Itirpitc^, r^v dpxV T"^* alri-qf . . . voinnav t€ Kal Baydrov) ' oOt€ ydp irfUuuf odrt vbaw OU0 re yly€<r0ai roXt iffTtprifUrois fW^f. Sib ox^^^ "^^^ '''* ""'P^ 0i5<r€trff ol x\«t<rTOi xal tuw; larpCtv ol ^i\o<Toif>(tn4p<t)t r^v rix^ifv fieri&vrts, ol fUv TeXcvruHrc c/f rd irtpl larpiKfjs, ol ^i ix tQv wtpl 0iVf(tft d/>x<»^A( ^^P^ T^ larpiKrjs. J)e Oener. Animal. 769* 6 €lpiiKa<n Si TUf€t Ttair if>v<rio\6rY(av Koi h-tpoi (the medical writers) ircpi to6to9p, did rip* cUtIop Sptoia Kai 6»6pLOia ylyv^rai roit 7oi«0<rt. Cp. De ParU, Animal, 641* 7 ; Met, 1069* 25 fMp* Tvpodai Si Kal ol dpxatoi tpytfi ' rrjt ydp otV/af if^ow dpxdt koX vroix^'ia kqX afrm; P)id, 988* 22 Scoi fikv otp h rt rb waif koI fdaif riyd 0i^tv wt CXriP rt^/cwi, koI ra&rrfp ffUfxariKfjif Kal fUy^Bot ^oiway, SrjKwr Sri iroWaxC^ dfMprdPOwnp . . . xcU irepi y€v4vt(a% Kal <f>0opdit iirix€ipowT€i rd% alrlat X^etv Kr\. It is evident that Aristotle is here enlarging upon the criticism of the monists contained in Hippocrates, U. ^iciot drOpdnrov, c. 1, quoted above, p. 119 folL

1" 368 D foil.

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the character of justice one may perhaps gain some advantage from contemplating it as writ large in the history and constitution of the state and noting how it originated. ^'^ There were others who pre- ferred to reverse the procedure, hoping to throw light on general nature by stadjring the nature of man. Of these we have an example in Hip- pocrates, Ilept (Spx^V ^TP**^- " Certain physicians and philosophers, " he says,*** "assert that one cannot know the science of medicine without knowing what man is, how he originally came into existence, and of what substances he was compounded in the beginning ; and this he who would properly treat men must be thoroughly cognizant of. Now the contention of these men really looks to phUosopby, as do Empedocles and others who have written IJcpi <f>wr€m. As for me, I consider that what a philosopher or physician has said or written ITcpi ^vo-ccd? has less relevancy to medicine than to painting ; and I am of opinion that, so &r as concerns knowledge ll€pi <^vcr€(i>9, one can know nothing definite about it except from medicine ; but this may be thor- oughly learned when men go about it rightly. Hitherto, it seems to me, we are far from it : &r, that is to say, from having a scientific knowledge of what man is (that is to say, what his constitution is), and to what causes he owes his origin and the rest, in any exact sensa Now so much at least it is indispensable that the physician should know Utpl ^v<re<D9 and should greatly concern himself to know, if he is to do any part of his duty ; to wit, what a man is (i. e. what his con- stitution is) relative to meat and drink, and what he is relative to the rest of his mode of life, and what results follow for the indmdual from particular things, and all this not merely in general terms, as a g., ' cheese is unwholesome food, for it distresses one who eats plentifully of it ' ; but what particular distress it causes, and for what reason, and to what ingredient of the man's constitution it is unsuitable." The

^•* Cp. nlao the myth in Plato's ProtcigoraSf 320 C foil., where the virtues are illustrated by the story of their origin. An interesting contrast is presented by Aristotle, Be Oener, Animal, 778^ 16 foil., where he discusses the cases in which biological phenomena are to be interpreted teleologically or physically ; yh^aa is for the sake of o^ta, and oinrla is the cause of y^<rtt. The ancient physiologers thought otherwise ; hence they recognized only material and efficient causes, not even discrim- inating between them. He states his own view thus : o& did t5 yLyv€<Tdai fKaarov ir<M6r Ti, dih rovro iroibv n iffTlv^ 8<ra rcraytUva xal (hpur/i^va fpya rrji <p6(r€ci)t ivriVy dXXA /btaXXor iiA rb cimi roiaSi ylyvrrai roiavra. The opposite argument is presented in Plato, Euthyphro, 10 A foil. The latter clearly represents the common logical procedure, based upon the common usage of the Greeks as established in the pre- Socratic period, though, strictly speaking, the former conforms perfectly to the teleo- logical logic of the Socratics. This is another illostration of the inner contradiction of the Aristotelian logic.

"• C. 20 (1, p. 24 Kiihlewein).

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writer then proceeds to say that the physician must study the particu- lar food-stuflf and its physiological action as well as the individual con- stitution, determining which of the humors is TrXctwK cvcwv koL fxakkov cvSuvao-Tcvoij' iv tw crco/xaTt, and then knowing which humor is inimical ^^^ to the particular food-stufif and is roused to hostility by it, he can pre- scribe a suitable diet.

Here we find set up an id6^1 that science is still &r from realizing. Only a year or two ago an eminent physician stated that the specific physiological action of drugs still remained undiscovered, with the possible exception of two or three. Even for foods a bare beginning has been made. We may recall that Hippocrates elsewhere ^^^ insists that each phenomenon has its own <^vcri9 or natural cause (law ?) and that Heraclitus likewise proposed to explain each thing according to its own law, thus aspiring to meet the two-fold requirement of science which aims to discover both the proximate causes of events and the ultimate statement of universal law. There is, moreover, a further interest attaching to the passage just quoted at length. It formulates three questions raised by philosophers and by physicians philosophi- cally inclined: (1) what man is; (2) how he originated; and (3) of what he is composed. The first and third questions, as we have seen, practically coincide ; the second agrees with its fellows, except that it regards the process rather than the result, which is, however, only an analysis read backward and cast into the time-form. Hippocrates does not object to the questions, as such ; he merely regards them as too general and, therefore, as premature, considering the stage of advance- ment attained by positive science in his time. His attitude is instruc- tive, however, since it is obviously that of a scientist of knowledge and discernment looking with critical eye upon the venturesome undertak- ings of less mature minds ; for science naturally proceeds from the gen- eral to the particular. ^^*

The same position is taken in the essay Ilcpt Biairrj^i i^' " I say that one

*^® In the microcosm we thus have a picture in miniature of the cosmic ir6\€fios of elemental forces, in which one element prevails (iiriKpaTeT) at one time, a second at another. It ia the function of the physician to support (^oridciy) the losing ele- ment and so to restore the harmony of a ])roper balance of powers. Op., for example, 11. lepijs voijffovt 18 (6, 394 foil. Littr^) xph ^^ ^'<»i ^»' TaOT-Q rrj vovui^ Kal ivr^ffi &\\o<ny dird(Trj<n fir] aC^eiv xA voutr^/xara, dXXd (nrevSeiv Tp^x^it^ trpoJip^povTa t J voOaff t6 roXe- puJ^arov iKdffTT^y koX fi^ rb <pi\ov Kal (rOvrjdes.

^'^ See above, n. 57, and Plato, Phacdr, 270 B quoted below, n. 175.

*^'* There is an interesting parallel to the procedure of Hippocrates in Aristotle's discussion of the winds, Meteor. 360* 27 and the comments of Olympiodorus. See Gilbert, DU meteorologischen Theorien des gricchischen AlUrtums^ p. 624, n. 2.

"» A, 2 (6, 468 Littre).

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who is to write a proper treatise on human dietetics must first of all know the constitution of man, — know and distinguish : he must know of what he was constituted in the beginning and distinguish (in the in- dividual case) by what constituents he is ruled. Unless he knows his original composition, he wilt not be able to know the results that flow from it ; unless he distinguish ^^* the ruling constituent in the body, he will not be capable of administering what is beneficial to the man. This, then, the writer must know ; but he must have learned, in addi- tion, the action — whether due to nature or to human constraint and art — that each kind of meat and drink has which we employ by way of diet." To these, or similar, words of Hippocrates Plato refers in the Pkaedrus ^^' with cordial approval. It thus becomes a common- place that distinction and, above all, analysis of a complex whole into its parts, are necessary to clear ))hilosophical thought ; ^^* and that, in order to make clear the nature of anjrthing, it is desirable by an act of imaginative synthesis to reconstitute the fact thus analyzed.

The boy who takes his watch to pieces and tries to put it together again, — usually witU scant success, because synthesis lags far be- hind analysis, — indulges an ideal, rather than a practical, instinct. He has no thought of making watches, but wants to understand his time-piece. At the beginning of the Politics ^^^ Aristotle puts the matter clearly : "As in other departments of science, so in politics, the compound should always be resolved into the simple elements or least parts of the whole. We must therefore look at the elements of which the state is composed. ... He who thus considers things in their first growth and origin, whether a state or anything else, will

*^* I read Suiyv(iHrerai for yvtbaerai,

WB 270 B ip dfjufxnipais (sc. medicine and rhetoric) Set SitXMai ^jJcrw, (rt^/Mtrof fUvivri h-ifH^ f^^f ^ ^^ fy ^^P9t ^^ AiAXftf, ytx^ rpipy fi6yov Kal i/Mxeiplq. dXXA T^i^y, r{ f/iiv iffdpfiOKa Kai rpo<pf)p 'irpoc<f>ip(jav iryUiap Kal (ni)fJLrjp ip.iroiifi<T€tv . . . ^f^vxvs 6tp ^itovp Hiiin XA70W Korovo^fiai ofri hwarhv eZiwi Avev ry\% rod 5\ov <pv<r€U)S ; El fxh 'Iiriro- Kpdrei yt ry tQp 'A<TK\rpria5ufP dci rt xiB^ffOai, oifdi wept (rthpuoLTOt &p€v t^ fu66dov ra^ijs . . . T6 toIpvp ircpl^ 0i;(r€Wf (TKinrei rl irore X^ei ^liriroicpdTris rt koX 6 iXrfO^t Xiryos ' &p o^x &de Set diapoeiaSau. w€pl drovovv <p6ff€(as ' irpujrop fjjp, dirXovc fj iro\v€id4s i<m o5 T4pi pov\rfa6fJL€$a tlpai aOrol rcxwifol Kal dXXoi' dwarol iroieiPf tirtira 3^, fty fih iLxXovp 5, (FKoreTp ri)p SOpafUP airoO, riva xp6x rl ir^^uice tls rb dpay txpy ^ rlpa eli rb TaStip (nrb roO, Olp 8i wXtlu ttdij ixVt f^^o. dpiB/HTjcdfUvoPf 5irep i<p* ivbiy roOr Ibeip i<f) ixdffrov, Ty rl 'toicip a^b x44>vk€p fj rf rl vaBcip inrb rod ; Kipdvpfi^i.

^'* Cp. Plato, Tim. 67 D 8ib d^ avfjifxeiypip^a airrd re rpbt airrd Kal xpbt dXXi/Xa tV ToiKiXlop icrlv &v€ipa ' tJj 8^ Set Oeupobt ylypcffOai ro^ fUXXorras xtpl f^itrtuit eUbri Xiryip x/>V«^^«w. But to study the roiKikla of things requires that the crazy- patchwork be set in order by analysis.

ITT 1252* 24 foil., transl. Jowett. Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 11 foil, affords a good example of ^i^tt — ' constitution,' which at once suggests ' origin.'

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obtain the clearest view of them.'' Qaite apart from the obvious debt of Aristotle in this matter to Plato ^^* and Hippocrates, it must be clear that this method of procedure has no relevancy to the distinct- ively Socratic doctrine of definition in terms of the end or purpose ; it is a survival from the naturalistic or mechanical mode of thought, de- veloped in the pre-Socratic age, which explains things in terms of their origin and physical constituents.

Socrates, the originator of the teleological method, could not under- stand this procedure. To his mind it belonged not to theory, but to the sphere of the practical arts. There is an extremely interesting passage touching tiiis matter in Xenophon's MemorabiliaA'^^ "Nor did he (Socrates) converse," we are told, "about the constitution of the world (Trcpl t^ twv irdvnav ^ucrcws), as the majority of the philoso- phers do, inquiring how that which the philosophers call the cosmos originated *•• and by what mechanical forces ^®^ (dvdyiceu?) the phe- nomena of the heavens are brought about, but he even declared that they who worry their heads about such matters are fools." ... "He inquired also concerning the philosophers, asking whether, in like man- ner as they who learn the human arts ^** think that tiiey shall be able to make what they may learn either for themselves or for whomsoever they please, so also they who study things divine think that when they have learned by what mechanical forces they severally come about, they shall at their pleasure make winds and rains ^*' and whatever of the

^T* Especially Repub, 868 D foil., Pfuudr, 270 C folL Cp. Plato's summary of tbe Republic in Tim. 17 0 x^^J «■<>'' ^^ ^* ^MoC ^O^m-tap Xiryup repl ToAtrekif ^ r6 ice^dXatov ota re Kal i^ otup dpSpQv dpl<mi Kartipaiper' dp fioi y€p4(r6ai. For the thought that to understand a thing one should see it put together, cp. Tim. 27 C, 28 B, 90 E, etc.

"» L 1, 11 and 15.

^w The MSS vary between f^v and ix^i. The fonner emphasizes the process of origination ; the latter implies it in the question as to the truth about phenomena (rCjs ^€i). Cp. Parmen. fr. 10. In Hippocrates u)s ^et is often used in relation to ^i^if -• constitution.

^•* Where the physical philosopher inquired rlffip {ipwriicdis) dpdyicais yiyptrai^ Socrates asked, if at all, i fKoara 6 Btbs fitfxaMarai, Xen. Mem. iv. 7, 6. Cp. ibid. I. 4, 14 where ^6ff(t — BtoO rpopolq.: <p^it has become the mechanism of God's providence.

^M Cp. Aristoxenus, fr. 81 (MuUer, F. H. O., Ii. 281) 4>rjirl d* 'A. 6 ftowrucht JpdMf €&ai rbp \6yop rbpSt * *A$'tprriai ydp hrrvxtuf IQuKpdrti tQp djfdpCjp iicttpiop hfa Ttyd, K&v€iTa a^ov rvp0dpt(r$aif tI troitap ^i\oao4>olrf • rod 5* tlxbPTOS, 5rt f^cSi' wepl roO dp0p<awlyov ptov, KarayeXdffcu rbp *lpbbp, X^opra fi^ Sj^PourOal tipo, rd dpBpilnripa KariditP dypooGprd yc rd Bua. Compare the opinion of those who held that one cannot know the 0(^(r<t of man without knowing the ^i^tt toO SXov.

^M One is tempted to regard this as a hit at Empedocles ; cp. fr. 111. Because of this expression Empedocles has been set down as a charlatan ; bat in the present

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sort they may desire, or whether they do not even conceive such a hope, bat are content merely to know how these phenomena occur." The di£ference between the physical and the teleological points of view is beautifully illustrated by the story told by Plutarch in his Life qf Per- icles : ^** " It is related that on a certain occasion the head of a goat with a single horn was brought from the country to Pericles, and that Lampon, the seer, when he saw the strong, solid horn growing out of the middle of the forehead, said that, there being in the city two rivals for power, Thucydides and Pericles, the power would come to the one to whom the sign was given. Anaxagoras, however, cutting open the skull, showed that the brain was not fully developed at the base, but shrunken from its integument and coming somewhat to a point, egg- like, at the spot where the horn sprouted. At the time Anaxagoras was applauded by those who were present ; but Lampon's turn came shortly afterwards, when the power of Thucydides was broken and the affairs of the people came steadily under the direction of Pericles. There was nothing, however, so fer as I can see, in the way of the phy- sical philosopher and the seer ^*' being equally in the right, the one

state of his poem we are not in position to judge. The promise of fr. 2 is sufficiently modest (cp. Parmenides, fr. 10 and 11). I incline to think that fr. Ill belongs to the concluding passage of his philosophical poem, and voices the high hopes of the author that the secrets of nature will soon be laid bare. The age of Empedocles was intoxicated with the new wine of science and regarded nothing as too difficult to explain. Once the principles were fully understood, as in certain sciences (e.g. medicine, as we have seen) they were by some even then thought to be, it was not strange that men should hope to perform wonders of science equal to the most ambitious miracles of magic.

"•0.6.

"• It is certain that the Socratic teleology, whether suggested by Socrates* reyerence for fuun-uc/j or not, came to the rescue of divination at a time when it wss in a bad way, as we may see from Thucydides. The identity of the two points of view is apparent: the question remains whether teleology is immanent in the process of nature or imposed on it from without. In a way fiwnuc/f differs from Urropiii chiefly in this that the latter attempts to know the present by reconstructing the past, while the former seeks to infer the future from the present. Hence the words of Pindar, Pyth, 9, 48 ff. are interesting : K^^piw t% wdm-aw r Aot | otcrOa (Apollo) koI rdaas K€\€^0out . . . x^ ''* MAXei, x^^^ (ffacrai, e5 KaBopft. Knowledge of the endj implies teleology : 8 rt ^Xet is 5 rt l^ari thrown into the future, and 6ir6$€v iffffCTfu refers to the jcAev^oi, as Gildersleeve rightly says. Compare the praise of (Anaxagorean ?) physical philosophy in Eurip. fr. 910 (the text of Diels, Vorsokr, 299, 28) Skpiot 8<ms riji Iffroplas \ ((TX€ fidBrftrtP \ /n-fp-t woXitCjp ivl irrifioaiipriv \ fn/fr* th ddlKOvt vpdids hpiMPf \ dXV iBoMdrov xaBopw ^^€(os \ xSafiw iyfiptav, ^J tc avi>4ffrfj I x^^\v X**""*- WTuU and how are the main questions ; the latter includes liie story, and hence the beginnings. Ck)mpare Plato, P?iaed, 97 0 e/ otv Tif fioiffXoiTo T^ alrlav eifpeU rcpl iKdarov Strg ylyyrrai 1j dirdWirrai ^) fffTi with 96 A (rw€pii^a9Qt ydp fioi iddxtt (sc. ^ <ro0/a, i^ 8ii KoXowri ftpL ^^ews lffToplav\ kuI €l94^tu rdt eUrlas iKdarov, 8iit rl ylyprrai fxaarw koX SUl ri dx^XXvrac koX dtd tI fffrt.

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well singling ont the physical cause (rrjv alrlav) the other the purpose (to tcXos) ; for the former was, by hjrpothesis, inquiring from what phy- sical conditions it sprung and how it came about in the course of nature (cic TtVwv ycyovc koL tto)? ttc^vicc), whereas the latter was predicting to what purpose it came about and what it signified " (vfm ri yeyovc koI tI

Democritus is reported to have said that he would rather make one contribution to the causal explanation of things than be made King of the Persians. ^^* Surely this does not mean that he wanted to discover an atom ; he was in search of the causal nexus in whatever form, and his atoms and void were only the last link in the chain. Men knew what it meant to explain : tiiey did not confuse explanation with de- scription, although they might content themselves with the latter, in default of the former. This was often the attitude of the physician, aware of his ignorance of the real cause. The words of Thucydides about the great plague well illustrate this point " As to its probable origin," he says,^®^ "or the caused which might or could have produced such a disturbance of nature, every man, whether a ph3rsician or not, may give his own opinion. But I shall describe its actual course, and the symptoms by which any one who knows them beforehand may recognize the disorder should it ever reappear.''

It would be easy to multiply witnesses proving that the pre-Socratio philosophers aimed at nothing short of a complete understanding of the world in terms of its physical causes ; but enough has been said. There is, however, one passage in Plato to which reference should be made. In the Pkaedo i®® Socrates sets forth, as only Plato could do it, the difference in point of view between the Socratic and the pre-Socratic philosophies. No contrast could be more clearly or sharply drawn : on the one hand we find an explanation of things beginning with matter and operating with mechanical causes, for which Socrates declares him- self by nature unfitted ; on the other stands the teleological conception of the world for which Socrates is sponsor. Socrates tells how eagerly he took up the book of Anaxagoras in the hope of finding a real antici- pation of his view, but only to meet with utter disappointment. Plato does not often touch directly upon the earlier philosophies, but here he has drawn a picture of their aims and methods which leaves nothing to be desired. Perhaps its full significance is hardly realized.

*•• Fr. 118.

*•' n. 48, 3, transl. Jowett. In Hippocrates, especially in the works which may be classed as note-books, explanation commonly yieKls to descriptloii of the disease and its symptoms.

w» 96 A foU.

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It may be assomed, then, that in the conception of Nature developed by the pie-Socratics all the main* senses of the term tf)v<nq were com- bined; that is to say, Nature meant to them not only that out of which things grew or of which, in the last analysis, they are consti- tuted ; this was one of its meanings, but only one, and that not the most important Certainly it would not be true to say even of the loni- ans that they restricted themselves to the question as to the primary substance of the world. Nature (and ^vo-t?) meant more than this : it included the law or process of growth exemplified in all things. Aris- totle and Theophrastus suggest that Thales was led to the assumption that water was the primary substance by observations connected with evaporation and precipitation ; be that as it may, it is certain that his successor Anaximander was more interested in the cosmic process of seg- regation than in his colorless Infinite, and thenceforward cosmic pro- cesses and laws occupy the attention of philosophers more and more. The main sense of Nature was, however, the sum of things as consti- tuted by the elements and the cosmic laws and processes. This it was, the Natura Rerum, to the understanding of wtuch the philosopher im- mediately addressed himself ; and it was in this sense that the term t^vcri? occurs in the titular phrase Ilepl t^vo-co)?. Yet, as we have seen, while the inquiry or loroptiy ircpl <^ca)9 concerned the question * what is it ' (oTt ^oTt), the answer at once carried the inquirer to the further ques- tions 'of what is it constituted' and 'how did it come about' There is nothing startling in this conclusion. It is just what we might have expected, knowing the operations of the human mind. It is, however, not without a certain interest that we thus discover the ideals of pres- ent-day science informing and impelling the fathers of all science.

Science, however, merely formulates in the hierarchy of its ideals the interests of the plain man who goes about his daily business with no particular predilection for matters theoretical The common mind is chiefly concerned with results, neither asking nor greatly caring how they were obtained. As for the underlying causes, material or efficient, which produced the results, they are relatively unimportant, except for the purpose of attaining the same object either actually or by way of ideal construction or verification. Thus every one has heard of the latest invention, say the aeroplane, and accepts it as a &ct of interest Many, though by no means all, know the names of the inventors ; the human interest in personalities of distinction contributes not a little to the attitude of mind which fixes attention upon the author. Even smaller is the number of those who know of what materials the machine is constructed. That is a question of importance chiefly to tiie practical experimenter. Fewest of all are those who concern tiiemselves about

VOL. XLV. — 9

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the natural laws involyed in the attempt to navigate the air, of which the inventor must take advantage in the deft adjustment of his me- chanical contrivance to the attainment of his cherished object Many an experimenter even will be found to be lacking in a Imowledge of these principles which absorb the attention of the theorist The natural philosopher, however, will devote himself to tiie determination and for- mulation of the laws involved ; from his point of view the inventor is of no consequence, and in his calculations the materials used in the contrivance will figure as a plus or minus quantity.

It remains for us to speak briefly of Professor Burnet's dictum ^** concerning the scope of the early Greek researches IIcpl (^vo-ccof. Since he himself holds that the title is not original and finds it first men- tioned in Euripides,^*^ it is fii.ir to judge it by the conceptions of the fifth century. But we may reasonably go &rtlier and assert that the usage of the fifth and fourth centuries b.o. merely reflects the ideals of Greek science as they were gradually developed from the beginning. In the Metaphysics ^*^ Aristotle says : ' It is owing to their wonder that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize ; they won- dered originally at the obvious difficulties, then advanced little by little and stated difficulties about the greater matters, a g. about the phe- nomena of the moon and those of the sun, and about the stars and about the genesis of the universe." It is clear that the " obvious diffi- culties,'' which are said to have originally excited the wonder of men, belong rather to the stages of preparation for technical philosophy, and that philosophy proper begins for Aristotle with the investigation of the phenomena of the heavens and of the origin of the universe. Accord- ing to Plato *•* also it was the observed regularities of heavenly phe- nomena that begot the research into the nature of the universe. They were the ^cid /wtr ewcellence,^^* and wonder bom of the observation of them was supposed to have produced the belief in the existence of gods.*** It can hardly be doubted that in the early stages of philoso- phy the researches of investigators might have been abnost indifferently characterized as Trcpl fiernofnav or ^cpl ^vo-ccus iaropirj. Speaking of the distinction and elevation in oratory conferred upon Pericles by his &• miliarity with the lofty speculations of Anaxagoras, Plato says **' iroo-ot

6<rai /xeyoAai ra>v T€)(ytav wpoaSiovrai 6So\€(r\w kox ficrcoipoXoyuis <^v(r€cu9

^•» Quoted above, p. 80.

"® See above, n. 7.

»^ Ma. 982^ 12-17, transl. Ross.

w« Tim. 47 A. Cp. Epin, 990 A and JUpub. 680 A-681 A.

»»» Cp. n. 182 above.

^•* By Democritus, cp. Diels, Vorsokr, 865, 22 (olL

"» Fhacdr. 209 B.

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v€pi ; and even AriBtotle comprehended in the term /tcrcopoAoyia his philosophy of nature as a whole. *•• His Physics is rather the metaphy- sical consideration of the principles involved in the explanation of Nature. In the Hippocratean treatise Utpl aapKutv occurs an instruc- tive passaga "Concerning ra fieriwpa," we read,^*^ " I do not want to speak except to show, in regard to man and the other animals, how they came about in the course of nature, and what the soul is, what is health and disease, what it is that produces health and disease in man, and from what cause he dies." The author, while professing to speak ircpl Twv ii€r€^ptavy proceeds to sketch the origin of things, giving in fiu^t a miniature discourse XIcpl (^vo-eo)? after tiie manner of the philosophers, in the course of which he describes the segregation of the cosmic ele- ments and tiien turns abruptly to tell of the origin of the various parts of the human organism. Each subject is introduced with the laconic but significant phrase, oiSc iyci/cro.^**

We are thus brought £bu^ to &ce with the second sphere of interest included in the researches of early philosophy ; for, however much the cosmos engaged the attention of the investigator, the microcosm soon, if not immediately, made good its claims. We have repeatedly re- marked upon the intimate connexion of medicine, so £m* as it con- cerned physiology, witii inquiries Trepi t^vcrccos. We need not now enlarge upon this thema It is sufficient to call attention to the fact that it was recognized by Aristotle ^•^ as well as by the pre-Socratics.

But while the philosopher may have devoted tiie greater part of his attention to these two fields, noUiing lay outside the sphere of his in- terest Thus it is not improbable that the study of mathematics was associated with philosophy from the beginning and included in the scope of Ucpt ^v(rc(D9 UrropCrf. Aristotle, whose empirical method of determining what does and what does not belong to the subject matter of the several sciences is well known, says in the Metaphysics : ^^^

^* See Gilbert, Die meteorol. Theorien des grieehischen AUertums, p. 14.

^•^ n. (r<ipKii¥, 1 (8, 684 Littr^) wepl di rwp /ureibfxaif oidi (read oiJ5^ !) S4ofjLat X^ecy, fjp M^ TwrovToif is ApBponrop dwodtl^ koI rd dXXa ^{)a, iieSaa (read ^jrwf !) l0vKoU iy4p€T0, Kcd 5ti rfn/x^ irriy, Kal 6ti rb ^iafvew, «al dn t6 Kdfwtw, Kcd 6ti Td ip dM0piinr<if xaKbp xal dyaBinf^ koX 6$(p ixo6¥^K€i, This little treatise has been unduly neglected and deeenres especial attention because of its intimate relation to pre-Soeratic philosophy. Its date is hard to determine. Diels, EUmenium, p. 17, n. 2, would assign it to the first half of the fourth century, B.C.

MS Compare Arist., De Parti. Animal, 641»7 oihtat yip koI o2 ^wyio\6yoi rAf 7eW- C€it Koi rdf alrlat tov ffx^/iarof \4yowrtM ' inrb rlvtap ydp idrffuovpry^rfaay dwdfuiop. Ibid, 647»9 foil. ; [Arist] Probl, 892»23 foil.

^ Cp. Arist., Ik Langev, 464^33 ff. ; De FartL Animal. 653*8 folL ; De Sensu^ 486» 17 foil. ; De JUspir,, 480*22 foU.

«^ 1006»19 foil., tranal. Ross.

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" We must state whether it belongs to one or to different sciences to inquire into the truths which are in mathematics called axioms, and into substance. Evidently the inquiry into these also belongs to one science, and that the science of the philosopher . . . And for this rea- son no one who is conducting a special bquiry tries to say anjrthing about their truth or falsehood, — neither the geometer nor the arithme- tician. Some natural philosophers (<^t;(rifcoi) indeed have done so, and their procedure teas intelligible enough ; for they thotight that they alone were inquiring about the whole of nature and of being " (ircpi tc t^ okrj^ ^vo-ccDs Kol ir€pl Tov ovTos), lu llko matmor Plato*®* refers to the •philosophers as those "who discourse and write about nature and the

universe " ( oi ircpl ^vo-ccos tc koI tov oXov SioXcyo/Acvoi koX ypd(f>ovT€si). Again *•* he pictures Hippias enthroned in the chair of philosophy at the home of Gallias with a crowd of admiring students at his feet, who " appeared to be plying him with certain astronomical questions about nature and the phenomena of the heavens *' (ci^Vovro Sc irepl (^va-ea>9 re

icai ra>v fieretapitsv axTTpovofiuca arra Stcpoirav). Here fr€pl <^v(rco>9 gives the general subject, which includes ra /Acreaipa, and this in turn com- prehends darpovofUKa aTTo.*®' We may, therefore, safely say that IIcpi <^v(re(i)9 was the general title *®* by which the comprehensive philo- sophical works of the early philosophers were called because they were devoted to the universal Berum NaturaJ^^^ For this reason also Titpi

wi Lysis, 214 B. «w Prolog., 815 C.

SOS xhig geenis also to be the interpretation put upon the passage by Gilbert, DU meieorol. Theorien des griechischen Allertums, p. 3, n. 8, although he emphasizes the (undoubted) fact that in many cases wepl fji€Te(JI)p<inf and repl 0u<refa^ were used inter- changeably.

*•♦ See Gilbert, 0. c, p. 6, n. 1 : **Es haben deshalb Anaximenes und Anaxi- mander, Xenophanes und Parmenides, Empedokles und Anaxagoras jeder in einem Werke die Metaphysik, Physik, und Meteorologie gleichmassig behandelt. Auch des Diogenes von ApoUonia angefuhrte Schriften tieT€(apo\oyla und irepi i^epibrw 4>^€U)s waren wohl nur Teile seines Werkes x. 0iJ<rewt. Erst Demokrit, der auch hierin epocheroachend erscheint, hat — neben der Darstellung seines Gesamtsystems — in einer Menge von Specialschriften seine Forschungen niedergelegt." Diels, Vorsokr, p. 833, is of the same opinion regarding the titles attributed to Diogenes. It was the common tradition in after times that 11. ^t^ewf was the general title ; cp. D. L. IX. 5 (of Heraclitus) rh 6i <f>€p6tuvw airroO /St/SXioy itrrl fih dir6 rov <rtWxo»^of Hipi ^6ff€<as, Snjprfrai Si els rpcU Xiryovs, eft re t6i' repl tov irai^6» Kcd ToXirixby iral $eo\o- yiKbv, Hippolytus, Philos. 2 (Diels, Dox. 555, 17) says of Pythagoras : koL oSrot W xcpl 0v(riKc^ (— xepi 0i5<rc«t) ^^rnj<raf (ni^ev d<rrpwofdtiM koX yeotfieTpltuf <cai fiova'iK}pf Kal dpt6fi.7rriKiiv. Cp. ibid. 1. 24 : clra ^TctiAy . . . ircpi Aarpiap Kal tpi^eut <f>i\oa<h tp-fyrwri, rrX. Philolaus, fr. 6, TcpH <p{MTeiot koI ipfiovlas tWe ^x^** To the Pythago- reans, we are told, Urropla meant ytbtfierpla ; cp. Kichomachus, apnd lamblichus, Fita Pythag. 89.

•w It is therefore not surprising to find in Plato uses of ^tkrtf corresponding to

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^i^cci>9 laropia was set in sharp contrast ^^^ to the ethical and method- ological studies of Socrates which resulted in the logic and metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle.

It is not surprising that science, sprung from the bosom of religion, and fostered by a spirit of reverence for truth in an age when the crumbling ruins of ancient beliefis testified to a loss of respect for the traditional gods, should have become in a measure itself a religion. Attention was called above to the fact that the philosophical system became in time invested with sanctity and was handed down as a icpos Xoyo5. In the Greek mysteries, even in the fifth century, and possibly in the sixth, cvourctia, the final stage of initiation, included a vision of that most divine spectacle, the stellar universe. In Orphic and Py- thagorean conventicles there was undoubtedly some consideration of its meaning, though one cannot say how much. Much nonsense is reported of the secrets of the Pythagoreans, but it probably had some basis in iajct The religion of the time tended more and more to be- come a matter of the individual, though the public forms were ob- served. Science, competing with religion and in educated circles to a considerable extent supplanting it» naturally appropriated its forms. The " Law " of Hippocrates *®^ ends thus : " Things holy are revealed to holy men ; to the pro&ne it is forbidden, before they are initiated into the Mysteries of science." We are familiar with the beatitude pronounced by the poets upon those who were initiated in the Myste- ries of Eleusis,*®® for they should see the gods and dwell with them, released from the distressing cycle of birth and death. Not unlike it is the inspired utterance of Euripides *o* in praise of the philosopher of nature : " Blessed is he who hath got knowledge of science, bent neither on harm to his neighbors nor on ways of injustice ; but, con- templating the ageless order of undying nature, knoweth what it is and how. To such men there never cleaves desire for deeds of shame."

Wesletan University, MiDDLETOWN, CoNN., July 10, 1909.

the Lucretian phrases in rerum natura and in rebiia ; thus, Phaedo 103 B o<h-€ rb iv ilfjuv oih-e t6 iv ry if>6(T€t, and Pai'vi. 132 D rd fih' ctdrj ravra Cxrvcp irapadelyfiATa iffrdyai hf t j ^6ff€i.

«of Arist., Met. 987*1 foil. Cp. n. 7, above.

*^ Hippocrates, 4, 642 Littr^. Cp. also the'O/xrot (4, 628 foil. Littr^). .

*•• Cp. especially Pindar, fr. 114 (Bergk) dX/3(oj dcrru Wwv | kHv tla' inrb x^^*' oI5c fikif pLov rcXevrdi', | oldev 5i diSadorov dpxdu.

*•• Fr. 910. The text is quoted above, n. 185.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 6. — January, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE.

A REVISION OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS.

FIRST FAPER.^THE ANALYSIS OF SILVER PHOSPHATE. Bt Gregobt Paul Baxter and Grinnell Jones.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CHEMICAL LABORATORY OF HARVARD COLLEGE.

A REVISION OF THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS.

FIRST PAPER.— THE ANALYSIS OF SILVER PHOSPHATE.

Bt Gregory Paul Baxter and Grinnell Jones. Presented September 28, 1009. Received November 12, 1909.

Although phosphorus is one of the best known and most important elements, present knowledge concerning its atomic weight is somewhat inadequate. The early determinations of this constant by Dulong,^ Pelouze,^ Berzelius,^ and Jacquelain * are widely discrepant and have no particular significance. Those by Schrotter, Dumas, van der Platts, and Berthelot, on the other hand, all give values not far from 31.0, and this value has been selected by the International Committee on Atomic Weights. Although these investigations have already been critically discussed by Clarke,^ Brauner,^ and others, a few of the more important sources of error are briefly pointed out here.

Schrotter,^ the discoverer of red phosphorus, converted weighed quantities of this substance into phosphorus pentoxide by combustion in a stream of oxygen. As the mean of ten determinations which varied from 30.94 to 31.06, he obtained 31.03 for the atomic weight of phosphorus. The oxygen used was slightly moist, as Brauner has pointed out, since, although it was dried by phosphorus pentoxide, it was finally passed through a tube containing calcium chloride ! • The phosphorus pentoxide formed during the combustion must have re- tained this small amount of water, which would make the atomic weight of phosphorus appear too low. Schrotter admits that the com- bustion was incomplete, and since this error would tend to raise the atomic weight of phosphorus, he concludes that the true value is 31.00.

» Ann. Chim. Phys. 1816, 2, 149. « C. R., 1845, 20, 1053.

» Lehrbuch, 5th Ed., 1845, 3, 1188. * C. R., 1851, 33, 693.

• A Recalculation of the Atomic Weights, Smith. Misc. Coll., 1897.

• Abegp. Handb. der anorg. Chem., 1907, vol. 3, part 3, p. 366. T Ann. Chim. Phys., (3). 1853. 38, 131.

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138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Damas® titrated the trichloride of phosphorus against silver after decompoHing the trichloride with water. Since the sample used did not boil at constant temperature, but distilled between 76° and 78^, it must have been impure. K it contained oxychloride, as Clarke has suggested, the atomic weight of phosphorus would be found too high. Dumas overlooked the solubility of silver chloride and therefore used the wrong end-point in these titrations. Furthermore no precautions are mentioned either for preventing access of water to the material before weighing or for preventing the reduction of the silver salt by the phosphorous acid formed in the decomposition of the trichloride with water. Recalculated on the basis of the atomic weight of silver as 107.88, his five analyses give results which vary between 30.99 and 31.08. The average is 31.03.

Van der Platts ® made two determinations by each of three different methods. He obtained the values 30.90 and 30.97 by the precipitation of silver firom silver sulphate solution with phosphorus. His results fi'om the analysis of silver phosphate were 31.08 and 30.95. He gives no details of the method of preparing and analyzing this substance, merely making the statement^ " It \a difficult to be sure of the purity of this salt" Finally, by the combustion of yellow phosphorus in oxygen he obtained the results 30.99 and 30.96. The very meagre descriptions of these experiments preclude criticism.

Using Leduc's data for the densities and compressibilities of phos- phine and oxygen, Daniel Berthelot ^^ has calculated, by the method of limiting densities, the molecular weight of phosphine to be 34.00 and the atomic weight of phosphorus to be 30.98.

Very recently Gazarian ^^ has obtained a considerably lower value for the molecular weight of phosphine, 33.93. This value was calculated from the experimentally determined weight of the standard liter by the four methods of molecular volumes (Leduc), limiting densities (Berthe- lot), critical constants (Guyo), and "indirect" limiting densities (Berthelot). The different methods give essentially identical results, except in the case of the direct method of limiting densities. By the latter method a value six-hundredths of a unit higher is obtained, but Gazarian rejects the result on the basis of inaccurate knowledge of the compressibility of phosphine. It is highly desirable to obtain more certain knowledge of the compressibility of phosphine, since the

» Ann. Chem. Pharm., 1860, 113, 28.

• C. R., 1885, 100, 52. ^« C. R., 1898, 126. 1415. " Jour, de Chim. Phys., 1909, 7, 337.

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BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 139

method of limiting densities is the most reliable of all the methods for

appljdng the correction to the densities made necessary by deviations

from the laws of a perfect gas.

The other methods are bnrdened with arbitrary assumptions and

empirical constants, and furthermore Baume^' has shown that both

the method of molecular volumes and the method of critical constants

T give correct results only with gases for which the ratio j^ is nearly 1,

whereas for phosphinQ this ratio is 1.26. V

If the molecular weight of phosphine be ^sumed to be 33.93, the atomic weight of phosphorus is 30.91. In the light of this low result it is unfortunate that Gazarian prepared phosphine by only one method, and that he did not determine the purity of the gas, i. e. by absorption. Gazarian used the method of Matignon and Trannoy ^^ which consists in heating calcium phosphate and aluminum together until they react, and then treating the product of this reaction without Airther purification with water in a gas generator. Matignon and Trannoy show that the gas prepared in this way by them contained about three per cent of hydrogen, probably derived from calcium con- tained by the phosphide. In this case some calcium nitride would be formed, since the phosphide was made in air ; and this would produce ammonia as an impurity in the phosphine. Although the gas was purified by firactional distillation, according to Gazarian's statements hydrogen is diflScult to eliminate, and a proportion of only four-tenths of one per cent would be sufficient to lower the atomic weight of phos- phorus one-tenth of a unit Ammonia would be even more difficult to remove, since its boiling point is only 50° higher than that of phos- phine. The effect of a given percentage of impurity is, however, much less with ammonia than with hydrogen, although in the same direction.

From the preceding brief summary it is evident that the uncertainty in the atomic weight of phosphorus is as great as one tenth of a unit, and that^ as Brauner remarks at the conclusion of his review of the subject^ "a revision of the atomic weight of phosphorus with modem means is urgently necessary."

The analysis of silver phosphate was selected as one of the most promising methods of attacking the problem, since the percent of silver can be determined exactly by a method which has been carefully studied, especially in this laboratory. The accuracy of the result will therefore depend primarily upon the success attained in preparing

" Baume, J. Chim. Phys. 1908, 6, 76 and 86. " C. R., 1909, 148, 167.

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140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

silver phosphate in a perfectly definite and pure state. The greater part of the following research was devoted to the solution of this prob- lem which van der Platts found so difficult

The analysis of the halogen compounds of phosphorus ofiers certain difficulties owing to the ease with which these substances are decom- posed by water, and to the necessity for oxydizing the phosphorous acid resulting from the decomposition of the halogen compounds with water before the addition of silver nitrate. An investigation upon the tri- bromide of phosphorus is now in progress in this laboratory. Phospho- nium compounds were found utterly unsuited for exact analysis on account of their instability.

Purification of Materials.

Water, All the water used in this research was made firom the laboratory supply of distilled water by distillation, first firom an alka- line permanganate solution, and then, after the addition of a trace of sulphuric acid, through a block tin condenser.

Ammonia. The best commercial ammonia was distilled into the purest water.

Nitric Acid, The best commercial concentrated acid was twice firactionally distilled through a platinum condenser, with the rejection of the first third of the distillate. Every sample was shown to be firee firom chloride by careful nephelometric tests.

Hydrochloric Acid. The best commercial C. P. acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, was distilled through a platinum condenser.

Ili/drobromic Acid, This substance was prepared in conjunction with Mr. F. B. Coffin, who was engaged in a parallel research upon the atomic weight of arsenic^* Commercial bromine was converted into potassium bromide by addition to recrystallized potassium oxalata In a concentrated solution of this bromide, in a distilling flask cooled with ice, bromine was dissolved, and distilled ft*om the solution into a flask cooled with ice. A portion of the purified bromine was then con- verted into potassium bromide with pure potassium oxalate as before, and the remainder of the bromine was distilled firom solution in this pure potassium bromide. The product obtained was thus twice dis- tilled from a bromide, the bromide in the second distillation being essentially free from chlorine. This treatment has already been proved sufficient to free bromine from chlorine.^^

" Baxter and Coffin, These Proceedings, 1909, 44, 179. " Baxter, These Proceedings, 1906, 42, 201.

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BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 141

Hydrobromic acid was sjmthesized from the pure bromine by bub- bling hydrogen gas (made by the action of water on " hydrone " ) through the bromine warmed to 40''-44° and passing the mixed gases over hot platinized asbestos in a glass tube. The apparatus was con- structed wholly of glass. The hydrogen was cleansed by being passed through two wash bottles containing dilute sulphuric acid, and through a tower filled with beads also moistened with dilute sulphuric acid. The hydrobromic acid gas was absorbed in pure water contained in a cooled flask. In order to remove iodine the solution of hydrobromic acid was diluted with water and twice boiled with a small quantity of free bromine. Then a small quantity of recrystallized potassium per- manganate was added to the hydrobromic acid solution, and the bro- mine set free was expelled by boiling. Finally the acid was distilled with the use of a quartz condenser, the first third being rejected. It was preserved in a bottle of Nonsol glass provided with a ground- glass stopper.

The purity of the hydrobromic acid was tested by a quantitative synthesis of silver bromide. The silver used, which was kindly fur- nished by Mr. G. S. Tilley, had been prepared with all the necessary precautions for work on the atomic weights of silver and iodine.^® The procedure used by Baxter ^^ for the synthesis of silver bromide from a weighed amount of silver was followed in detail. In this experi- ment 6.02386 grams of silver jdelded 10.48627 grams of silver bromide ; hence, silver bromide contains 57.4452 per cent of silver, while Baxter found as the mean of 18 determinations 57.4453 per cent The hydro- bromic acid was evidently pure.

Silver Nitrate. Crude silver nitrate was reduced with ammonium formate, made by passing ammonia gas into redistilled formic acid. The reduced silver was washed with the purest water, until the wash waters no longer gave a test for ammonia with Nessler's reagent, and was fused on sugar charcoal. The buttons were then scrubbed with sea-sand and thoroughly cleansed with ammonia and nitric acid. They were then dissolved in redistilled nitric acid, in a platinum dish. After the silver nitrate solution had been evaporated on a steam bath until saturated, an equal volume of redistilled nitric acid was added and the solution was cooled. The precipitated silver nitrate was very completely drained in a centrifugal machine, provided with platinum Goocfa crucibles to retain the salt.^® A similar recrystallization fol-

" Baxter and Tilley, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1909. 31, 201.

^T Baxter, These Proceedings, 1906, 42, 208.

" Baxter, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1908, 30, 286.

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142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

lowed. The final product was preserved in Jena glass vessels under a bell-jar.

Disodium Phosphate. One kilogram of Merck's best disodium phos- phate was dissolved in hot water in a porcelain dish and hydrogen sulphide passed into the solution for several hours. After standing for twenty-four hours, the solution was again heated, saturated with hydrogen sulphide and filtered. The filtrate was slightly green, owing to the presence of iron. The solution was boiled to exx>el the hydro- gen sulphide and a small amount of green precipitate filtered out The filtrate was still distinctly green. The sodium phosphate was then crystallized fifteen times, five times in porcelain with centrifugal drainage of the crystals in a large porcelain centrifugal machine, ten times in platinum vessels with centrifugal drainage of the crystals in platinum Gooch crucibles. The green color concentrated in the first mother liquor.

When tested by means of the Marsh test, this material was found to contain only a mere trace of arsenic, which was estimated to be 0.01 mg. in ten grams of the salt. This small amount could have no effect on the analytical results, especially since the percentage of silver in silver arsenate is nearly the same as in silver phosphate. By means of the nephelometer it was proved that this material contained no chlo- ride or other substances which could be precipitated by silver nitrate in the presence of dilute nitric acid.

Sodium Ammonium Hydrogen Phosphate. The best commercial microcosmic salt was recrystallized four times in platinum vessels. It was tested for arsenic by Marsh's method with negative results and gave no opalescence visible in the nephelometer when tested with silver nitrate and dilute nitric acid.

Preparation of Trisilver Phosphate.

Silver phosphate was prepared by mixing dilute solutions of silver nitrate with solutions of sodium and ammonium phosphates. Since it is not feasible to purify silver phosphate by recrystallization, the con- ditions of precipitation must be so chosen that a pure product will be obtained at once.

In order to avoid inclusion and occlusion of silver nitrate, sodium nitrate, sodium phosphate, or mono- or disilver phosphate, all of the solutions for precipitation were made about 0.03 N. All samples after precipitation were thoroughly washed and allowed to stand in water for at least twenty-four hours, in order to convert occluded acid phos- phates into trisilver phosphate. Qualitative tests for nitrate with

J

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BAXTEB AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OP PHOSPHORUS. 143

diphenylamine and for sodium by the spectroscope showed that all of the first three substances named could be completely washed out

Joly^^ states that disilver phosphate is stable in the presence of phosphoric acid containing 40 per cent (11.8 N) of phosphoric anhy- dride, but is transformed into trisilver phosphate if the acid contains 38 per cent (1 1.0 N) or less of phosphoric anhydride. Since all the solu- tions used for the preparation of silver phosphate were nearly neutral, it is evident that the precipitation of disilver phosphate as a distinct phase in equilibrium with the solution is not to be feared.

It is, however, not such a simple matter to prove the absence of occluded disilver hydrogen phosphate or monosilver hydrogen phos- phate. Much light is thrown on this point in a recent paper by Abbott and Bray 20 upon the dissociation constants of the three hydro- gens of phosphoric acid, which were found to be 1.1 X 10"*, 1.95 X 10"^ and 3.6 X 10"" respectively. Since the phosphate ion (P04=) is ahnost completely hydrolyzed to lie monohydrophosphate ion (HP04=), even in slightly alkaline solutions, and since in slightly acid solutions the dihydrophosphate ion (HaPOr) acquires an appreciable concentration, the possibility of occlusion must be examined with especial care.

The concentrations in the following table are either taken directly from a table given by Abbott and Bray or calculated from these num- bers with the help of the values of the dissociation constants of phos- phoric acid. The values are expressed in formular weights per liter, the total concentration of the salt being in each case 0.05.

	NaNH«HP04	Na,NH«P04
H,POr	0.00118421	0.00000222
HP04=	0.03265 21	0.03219 21
PO«H	0.0000016 22	0.00112321
OH-	0.0000007921	0.000502 21
H+	0.000000007522	0.000000000012

It will be noted that the replacement of the remaining hydrogen in sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate by sodium decreases the concen-

w C. R., 1886, 103, 1071. «• Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1909, 31, 755.

** These values are taken directly from the table of Abbott and Bray. •* These values are calculated from the others in the above table by the aid of the following equations:

(H+)(OH-) - 0.59 X 10-»* (HPOr) - 3 6 X 10-« - 1.95 X 10-7

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144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

tration of the hydrogen ion to 0. 16 percent of its value in the microcosmic salt solution and decreases the conoenta:ation of the dihydrophosphate ion to 0.2 percent of its former value. The concentration of the mono- hydrophosphate ion remains essentially unchanged, while the concen- tration of the phosphate ion is increased seven hundred times. Bisodium phosphate doubtless takes a position intermediate between the other two solutions in this regard, since it is more alkaline than microcosmic salt and less so than disodium ammonium phosphate. The numbers given above refer to solutions which are five times as strong as those used in this research, but the conditions in the more dilute solutions must be very similar. Furthermore, the exact values have no great importance, as die concentrations of the various ions change continuously during precipitation. It is evident from the figures given above and from the value of the dissociation constant of the second hydrogen of phosphoric acid that if the concentration of hydrogen ion increases above its value in a microcosmic salt solution, the concentra- tion of the dihydrophosphate ion must increase greatly at the expense of the monohydrophosphate ion. If there is any tendency for the occlusion of disilver hydrogen phosphate or monosilver hydrogen phos- phate, the amounts of these salts occluded would be expected to depend on the concentration of the undissociated molecules of these salts in the solution, and therefore on the concentration of the silver ion and on the concentration of the monohydrophosphate or dihydrophosphate ion respectively.

The exact concentrations of the ions during the precipitation cannot be calculated, since the solubility of silver phosphate in slightly acid solutions and the solubility-product of silver phosphate are not known. It is, however, easy to understand from a study of the conditions under which the various samples of silver phosphate were precipitated, that these concentrations must have varied greatly in the preparation of the different samples and therefore constancy of composition gives a strong presumption that there is very little or no tendency for the occlusion of the undesired acid salts.

Samples N and 0. A 0.03 normal solution of silver nitrate was slowly poured into a 0.03 normal solution of disodium hydrogen phos- phate with frequent shaking. This reaction may be roughly consid- ered to take place in two stages represented by the equations

3 AgNOs + 2 Na^HPO* = AgjPO* + NaHjPO* + 3 NaNO, 3 AgNOs + NaH,P04 = AgsPO* + NaNO, + HNO,

At the beginning of the precipitation the solution is very slightly alkaline and remains very nearly neutral during the addition of the

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BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 145

first half of the silver nitrate. The concentration of the silver ion is kept very low by the excess of phosphate and, therefore, little occlu- sion of the acid salts is to be expected in spite of the tajct that the solution contains appreciable concentrations of the monohydrophos- phate and dihydrophosphate ions. The precipitate during this stage is very finely divided and does not settle well and, therefore, no attempt was made to collect it separately.

During the addition of the second half of the silver nitrate the solution becomes slightly acid and the solubility of the silver phos- phate increases rapidly. The precipitate settles readily. During the second stage the conditions are more fiivorable for the occlusion of the acid phosphate, but only a small amount of silver phosphate is precipitated during this staga

After standing a short time the mother liquor was decanted firom the precipitate, and exactly the calculated amount of redistilled ammonia, diluted to one liter, was added to neutralize the excess of acid and complete the precipitation. Since this sample was evi- dently produced from a solution which was slightly acid at the be- ginning of the precipitation, although very nearly neutral at the end, and since it contained a considerable amount of silver, the conditions were fiekvorable for the formation of acid salts.

Both precipitates were transferred to a large platinum dish and washed many times by decantation with the purest water. This washing was prolonged over more than twenty-four hours in order to give time for all soluble matter to be leached out. When the precipitates were tested for nitrate with diphenylamine, negative results were obtained. Sodium was found to be absent by spectro- scopic tests. The precipitates were drained as far as possible in a platinum centrifugal machine, and the drying was completed by heat- ing in platinum crucibles in an electric air bath for several hours, first at 90° and finally at about 130°. The dried lumps of silver phosphate were then gently ground in an agate mortar. The samples were pre- served in platinum crucibles over sulphuric acid in the dark. All of the operations were performed in a dark room.

The sample prepared by pouring silver nitrate into disodium phos- phate is designated Sample N, and the sample prepared by adding ammonia to the mother liquors is designated Sample 0.

Samph P. A 0.03 normal solution of disodium ammonium phos- phate was prepared by dissolving a weighed amount of disodium hy- ' drogen phosphate and then adding the calculated amount of redistilled ammonia. The solution was then slowly poured into a 0.03 normal solution of silver nita:ate. By this method of precipitation the solu-

VOL. XLV. — 10

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146 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

tion is maintained as nearly neatral as is possible, because the excess of silver prevents the concentration of phosphate in solution from exceeding a very small value, so that neither can the solution become alkaline by hydrolysis nor can the concentration of hydrophosphate attain an appreciable value. The absence of the hydrophosphate ions would be expected to prevent the formation and occlusion of acid silver phosphate in this sample, whereas in Sample N the same result is probably brought about by the absence of the silver ion. Unfortunately both of these £sivorable conditions cannot be combined in one precipitation, as will be shown later. This precipitate settled readily. The washing, testing, and drying were carried out as al- ready described for Samples N and 0. This sample is designated Sample P.

Sample R, A 0.03 normal solution of sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate was slowly poured into a similar solution of an equivalent amount of silver nitrate. Under these conditions the solution con- tains an excess of silver, which tends to produce occlusion of acid phosphates, since the solution becomes more and more acid as the pre- cipitation proceeds, and as the precipitation is therefore £a.r from complete, the concentrations of the two hydrophosphate ions gradually approach a very considerable value. At no stage could the solution become alkaline by hydrolysis. It should be noticed that the pro- cedure differs from that used in preparing Sample N in that the precipitate is formed in the presence of an excess of silver nitrate instead of an excess of phosphate, and that this difference in the method of mixing greatly changes the conditions of precipitation.

The precipitate, which was designated Sample R, coagulated and settled quite readily. The washing and drying were completed as usual

It will be shown that samples of silver phosphate prepared under these various conditions have nearly, if not exactly, the same composi- tion. Further proof of the absence of acid phosphate in these samples is given by experiments to be described later which show that no water is given off when this material is fi^d.

An attempt to prepare a sample by pounng silver nitrate into di- sodium ammonium phosphate 3delded unsatis&ctory results. Since the disodium ammonium phosphate solution was fidkaline, owing to hydrolysis, it contained free ammonia, which prevented the precipita- tion of silver phosphate at first Nearly one-quarter of the silver nitrate was added before a permanent precipitate was produced. At the end of the precipitation the solution was of course essentially neutral Even after standing for four days the precipitate bad not

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BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 147

appreciably settled. Since the coagulation of the precipitate seems to occur much more readily in the presence of excess of silver, a considerable amount of silver nitrate in solution was added. The precipitate coagulated and settled immediately. It was washed and dried as usual This sample was somewhat darker in color than the other samples and gave a large amount of insoluble residue when treated with dilute nitric acid. The analysis showed that it contained about two hundredths per cent too much silver. This method of preparation is evidently unsatisfiaictory.

Three unsuccessful attempts were made to prepare silver phosphate from trisodium phosphate. The samples obtained in this way did not appear homogeneous after being dried and contained considerable sodium in spite of protracted washing. Two of these samples were found by analysis to contain, respectively, 4.4 and 4.1 per cent less silver than pure trisilver phosphate. The third of these samples was so unsatisfactory in appearance and in its behavior during its preparation that it was not analyzed. This method of preparing silver phosphate is evidently not suitable for our purpose. Time was lacking to investigate further this anomalous behavior.

Method of Analysis.

Unfortunately, owing to the high melting point of silver phosphate, it was not feasible to fuse the silver phosphate before its analysis in order completely to eliminate all water. Instead it was heated in a platinum boat, in a current of pure dry air, at a temperature of about 400° for seven hours, and then by means of bottling apparatus ^ it was inclosed in its weighing bottle without coming in contact with the moist air of the laboratory. During this heating the access of light to the sample was prevented. The continuous current of air which passed over the silver phosphate during the heating was driven by a water pump successively through an Emmerling tower containing beads moistened with silver nitrate solution, through a tower containing small pieces of fused caustic potash, then through three towers con- taining beads drenched with concentrated sulphuric acid, and finally through a long tube containing phosphorus pentoxide which had been resublimed in a current of air. The hard glass tube containing the platinum boat was surrounded by blocks of aluminum ^ which were jacketed with asbestos on the top and sides and heated directly from

«* Richards and Parker, These Proceedings, 1896, 32, 59. ** Baxter and Coffin, These Proceedings, 1909, 44, 184.

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14S PROCEEDINGS OF THE AilERICAN ACADEMY.

below by a large burner. The platinum boat was not attacked in the least, as was shown by the fact that its weight remained constant

It was feared that in spite of this prolonged heating the silver phosphate still retained a trace of water, but by making the conditions in the different experiments as nearly uniform as possible it was hoped that the amount of water retained would be constant Proof will be given later that the drying was highly efficient

The salt thus prepared for analysis was allowed to stand over night in a desiccator covered with a black cloth in the balance room, and was then weighed in its glass-stoppered bottle by substitution, with the use of another weighing bottle of very similar surface and volume as a counterpoise.

The balance was a nearly new No. 10 Troemner balance. It was easily sensitive to 0.02 mg. The weights had already been used in an investigation of the atomic weight of sulphur, ^^ and were re- standardized with a very gratifying result None of the corrections found differed by as much as 0.02 mg. from those found a year before, and only a few by 0.01 mg. The balance was provided with a few milligrams of radium bromide of radioactivity 10000 to dispel electri- cal charges generated during the handling of the weighing bottles with cork-tipped pincers.

The platinum boat containing the silver phosphate was transferred to an Erlenmeyer flask of " non-sol " glass of one liter capacity and treated with about 30 cubic centimeters of 5 normal nitric acid. Solution took place rapidly. The solution was not perfectly clear, however, owing to a very slight insoluble residue which sometimes settled out on standing. The solution was then heated on a steam bath until the residue dissolved completely. Upon the addition of about one liter of cold water a very slight opalescence was produced, which was visible only when the solution was carefully examined in a very fisivorable light. The solution was again warmed until it became perfectly clear. The water and nitric acid used in these processes did not give an opalescence visible in the nephelometer when treated with silver nitrate. The nature of this residue will be discussed more in detail after describing the remainder of the analytical process.

About eight hundred cubic centimeters of water was placed in a large glass-stoppered precipitating flask and a very slight excess of hydrobromic acid was added from a burette. The silver phosphate solu- tion was then very carefully poured into the hydrobromic acid solution. This method of precipitation gives less opportunity for the occlusion

» Richards and Jones, Pub. Car. Inst., 1907, No. 69, 69.

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BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC WEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 149

of silver phosphate or nitrate than the reverse method. The occlusion of hydrobromic acid can do no harm. The flask was shaken for twenty minutes and was allowed to stand for several days until the precipitate had completely settled. Then the precipitate was collected upon a weighed (jooch crucible after many rinsings with pure water. In order to protect the mat of the Gooch crucible from disintegration, it was covered by a circular disk of thin platinum foil, perforated with many small holes. The precipitate was dried in an electrically heated air bath for several hours at 90°, then for some time at 130°, and finally for at least eight hours at 180°. After the crucible containing the precipitate had been weighed, the silver bromide was transferred to a porcelain crucible and the loss on fusion determined. The presence of the platinum disk covering the mat makes it possible to transfer very nearly all the silver bromide to the porcelain crucible without contamination with asbestos and therefore it is unnecessary to correct the loss on fusion for the small amount of silver bromide which is not fused. The loss on fusion, which represents water remaining in the silver bromide, was subtracted from the weight of the silver bromide. The asbestos shreds carried away by the wash waters and any silver bromide which may have escaped the Gooch crucible were collected by passing the filtrate through a very small filter paper. The paper was then burned and the residue, after treatment with a drcp of nitric and hydrobromic acids to convert any reduced silver into silver bromide, was again gently heated and finally was weighed. The weight of the asbestos, corrected for the ash of the paper, was added to the weight of the silver bromide. In order to determine the soluble silver bromide, the filtrate was evaporated until most of the excess of nitric acid was driven off. The precipitating flask and all the flasks which had held the filtrate were rinsed with strong ammonia and the rinsings added to the evaporated wash water. Enough ammonia was added to make the solution alkaline and it was then diluted to one hundred cubic centimeters in a graduated flask. The amount of silver bromide present was determined by comparison in the nephelometer with a very similar solution containing a known amount of silver bromide. Both precipitates were dissolved in ammo- nia and reprecipitated at the same time and under precisely similar conditions ^6 in the nephelometer tubes by a slight excess of nitric acid. The amount found in this way was added to the weight of the silver bromide.

In order to determine whether silver phosphate is occluded by silver

*• See Richards and Staehler, Pub. Carnegie Institute, No. 76, p. 20.

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150 PROCEEDINGS OF THE A2tfERICAN ACADEMT.

chloride, about six grams of silver phosphate were dissolved in nitric acid and the solution was diluted and poured into an excess of hydro- chloric acid. After standing until the supernatant liquid was clear, the precipitate was washed very thoroughly with water and then dis- solved in redistilled ammonia. The solution wa^ diluted to one liter and the silver chloride was reprecipitated with nitric acid. The precipitate was filtered out and the filtrate evaporated in a platinum dish until concentrated. A little sodium carbonate was added and the dish was heated to expel all volatile ammonium salts. The residue was dissolved in about three cubic centimeters of water and treated with an excess of ammonium molybdate reagent with gentle warming. After standing for three days, not the slightest precipitate or yellow color had appeared, showing that no phosphate had been occluded by the silver chloride. Although not tested experimentally, it is reason- able to suppose that silver bromide also does not possess the property of occluding appreciable quantities of silver phosphate or phosphoric acid.

Insoluble EEsmuE.

The presence of a slight residue or opalescence, after dissolving the dried silver phosphate in dilute nitric acid, proved the most perplexing difficulty which was encountered. The eflfort to discover the nature of this insoluble matter and eliminate it consumed a large part of the time devoted to this research. In an effort to make sure that it was not due to some unknown impurity, nineteen different samples of silver phosphate were prepared, the source of material, method of purification, and precipitation being varied. Disodium phosphate, trisodium phosphate, and sodium ammonium phosphate were carefuUy purified and converted into silver phosphate under varying conditions without appreciable effect upon the Amount of the residue. Phospho- rus oxychloride was twice firactionally distilled, converted into phos- phoric acid, and then into disodium phosphate by means of sodium hydroxide made fix>m sodium amalgam. The product was crystallized three times. Silver phosphate made fix>m this material gave a slight residue, very similar to that obtained from the best samples made in other ways.. Unfortunately, it was necessary to reject the analjrtical results obtained with this specimen because it was found to contain a small amount of metaphosphate. We did not succeed in preparing a sample of silver phosphate entirely free from the residue.

In the meantime attention bad been devoted to the residue itself. The small amount of material available rendered this part of the inves-

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BAXTER AND JONES. — ATOMIC TTEIGHT OF PHOSPHORUS. 151

tigation diffioult. The silver phosphate, after its precipitation and washing, bat andried, dissolves in dilute nitric acid, giving a solution which is perfectly clear to the naked eye, although some samples gave a barely visible opalescence in the nephelometer. The opalescence was much too small to have any effect on the analytical results. The dried samples invariably gave an opalescence.

Dry silver phosphate is very slowly darkened in color by the action of light. This effect is even more pronounced when silver phosphate is exposed to the light in thQ presence of water. These darkened sam- ples gave a much greater residue than tJie undarkened material The residue was insoluble in ammonia, slowly soluble in dilute nitric acid, especially when heated, and readily soluble in strong nitric acid. The addition of hydrochloric acid to these nitric acid solutions gave a pre- cipitate of sUver chloride, while ammonium molybdate indicated the presence of phosphate.

In order to determine whether or not a loss of weight occurs during ihe darkening by lights a sample of silver phosphate was dried and weighed as usual and found to weigh 3.01901 grams. It was then exposed to the direct action of bright sunlight for a day, while con- tained in a weighing bottle which was placed in a desiccator over sul- phuric acid. It was found to have darkened slightly in color and to weigh 3.01903. The gain of 0*02 milligram is within the limit of error in the weighing. This sample, when treated with dilute nitric acid, gave a much larger residue than usual, which weighed 1.8 milligrams. This is much more residue than was usually found in samples contain- ing from four to eight grams of silver phosphate. It is estimated that the samples which had been protected from the action of light as much as possible, except when unavoidably exposed to diffused day- light while being weighed or transferred to the furnace and solution flask, contained about one one-hundredth of a per cent of this residue.

Two analyses were made of the residue obtained by exposing silver phosphate under water to the action of light for several days, then dissolving the excess of silver phosphate in dilute nitric acid and thor- oughly washing and drying the residue. 0.02674 gram of this residue yielded 0.03551 gram of silver chloride, which indicates that the res- idue contained 99.9 per cent of silver. In the case of another sample of the residue prepared and analyzed in the same way, 0.04320 gram of residue pelded 0.05747 gram of silver chloride, which indicates that the residue contained 100.1 per cent of silver. The mean of the two analyses is 100.0 per cent of silver. These analyses prove conclusively that when silver phosphate is acted on by light in the presence of water, it is so altered (perhaps by the formation of a subphosphate

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152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

similar to subchloride), that when treated with very dilate nitric acid metallic silver remains.

It does not follow, however, that it would be a correct procedure to determine the per cent of this residue obtained from the samples used for analysis and apply a correction on the assumption that the material consisted of pure silver phosphate and a small amount of pure silver. This procedure would assume that the other product of decomposition is eliminated and not weighed. There are two facts which show that this assumption would be incorrect In nearly every analysis, when the solution was diluted, after bringing the residue into solution by heating on the steam bath, a slight opalescence was produced. Care- ful tests of the water used showed that this opalescence was not due to impurity in the water. It seems probable that the substance which caused this opalescence was derived in part from the phosphate radical during the decomposition which produced the residue. The other fact is that dry silver phosphate does not lose weight when darkened by exposure to sunlight^ although this treatment increases the amount of residue. The conclusion in regard to this residue may be summarized as follows : The washed moist silver phosphate was free from residue and contained silver and phosphoric acid combined in atomic propor- tions. During the drying and weighing a slight decomposition took place, undoubtedly owing in part at least to the action of light It seems probable that during this decomposition no loss in weight took place, and therefore the sample contained the proper percentage* of silver. When this slightly darkened silver phosphate is treated with cold dilute nitric acid, the unchanged silver phosphate and perhaps also a portion of the altered material dissolve, leaving a slight opales- cence, which in some cases is deposited as a very slight residue on standing. This residue is estimated to be about 0.01 per cent of the weight of the silver phosphate. When the solution is warmed until perfectly clear, and then diluted, a very slight opalescence is usually produced which could be again cleared up by warming the solution. This opalescence is probably caused by the presence of the altered phosphate anion. If this explanation is correct, the presence of the residue cannot influence the result^ and no correction need be applied. Until the exact nature of the decomposition products can be deter- mined, there must remain some uncertainty in regard to whether or not any correction is necessary.

The uncertainty from this cause is, however, not very great Even if all the phosphorus and oxygen corresponding to the residue of silver is removed before the weighing, the correction would be only twenty- three per cent of the weight of the residue. If the residue amounts to

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0.01 per cent, as has been estimated, the maximum correction would be 0.002 per cent. If part of the oxygen is lost, but the phosphorus remains, the correction would of course be smaller. If there is no loss in weight by the action of light on the dry silver phosphate, no correc- tion need be applied. From the evidence so far obtained the latter assumption seems rather more probable than any of the others, and therefore no correction has been applied.

Thb Determination of Water in the Dried Silver Phosphate.

In order to find out how efficient the drjdng of the silver phosphate had been, experiments were made to determine the amount of water retained by silver phosphate which had been dried for analysis as described above. (See page 147.) The water was determined by fusing the dried phosphate in a current of dry air and collecting the moisture set free in a weighed phosphorus pentoxide tube. Since the melting point of pure silver phosphate is considerably above the soft-, ening point of hard glass, it was found advantageous to lower the melting point of the phosphate by the use of silver chloride as a flux.

About fifteen grams of silver phosphate were placed in one end of a large silver boat and in the other end about twelve grams of previously fused silver chloride. The boat was then inserted in a hard glass tube and dried under the same conditions as prevailed in preparing the samples for the determination of the silver content After the silver phosphate had been heated for seven hours in a current of purified air dried by phosphorus pentoxide, the air passing over the boat in the furnace was conducted through a weighed U-tube containing resub- limed phosphorus pentoxide for one half hour. This was done to make sure that all the water which had been liberated from the silver phos- phate without fusion had been swept out of the apparatus. In no case was there a gain in weight during this process of more than 0.05 mg., which is about the limit of error in weighing the phosphorus pentoxide tubes. The backward diffusion of moisture was prevented by a second tube containing pentoxide.

The carefully weighed phosphorus pentoxide tube was again attached to the tube containing the silver boat with its charge of silver phosphate and silver chloride. The latter tube was then heated hot enough to fuse the silver chloride, which flowed down to the silver phosphate and readily caused the entire charge to fuse completely. The liberated water was swept into the phosphorus pentoxide tube by a current of dry air for about thirty minutes. The tube was then reweighed to determine the water evolved by the fusion of silver phosphate. The pentoxide tube was weighed by substitution for a very similar counter-

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

poise tube, one stop-cock of each tube being open during the weighing. Before being weighed both tubes were wiped with a damp cloth and allowed to stand near the balance for at least thirty minutes. The following table gives the results of these experiments :

Sample.	Weight of Sil- ver Phosphate.	Weight of Water.	Per Cent of Water.
P	13.50	0.00012	0.0009
P	15.64	0.00007	0.0004
0	15.66	0.00005	0.0003
0	16.62	0.00003 .	0.0002
	Average . . . .	. 0.0005

The amount of water evolved is hardly greater than the probable error in weighing the phosphorus pentoxide tubes, and is less than the probable error in determining the amount of silver in the salt We are therefore justified in concluding that the material which was used for the determination of silver was essentially free from water and that no correction need be applied to the results for ineflScient dr3ring.

This result also furnishes evidence that the samples are free from acid phosphates, which, owing to conversion into pyro- or metaphos- phate, would evolve water when ftised, although it is possible that occluded acid phosphates might have been converted into pyro- or metaphosphates during the drying. Sample 0, which was prepared under conditions most favorable for the formation of the acid silver phosphate, does not appear to contain more water than Sample P, which was prepared under conditions which were unfavorable to the formation of acid phosphate. Since these two samples, which differed most widely in their method of preparation, showed no difference in the amount of water retained, it seemed unnecessary to test the other samples also. Unfortunately this method of detecting acid phosphate is not very sensitive, owing to the unfavorable relation of the atomic weights involved, — one molecule of water corresponding to a deficiency of two atoms of silver.

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baxter and jones. — atomic weight of phosphorus. 155

The Specific Gravity of Silver Phosphate.

In order that the apparent weight of the silver phosphate might he corrected to the vacuum standard, the specific gravity of this salt was found by determining the weight of toluol displaced by a known quan- tity of salt The specific gravity of the toluol at 25° referred to water at 4° was 0.8633. Great care was taken to remove air from the salt when covered with the toluol by warming the pycnometer, then placing it in a vacuum desiccator and boiling the toluol under reduced pres- sure. The salt and toluol were mechanically stirred to assist the escape of air bubbles. This process was repeated several times.

Weight of

Silver Phosphate

in Vacuum.

Weight of

Displaced Toluol

in Vacuum.

Volume of Silver Phosphate.

Density of Silver Phosphate.

grains 22.955

16.942

grams. 3.113

2.295

c.c. 3.606

2.658

25V 4<>. 6.366

6.374

Mean 6.37

Therefore the apparent weight of silver phosphate was corrected to the vacuum standard by adding 0.000044 gram per gram of salt Similarly ^.000041 gram was added for every gram of silver bromide.

The Adsorption of Air by Silver Phosphate.

Since the silver phosphate was in a very finely divided condition and since many fine powders have the power of adsorbing appreciable quantities of air or other gases, the possibility of the adsorption of air by silver phosphate was investigated. The method of experimenting and the apparatus were very similar to that used by Baxter and Tilley for investigating the behavior of iodine pentoxide.

" Two weighing bottles were constructed with long, very well ground stoppers which terminated in stop-cocks through which the tubes could be exhausted. These tubes were very closely of the same weight and very nearly the same internal capacity. The tubes were first exhausted and compared in weight by substitution. Next they were filled with dry air and again weighed, the weighing being carried out with stop- cocks open. Both steps were then repeated with essentially the same results." 27

^ Baxter and Tilley, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1909, 31, 214.

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156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

In these two experiments, when air was admitted, the counterpoise gained 0.00028 and 0.00021 gram respectively (average 0.00025) more than the tube which was later to contain the silver phosphate. After 22.69 grams of pure dry silver phosphate had been placed in the tube, the tube and its counterpoise were exhausted and the difference in weight determined. When dry air at 25° C. and 766 mm. was admitted to both the tube containing the silver phosphate and the counterpoise, the counterpoise gained 0.00443 gram more than the tube. Therefore the air displaced by the silver phosphate was 0.00443 — 0.00025 = 0.00418 gram. Since 22.69 grams of silver phosphate of density 6.37 have a volume of 3.56 cc, the volume of pure air displaced at 25° C. and 766 mm. should weigh 0.00425 gram.28

The experiment was then repeated. After the air had been ex- hausted from the tube and its counterpoise, the tube containing the silver phosphate was heated gently. No gas was evolved. The tube and its counterpoise were then weighed by substitution. When dry air at 24.5° and 767 mm. was admitted to both, the counterpoise gained 0.00445 grams more than the tube containing the silver phos- phate* Therefore the air displaced by the silver phosphate was 0.00445 — 0.00025 = 0.00420 grams, whereas the weight of air dis- placed, calculated from the density of the salt, is 0.00426 gram.

The agreement between the experimental results and those calcu- lated from the density of silver phosphate on the assumption that no adsorption takes place is close enough to show that no significant amount of adsorption occurs.

Discussion of the Results.

The following table contains all of the analyses not vitiated by a known impurity in the sample or by an accident during the analysis. One feature of this table requires further explanation. In Analysis 5 the silver was determined by precipitation as chloride instead of bromide. For every gram of silver phosphate there was obtained 1.02707 grams of silver chloride. Since Baxter found AgBr : Ag Cl = 1.31017 : 1.00000,2® this analysis indicates that one gram of sample N is equivalent to 1.02704 X 1.31017 = 1.34560 grams of silver bromide. This result is placed in the table for comparison with the other analyses and is used in the computation of the mean.

*• Rayleigh's value for the density of air at 0*^ and 760 mm., 1.293 grams per liter, is used. Proc. Roy. Soc., 63, 147. " These Proceedings, 1906, 42, 213.

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Series I. 3AgBr: AgjPO*

Number 1 of Analysis. 1	M	Weight Vacuum.	A^Br m Vacuum.	Weight Asbestos.	Loss on Fusion.	Dissolved AgBr.	Corrected Weight AgBr.	Ratio SAgBr AgsPO«'
1	0	grams 6.20166	grams 8.34427	gram 0.00036	gram 0.00034	gram 0.00007	grams 8.34490	1.34558
2	0	6.35722	8.55386	0.00041	0.00003	0.00011	8.55419	1.34559
3	N	5.80244	7.80792	0.00029	0.00005	0.00007	7.80819	1.34567
4	N	5.05845	6.80658	0.00019	0.00020	0.00012	6.80685	1.34564
5	N	3.34498	(AgCI) 3.43514	0.00029	0.00009	0.00008	(AgCl) 3.43544	1.34560
6	P	7.15386	9.62648	0.00046	0.00013	0.00013	9.62694	1.34570
7	P	7.20085	9.68929	0.00023	0.00005	0.00010	9.68947	1.34560
8	R	6.20182	8.34466	0.00041	0.00027	0.00012	8.34522	1.34561
9	R	5.20683	7.00543	6.00029	0.00040	0.00007	7.00605	1.34555
		Average 1.34562
		Per cent of Ag in AggPO* .... 77.300

A carefbl study of these results shows that the composition of silver phosphate is very nearly, if not quite, independent of the changes in the acidity of the solutions from which it is precipitated. Samples 0 and R were prepared under slightly more acid conditions than Sam- ples N and P. The average amount of silver bromide obtained from one gram of Samples 0 and R is 1.34558 (77.297 per cent of silver), whereas the average from Samples N and P is 1.34564 (77.301 per cent of silver). This difiference, if real and significant, is probably due to a very slight occlusion of disilver hydrogen phosphate. It does not seem probable that any basic salt was present in Samples N and P, because silver shows little tendency to form basic salts and the condi- tions of precipitation were not &vorable for the formation of basic salts.

The difference between composition of the samples is so slight, both in absolute amount and by comparison with the differences between

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158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

different analyses of the same sample, that in the present state of onr knowledge it does not seem justifiable to reject the analyses of Samples N and 0. This conclusion is supported by the &ct that the water determinations failed to show a difference between these samples. The results, however, indicate that the average ratio 1.34562 (77.300 per cent of silver) may be very slightly too low, owing to the presence of disilver hydrogen phosphate. The ratio 1.34562, assuming the atomic weight of silver to be 107.88, and assuming that silver bromide contains 57.4453 per cent of silver, leads to an atomic weight of 31.043 for phosphorus, whereas the ratio 1.34564 derived from Sam- ples N and P gives the value 31.037. The rounded-off value, 31.04, may be considered to be essentially ftw from error from this source.

We are greatly indebted to the Carnegie Institution of Washington for generous pecuniary assistance in pursuing this investigation ; also to the Cyrus M. Warren Fund for Research in Harvard University for many pieces of platinum apparatus.

Summary.

1. A careful study has been made of the conditions necessary for the preparation of pure trisilver phosphate.

2. It is found that silver phosphate can be almost completely dried without fusion by heating in a current of dry air.

3. The density of silver phosphate is found to be 6.37. ^

4. It is found that silver phosphate does not adsorb a significant amount of air.

5. Nine analyses, made with four different samples, show that one gram of silver phosphate yields 1.34562 grams of silver bromide, Whence the per cent of silver in silver phosphate is 77.300.

Therefore,

If Ag= 107.88 P = 31.04

If Ag= 107.87 P = 31.03

If Ag= 107.86 P = 31.02

Cambridoe, Mass., November 12, 1909.

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Prooeedings of the Ammican Academy of Arti and Sdenoea. Vol. XLV. No. 6. — January, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY AT HARVARD COLLEGE, E. L. MARK, DIRECTOR. — No. 206.

THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT.

Bt A. S. Peabsb.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY AT HARVARD COLLEGE. E. L. MARK, DIRECTOR. NO. 206.

THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT.

Bt a. S. Pearse.

Presented by E. L. Mark. December 8, 1900. Received November 24. 1009.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAOB

I. INTRODUCTION 162

A. Historical 162

B. Methods 167

II. OBSERVATIONS 168

A. The Photic Reactions op Normal Amphibians compared

WITH THOSE FROM WHICH THE EyES HAVE BEEN REMOVED 168

(a) Necturua maculoaua 168

(6) Cryptobranchus allegheniensis 170

(c) AmUystoma pundatum 173

(d) Plethodon cinereua eryUironotua 173

(c) Diemyctylus virideacens 174

(/) Rana damata 175

(g) Rana sylvatica 175

(h) Bufo americanus and B.fowleri 176

(t) Condusians 177

B. The Influence of Mechanical Stimulation on the Photic

Reactions of the Toad 177

C. The Reactions of the Toad to Photic Stimulation through

THE Eyes alone 178

D. The Reactions of Eyeless Toads to Unilateral Stimula-

tion BY Light from above 182

E. TffE Effects of Illuminating Small Areas of Skin on Eye-

less Toads 183

F. The Effect of Previous Conditions of Light Stimulation

ON Photic Reactions 184

G. The Reactions of Amphibians to Lights of Different

Colors 187

(a) Normal individudla 188

(b) Eydess individitdU 189

(c) Summary 191

vol. xlv. — 11

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162 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

H. Comparison op the Reactions op Eyeless Toads to Heat

AND to Light 192

I. EIxperiments to determine the Inpluencb op the Central

Nervous Organs on the Photic Reactions op Amphibians 195

III. DISCUSSION and conclusions 199

IV. SUMMARY 205

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY 206

I. INTRODUCTION.

A. Historical.

Considerable interest has lately centred itself in the study of the behavior of animals under the influence of lights and the results of such studies have been largely used in formulating the various theories which attempt to account for the reactions of organisms after they have been subjected to external stimulation. Among vertebrates the amphibians offer particularly fieivorable material for such study, as the various species may be used for experimentation in or out of the water ; they are, as a rule, very responsive to photic stimulation and are able to withstand severe operations without serious interference with their reactions. A large amount of work by a number of observers has already been done in the study of light responsiveness, and in the next few pages an attempt is made to summarize the results of those studies, so £bu: as they apply to amphibians. For the sake of clearness this material will be considered from a comparative standpoint rather than in an historical order.

Amphibians react to light by giving motor responses. This motor reaction to illumination was first recorded by Configliachi and Rusconi ('I9).i They observed that Porteus anguinus, the blind cave sala- mander of Europe, became restless when exposed to lights and this observation has been confirmed by later observers (Semper, '81 ; Dubois, 'SO ; Beer, K)l).i Since that time responsiveness to light has been noted in the following genera: Triturus, or Triton (Graber, '83, '84 ; Willem, *91), Necturus (Cope, '89, Eeese, .-06), Cr3rptobranchus (Reese, :06, B. G. Smith, :07), Diemyctylus (Jordan, '93), Spelerpes (Banta and McAtee, :06), Rana (Kiihne, '70»; Loeb, '90; Parker, :03*; Torelle, :03, Yerkes, K)3, 06 ; Dickerson, K)6 ; Holmes, :06 ; Cole, 07), Acris

* The numbers in parentheses indicate the year of publication of th^^ article referred to, the title of which is given in full in the "Bibliography " at the end of the paper. An apostrophe indicates an omitted 18; a colon, an omitted 19.

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PEARSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPfflBIANS TO LIGHT. 163

(Cole, :07), Bnfo (Graber, *B4). As these are representatiye genera^ it seems evident that photic stimulation exerts an influence of wide range among the amphibians.

Many amphibians show a marked tendency to orient the body and to move toward or away from the source of light. Gonfigliachi and Rus- coni ('19) observed that Proteus tended to go to the side of an enclosure fiEurther from the light and remain thera Since then a number of ob- servations have been made concerning the phototropism of amphibians. Thus, the following have been claimed to be positively phototropic: Rana sp. 1 (Hobnes, :06 ; Dickerson, :06), R. temporaria (Plateau, '89), R. clamata (Torelle, :03; Yerkes, :03, :06; Cole, :07), R. pipiens (Parker, 03*; Torelle, .-03), Acris gryllus (Cole, .07), Bufo clamita (Plateau, '89) ; and the five following negatively phototropic: Proteus anguinus (Configliachi and Rusconi, 19; Dubois, '90), Necturus (Cope, '89 ; Reese, .06 ; R 0. Smith, :07), Spelerpes maculicaudus (Bsmta and McAtee, 06), Rana (Loeb, '90). It will be seen from this list that the photic reactions of the Caudata are negative, while those of the Sali- entia are positive, with the exception of the observations by Loeb ('90), which do not agree with those of other writers.

Some amphibians show a tendency to come to rest in the shade. We would perhaps expect such a reaction in species which are normally negative in their phototropism, but Torelle (03) has shown that the frog, which is strongly positive, will also go toward a shaded area and come to rest in it, though the animal then faces toward the light. Graber ('83, '84) had previously found that'Triturus, Raoa, and fiufo tended to come to rest in shadow.

The eyes are not essential for the light reactions, that is, such reactions maybe brought about by stimulation through ths skin. Configliachi and Rusconi (19) ascribed the photic reactions of Proteus to the pain- ful effect of light upon the sKh, but Kohl ('95) showed that, while the eyes of this species are rudimentary, they might nevertheless be effec- tive photoreceptors. It remained for Dubois ('90) to show that the reactions of Proteus might take place through the skin alone. He blackened the eyes and obtained a reaction from an individual in which only the tip of the tail was illuminated. Graber ('83, '84) ob- served reactions in Triturus, which were like those of normal indi- viduals, after the eyes had been removed and the orbits filled with black wax. More recently Parker (:03*) has shown that Rana is positively phototropic with and without the eyes; and Cole (K)7), besides corroborating Parker's observations, has obtained like results from Acris. Eor^yi ('93) observed reflex leg movements in a frog, which had been rendered particularly sensitive by treatmg the brain

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164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

with meat extract, when he threw a strong beam of light on its back. Reese (:06) found that when only the tip of the tail was illaminated in Cryptobranchus or Nectaros, the individuals thus stimulated moved out of the lighted area.

The reactions brought about by stimulating the eye alone agree, in kind, with those brought about through the skin. Parker (-OS^) found that frogs in which the skin was covered but the eyes were exposed, were positively phototropic, like individuals in which the eyes had been re- moved Torelle (-03) made an observation which bears indirectly on the same point She found that frogs which had one eye covered with black cambric went toward the light at an angle or made circus move- ments with the uncovered eye towards the centre.

The positive phototropism qf amphibians is apparently a reaction to- ward a greater intensity of illumination; or, with the eyes, toward a greater illuminated area. Plateau ('89, p. 88) observed that Rana and Bufo, when placed in a box having two openings, went toward the larger aperture even though it was covered with a grating. Cole (07) showed that when Acris was placed between two lights of the same quality and intensity but of different areas, it went toward the larger area, but when individuals in which the optic nerves had been cut were placed in the same situation, they went toward either light an approximately equal number of times. Rana also showed the same reaction toward the larger area when it was in normal condition. Torelle (:03) found that the direction of the illumination made no difference in photic respond as frogs went toward the lighter end of a box when the illumination was from below, and Reese (:06) has made similar observations on Crj^tobranchus and Necturus. Dicker- son (:06, p. 32) says, " Frogs do not distinguish between a lighted space and a white solid. They will turn toward a white card or paper and try to jump through it, and they may struggle at the im- possible task of working their way into the solid white surfsice made by the leaf edges of a closed book"

Torelle(03) noted that frogs, when they were confined in a small space with an opening above, pointed the head upward toward the opening, and she supposed this to be evidence for the directive action of the ra)rs. Objection may be made to this view on the ground that the opening offers the only opportunity for escape, and the animal, seeing the opening with its eyes, points its head toward it. If she had shown the same reaction with eyeless individuals, the evidence would have been more conclusiva

The rays toward the violet end of the spectrum are apparently most 2X>tent in producing photic reactions, and the rays toward the opposite

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PEAHSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 165

end' approach in their effects the conditions brought about by dark, Graber ('83, ^84) foand that Tritarus did not come to rest in the colors toward the violet end of the spectrum when tliere was equal oppor- tunity to remain in those nearer the opposite end. This was true of blinded as well as normal animals. He also ('84) found that Rana and Bufo reacted in much the same way. He states that his results could not have been due to the effect of temperature, as he performed experiments in which he used a heat screen for the blue and none for the red light, and the results were the sama Eiitme ('78») had pre- viously observed that normal frogs went from green toward blue light, while blinded individuals did not Loeb ('SO) states that the less re- frangible rajTS do not affect light reactions to such an extent as those of greater refrangibility, and in this connection he remarks that a frog will jump towards a red cloth. (He found Rana to be negatively pho- totropic.) Torelle (»3) in speaking of the frog recorded in a stronger positive phototropism for blue light than for red, yellow, or green ; and this was the same when the light was reflected, transmitted, or both. The individuals she used were indifferent to red light Reese (:06) found blue to be most potent in causing reactions in Necturus and Cryptobranchus. Yerkes (:03, p. 586) suggested that the frog might be able to distinguish between red and white backgrounds, but, as he says (:06, p. 548), there is nothing to show that these reactions might not have been due to intensity differences. Holmes (:06, p. 350) in speaking of frogs sums up the whole matter by stating that " in general it may be said that where they are able to go toward one of two colors, of equal intensity, they move to the color lying nearest the violet end of the spectrum."

The phototropic reactions of amphibia are apparently not due to the direct stimulation of the central nervous system by light. Parker (:03*) found that eyeless frogs responded positively when only the lower part of the body was illuminated from the side in such a manner that the central nervous organs were in shadow. The experiments of Dubois (:90) on blinded Proteus,- and Reese (:06) on Cryptobranchus and Necturus offer additional evidence on this point These animals reacted to a beam of light thrown on the tail, and hence beyond the limits of the central nervous organs.

Various internal and external factors may influence the resp<mses qf amphibians to light. It is probable that there are many factors which exert such a modifying influence. Those which are enumerated in the following paragraphs are known to alter the photic responses of certain amphibians by producing changes in their physiological states.

Breeding season. Jordan (:93, p. 271), in speaking of Diemyctylus,

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166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

sajTS they "asaally conceal themselves under fallen leaves and among the tangle of water weeds. On warm, sunny days in early spring, however, they bask openly in the sunshine along the shore." Another instance is given by B. G. Smith, (:07, p. 6), who remarks that " Cryp- tobronchns comes forth but seldom in the daytime except during the breeding season," and (p. 32) " with the close of the breeding season, becomes more shy, avoids the light and is seldom seen in the open."

Temperature. ToreUe (.03, p. 475) stated that the positive photo- tropism of the irog increased as the temperature was raised. If, how- over, the temperature rose above 30° C, these animals were indifferent to light, and if it fell below 8° C, they became negative. Cole (07, p. 401) has shown conclusively that conditions of temperature influ- ence the photic responses in Rana. As has been stated, his method was to place the animals between two lights of equal intensities but different areas. When a frog has been cooled to from 6° to 10° C, it went toward the smaller illuminated area, but after it became warm its reactions were uniformly toward the larger area.

Previous photic stimulation. Configliachi and Rusooni (:19) noticed that after Proteus had been exposed to light for some time, its reac- tiveness to that stimulus decreased. Reese (.-06, p. 94), in experi- menting with Cryptobranchus and Necturus, found that " the responses to light were much more marked for the first ten or a dozen stimula- tions." Torelle (:03, p. 47), on the other hand, observed that, after five to eight hours' exposure to light, frogs exhibited the same positive phototropism as before.

Stereotropism. Eigenmann and Denny (OO, p. 34) in st)eaking of Typhlotriton, say that " it seems probable that sterotropism rather than negative heliotropism accounts for the presence of this species in caves. Torelle (:03, p. 477) found that Rana was strongly stereotropio below 8° C. This stereotropism was associated with a change from positive to negative phototropism, and, as Holmes (.06, p. 349) has pointed out, may have been responsible for such changa

Age. Banta and McAtee (K)6, p. 71) in their experiments with the cave salamander found that " all larvae are very much more responsive to light stimulus than the adults, the young larvae more so than the older."

Surrounding medium. Torelle (03, p. 473) has shown that frogs will go toward the light under water as well as in air. The change in surrounding medium, and from walking to swimming, apparentiy does not alter the reactions*

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PEABSE. — THE REACTIONS OP AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 167

B. Methods.

The experiments described in the present paper have been devoted (1) to extending the range of oar knowledge of photic reactions among the amphibians, (2) to ascertaining more fully the nature of the photo- receptors involyed, and (3) to determining how great a part the central nervous system takes in these reactions. It gives me great satisfsiction to express my indebtedness to Professor 6. H. Parker, under whose direction the work was accomplished.

All the experiments which are described in the succeeding pages were carried on in a dark room, the temperature of which usually varied between 17^ G. and 21^ C. The source of the light was a six-glower Nemst lamp, and as the amount of light it gave out varied under dif- ferent conditions, the intensity used is given under the descriptions of the various experiments. All the amphibians used were collected in the vicmity of Cambridge, Massachusetts, with the exception of Necturus, which came from Venice, Ohio ; Cryptobranchus from Oil City, Penn- sylvania, and, through the kindness of Professor A. M. Banta, from Marietta, Ohio ; and Diemyctylus from Jafirey, New Hampshire. Th^ aquatic species were kept in a large aquarium tan^ four meters long by one and a half wide, in a cool basement room. The terrestrid forms were kept in cages, the floors of which were covered with earth and dead leaves, and individuals upon which operations had been per- formed were placed on a bed of moist excelsior in glass jars. Little trouble was experienced in keeping the animals in good condition. The frogs and toads were fed with meal worms, which they ate readily throughout the winter. The other species were not fed, though Cryp- tobranchus may have eaten frogs, which were kept for other purposes in the aquarium with it ; and as one of those animals lived for two years, it is not improbable that it obtained such food from time to tima The experiments were carried out in the autumn and winter months (October 1 to April 1) of two different years.

Of the aquatic species used, Cryptobranchus was the most reactive. For experimental purposes Bufo was the most satisfactory of the land forms, both on account of its extreme activity and its greater ability to withstand dryness. Both Bufo fowleri and B. americanus were used, but the experiments on the two species were not kept separate. Dr. L. J. Cole informs me that Acris is much better than Bufo for work of this nature, but I have not had an opportunity to try it. The term "amphibians" in this paper does not include caeoiliws, whose reac- tions to light are, so &r as I know, unstudied.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

IL OBSERVATIONS. A. The Photic Reactions op Normal Amphibians compared

WITH THOSE FROM WHICH THE EyBS HAVE BEEN REMOVED.

In order to compare the reactions of amphibians in which both the skin and eyes acted as photoreceptors with those in which only the skin was open to stimulation, individuals were tested both in normal condition and after the eyes had been excised. The eyes were usually removed by making a single transverse cut as near the anterior edge of the ear drums as possible. The whole front of the head, including

the ol&ctory lobes and a part of the cerebral hemi- spheres, was removed by this method of procedure (Figure 1). In Necturus and Cryptobranchus, how- ever, only the eyes were excised. All the species stood the operation well and subsequently gave typ- ical reactions, except Pleth- odon and Diemyctylus, which were apparently much weakened by it and were indifferent to light after the eyes had been removed. As a rule individuals were not used for experimentation until the day after the oper- ation.

The species studied fall naturally into two groups, aquatic and terrestrial. The former group included Necturus maculosus and Cryp- tobranchus allegheniensis, and the terrestrial species studied were Amblystoma punctatum, Plethodon cinereus, Diemyctylus viridescens, Rana clamata, R. sylvatica, Bufo fowleri, 'and B. americanus. The reactions of each species will be considered separately.

(a) Necturus maculosus.

The first experiments with this species were intended to show what influence light had upon its movements. Four individuals were placed successively in the centre of a large aquarium, which was illu-

FiGURE 1. Dorsal view of toad's head showing the position of the brain. The dotted line indicates the plane of the cut used in removing the eyes, e, eye; r, ear.

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PEABSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 169

minated from one end in sooh a way that tbe light had an intensity of about 220 candle-meters at its centre. Under these conditions an individual asnally went at once to the end of the aqaarium farther from the light It then wandered about from one end to the other for some time, but finally came to rest as fistr as possible from the light If the lamp was then changed to the opposite end of the aquarium, the animal again moved to the end which was fsurther from the light and came to rest

In order to test the reactions of Necturus to light and shadow, the lamp was moved to the iside of the aquarium and a movable screen interposed in such a way that one half of the aquarium was in shadow and the other half in light (220 candle-meters at the centre of the aquarium). Two animals were successively introduced. One of these, after wandering back and forth frx)m one end to the other, came to rest in the shaded end of the aquarium. When the screen was changed to the opposite half, the animal moved again into the shaded area^ and this action was repeated for five successive trials on two different occasions. The other individual remained at the side of the aquarium nearer the light, and in two experiments it kept going back and forth from light to shadow for more than one hour. It i^- parently did not avoid the light, but, by comparing the time it spent in the light with that spent in shadow during ]^ an hour, it was found that three-fifths of that period had been passed in the shaded part of the aquarium. The first individual, then, invariaBly came to rest in the shadow, and the second one, while it continued to move actively, spent somewhat less time in the light than in the shadow.

The most decisive reactions shown by Necturus were brought about by illuminating a small area at its anterior or posterior end. The apparatus was in the same position as for the experiments just de- scribed, wBxcept that a screen was arranged in such a manner that a vertical band of light about five centimeters wide could be suddenly thrown on different regions of the body. Four individuals were used for these experiments and all of them behaved in essentially the same manner. Aft^er an animal had remained quiet in the dark for five minutes, it was suddenly illuminated, and a reaction usually took , place within a few seconds. When the light fell on the tail, the animal moved forward, but when it was allowed to fiJl on the head, the movement was usually backward. Since the animals were never tested with the light until they had been quiet in the dark for five minutes, these reactions were without doubt due to the illumination, for they took place within a few seconds of the time when the light was thrown on*the animals.

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170 PBOCEEDINOS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEBfT.

In order to discover whether the skin of Neotams was sensitive to light or not, the eyes were removed from two individuals and they were then tested by local stimulation as described in the last para- graph. Their reactions were similar to those of animals with eyes except in one particular. The average time which elapsed before the individuals with eyes moved out of the lighted area was shorter when the head was stimulated than when the light fell upon the tail, but the eyeless animals, on the contrary, reacted more quickly when the tail was stimulated. The results with normal animals agree with those of Reese ( : 06, p. 96) in his experiments on Necturus. He ascribed the shorter reaction time for the head to greater sensitiveness in that region, and he believed it to be due to stimulation received through the eyes. The present experiments with eyeless «.niTnft|ff give support to his views, as the posterior end of the individuals tested was apparently more sensitive to photic stimulation after the eyes had been excised. The decreased sensitiveness of the head region may, however, have been due to the injury incident to the removal of the eyes, instead of the mere loss of the eyes themselves.

From the experiments described it is evident that Necturus is nega- tively phototropic and that it comes to rest in shaded areas. Both the skin and eyes act as photoreceptors, and the stimulation of either brings about negative reactions.

(b) Cryptobranchus allegheniensis.

The arrangement of the apparatus for the experiments with Crypto- branchus was the same as for those with Necturus. The reactiveness of this .species to light was very marked. Seven individuals were placed successively in the middle of the aquarium, the illumination being from one end, whereupon they moved immediately to the end £ur- ther from the light. When the lamp was carried to the opposite end of the aquarium, they usually changed their position at once and again came to rest in the end further from the light. In these reactions they were much more responsive than Necturus, though, as Reese ( : 06, p. 94) has observed, tiiey often £sdled to respond readily after the first few reactions.

The reactions of Gryptobranchus to conditions of light and shadow were also pronounced. In testing these, half the aquarium was shaded by a screen which was changed from one end to the other at five minute intervals. An individual was placed in the aquarium and the screen changed ten times. It never frkiled to move at once to the shaded part of the aquarium, and furthermore it rested quietly in the shadow in the intervab between the changes.

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PEARSE. — THE BEACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 171

The illumination of a small area at the anterior or posterior end of an individual produced the same reactions as in Nectarus, bat in Crjrptobranchus they took place more quickly.

To test the sensitiveness of the skin to light, the eyes were removed from one individual and it was stimulated alternately on the head and tail by the same method as that used for Necturus. This animal usually responded within a few seconds to such illumination. In a . series of fifty reactions it was found that the average time required for the animal to move out of the illuminated area was more than twice as great when the light fell upon the head as when the tail was illuminated in the same manner. The skin of Gryptobranchus is, then, a photoreceptor and the sensitiveness seems to be greater at the pos- terior than at the anterior end. Beese (^06, p. 94) has stated that, even with the eyes present^ this species shows the greatest sensitive- ness to light in the caudal region.

This eyeless individual was strongly photokinetic. It was placed in a flat porcelain dish about a meter below an ordinary gas burner, and after it had been allowed to remain in the dark for about an hour, the gas was suddenly lighted. There was an un&iling response to this illumination within a few seconds, the animal moving restlessly about in the dish. As the light was non-directive, and the animsJ often remained quiet for hours in the dark, this uniform response to sudden illumination showed this species to be strongly photokinetia In this respect it was quite different from Necturus, which often did not re- spond to such stimulation for some time, even when the light intensity was 220 candle-meters.

In summarizing the results of the experiments upon Cr3rptobranchus, it may be said that it is negatively phototropic, that it comes to rest in shaded areas and is strongly photokinetic. These reactions apparently take place as readily when only the skin is stimulated by light as when the eyes are also affected.

The terrestrial amphibians were found to be much more satis&ctory subjects for experimental work than the aquatic species. Not only was it easier to arrange the apparatus for the land forms, but more accurate results were obtained, as it was possible to orient the animab with a perfectly uniform relation to the light before each reaction. In all the experiments with terrestrial forms the apparatus shown in Fig- ure 2 was used. After this apparatus had once been arranged, it was a simple matter to test one species after another, and to compare the reactions of normal animals with those of individuals without eyes. It will be seen from the figure that the two side screens (/) were placed

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

at the edge of the shadow made by the light that passed through the heat screen (a). Thus the greatest open space was away from the light, and, as far as the animal was able to see, the best chance for escape lay in that direction. An individual was not, then, subjected to the same conditions as one placed in a small box having a single opening. It does not seem improbable that any animal with eyes, after being handled and shut up in a small enclosure, would endeavor to escape by the most apparent opening ; and the reactions could not • in that case be interpreted as being due to the influence of light alona The apparatus shown in Figure 2 is not open to such an objection.

Figure 2. Plan of apparatus in which the reactions of terrestrial amphib- ians to light were tested, a, heat screen filled with water; 6, screen for head of observer; c, lamp; h, screen extending to ceiling; «, «', screen 25 cm. high.

The method of experimentation was to place an individual at a distance of seventy centimeters from the light (where the intensity was 225 candle-meters) and watch it through a small hole in the screen 6, until a definite movement had taken place. After a reaction of this kind, the animal was held for a few seconds outside the screen 8, where it could not see the light, in order to eliminate any directive effect produced by that stimulus, and it was then replaced ready for another reaction. To counteract the effects of compensatory movements, the animals were always turned in a clockwise direction between the re- actions, and were placed with the right and left sides alternately to- ward the light, the long axis of the body being at right angles to the direction of the rays. To avoid effects due to fatigue, no more than

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twenty reactions were, as a role, recorded from an individual on any one day. As the method of procedure was the same in all cases, and, as the only object in view was to compare the reactions of eyeless and normal animals, the discussion under each species will be limited mostly to the results obtained.

(c) Amblystoma punctatum.

Four individuals were used in the experiments upon this species. After the eyes had been excised, the two smaller animals, which measured about seven centimeters in length, did not survive more than a day or two. The two adult individuals, however, were ap- parently little affected by the operation, and one of them lived for forty-seven days after it The results of the experiments are given in Table I. This species is shown to be negatively phototropic, both

TABLE I.«

Photic Reactions op Amblystoma punctatum, with and WITHOUT Eyes.

Coadition of individuals

Normal

Eyeless

Direction of movement

r Number Reactions

[Fer cent

+ 6 6

88 84

0 10 10

19 16

71 58

0 32 26

in the normal and eyeless condition. As might be expected, there were more movements withoat reference to the light after the eyes had been excised, bat this may have been dae to the effects of the operation. Whether this is true or not, the fact remains that the animals were able to respond negatively to light received throagh the skin.

(d) Plethodan cinereus erythranatUB.

This species manifested the same negative phototropism as the last, when in normal condition, but it did not stand the operations well.

' In the tables which appear throughout this paper the following signs are used: '' -f " indicates a decided movement towiuxl the light, ** — ** is used for a similar movement away from the li^t, and " 0 " signifies that the individual remained still for fifteen minutes or made a movement without apparent reference to the light.

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'PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

This may have been dae to the small size of the animal, which ren- dered it less able to withstand the unfiskvorable conditions in its en- vironment after the eyes had been excised. The reactions summarized in Table II. show that the species was n^gatiyely phototropic when in

TABLE II. Photic Reactions of Plbthodon ctnereub ertthronotus,

WITH AND without EyES.

Condition of individuals

Normal

Eyeless

Direction of movement

Number Reactions

Per cent

+

4

12

30

88

0 0 0

12 29

9

22

0 20 49

normal condition. After the eyes had been excised, however, the move- ments were without apparent reference to the light This indifference may, nevertheless, have been due to the effects of the operation rather than to lack of photic sensitiveness in the skin.

(e) Diemyctylus viridescens.

Like Plethodon, this species did not stand the operation well and gave no reactions which were manifestly due to light after the eyes had been removed. Ten individuals were used, and the eyes were excised from eight of them. None of the latter lived more than twelve days after the operation. The results given in Table III. bring out the fact

TABLE III.

Photic Reactions of Diemyctylus vikidesceks, with and without Eyes.

Condition of individuals

Normal

Eyelesa

Direction of movement

/ Number Reactions

^Percent

242 71

88 26

0

10

3

+ - 30 29 26 25

0 57 49

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that this species is positively phototropic ; a condition which is not, 80 &r as I know, found in any other caudate amphibian. All the in- dividuals used were of the orange type of coloration, and it is possible that animals of this species having die green phase might give different results.

(/) Bana clamata.

Although the eyes were not excised from any individual of this spe- cies, the reactions observed are given in Table IV. for comparison with

TABLE IV. pHonc Reactions of Rana clamata.

Direction of movement

C Number Reactions •{

IPercent

104 67

37 23

0 15 10

the next form. They agree essentially with those described by Parker (:03^) and Torelle (^03) for R. pipiens and R. viridescens. Five indi- viduals were tested, and they sJl proved to be positively phototropic.

{g) Bana sylvatica.

This frog was more active than the last species, and some individuals gave more decided phototropic reactions than did any member of the

TABLE V.

Photic Reactions op Rana sylvatica, with and without Etes.

Condition of individuals	Normal	Eyeless
Direction of movement	+	-	0	+	—	0
Individual No. 1	20	0	0	20	0	0
Individual No. 2	17	2	1	10	5	5
Individual No. 3	7	11	12
Individual No. 4	6	7	1
Total f ^^^^	60	20	14	30	5	5
Reactions \ pe^ cent	60	24	16	75	12	12

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

preceding species. There were, however, such differences in the re- actions of the four animals used that they are tabulated separately. Individual No. 1 never fisdled to move straight toward the light No. 2 was not as persistently positive after the eyes had been excised as be- fore this operatiout though it continued to give a majority of positive reactions. As individuals 3 and 4 were apparently indifferent to the light in their normal conditions, their eyes were not removed. The reactions of animals 1 and 2 were, however, strongly positive, and this condition remained even after the eyes had been excised ; hence their skins served as photoreceptors as wdl as their eyes.

(h) Bi^fo americanus and B. fawleri.

Both these species were used for experimentation, but, as the records were not kept separate, their reactions cannot be distinguished and are given together in Table VI. The results include experiments with

TABLE VI. Photic Reactionb op Normal and Eyeless Toads,

Condition of individnaln

Normal

Eyeless 1

Direction of movement

( Ninnber Reactions {

( Per cent

802 74

265 25

0 11

1

126 66

47 25

0

17

9

twenty normal animals and six in which the eyes had been excised. In removing the eyes from another individual, the head was cut diagonally so that the left ear was injured. This animal turned continually to the right, regardless of the direction of the light, and its reactions were therefore not included in the tabla Although most of the individuals were adults, a few were immature, but none of them measured less than two centimeters in length. The results show the species to be positively phototropic in response to stimulation received through the slan as well as through the eyes.

It was also possible to show that the phototropic reactions of eyeless toads were not due to the effect of light upon the exposed ends of the optic nerves. On two occasions, after an individual had given ten successive positive responses, it was immediately oriented in such a manner that the anterior end of the body pointed away from the light. In both instances the animals turned at once and went directly toward

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the light, and this reaction was repeated on five saccessive trials. These reactions could not have been due to the direct stimolation of the optic nerves by light, as they were not exposed to such stimulation. The results are in agreement with those of Graber ('83), who filled the orbits of Triturus with black wax, and of Dubois ('90), who covered the eyes of Proteus with a mixture of gelatine and lampblack. Both these observers obtained phototropic reactions by stimulating the skin.

(0 Conclusions.

From the experiments described it may be said that photic sensi- tiveness is general in the skin of amphibians. While there is consid- erable variation in the phototropism of different species, and even of individuals of the same species, the reactions brought about by stimulation through the skin alone are like those produced when both the skin and eyes act as photoreceptors.

R The Influence op Mechanical Stimulation on the Photic Reactions op the Toad.

In the experiments with terrestrial amphibians and light the obser- vations were always made after the animals had been handled by the experimenter, and, though the response was decided in most cases and of such a nature as to attribute it to lights it is not impossible that mechanical stimulation through handling may have been responsible for more or less of it. In order to test this matter five toads which were known to be positively phototropic were placed successively in a box, the floor of which measured thirty-eight by ninety centimeters. The sides and floor of this box were of slate, and the ends were closed by glass heat-screens containing a layer of water 3.75 centimeters thick. The roof consisted of a coarsely woven black cloth stretched on a wooden fi^me, and the observations were made through the meshes of this clotL A lamp giving a light intensity of 220 candle-meters was changed firom one end to the other at five-minute intervals for a period of fifteen minutes. Four of the individuals when first placed in the apparatus went toward the light, and then wandered back and forth without evident reference to it^ and apparently tried to escape firom the enclosure. The fifth animal sat in the centre of the box, turning firom one side to the other for three minutes, and then went away firom the light When the lamp was changed firom one end of the apparatus to the other, only one of the individuals turned imme- diately and went toward it ; the other four were apparentiy indifferent. In a later experiment, however, two toads were observed to be persist- VOL. xlv. — 12

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178 PBOCEEDINOS OF THE AlfERICAN ACADEMY.

ently positive, and they tried for as much as five minutes to move through a heat screen to the light.

Six toads were next placed together in a rectangular glass vessel (the floor of which measured twelve by twenty centimeters) and were subjected to approximately the same light conditions as in the last experiment In jumping about they stimulated each other in a me- chanical way. During fifteen minutes all the individuals remained mostly &cing the light and making vain attempts to reach it^ and only occasionally did one of them try to escape on the opposite side of the jar.

It is evident firom these two experiments that mechanical stimulation exerts an influence on the phototropism of the toad by enforcing the effect of light, or, it could perhaps better be said, that the mechanical stimulation furnishes the impuhe to locomotion, while the light is efiective in determining the direction of the movement after locomotion has been established. For the purpose of the present paper, however, it makes no difiierence whether the responses obtained were due solely to the influence of light or whether they were reactions to light after mechanical stimulation. In either case the fietct remains that both the skin and eyes of amphibians act as photoreceptors, and that definite reactions take place as a result of stimulation through either.

C. The Reactions op the Toad to Photic Stimulation

THROUGH THE EyBS ALONE.

Experiments have been described in this paper which show that various amphibians react in the same way when either the skin alone is stimulated or when both the skin and eyes are affected. The next question which naturally arises is whether animals will react in the same way when the stimulation is received through the eyes alona That such responses take place in Rana pipiens has been shown by Parker (:03^ p. 33), who found this species to be positively photo tro- pic when its entire surfisice was covered, with the exception of the eyes. In order to test the toad in a similar manner the apparatus shown in Figure 3 was used. Light was allowed to pass through a small open- ing (e) in a screen, which could be adjusted so that only a small area around the eye of the animal was illuminated. As an additional pre- caution against light reception through the skin, the individuals used were covered, except the eyes and feet, by a tight-fitting suit of soft leather. As might be expected, the movements of the two animals used in the experiments were slow. Each of these individuals was placed with its right and left side alternately toward the lights the

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long axis of the body being at right angles to the direction of the ra3rs. The movements which resulted from Qiis method of stimulation are summarized in Table VIL The results show that the toad gives the

.fiL.

FiGtJRE 3. A^ section of apparatus to test reactions of toads to stimu- lation through the eyes alone; B, ground plan, a, screen; c, lamp; d, heat screen; e, aperture for light; /, chimney for carrying away heat; y, slate upon which the animals were placed; 2, source of light; 8, screen.

same sort of positive reactions when the eyes are stimulated as when the skin is illuminated.

If the reactions of the two individuals just described were due to unequal stimulation of the eyes, it ought to be possible to produce

^

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

circus movements by stimulating only one eye. In order to obtain such unilateral stimulation, a flap was fastened in the leather suit used

TABLE Vn.

Photic Reactions op Toads Stimulated through the Eyes alone.

Direction of movement	+	—	0
Individual No. 1	73	14	13
Individual No. 2	72	22	6
['Number Reactions - iPer cent	145 72	36 18	16 10

in previous experiments so that it could be made to cover either eya The individuals were placed so that they &ced the light with only the area about the uncovered eye illuminated. Under these circumstances seventy per cent of the movements (Table VIII.) were not toward the light but toward the side bearing the uncovered eya These reac-

TABLE Vm.

Photic Reactions op Two Toads Facing toward the Light AND Stimulated thbouoh only one Ete.

Condition of individuals	Right eye covered	Left eye covered
Direction of movement	Right	Left	t	Right	Left	-f
Individual No. 3	33	45	22	63	21	16
Individual No. 4	0	97	3	66	5	29
rNumber Reactions • I Per cent	33 17	142 71	25 12	139 69	26 13	35 18

tions are what might be expected from a positively phototropio species like the toad, as similar responses have been observed in many other animals. For example, circus movements have been noted in several arthropods after one eye had been blackened over or excised, by Hohnes (:0l, :05), Parker 0O3'), and RMl (:03). No observations

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of exactly this kind have been made on amphibians, although Torelle (:03, p. 474) found that a frog went toward the light with the long axis of the body oblique to the direction of the rays, or made circus movements, after one eye had been covered. She made no attempt^ however, to stimulate the eye without also affecting the skin.

A

jH^

'

FiGUBB 4. Af front sectional view through the middle of the apparatus for testing eyeless frogs under unilateral stimulation; B, sectional view from the side, a, wooden support for heat screen, which contained an oblong opening; c, adjustable screen of blackened sheet iron; I, source of light; 8, black cardboard screen; tp, glass dish containing water.

From these experiments it is apparent that the photic reactions of the toad, which are brought about by stimulation through the eyes, are due to intensity differences in the illumination of the two eyes, and the direction of the light rays is apparently of no significance.

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182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

D. The Reactions of Eyeless Toads to Unilateral Stimulation BY Light from abovk

The last experiments described showed that a toad would turn toward the illuminated side when only one eye was stimulated, even when such a movement did not take it into a region of greater light intensity. The next question which suggested itself was whether eyeless indi- viduals would make similar movements when only one side was stimu- lated. In solving this problem, the apparatus shown in Figure 4 was used. It consisted of a wooden box (sixty centimeters high, forty-five wide, and twenty-eight deep) which was lined throughout with two layers of black cloth, except the floor, which was of slate. Light com- ing from above (J) passed through oblong openings in two screens (a, s) so that an area a little larger than a toad was illuminated on the floor of the apparatus, where the light intensity was 413 candle-meters. Each toad was so placed that the right and left sides were alternately illuminated, and an accurate unilateral division of light and shadow was secured by using a small movable screen (c) of blackened sheet iron.

In preparing individuals for these and subsequent experiments, a different method was used for excising the eyes from that followed heretofore. Instead of removing the whole upper jaw, a horizontal cut was made just above the nostrils, which met a vertical cut behind the eyes. The roof of the mouth was thus lefb intact, and there was conse- quently no interference with the respiratory movements. The plan followed in experimenting was to orient the individual facing the ob- server before each of the first ten reactions, while for the last ten it was &ced in the opposite direction. Before and after the tests with light from above, each toad was tested ten times with light of the same in- tensity (413 candle-meters) from the side. The results of the reactions (Table IX.) with the light from above show a turning toward the side illuminated in seventy per cent of the cases, and, while the positive phototropism of the same individuals was slightly greater when they were illuminated from one side, the difference does not amount to enough to be significant. It may therefore be said that the positive phototropism of eyeless toads is due to intensity differences on the two sides of ^e body.

Pa3me (•'07) has performed experiments of the same kind with the blind fish, Amblyopsis spelaeus, after the eyes had been excised, and obtained similar results. Apparently the direction of the light rays, as distinguished fix)m intensity differences, has no influence on the reac- tions of either of these species.

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TABLE IX.

Reactions op Six Eyeless Toads to .Vertical and

Horizontal Light.

Direction of light

Light from side

Light from above

Light from side

Regions illuminated

Light on right side

Light on left side

Direction of movement

C Number Reactions ]

I Per cent

54 90

1 2

0 5

8

+ 42 70

10 17

0

8

13

48 80

5

8

0

7

12

38 62

9 15

0 13 23

K The Effbcts of Illuminating Small Areas of Skin on Eyeless Toads.

In order to test the reactions of eyeless toads to local stimulation by light in various regions of the skin, individuals were placed two centi- meters behind a screen containing a circular opening 3.2 millimeters in diameter, through which a horizontal beam of light passed. To render the rays of light as nearly parallel as possible a large condensing lens

Figure 5. Toad, viewed from right side. The dotted areas indicate the regions illuminated.

was interposed between the screen and the light. A small area of skin could thus be strongly stimulated by light ; the light used had an in- tensity of 474 candle-meters. The three regions shown by the dotted areas in Figure 5 were stimulated, and they may be designated as the regions of the front leg, the hind leg, and the back. Before each of

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AlfEBICAN ACADEMT.

the tests the individaals were tried in light of lesser intensity, but ap- plied to the whole surfisice of the body, to see that they were positively phototropia

TABLE X.

IiOCAL Son Ttj^uionation

OP

Eight Eyeless Toads.

'

Regions illuminated

Whole body

Front leg

Hind leg

Back

Direction of movement

( Number Reactions <

{ Percent

104 73

18 13

0 20 14

+ 15 57

6 23

0

5

20

+ 74 64

21 18

0 21 18

18 56

10 31

0

4

13

The experiments (Table X) showed the toad to be positively photo- tropic in response to stimulation received through each of the regions l^ed, and there was no reason to assume that one region was more sensitive to such stimulation than another.

TABLE XI.

SuMMABT OP Daily Series op Twenty Reactions by Eleven Toads APTEB Previous Exposure in the Ijght or in the Dark.

	Previously in	dark	Previously in light
Direction of reaction .....	+	-	0	+	—	0
First reaction	Number Percent	29 53	20 36	6 11	33 59	10 17	3 23
First 5 reactions	/Number ^Percent	188 69	73 27	11 4	174 64	58 21	42 15
Last 15 reactions	t Number 'percent	668 84	116 15	5 1	589 88	65 10	9 1
Total reactions	t Number 'percent	851 81.3	179 17.1	16 1.5	763 81.6	121 12.9	51 5.5

Pajme (:07) has shown a similar condition in Amblyopsis. He states (p. 323) that these fishes "seem to be equally sensitive on all parts of

r

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the body," after the eyes have been excised. Parker (lOS*', p. 419) and Reese (.06, p. 94) have, on the other hand, found the tail to be the most sensitive region in Ammoccetes and Cryptobranchus respectively. These few observations indicate that the comparative sensitiveness of the skin to photic stimulation varies in diflferent species of vertebrates.

R The Effect of Previous Conditions of Light Stimulation on Photic REACTiONa

It had been noticed in a general way during the preceding experi- ments that when a toad was placed near a strong light the first reac- tion was more often away from the light than any of the subsequent responses were, and that the first reaction was usually slower than those which followed. G. Smith (:05) has shown that, when Gam- marus is exposed to light, a pigment migration takes place toward the proximal ends of the retinula cells, and that as this migration pro- gresses the animal changes its reactions firom indifferent to strongly positive. As a pigment migration, as well as other changes, takes place when the eyes of amphibians are exposed to light, it was thought that there might be a similar influence on the reactions in this case, and experiments were accordingly carried out to test this question.

In these experiments toads were placed in the centre of a box which was ninety centimeters long and thirty-eight wide. The floor and sides were of slate, and both ends were closed by glass heat-screens which contained a layer of water 3.75 centimeters thick. Light, which had an intensity of 220 candle-meters at the spot where the toads were exposed to it, was admitted from one end, and before each reaction the individuals were placed with the right and left sides alternately toward the source of light. Eleven toads were kept first in the dark for five days and then in the light (three candle-meters) of a gas jet for an equal period of time. The eyes were thus exposed continuously to uniform light or dark, except when the animals were removed for the experiments, which occupied about half an hour daily. By taking twenty records from each individual each day, an attempt was made to get a series of a hundred reactions from each individual under the two conditions of previous exposure to light and to dark In all but three cases these attempts were successful

The results in Table XI. show that the first reaction in a series of twenty has the least tendency to be positively phototropic and that subsequent reactions are increasingly positive. There is, however, no great diff'erence between the responses of individuals previously exposed to light and those previously in the dark. In Table XII. the reactions

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

of each animal are shown, and it will be seen that the individuals often vary widely in their different reactions. For example, toad No. 13 was negatively phototropio after being in the dark, but strongly posi- tive after exposure to light Although the effect of previous stimula-

TABLE XII.

Reactions of Individual Toads previouslt in the Light OB in the Dark.

Condition	Previously in	dark	Previously in	Ught
Direction of movement	+	-	0	+	—	0
Individual No. 11	94	6	0	100	0	0
Individual No. 12	89	11	0	76	6	3
Individual No. 13	26	74	0	95	5	0
Individual No. 15	89	10	1	74	9	1
Individual No. 22	94	5	1	82	14	4
Individual No. 23	88	9	3	64	25	7
Individual No. 24	72	8	2	83	14	4
Individual No. 25	97	: 9	0	64	34	2
Individual No. 26	76	22	2	10	1	18
Individual No. 27	59	8	7	26	3	12
Individual No. 28	73	27	0	89	10	1
Total /Number reactions ^ Per cent	851	179	16	763	121	51
81.3	17.1	1.5	81.6	12.9	5.5

tion is marked in some individuals, yet when we consider the total number of reactions, almost the same percentage of positive photo- tropism is shown aftier prolonged exposure to the light as aft;era similar period in the dark These results agree with those of Torelle (:03), who found that eight hours of exposure to light did not change the positive phototropism of the frog.

Table XIII. shows the times which elapsed before the reactions recorded in Table XII. took place. No records were included which

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PEABSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 187

did not show twenty successive reactions on the day considered Under (a) sixty sach sets of daily records are included, and under (6), forty-three sets. The toads reacted more slowly after having been kept in the dark than after they had been exposed to light The difference is not great and cannot be considered very significant in showing optic influence. The results may, however, be interpreted as indicating that prolonged exposure to light renders the toad more photokinetic

G. The Reactions of Amphibians to Lights of Different

Colors.

In testing the reactions of animals to lights of different wave lengths the apparatus shown in Figure 6 was used. Animals were placed in the position shown in the figure, and after each reaction they were rotated clockwise through 180°. The right and left sides were thus brought alternately toward the light, which had an intensity of 612 candle-meters (for white light) at the point where the animals were placed. The different colors were obtained by passing the white light of a Nemst lamp through colored screens. These screens were solutions of various substances held in rectangular glass jars which could be easily interchanged.^ The colors used were r^ yellow, green, and blue, and, though they were not perfectly monochromatic, they did not overlap significantly in the spectrum.

* The substances used in making the solutions and the ranges of the colors obtained from them, as determined by an Engehnann spectroscope, were as follows:

Colon.	Substances.	Amount in grama.	c.c. of water.	Wave- length in 11.
Red	Fuchsin	0.10	750	0.605-0.608
YeUow	Potassium bichromate and Copper sulphate	es.oO'j 15.00'	750	0.540-0.606
Green	/"LichtgrOn" and i Copper sulphate	1.50% 5.00^	750	0.460-0.530
Blue	" Bleu de Lyon"	0.15	760	0.430^.485

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188 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

TABLE XIII.

AvBRAGB Reaction Times in BIinutes of Toads fbeyiouslt IN THE Light ob in the Dabk.

Number of the reacticm	1	2	3	4	6	6	7	8	9	10
(a) Previously in dark	8.3	3.5	2.2	2.0	1.8	1.4	1.3	1.1	1.1	1.1
(6) Previously in light	5.9	3.5	3.4	1.6	1.8	1.4	0.8	0.8	0.9	0.8
Number of the reaction	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20
(a) Previously in dark	1.1	1.0	1.0	0.9	0.9	1.0	0.8	1.0	0.7	0.8
(6) Previously in light	0.7	0.7	0.6	0.7	0.6	0.7	0.7	0.6	0.6	0.5

(a) Normal Individuak.

For the experiments with animals in normal oondition, Bana palustris was used. Six individuals were successively tested with the colors in the following order, blue, green, yellow, red, and then this

	$
f	.^^-—	i
/C	CL ^
t	f	1
	A
	9

Figxtre 6. Plan of apparatus for testing the reactions of toads to colored lights. Af position of observer; a, heat and color screen; 6, screen 25 cm. high; I, light; a, a, a, a, screen extending to ceiling; t, t, t, t, table.

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PEABSE. — THE REACTIONS OP AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 189

order was reyersed. The plan followed was to test all the individaals in one oolor and then to change the screen and test them again in the same order bat with the next color ; ten reactions being taken from each individoal in every color. Each animal was thus actoally subject to experiment for about one hour out of the six which were required to complete the series. A second half-dozen of frogs was tested in the same maimer, except that the colors were used in the order red, yellow, green, blue, and then the order was reversed.

TABLE XIV. Reactions of Rana palubtbis to Ck>LOBED Lights.

Color of lights	Blue	Qreen	YeUow	Red
Direction of movement	+	-	0	+	-	0	-f	-	0	+	-	0
Reactions	First six individuals Second six individuals (Number Total ( Per cent	96 81 177 74	13 26 38 16	11 14 25 10	80 68 148 62	14 38 52 22	26 14 40 16	69 55 124 52	20 39 59 24	33 26 59 24	66 45 111 46	16 29 45 19	39 46 85 35
Ave. reaction time in minutes	2.83	3.09	3.60	3.75

The results (Table XIV.) show that blue is apparently the most effective in the production of positively phototropic reactions, and that there is a reguliur graduation from blue to red, both in the percentage of positive reactions and in the rapidity with which the movements took place. Other observers (p. 165) have obtained similar results in experiments with other species of amphibians. It is probable that these differences in the reactions are due to differences of the wave lengths, but they may be due to intensity differences.

(b) Eyeless IndividucUs.

The blue end of the spectrum is known to be more potent in affect- ing changes in the eyes of many animals, and in some species the sensitiveness to red is apparently lacking altogether. For example, Abelsdorff (:00, p. 562) observed that the pnpil of the owl's eye

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AlfEBICAN ACADEMY.

enlarged in red light but oontraoted rapidly when it was exposed to blue light of low intensity. It therefore seemed not improbable that the differences in the frog's reactions to lights of different colors might have been due to stimulation received through the eyes ; therefore another set of experiments was undertaken to ascertain if like results could be obtained through the stimulation of the skin alone.

As toads had been found to be more responsive than frogs after the eyes had been excised, they were used in testing the light reactions through the skin. The same apparatus (Figure 6) was used as in the experiments with normal animsJs, except that the light was passed through a square aperture, 2.7 centimeters on a side, and had an intensity of 874. candle-meters for white light at the point where the animals were placed. The method used for removing the eyes was the

TABLE XV. Reactions of Thbeb Eyeless Toads to Colored Lights.

Color of lighte

White

Red

YeUow

Green

Blue

Direction of movement

( Number Reactions <

(Percent

+ 48 96

1 2

0

1 2

+ 38 76

2 4

0 10 20

37 74

2 4

0 11 22

+ 38 76

5 10

0

7

14

+ 37 74

3 6

0 10 20

same as in previous experiments (p. 182). Three individuals were tested successively with white, red, yellow, green, and blue light in the order given. The next day two of the animals were tested again with the same colors but in the inverse order.

It will be seen (Table XV.) that these toads gave about seventy-five per cent of positively phototropic reactions with every color. Appar- ently all the colors were equally effective in inducing photic responses. This &ct is the more striking when we remember that the same color screens were used as in the experiments with normal amphibians (Table XIV.), in which case the blue was most potent The reactions to white light) in the present instance, showed an almost perfect posi- tive phototropism, and it seemed possible that the lesser d^ree of reactiveness diown in the responses to colored lights might have been due to differences in intensity, as the color-screens undoubtedly cut off much light. To ascertain if any difference would be manifest in the responses if the intensity were lowered, a diaphragm, having a circular aperture 2.8 millimeters in diameter, was interposed and

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experiments performed in which eyeless toads were placed at a distance

of 275 centimeters from the lamp, where the intensity was 1.44 candle

meters for white light The colored screens cut the light down to

what must have been considerably less than a candle-meter. The

results obtained from seven toads not previously tested are shown in

Table XVI.

TABLE XVI.

Reactions of Seven Eyeless Toads to OP Low Intensity.

Ck>LORED Lights

Color of lighte

White

Red

Yellow

Green

Blue

Direction of movement

Number Reactions

Per cent

84 84

6 6

0 10 10

+ 56 50

26 23

0

28

27

76 68

18 17

0 16 15

65

58

21 19

0 24 23

59 53

28 25

0 25

22

Althongh the " positive percentages " in every color were lower than when light of greater intensity was used (Table XV.), the eyeless toads again showed positive phototropism in all the colors. There was also, in this case, a greater number of positive reactions when white light was used than when any of the colors were substituted for it It is, then, apparent that in a decreased light intensity the number of positive reactions decreased, but no especial potency was shown by one color as compared with another as a means of inducing such reactions. The slight differences between the number of positive reactions produced by lights of different colors, as shown in the table, may be accounted for as being due to intensity differences. The colors, as judged by the human eye, could be arranged from more to less intense in the following order, yellow, green, red, blue ; and it will be seen that the largest number of positive reactions was brought about by the most intense lights thus judged.

(c) Summartf.

The results of the reactions of amphibians to colored lights may be briefly summarized as follows : normal animals were positively photo- tropic in all the colors tried, but there were more positive reactions toward the violet end of the spectrum than toward the red end ; eyeless individuals were also positively phototropio in all the colors, but there was no difference in number between the positive reactions to the several colors. These results do not agree with those of most other observers.

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In &ct» Loeb ('88) has stated as a general law, that the more primitive the photoreoeptor, the greater is its sensitiveness to the rays toward the violet end of the spectrum, as compared to those toward the opposite end. Graber ('83, p. 225) stated that in the phototropio responses of Tritnms the rays became more and more like darkness in their effects as the red end of the spectrum was approached ; and that this was true of eyeless individuals as well as those in normal condition. Dubois ('90, p. 358) observed that blue was more effective than red in produc- ing responses from a blinded Proteus when only the tail was illumi- nated. Opposed to these observations are those of Euhne ('78^, p. 119), who found that, while normal frogs rested in green when there was equal opportunity to rest in blue, blinded individuals showed no such reactions. The results described in the present paper agree with those of Eiihne, and it seems to be evident that the photoreceptors in the skin of the frog and toad have little or no sensitiveness to color differences, as sucL

H. Comparison op the Reactions of Eyeless Toads to Heat AND TO Light.

It has long been known that the skin of amphibians could be stimu- lated by heat^ and the opinion has been expressed that there are recep- tors which are open to stimulation by either heat or light Kor^n}ri (^93) showed that heat, as well as ligh^ might produce motor reactions when it was applied to the skin of a frog. Parker (K)3*, p. 34) says : " It is conceivable that in the lower vertebrates, like the frog, the end organs of the skin are stimulated by radiant energy of a wide range, including what is for us both radiant heat and ligh^ and that the de- scendants of these organs in the skins of higher vertebrates are more restricted in function and are ordinarily sensitive to radiant heat and its effects." Washburn (:08, p. 142) also says, " While, then, the nerve endings in the human skin are sensitive only to the slowest of these vibrations, the heat rays, those in the skin of the frog, may respond to the whole series."

During the experiments with eyeless toads the question arose as to whether the supposed photic reactions might not, after all, be due to the influence of heat And, although a heat screen containing water was used in all experiments, there was a possibility that the light was converted into heat as it was absorbed by the skin, and that the sensi- tiveness was to heat rather than light Furthermore, the part of the apparatus containing the lamp was warmed somewhat during a series of experiments and gave off a small amount of heat A crude test as

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to the e£fect of this heat from the apparatus was made in the following way : On two occasions when a toad had gone successively ten times toward the light, an opaque screen was interposed in such a way that the light was cut off but the radiating heat from the apparatus was allowed to reach the toad. In both instances the individuals gave ten reactions without apparent reference to the heated appa- ratus, thus showing that the reactions had not been brought about by heat

In order to test the sensitiveness of the toad to increased tempera- ture, two eyeless individuals were suspended in such a way that the hind legs could be dipped into water. Neither of these animals made any movement under this method of treatment when the water was at room temperature (20^ C). The temperature of the water was then raised five degrees at a time, and there was no response until a temper- ature of 40° G. to 45° G. had been reached, when the animals quickly withdrew their legs from the hot water. It was evident^ from these results, that the toad did not respond readily to increase in tempera- ture. Reese (:06) found that Gryptobranchus also was comparatively insensitive to changes in the temperature of the surrounding medium, but, if the temperature was raised above 40° G^ violent motor reactions occurred.

While these observations showed that amphibians might not be very sensitive to thermic stimulation, the possibility was not excluded that the assumed photic reactions might in reality be due to stimula- tion of the skin receptors by heat If the positively phototropio . reactions of blinded toads were due to the stimulation of such recep- tors, it ought to be possible to obtain similar reactions through the use of radiant heat instead of light To ascertain if this were possible, an apparatus was arranged in which steam was passed through a verti- cal brass pipe which measured seven millimeters in diameter. The eyeless toads were placed near this pipe, and their reactions tested in the same manner as had previously been done with light All these experiments were performed in the dark, but before and after the heat experiments each individual was tested with light (1.24 candle-meters) to ascertain whether it was positively phototropio or not The method of experimenting in the dark was to orient the toad by using a mark at a known distance from the source of heat ; then to listen until a movement was heard ; after which the position of the animal was ascertained by feeling for it with the hand. In Table XVII. the signs +} — } and 0 are used to indicate movements in relation to the steam pipe as a source of heat, as they have previously been used for sources of light As this table shows, toads placed near (10 to 20 cm.)

VOL. XLV. — 13

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

the heated pipe showed a slight tendency to move away from it^ hut heyond twenty centimeters they were apparently indifferent

The amount of heat given off by the steam pipe as compared to that given off by the light apparatus was determined by means of a pair of thermometers. These thermometers were mounted in a wooden box (Figure 7), blackened inside and out and divided into two freely com-

TABLE XVII. Reactions op Four Eyeless Toads to Light and to Radiant Heat.

Nature of stimulation	Light	Distances from a hot pipe, in centimeters
		10	20	30	40	50
Direction of movement	+	-	0	+	-	0	+	-	0	+	-	0	+	-	0	+	-	0
<\ « ( No. OS O	108	6	16	16	29	5	17	25	8	64	59	27	16	34	10	25	21	14
tf-^ (Perot.	83	6	12	32	58	10	34	50	16	44	40	16	30	54	16	40	34	26
Nature of stimulation	Distances from a hot pipe, in centimeters	Light
	60	70	80	90	100
Direction of movement	+	-	0	+	-	0	+	-	0	+		0	+	-	0	+	-	0
Reac- tions	13 42	9 30	8 28	15 38	14 35	11 27	15 50	13 42	2 8	15 50	11 37	4 13	14 34	18 43	10 23	131 77	21 13	18 10

municating compartments in each of which the blackened bulb of one of the thermometers {A, E) was enclosed. One of these compart- ments was permanently dosed, while the other could be opened or closed at will by a slide {d). This apparatus was placed in such a position that the radiant heat to be measured fell directly upon the bulb of the thermometer B when the slide was out After reading the thermometers at intervals and allowing the apparatus to become adjusted to the surroundings for two hours, the difference between the two thermometers was observed at one-minute intervals for twenty minutes while the compartment was open to receive the light or heat to be tested, and then for a like period of time with it closed. The

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195

average di£ferenoe between the two thermometers, when placed before the steam pipe was 0.064° G. while that for the light apparatus was 0.025° G. The amount of heat received by a thermometer at a distance of thirty centimeters from the heated pipe was therefore more than twice that received when the light apparatus was tested. As the toads were strongly positively phototropic to this light, and as the same individuals were indifferent when placed near the steam pipe, it is safe to conclude that thermo- and photo-reception are distinct processes in the toad's skin, and that, in this animal at leasts heat does not give rise to tropic reactions unless there is very strong stimulation.

FiouBE 7. Plan of thermometer box. A and B, thermometers; c, c, positions of two of the ten circular openings between the two compartments; d, slide.

I. Experiments to deterbiinb the Influence of the Central Ner- vous Organs on the Photic Reactions of AMPHiBiANa

Parker (:05^) succeeded in obtaining photic responses from one of the lower fishes (Ammocoetes) after the entire brain had been removed, and he believed that such reactions were brought about by stimulation re- ceived through skin receptors and transmitted through the spinal nerves. To ascertain if similar reactions could be obtained from amphibians, experiments were undertaken with four species. The first to be tested was Rana pipiens. A sharp scalpel was inserted through the dorsal wall of the cranium and a transverse cut was made through the dien- cephalon ; this was followed by another cut behind the second vertebra which separated the cord from the myelencephalon. After such indi- viduals had been tested, they were killed and hardened in alcohol. Subsequent dissection showed that the cuts had been successfully made in ten of the twelve individuals upon which operations had

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196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

been performed. This method of procedure separated the cord from the brain, but did not interfere with the vital centres in the latter nor with the sympathetic system. These frogs were tested several times, for the two or three days during which they livedo by suspending them at the anterior end in such a way that the hind legs could be subjected to various stimuli All of these individuals flexed the legs when they were touched with a brush which had been moistened in ten per cent acetic acid, and four of them reacted in the same manner when the light and heat from a Nemst lamp was thrown on the skin, a lens being used to bring the light to a focus ; but not a single individual reacted to light from this lamp when the heat rays were cut off by interposing a flat-sided jar filled with water.

Ten toads were tested by the same methods as those used for the frogs, and, though they reacted to acid and the light with heat, no reactions were obtained when light alone was used.

As no photic reactions had been obtained from spinal frogs or toads, it was thought that such responses might be induced if the animals were rendered more sensitive; and experiments were accordingly undertaken in which the diencephalon and cord were transected in nine toads and 0.001 grain of strychnine inserted into the dorsal Ijrmph space through a small slit in the skin. The individuals which had been treated in this manner were extremely sensitive to tactual stimuli, and the slightest jar of the table on which they were supported sufficed to throw their limbs into a state of spasmodic extension. When, however, a beam of light was focussed on the hind leg of such an individual, no indubitable responses were obtained.

Since the attempts to induce photic reactions in terrestrial am- phibians had met with no success after the brain had been separated from the cord, I next turned my attention to the available aquatic species. The eyes were removed from a single Grjrptobranchus, and its cord was cut behind the first vertebra. This individual was then placed in an aquarium, and light firom a Nemst lamp was focussed upon its skin in various regions ; and, although it had been found to be extremely responsive to light after the eyes had been removed, no such responses were obtained fiK)m it after the cord had been cut It nevertheless continued to respond to tactual stimulation, and when the side was stroked gently with the finger, it jerked its legs and drew its tail away fix)m the stimulated region. Chemical stimulation was also effective after the cord had been cut, for when a pellet of cotton moistened with ten per cent acetic acid was placed so that it touched the tail, the body was bent away firom the stimulated area.

As the experiments with Gryptobranchus had given only negative

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results, it was dotermined to make cuts in various regions of the cord in different animals and determine whether the individuals thus treated would show differences in their behavior. The eyes were accordingly removed from four specimens of Necturus, and the cord was cut behind the fourth, ninth, eleventh, and twentieth vertebrse in the respective individuals. All these animals gave marked reactions to light when the illumination was anterior to the cut in the cord, but no responses were obtained from the region posterior to this cut, even when a strong beam of light was focussed on the skin. The regions posterior to the cut were, however, influenced by certain forms of stimulation, and re- sponded by making withdrawing movements when they were stroked with a brush, or when cotton saturated with ten per cent acetic acid was placed in the water near them. All the individuals seemed to stand the operation well ; the gill movements continued in a normal manner, and walking was carried on by the front legs, while the posterior part of the body dragged behind. All these animals lived more than five days, and one of them (with its cord cut behind the eleventh vertebra) lived thirty-six. This particular individual was extremely active, and when the front part of the body was in motion the hind legs also made walking movements, though they had a slower rate than that of the front legs. Furthermore, by gently pinching the tail the hind legs could be induced to walk when the front legs were quiet. In swim- ming, however, the trunk muscles of the whole body moved together. Loeb (:03) noted similar correlated swimming movements in Ambly- stoma larv» after the cord had been transected. Notwithstanding such correlated movements, it may be said of the four specimens of Necturus that the parts of the body in front of and behind the cut in the cord carried on reactions more or less independently, and that the regions anterior to this cut responded to a greater range of stimuli

As none of the spinal amphibians tested showed sensitiveness to light, even when reactions were easily induced by other forms of stimulation, it seems reasonable to conclude that their lack of sensi- tiveness to photic stimulation was not due to the absence of receptive or motor power, but to the fiict that the ultimate control (centres or essential portioBS of reflex arcs) of these reactions lies in the brain and therefore anterior to the spinal cord.

In order to discover what parts of the brain were essential for the photic responses, experiments were carried out in which certain regions were excised and observations made of the deficiency phenomena thus brought about The method followed was to excise all parts of the brain anterior to a certain region, and to carry the regions excised

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198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

progressively backward in successive operations; the light reactions being tested at each step. On account of the large size of their brains, Necturus and Cryptobranchus were used for these experiments. The individuals were wrapped in a damp cloth, the head being allowed to protrude ; and a T-shaped incision was then made in the skin on the dorsal side of the head, the stem of the T being toward the anterior end ; after this the muscles were cut away and the bony roof of the cranial cavity carefully picked away with a pair of strong forceps. The brain was then cut across with a pair of scissors or a sharp scalpel and the parts anterior to the cut removed. The flaps of skin were drawn over the wound and stitched together with silk thread. The success of such operations was verified by subsequent dissection. The method used in testing photic reactions was to throw a vertical band of light (which had an intensity of about 220 candle-meters at the point where the animals were placed) upon the anterior or posterior end of an individual, and to observe the responses which took place. As such responses were like those previously described (p. 169), they need not be discussed in detail

For a preliminary test as to the effect of such an operation as has just been described, aside from the actual cutting of the brain itself, the roof of the cranial cavities was removed from four individuals and the brain was left exposed to the water in which they were kept. These individuals seemed to be little affected by the operation, as they swam and walked in a normal manner ; and when (twenty-four hours later) light was thrown on the anterior or posterior end of any one of them, it reacted in the same manner as an individual in which only the eyes had been excised* The exposure of the brain had, then, no obvious effect on the photic reactions of Necturus.

The eyes and telencephalon were next removed fiK)m six individuals, and five of them gave marked responses to light on the day after the operation. The other individual, which lived for fifteen days, gave no photic responses until the third day after the cerebral lobes had been excised, though it had apparently recovered from the operation before that time. These animals could doubtless have been kept alive for a long time if it had not been for the Saprolegnia which grew abundantly around the cut sur&ces, and, even with this handicap, one of them lived for fifty days. The cerebral lobes are not^ then, essential for the photic reactions of Necturus.

Owing to the scarcity of material, the number of operations had to be limited in the remaining experiments. The portions of the brain anterior to the mesencephalon were, therefore, excised in only one Necturus. This individual lived for twelve days and gave character-

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istic reactions when it was touched gently on the foot or tail, or when cotton which had been moistened in ten per cent acetic acid was placed in the water near it. When it was turned on its back, the righting reaction occurred, though this was accomplished with some difficulty. Light, however, caUed forth no response, even when a condensing lens was used to bring the rays to a focus on the skin. The investigations of Schrader ('87) and Looser ('05) have demonstrated the teuct that the mesencephalon exerts an inhibitory influence on those reflex actions, that take place through the spinal nerves. These observers found that frogs were more responsive to external stimulation after the brain had been excised so as to leave only the myelencephalon than when such an operation did not include the mesencephalon. In other words, the midbrain had an inhibitory action on the reflexes controlled by the portions of the brain posterior to it, and when the more anterior brain regions (which originate the "spontaneous" reflexes) had been re- moved it rendered the frogs unusually sluggish. It is probable that the mesencephalon exerts a similar influence in other amphibians, and that the lack of responsiveness in Necturus was due to inhibition rather than lack of abiUty to respond to light. The following experi- ments support this view.

The portions of the brain anterior to the metencephalon were re- moved in two specimens of Gryptobranchus. Both t^ese individuals were restless and usually continued to move about slowly for some time after locomotion had once been induced by any form of stimulation. When either of them was kept in dim light for an hour or two, however, it became quiet, and, if it was afterwards suddenly illuminated (with light having an intensity of about a thousand candle-meters), there was in most cases an active locomotor response and the movement continued for some time, even after the light had been shut off*.

As the metenoephalon is poorly developed in all amphibians, and as it has been shown to exert little, if any, influence on their ability to perform locomotor reactions, it is safe to conclude that the myelenceph- alon and the cord are the only portions of the central nervous system which are essential for the photic responses.

III. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS.

Photic responsiveness is a quality which is probably present in all amphibians, for the sixteen species which have been found to give re- actions to light include representatives of most of the families of the class. Light has an orienting influence on all the species which have been studied ; the Caudata are mostly negative in their phototropism,

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200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADElffY.

while the Salientia are positive. Such reactions are easily conceived to be of benefit to the different species under their ordinary conditions of environment, but whether the different types of reactions have arisen as the result of natural selection in the development of each species, or whether they are due to structural peculiarities which limit each species to certain stereotyped reactions and have hence caused it to frequent a particular habitat, or whether they have been brought about by other factors, are open questions. The negatively photo- tropic r^&ctions of the nocturnfd species would serve to bring Uiem into places of concealment during the day. The positive reactions of the more diurnal forms would lead them toward the water (a large illum- inated area) and thus £Msilitate their escape from pursuing enemies, or would take them into the bright sunlight^ where inserts were abun- dant and their hunger would be satisfied.

Under artificial conditions light has been shown to have a directive influence on the movements of all the amphibians which have been made the subject of experiment, but it does not foUow that the pres- ence of light will induce motor reactions in all these species, and there is, in fiict, great variation between the different forms in this respect For example, Gryptobranchus is strongly photokinetic and becomes restless when suddenly illuminated, while Necturus is comparatively indifferent to such stimulation. This photokinetic quality is appar- ently little developed in frogs and toads, though they are strongly phototropic. Generally speaking, there seems to be no correlation between the photokinesis and the phototropism of amphibians.

A given individual of any species is seldom consistently positive or negative in its phototropism, even when the conditions of light stimu- lation are uniform. This may be due to the influence of internal factors which bring about changes in the physiological state of the animal, or to external stimuli other than light which exert a modifying influence. Some of these modifying factors will be briefly considered, as far as they apply to the amphibians. Broadly speaking, the habits of the different forms are correlated with their phototropic responses and the species which are most truly terrestrial (Bufo americanus and Bana sylvatica) are most strongly positive, while the typical aquatic forms (Gryptobranchus allegheniensis and Necturus maculosus) are as decidedly negative. Therefore any variation from the conditions found in the normal habitat of a species might involve changes which would alter its ordinary phototropic responses. Previous exposure in light or dark does not usually exert a marked influence on the photic reactions of the toad, but some individuals were found to be positive after having been in the light, though they were negative after passing

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a similar period in the dark Mechanical stimulation serves to initiate reactions which 'are directed by light, but it produces no marked changes in phototropism. Fatigue makes the photic responses more difficult to induce in some cases (e. g. Cryptobranchus), but does not alter their character. These few examples are typical and will serve to illustrate the influence of many fistctors on the photic reactions of amphibians. In general it may be said that, while various &ctors may give rise to changed phototropic responses in some individuals, the same factors may be without apparent influence in others. No stimu- lus, with the possible exception of decreased temperature (Torelle, :03) has been demonstrated to produce uniform changes in the light responses of amphibians. The internal causes which produce negative reactions in one species, or even in one individual of a species, while the same external conditions call forth positive reactions in other species or individuals, is practically an untouched field as £sur as the amphibians are concerned. The careful study of such a form as Die- myctylus, which undergoes marked changes in habitat during its life, ought to throw light on at least one aspect of this matter.

The next subject that deserves consideration is the nature of the photoreceptors upon which the sensitiveness of amphibians to light depends. There are at least two sets of nerve terminations which are open to photic stimulation, those of the retina and those of the skin. The investigation of the responses produced by light received through these two sets of endings is involved in considerable difficulty, for we are obliged to refer constantly to judgments formed through the human eye. We are able to form opinions as to the direction, inten- sity and color of light, and to judge the form, size, color, position, and movement of illuminated objects as they appear through our own eyes, but we have no conception of how these things appear when they are seen through the eyes of an amphibian, except as we can interpret its actions, and the problem becomes even more difficult when we attempt to consider the reception of light through the skin. There is some evidence that nervous connections exist in amphibians between these two kinds of photoreceptors and this complicates the matter still farther. Englemann QBS) observed that retinal changes were induced in the eyes of frogs by illuminating the skin. Furthermore, Fick ('90) found that the same changes took place after the optic nerves had been cut, and connections, if they exist, must therefore take some other course, in part at least, than that through the second nerve.

The eyes of amphibians are adapted for use in both air and water, and are hence not finely adjusted for visual discrimination in either medium. Binocular vision cannot be present, as the eyes are placed

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202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

laterally, so that there is probably no overlapping in the fields. Nor is any definite image formed, as Beer ('96) has shown that the eye cannot be accommodated to any extent, and amphibians therefore depend npon motion rather than the form of objects to warn them of danger or to enable them to captare food. A frog or toad will allow a worm to lie in foil view as long as it is qniet, but as soon as the worm moves it is devoured. The vision of amphibians is therefore limited to rather ill-defined outlines of the surrounding objects, and the comparative brightness or dulness, or possibly the colors, of objects will have con- siderable importance in determining the nature of the responses of an individual The reactions brought about when the eyes alone are illuminated are similar to those which take place when such stimula- tion affects both the skin and eyes. When only one eye is stimulated, by light coming ttom in front of a toad, the individual usually does not go toward the light but turns toward the stimulated side. These beta indicate that the eyes in their relations to objects in the field of vision serve more as direction eyes than as camera eyes. Cole has recently given additional support to this view by showing that am- phibians placed between two lights of equal intensity but of different areas go toward the larger area ; thus demonstrating that the size of the area illuminated is of importance in the visual processes. Kiibne C78*) has shown that the eye of the frog is sensitive to light rays firom the whole range of the visible spectrum, and the results described in the present paper, as well as those of other observers (p. 165), indicate that the rays toward the violet end are most effective in producing photic responses. These apparent differences in sensitiveness to what appear to the human eye as colors may, however, be only differences in intensity when received by the frog's eya

The skin is known to act as a photoreceptor in ten representative species of amphibians, and individuals show tropic reactions which are like those of animals in normal condition after their eyes have been excised. There is no great differentiation shown in the structure of the qerve endings in amphibians' skins, and Parker (K)3^> p. 34) has al- ready been quoted as saying, " it is conceivable that in the lower verte- brates, like the frog, the dnd organs of the skin are stimulated by radiant energy of wide range, including what is for us both heat and light" There seems to be no doubt^ however, that the amphibian sUn is sensitive to light as such, and no tropic responses are induced by radiant heat having the same energy value as the light which does induce marked tropic reactions. Our knowledge of the comparative sensitiveness of the skin in different regions of the body is rather limited, but it shows that there is no uniformity among different am-

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PEABSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO LIGHT. 203

phibians in this respect Gryptobianchas is most responsive when the tail region is illuminated, but the skin of the toad is equally sensitive on all parts of the body.

The fiiot that both the skin and eyes act as photoreceptors in fishes as well as amphibians has led to considerable speculation concerning the origin of the retina in higher vertebrates. Various theories have been put forward, but only two of them have direct relation to the field included in the present paper. Willem ('91) advanced the view that in its primitive condition light sensitiveness was distributed over the whole skin and that it had become gradually localized in the eyes of higher forms. Parker (.-06) has pointed out an objection to this view in the fact that photic sensitiveness is lacking in the skin of the most primitive member of the vertebrate series (Amphioxus), though it possesses direction eyes which are closely connected with the central nervous organs. He believes that the development of photoreceptive power in the skins of vertebrates has been a separate process firom that of the development of the retinas, which first arose in intimate connec- tion with the central nervous system. This question cannot be re- garded as definitely settled, and the results of the experiments described in the present paper throw little light upon it The fact that photic sensitiveness is present in such a wide range of amphib* ians seems to support Willem's view, as the different forms have developed along extremely diverse lines.

Not only do the photoreceptive organs constitute important factors in a consideration of the photic reactions of amphibians, but variations in the light itself are important Differences in intensity are signifi- cant in the reactions of the toad, for the percentage of positively pho- totropic responses decreases and the number of indifferent reactions increases when the light intensity is decreased. The direction of the incident rays of light which impinge on the photoreceptor is, however, of no apparent consequence. A toad in which only one eye is illumi- nated by light firom in firont turns toward the stimulated side instead of going toward the light, and ai^ eyeless toad subjected to unilateral stimulation by light from above turns toward the illuminated side without regard to the direction of the rays. In general, then, the photic reactions of amphibians are brought about by intensity differ- ences on the two sides of the body. Concerning the influence of the quality of the light, it may be said that both the skin and eyes of am- phibians are open to stimulation by light rays which include the whole range of the visible spectrum. When the light is received through both the eye and skin receptors, the rays toward the violet end of the spectrum are most effective in producing tropic responses, but when

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204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

the light is received through the skin alone, no such potency is shown by the more refrangible rays. The differences observed in the first case may therefore be interpreted as being due to stimalation received through the eyes, and we may conclude that the power of color per- ception, as distinct firom light perception, is present in the eyes but alj^nt in the skin. It is not certain, however, that these differences, which are supposedly due to differences in wave length, are not^ after all, brought about by intensity differences.

Generally speaking, the parts of the central nervous system are segmentaUy arranged throughout the vertebrate series. Each neural segment is, however, capable of carrying on only the comparatively simple reflex actions which are concerned with the somatic segment which it controls. The complex reactions which involve correlated movements in different regions of the body depend upon correlation centres, and, the higher we go in the vertebrate scale, the more these centres become localized toward the anterior end of the nervous tube. A spinal eel is able to swim in a normal manner (Bickell, '97), but in the higher vertebrates spinal reactions show less correlative power, and there is a correspondingly greater importance attached to those reac- tions which are controlled through Uie brain. The buot that spinal fishes react to light (Parker, :03>>), while spinal amphibians do not, is therefore perhaps to be expected and may be interpreted as new evi- dence of the progressive anterior localization of functions in the nervous system of vertebrates. However, Sherrington (:06, p. 9) has called attention to the &ct that only stimuli of a particular kind will evoke certain reflexes. He was easily able to induce the croak reflex in a spinal frog by certain forms of stimulation, but he could not evoke it by others, and he^ also found that the scratch reflex could be called forth in spinal dogs by certain forms of tactual stimulation only. It is therefore possible that spinal amphibians may yet be induced to give photic reactions under some new method of stimulation. As far as the present evidence goes, however, the myelencephalon, as well as the cord, is essential for photic responses in which the skin is the receptor.

In the reactions of many organisms the ultimate direction of locomotion is determined by making many random movements and following such of them as lead away from conditions un&vorable to the organism or into conditions better adapted to its existence. Other organisms do not make great use of this method, but usually move directly toward or away from the source of stimulation, and Loeb ('90) has given the name of tropism to such responses. The light reactions of amphibians are characteristicaUy tropic in nature, and, as has been

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PEABSE. — THE REACTIONS OF AMPHIBIANS TO UGHT. 205

stated, they are apparently broaght about by unequal stimulation on the two sides of the body. This tropic character applies to the reac- tions whether they are induced by stimulation through the skin or eyes or through the simultaneous stimulation of both. In general, it may be said that the photic responses are of a typically reflex character and show little evidence of powers of association.

IV. SUMMARY.

(1) The following amphibians were found to be positively photo- tropic: Diemyctylus viridesoens, Rana clamata, R. palustris, Bufo fowleri, B. americanus ; and the negatively phototropic species studied were : Necturus maculosus, Cryptobranchus allegheniensis, Ambly- stoma punctatum, Plethodon cinereus er3rthronotu8.

(2) Most of the species mentioned under (1), after the removal of their eyes, gave photic responses which were like those of normal individuals.

(3) The photic reactions of eyeless amphibians are not due to the direct stimidation of the central nervous system or the exposed ends of the optic nerves by lights but to the. action of the skin as a photoreceptor.

(4) Mechanical stimulation (handling) does not change the charac- ter of the photic reactions, though it makes them more evident by inducing locomotion.

(5) Toads which are stimulated by light through the eyes alone react in the same manner as individuals stimulated through the skin or through both the skin and the eyes.

(6) The movements of eyeless toads stimulated unilaterally by light from above are toward the illuminated side; and toads stimulated through one eye only by light from in front do not go toward the light but turn toward the illuminated side. The photic reactions are there- fore due to differences in light intensity on the two sides of the body and the direction of the rays is ineffective.

(7) After the eyes have been removed, Cryptobranchus and Nec- turus are most responsive when the tail is illuminated, but the skin of the toad is apparently of equal sensitiveness on all parts of the body.

(8) A prolonged period of time passed in light or dark had no effect on the nature of the phototropic responses of the toad.

(9) Cryptobranchus is strongly photokinetic, but in the other am- phibians tested this quality was not strongly developed.

(10) When normal amphibians were used, blue light was the most effective in the production of tropic responses, but when eyeless indi-

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206 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

viduals were tested with the same oolored lights, the rays toward the blue end of the spectrum showed no such potency as compared with those nearer the opposite end. It may be said that, while both the skin and eyes are sensitive to the whole range of the visible spectrum, color sensitiveness is present only in the latter. It is possible, how- ever, that the supposed color sensitiveness is due to the efiects of what are intensity differences to the amphibian eye.

(11) A decrease in the intensity of the light brings about a corre- spondingly smaller number of positively phototropic responses and an increase in the number of indifferent reactions.

(12) The phototropic responses of eyeless toads are not due to the stimulation of heat-receiving organs in the skin. Thermo- and photo-reception are separate processes, and the former does not readily give rise to tropic reactions.

(13) Spinal amphibians gave no photic responses, but such reactions were induced in animals in which the brain anterior to the meten- cephalon had been excised.

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Abelsdorff, G.

:00. Zur Erforschung des Helligkeits- und Farfoensinnes bei Menschen und Thieren. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Physiol. Abth., Jahrg.

1900, pp. 561-562. Banta, a. M., and McAtee. W. L.

:06. The Life History of the Cave Salamander, Spelerpes maculicaudus (Cope). Proc. U. S. Nat. Museimi, Vol. 30, pp. 67-83, pis. S-IO. Beer, T.

'98. Die Accommodation des Auges bei den Amphibien. Arch. f. ges.

Physiol., Bd. 73, pp. 501-534. :01. Ueber primitive Sehorgane. Wiener klin. Woehenschr., Jahrg.

1901, Nr. 11-13.

BiCKEL, A.

'97. Ueber den Einfluss der sensibelen Nerven und der Labyrinthe auf die Bewegungen der Thiere. Arch. f. ges. Physiol., Bd. 67, pp. 299-344:

Cole, L. J.

:07. An Experimental Study of the Image-forming Powers of Various Types of Eyes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. 42, No. 16, pp. 335-417.

Cope, E. D.

'89. The Batrachia of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Museum, No. 34, 525 pp., 81 pis.

CONFIGUACHI, p., E RUSCONI, M.

'19. Del Proteo Anguino di Laurenti Monographia. Pa via. (Known to the writer only through the review by D. Ellis, '21.)

DiCKERSON, M. C.

K)6. The Frog Book. New York, xvii -f 253 pp., 112 pis.

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PEARSE. — THE EEACTIONS OF AMPfflBIANS TO LIGHT. 207

Dubois, R.

'90. Sur la perception des radiations lumineuses par la peau, chez les Prot^es aveugles des grottes de la Camiole. Ck>mpt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, torn. 110, pp. 358-361.

ElOENMANN, C. H., AND DeNNY, W. A.

:00. The Eyes of the Blind Vertebrates of North America. III. The Structure and Ontogenetic Defeneration of the Eyes of the Mis- souri Cave Salamander, etc. Biol. Bull., Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 33-41. Ellis, D.

'21. Observations on the Nattiral History and Structure of the Proteus Anguinus by Sig. ConfigUachi and Dr. Rusconi. Edinburgh Phil- oeoph. Jour., Vol. 4, pp. 398-406, Vol. 5, pp. 84-112. Enolemann, T. W.

'85. Ueber Bewegungen der Zapfen und Pigmentzellen der Netzhaut unter dem Einfluss des Lichtes und des Nervensystems. Arch. f. ges. Physiol., Bd. 35, pp. 498-508, Taf. 2. Pick, A. E.

*'90. Ueber die Ursachen der Pigmentwanderung in der Netzhaut. Vierteljahrschr. d. naturf. Gesell. in ZQrich, Jahrg. 35, pp. 83-86. Graber, V.

'83. Fundamentalversuche Ober die Helligkeits- und Farbenempfind- lichkeit augenloser und geblendeter Thiere. Sitzb. Akad. Wissensch. Wien, Math.-naturw. G., Bd. 87, Abth. 1, pp. 201-236. '84. GrundUnien zur Erforschung des Helligkeits- und Farbensinnes der Thiere. Prag, Leipzig, viii + 322 pp. Holmes, S. J.

K)l. Phototaxis in Amphipoda. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 5, pp. 211-

234. K)5. The Reactions of Ranatra to Light. Jour. Comp. Neurol, and

Psychol., Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 305-349. K)6. The Biology of the Frog. New York, x + 370 pp. Jordan, E. O.

'93. The Habits and Development of the Newt (Diemyctylus viri- descens). Jour. Morph., Vol. 8, pp. 269-366, pis. 14-18. Kohl, C.

'95. Rudimentftre Wirbelthieraugen. Dritter Theil. Bibliotheca Zoolog- ica. Heft 14, pp. 181-274.

EORANTI, A. V.

'93. Ueber die Reizbarkeit der Froechhaut gegen Licht und Wftrme.

Centralbl. f. Physiol., Bd. 6, pp. 6-8. KtmNE, W.

'78*. Ueber den Sehpurpur. Untersuch. physiol. Inst., Heidelberg, Bd. 1,

Heft 2, pp. 15-103, Taf. 1. '78^. Das Sehen ohne Sehpurpur. Untersuch. physiol. Inst., Heidelberg,

Bd. 1, Heft 2, pp. 119-138.

LOEB, J.

'88. Die Orientirung der Thiere gegen das Licht. Sitzb. physik.-med.

Gesellsch. z. WOrzburg, Jahr^. 1888, Nr. 1, pp. 1-5. '90. Der Heliotropismus der Thiere und seine Ubereinstimmung mit

dem Heliotropismus der Pflanzen. WOrzburg, 118 pp. .'03. Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Ck>mparative Psychology.

New York, xii + 309 pp.

LOESER, W.

:05. A Study of the Functions of Different Parts of the Frog's Brain. Jour. Comp. Neurol, and Psychol., Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 355-373.

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208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACABEMT.

Pabker, G. H.

:03*. The Phototropism of the Mouming-cloak Butterfly, Vanessa an-

tiopa Linn. Mark Anniversary Volume, No. 23, pp. 453-469, pi. 33.

K)3*. The Skin and the Eyes as Receptive Organs in the Reactions of

Frogs to Light. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 28-36. K)5». The Functions of the Lateral-line Organs in Fishes. Bull. U. S.

Bureau of Fisheries, 1904, Vol. 24, pp. 183-207. K)5*. The Stimulation of the Integumentary Nerves of Fishes by Light.

Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 413-420. .-08. The Sensory Rations of Amphioxus. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. 43, No. 16, pp. 415-455. Payne, F.

:07. The Reactions of the Blind Fish, Amblyopsis spelaeus, to Light. Biol. Bull., Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 317-323. Plateau, F.

'89. Recherches exp6rimentales sur la vision chez les arthropodes. M^m. cour. Acad, sci., lettres et beau-arts Belgique, torn. 43, pp. 1-93. RAdl, E.

:03. Untersuchimgen Qber den Phototropismus der Thiere. Leipzig, viii + 188 pp. Reese, A. M.

:06. Observations on the Reactions of Cryptobranchus and Necturus to Light and Heat. Biol. Bull., Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 9a-99. Schrader, M. E. G.

'87. Zur Physiologic des Froschgehims. Arch. f. ges. Physiol., Bd. 41, pp. 75-90. Semper, C.

'81. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence. New York, xvi + 472 pp. Sherrington, C. S.

.06. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. New York, xvi + 411 pp. Smith, B. G.

07. The Life History and Habits of Cryptobranchus allegheniensis. Biol. Bull., Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 5-39. Smith, G.

:05. The Effect of Pigment-migration on the Phototropism of Gammarus annulatus S. I. Smith. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 13, pp. 205-216. TORELLE, E.

:03. The Response of the Frog to Light. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. 9, No. 6, pp. 466-^88. Washburn, M. F.

:08. The Animal Mind, a Text-book of Comparative Psychology. New York, X + 333 pp. WiLLEM, V.

'91. Sur les perceptions dermatoptiques. Bull. Sci. France et Belgique,

tom. 23, pp. 329-346. Yerkes, R. M.

:03. The Instincts, Habits, and Reactions of the Frog. Harvard Psychol.

Studies, Vol. 1, pp. 579-638. .06. The Mutual Relations of Stimuli in the Frog, Rana clamata Daudin.

Harvard PBychoi. Studies, Vol. 2, pp. 545-574.

2

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Prooeedings of fhe Amerioan Academy of Arte and Sdenoes. Vol. XLV. No. 7. — January, 1910.

AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF lONEOUS-ROCK TYPES.

Bt Reginaij) Aldwobth Dalt.

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AVERAGE CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OP laNEOUS-ROCK

TYPES.

By Reginald Aldwobth Daly. Praseated December 8, 1000; Reoehred Deoember 4, 1000.

CONTBKTa

Introduction: Purpose of the Paper 211

Method of Calculation 213

Sources of Information 214

Average Specific Gravities of Certain Types 235

Some Applications • . . 235

Iktboduction: Pueposb of the Paper.

The study of the igneous rocks has hitherto largely consisted in an analj^is of their mineralogical and chemical composition, with the special intent to produce a satis&otory nomenclature and classification of the rocks as they occur throughout the world. This systematic ' petrography, though still pursued by a great number of workers, is now rivaled in interest and excelled in importance by its own ofishoot, petrogeny. The science of the origm and history of the igneous rocks is reacting on the more purely descriptive subject^ and at present petrologists are feeling their way toward a genetic classification of this great series of rock-types. Meantime, the much more numerous dass of workers engaged on the problems of economic and general geology, of geochemistry and cosmogony, are raising highly important questions which belong to the field of petrogenesis. The problems thus raised are as fundamental as they are complex and difficult For many of their solutions recourse must be had to the more modern geological reports and maps. With ever increasing skill and accuracy the distribution and relations of the rodcs composing the earth's crust are being recorded by government officers and by geologists working in private capacity. For some thirty years past^ as at present, the great body of geologists have mi^ped and deiBoribed the igneous rocks in* terms of what may be called the Qerman system of nomenclature and definition. In particular, Boaenbasoh's monumental treatises on the

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212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

eruptive rocks have been, for a generation, the osaal guide to the many authors who have described their findings among the igneous terranes of the world.

In view of these &ct6 it is clear that a student in petrology who wishes to use the maps and memoirs should have a good conception of the rock-types recognized by Rosenbusch and by his hundreds of dis- ciples among the field-geologists. It is true that in some details the usages of master and followers as regards names and classification have varied, but in a broad way Roeenbusch's definitions of the principal &milies and species of massive rocks have been used for maps and reports in all regions where modem work on igneous geology has been dona Just as the general sequence of the stratified rocks as first de- scribed in England, France, and Germany has been found to be closely paralleled in the rest of Europe and in the other continents, so the sjTstem of igneous rocks as at first developed from material largely collected in Europe has been nearly sufficient for the mapping of those rocks elsewhere. In the field as in the library the geologist soon learns that there is a persistent recurrence of types in the larger divi- sions of the earth's surfiice. The usefulness and objective character of Rosenbusch's classification are, therefore, proved by its adaptability in all the continents and islands.

Rosenbusch and his followers recognize some latitude of variation in the composition of each rock-typa The variation is both mineralog- ical and chemical, two rock specimens referred to a type showing differences in the proportions of the chemical elements found by analy- sis of the two rocks. In &ct, no two analyses of granite, andesite, or any other one type have ever given precisely the same proportions of the dozen or more oxides which regularly make up an igneous rock. It is obvious that the student of map and memoir should, for many problems, have at hand the actual figures showing the most typical chemical composition of the rock-types to which his study is directed. In numerous cases an analysis of a single specimen is not so useful as that which could be made from a thorough mixture of specimens of the same rock-variety fix)m all places on the globe where that variety occurs.

For obvious reasons such ideal analjrses have never been made. In their stead the writer believes that the investigator of petrogenic and other world-problems may well use the averages calculated fix)m the many excellent chemical analjrses of rocks made since Rosenbusch's system of naming and classification has been in general use. It may, indeed, be argued that such averages would more nearly represent the chemistry of Rosenbusch's types than any of the respective single

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DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 213

analysis which he has published in his treatise. These averages would be chemical " center-points " in his system of classification as actvaliy appUed to the terranes of the world.

So &r as the writer is aware, the preparation of these averages has not hitherto been attempted to such an extent as to cover the chief &milies and species of igneous rocks. An approximation to the desired results is offered in the following tables.

The work of computing the averages has been lessened very greatly by the publication of Osann's " Beitrage zur chemischen Petrographie " (2nd part, Stuttgart^ 1905). This remarkable book contains, in con- venient arrangement, the statement of most of the eruptive-rock analyses (over 2400 in number) puUished in the interval between 1883 and 1901. The period of seventeen years lies within that during which systematic petrography has been dominated by Rosenbusch's names and definitions. In general, the number of analyses for each rock-species is so large that their average would be but slightly modi- fied by the inclusion of the analyses made since 1900. In many cases, therefore, the extended labor required to search out firom the literature the additional analyses, has not been considered necessary for the preparation of useful averages. For other averages it was necessary to include analjrses published since 1900. The sources of such infor- mation are indicated below. Fortunately for the purpose, nearly the entire period since 1884 has seen the application of more or less re- fined methods of analysis ; so that errors of observation for the leading oxidee are relatively small

Method op Calculation.

The method of computation used is essentially like that employed by Washington and Clarke in their respective calculations of the "average composition" of all igneous rocks. In general, only the twelve more important oxides (including MnO) are recognized in the following tables. Distinctly " inferior " analyses were not consid- ered. In each case the average was computed according to the actual numbers of determinations made by the analysts. Table L shows these numbers for the respective rock-types, each column being headed by a key-number which corresponds with the named types of Table II. For some of the rocks BaO and SrO were computed. Their sum appears in the averages for CaO, as indicated in the tables. Similarly COs and CrsOg were sometimes averaged and entered with HsO and FcsOt respectively. As expected firom the method employed, the average totals nearly always ran well over one hundred per cent All

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214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

averages were reduced to 100.00 per cent and entered in Table II. Each average analysis was then recalcolated to 100.00 per cent after HgO (and GOg) had been subtracted. The results are also given in Table IL, in which platonics and corresponding effasives are grouped together. Magmatic relationships are often less obscured if these volatile oxides, which may be wholly or in part of exotic nature, are excluded. Finally, in order to facilitate reference to the tables, an index to the different rock-types was prepared and may be found below Table II.

It will be observed that certain rock-types have be^ omitted from the tables. The large class of " aschistic " dike-rocks is not rq>reeented because of their chemical similarity to the corresponding plutonio species. Other named varieties are omitted since their analyses are too few to give useful averages. In a few cases the mineralogical and chemical variations within each variety are so great that it has not seemed advisable to regard their averages as worthy of entry. Many other subordinate varieties of rock, though given special names, are chemically ahnost identical with the more important typed entered in the tables and therefore have been excluded.

Sources of Information.

The immediate sources of the analytical statements used in the computations are as follows : —

1. Beitrage zur chemischen Petrographie, zweiter Teil, by A. Osann.

Stuttgart^ 1905.

2. Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks published from 1884 to 1900,

by a S. Washington. Pro£ Paper, Na 14, U. a Geological Survey, 1903.

3. Elemente der Gesteinslehre, 2nd edition, by H. BosenbuscL

Stuttgart, 1901.

4. Lehrbuch der Petrographie, 2nd edition, by F. ZarkeL Leipzig,

1893.

5. Studien liber die Oranite von Schweden, by P. J. Holmquist. BulL

Geol. Institution, University of Upsala, VoL 7, 1906, p. 76.

6. Some Lava Flows of the Western Slope of the Sierra Nevada, Cal-

ifornia, by F. L. Ransome. Amer. Jour. Science, VoL 5, 1898, p. 355.

7. Mat^riaux pour la Min^ralogie de Madagascar. Nouv. Archives

du Museum, (4), VoL -5, Paris, 1903. a Geology of the Yellowstone National Park, by A. Hague and others. Petrography by J. P. Iddings. Monograj^ No. 32, Part 2, U. S. Geological Survey, 1899.

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DALT. — COMPOSITIONS OF lONEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 215

9. Analyses of Rooks from the Laboratory of the United States (Geo- logical Survey, 1880 to 1903, by F. W. Clarke. Bulletin 228 of the Survey, 1904.

10. Geological and Petrographical Studies of the Sudbury Nickel Dis-

trict, by T. L Walker, Quart Jour. GeoL Soc, Vol. 53, 1897, p. 40.

11. Petrography and Geology of the Igneous Rocks of the Highwood

Mountains, Montana, by L V. Pirsson. Bull 237, U. S. Geo- lo^cal Survey, 1905.

12. (Geology of the North American Cordillera at the Forty-ninth

Parallel, by R. A. Daly (forthcoming ; analyses by M. F. Con- nor and M. Dittrich used in calculating some averages). The sources of the analjrses used in each average are indicated by the authors' names at the head of the corresponding colunms in Table II.

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TABLE I.

Showino the Number of Separate Determinations used in computing THE Average Quantity of each Oxide in each Rock-ttpe.

	1	2	8	4	6	6	7	■^H	9	10	U	12	18	14	16	16
SiO,	47	114	184	236	64	24	40	50	7	5	8	23	50	48	7	13
TiO,	22	74	60	87	40	10	30	20	6	4	6	14	36	26	6	6
A1.0,	47	114	180	232	63	23	40	49	7	6	8	23	49	48		13
Fe.0.	36	101	118	168	61	22	39	32	4	6	3	16	43	38		10
FeO	36	101	118	168	42	6	36	32	4	6	3	14	43	38		10
BInO	24	86	64	93	32	4	28	20	4	6	6	14	38	34		6
MgO	47	114	184	236	63	24	39	49	6	6	8	22	60	48		13
CaO	47	114	184	236	64	24	40	49	6	6	8	22	50	48		13
Na,0	47	108	182	234	63	24	39	49	6	6	8	22	50	48		13
K,0	47	108	182	234	63	24	39	49	6	6	8	21	50	48		13
H,0	38	40	41	41	17	16	17	39	7	3	8	21	41	44		10
PA	16	34	73	81	27	4	23	17	3	3		7	34	26		4
BaO	8		36	36
SrO	5	••	21	21	••	••	••	••	••		••		••	••
	17	18	19	ao	21	22	28	24	26	26	27	28	29	80	81	82
SiO,	T	7	12	10	10	3	3	43	26	4	8	12	30	20	89	"to
TiO,			10	10	4		3	30	16		3	12	16	16	71	67
A1.0.	3	7	12	10	10	3	3	43	26	4	8	12	30	20	89	70
Fe,0.	3	!'	(12	10	6	3	3	30	18	2	2	12	24	18	86	69
FeO	2	^2	10	6	3	2	30	18	2	2	12	24	18	86	69
BInO			10	10	4	3	2	30	16	1	3	12	14	11	66	63
MgO	3	7	12	10	10	3	3	41	26	4	8	12	30	20	89	70
CaO	3	7	12	10	10	3	3	43	26	4	8	12	30	20	89	70
Na,0	3	7	12	10	10	3	3	43	25	4	8	12	30	20	86	67
K.0	3	7	12	10	10	3	3	43	26	4	8	12	30	20	86	67
H,0	3	7	9	10	10	3	1	26	23	4	6	12	30	17	47	36
PA	1	••	12	10	4		3	14	16	••	1	12	16	^	71	67

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DALT. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.

217

TABLE l,^ Continued,

	33	34	36	36	37	38	39	40	41	42	Is	44	46	46	47	48
SiO,	87	33	20	24	10	7	41	198	161	20	17	11	9	24	17	5
TiO,	51	16	13	13	9	6	26	132	113	13	6	5	8	16	10	4
A1.0,	87	33	20	24	10	6	41	197	160	20	17	11	9	24	17	4
FeiO,	71	25	18	18	10	7	36	174	146	18	14	5	9	21	15	5
FeO	71	25	18	18	10	7	36	173	146	18	14	5	8	21	15	5
BInO	44	16	14	8	6	6	28	108	96	13	6	2	4	15	13	4
MgO	87	33	20	24	10	7	40	197	160	20	17	11	9	24	16	5
CaO	87	33	20	24	10	7	41	198	161	20	17	11	9	24	17	5
Na,0	84	32	20	22	10	7	40	190	154	20	16	11	9	24	16	5
K,0	84	32	20	22	10	7	39	190	154	20	16	11	9	23	16	5
H,0	67	5	18	24	10	6	17	55	27	16	1	5	2	12	5	4
PA	47	14	13	11	9	6	27	135	116	14	6	4	9	16	11	4
	48	60	61	62	63	64	66	66	67	68	69	60	61	62	63	64
SiO,	2	12	4		3	4	3	4	49	3	11	4	7	6	6	6
TiO,	2	4	1		3			2	27		11	2	3	3	2	6
A1.0.	2	12	4		3		2	4	49	3	11	4	7	6	6	6
Fe,0.	2	10	4		3		2	4	40	3	10	2	2	5	6	6
FeO	2	10	4		3		3	4	40	3	10	4	2	5	6	6
MnO	2	3	4		3		1	3	32		6				4	4
MgO	2	12	4		3		3	4	47	3	11	4	7	6	6	6
CaO	2	12	4		3		1	4	49	3	11	4	7	6	6	6
Na,0	2	12	3		3		1	4	31	3	11	4	7	6	6	6
K,0	2	12	2		3			4	31	3	11	4	7	6	6	6
H,0	2	7	4		3	4	3	3	47	3	10	2	7	4	6	6
PaO,	2	1	1		3	.. 1	2	25	3	11	2	2	2	2	6

Digitized by

Goo

^'

218

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

TABLE 1.^ Continued.

	66	66	67	68	68	70	71	72	78		76	76	77	78	79	80	81
SiO,	24	20	4	20	16	4		2	7		6	9	26	3	10	4	10
•no.	8	14	4	4	11	3		2	2		5	3	23	3	10	4	9
A1.0,	24	20	4	20	16	4		2			6	9	26	3	10	4	10
Fe.0.	22	19	3	19	16	4		2			5	3	25	3	10	4	10
FeO	22	19	3	19	16	4		2			6	3	25	3	10	4	10
MnO	14	7	1	13	6	2		2			6	4	16	3	10	1	10
MgO	24	20	4	20	16	4		2			6	9	26	3	10	4	10
CaO	24	20	4	20	16	4		2			6	9	26	3	10	4	10
Na,0	24	20	4	20	16	4		2			6	9	26	3	10	4	10
K.0	24	20	4	20	16	4		2			5	9	26	3	10	4	10
H,0	9	18	3	6	16	3		2	3		4	5	25	3	10	4	10
PA	19	9	3	16	8	1		2	6	2	4	6	23	3	10	4	9
	82	83	84	86	86	87	88	89	90	91	92	93	94	96	96	97	98
SiO,			8	5	2	6	15	5	5	8	16	10	20		15	16	6
TiO,			8	5	2	6	9	2	3	7	9	8	16		10	12	5
A1.0.			8	5	2	6	16	5	6	8	16	10	19		16	16	6
Fe.0,			8	5	2	6	11	2	4	8	10	8	16		10	14	5
FeO			8	6	2	6	10	2	3	8	9	8	16		10	14	5
MnO			8	5	2		8	1	4	8	9	7	17		8	9	2
MgO			8	5	2	6	16	4	6	8	16	10	20		15	16	6
CaO			8	5	2	6	16	5	6	8	16	10	20		15	16	6
Na,0			8	5	2	6	16	6	5	8	15	10	20		15	16	5
K,0			8	5	2	6	15	5	6	8	16	10	20		15	15	5
H,0	6		8	6	2	6	11	2	3	7	10	10	19		10	16	3
P.O.	8		8	5	2	6	7		••	7	5	7	18		6	11	3

Digitized by VjOOQIC

DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-EOCK TYPES.

219

TABLE n. Showinq thb Avesaqb Compositions calculated fob the PRiNaPAL

lONEOUft-BOCK TyFES.

GROUP I.

No. of Analyses.

Pldtonicb.

47

114

184

236

ErFDuvss.

64

24

•8

y

■'I

i-

40

50

SiO,

TiO,

A1.0,

Fe.0,

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Na,0

K,0

H,0

PA

71.06

.48

14.10

1.46

1.63

.18

.59

1.97 >

3.24

4.50

.69

.10

69.81

.54

13.76

2.17

1.87

.26

.84

2.20

3.17

4.38

.74

.26

69.73

.34

14.98

1.62

1.66

.11

1.08

2.20*

3.28

3.95

.78

.27

69.92

.39

14.78

1.62

1.67

.13

.97

2.15

3.28

4.07

.78

.24

72.60

.30

13.88

1.43

.82

.12

.38

1.32

3.54

4.03

1.52

.06

72.90

.48

14.18

1.65

.31

.13

.40

1.13

3.54

3.94

1.33

.01

72.62

.25

13.77

1.29

.90

.12

.38

1.43

3.55

4.09

1.63

.07

72.36

.33

14.17

1.55

1.01

.09

.52

1.38

2.85

4.56

1.09

.09

Calculated as Water-free.

SiO,	71.66	70.33	70.28
•no.	.48	.64	.34
A1.0,	14.20	13.86	16.10
FeiO.	1.47	2.19	1.63
FeO	1.65	1.89	1.67
BinO	.18	.26	.11
MgO	.59	.86	1.09
CaO	1.98'	2.22	2.22
Na,0	3.26	3.19	3.31
K,0	4.53	4.41	3.98
PA	.10	.26	.27

70.47

.39

14.90

1.63

1.68

.13

.98

2.17

3.31

4.10

.24

73.72

.30

14.10

1.45

.83

.12

.40

1.34

3.69

4.09

.06

73.89

.49

14.37

1.67

.31

.13

.41

1.14

3.59

3.99

.01

73.75

.25

13.99

1.31

.91

.12

.39

1.45

3.60

4.16

.07

73.16

.33

14.33

1.57

1.02

.09

.63

1.39

2.88

4.61

.09

Each sum - 100.00.

Includes .08% BaO and .01% SrO. Includes .06% BaO and .02% SrO. Includes .06% BaO and .02% SrO.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

220

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

GROUP II.

No. of Analyses.	Plctonics.	Effusives. I
9	10	11	12	13	14	16	16
i\| 11	1 a	1	. "ill	Iff	1 k	Ji	1]
7	5	8	23	50	48	7	13
SiO,	64.36	61.86	61.96	61.99	60.19	60.68	61.51	75.45
TiO,	.46	.16	.99	.56	.67	.38	.45	.17
AlaO,	16.81	19.07	17.07	17.93	16.28	17.74	17.37	13.11
Fe,0,	1.08	2.66	2.36	2.22	2.74	2.64	1.92	1.14
FeO	2.71	1.49	3.37	2.29	3.28	2.62	3.35	.66
MnO	.15	.01	.09	.08	.14	.06	.01	.29
MgO	.72	.66	1.38	.96	2.49	1.12	1.26	34
CaO	1.65	1.47	3.41	2.65	4.30	3.09	1.08	.83
Na^O	5.76	6.46	4.65	6.54	3.98	4.43	5.23	5.88
K,0	6.62	6.76	3.80	4.98	4.49	6.74	5.29	1.26
H,0	.70	.47	.93	.76	1.16	1.26	2.45	.69
PA	09	.08		.14	.28	.24	.08	.18
		Calculat	edasWati	jr-free.
SiO,	64.81	62.15	62.55	62.46	60.90	61.46	63.06	75.98
TiO,	.46	.15	1.00	.56	.68	.38	.46	.17
AlaO,	16.93	19.16	17.23	18.07	16.47	17.97	17.81	13.20
Fe,0,	1.09	2.66	2.37	2.24	2.77	2.67	1.97	1.16
FeO	2.73	1.60	3.40	2.31	3.32	2.66	3.43	.66
MnO	.15	.01	.09	.08	.14	.06	.01	.29
MgO	.73	.55	1.39	.97	2.52	1.13	1.29	.34
CaO	1.56	1.48	3.44	2.57	4.35	3.13	1.11	.84
Na,0	5.80	6.48	4.69	5.68	4.03	4.49	6.36	5.92
K,0	5.66	5.78	3.84	5.02	4.64	6.81	6.42	1.27
PaO.	.09	.08	....	.14	.28	.24	.08	.18
		Each	sum = 10(	).00.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

DALT.

-COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-BOCK TYPES.

221

GROUP ra.

No. of Analyses.	Plutonic.	ErruBivs.	Plutonic.	ErruaivB.
17	18	19	20
Laurvikite (Osann). •	Rhomb-porphyiy	Monsonite (Osann and Washington).	Latite (Ran- someand Daly).
3	7	12	10
SiO,	57.46	57.46	55.25	67.66
TiO,	....	....	.60	1.00
A1.0.	21.11	19.53	16.53	16.68
Fe.0. FeO	2.89 2.39	6.47 j	3.03 4.37	2.29 4.07
BinO	....	....	.15	.10
MgO	1.06	1.28	4.20	3.22
CaO	4.10	3.11	7.19	5.74 »
Na,0	5.89	6.35	3.48	3.59
K,0	3.87	4.46	4.11	4.39
H,0	.70	1.35	.66	.91 »
PsO,	.54		.43	.36
Calculated as Water-free. 1
SiO,	57.86	58.24	65.62	68.18
TiO,	....		.60	1.01
A1,0,	21.26	19.79	16.64	16.84
Fe.0, FeO	2.91 2.41	6.56 j	3.05 4.40	2.31 4.11
MnO			.15	.10
MgO	1.07	1.30	4.23	3.25
CaO	4.13	3.15	7.24	5.79 »
Na,0	5.93	6.44	3.60	3.62
K,0	3.90	4.52	4.14	4.43
PaO.	.54		.43	.36
Each sum - 100.00.
» Includes .16% BaO and .07% SrO. « Includes .14% CO,.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

222

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

GROUP IV.

No. of Analyses.

SiO,

TiO,

A1.0.

Fe.0.

FeO

BinO

MgO

CaO

Na,0

K,0

H,0

PsO.

Plutonics.

21

10

56.11

.45

21.33

1.87

1.47

.05

.55

1.72

8.48

6.46

1.50

.01

22

45.61

27.76

3.67

.50

.15

.19

1.73

16.25

3.72

.42

28

3

54.36

1.30

19.99

2.79

2.58

.18

1.72

2.96

8.28

4.98

.22

.64

24

•*-N

43

54.63

.86

19.89

3.37

2.20

.35

.87

2.51

8.26

6.46

1.35

.25

EFFUSrVSB.

26

25

57.45

.41

20.60

2.35

1.03

.13

.30

1.50

8.84

5.23

2.04

.12

26

1

54.89

21.28 3.04 1.49 .01 .66 2.31 5.62 8.39 2.31

27

H

t-

n

J5

8

49.83

.71

19.00

3.17

3.59

.17

1.79

5.69

7.19

6.15

1.93

.78

Calculated as Water-free.

SiO,	56.96
TiO,	.46
A1.0.	21.65
Fe.0.	1.90
FeO	1.49
BinO	.05
MgO	.56
CaO	1.75
Na,0	8.61
K,0	6.56
P.O.	.01

45.80

27.88

3.68

.50

.15

.19

1.74

16.32

3.74

54.48 1.30

20.03 2.80 2.59 .18 1.72 2.97 8.30 4.99 .64

55.38

.87

20.16

3.42

2.23

.35

.88

2.54

8.38

5.54

.25

58.65

.42

21.03

2.40

1.05

.13

.31

1.53

9.02

5.34

.12

56.19	50.82
....	.72
2^.78	19.38
3.11	3.23
1.53	3.66
.01	.17
.68	1.83
2.36	5.80
5.75	7.33
8.59	6.27
«...	.79

Each sum - 100.00.

Digitized by

Goc

DALT. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-BOCK TYPES.

223

				GROUP V
No. of Analyses.	PL.	Er.	Plutonigb
28	29	30	31	32	33	34	36	36	37
1	1 li	'Co •S3	N u	i 1	1 5	5	i	h lit p« a	1
12	30	20	89	70	87	33	20	24	10
SiO,	65.10	66.91	59.47	58.38	56.77	59.59	57.50	59.48	61.12	62.25
TiO,	.54	.33	.64	.80	.84	.77	.79	.48	.42	1.65
AlaO.	15.82	16.62	16.52	16.28	16.67	17.31	17,33	17.38	17.65	16.10
Fe,0.	1.64	2.44	2.63	2.98	3.16	3.33	3.78	2.96	2.89	3,62
FeO	2.66	1.33	4.11	4.11	4.40	3.13	3.62	3.67	2.40	2,20
MnO	.05	.04	.08	.13	.13	.18	.22	.15	.15	.21
MgO	2.17	1.22	3.75	3.88	4.17	2.75	2.86	3.28	2.44	2.03
CaO	4.66	3.27	6.24	6.38	6.74	5.80	5.83	6.61	5.80	4.05
Na,0	3.82	4.13	2.98	3.34	3.39	3.58	3.53	3.41	3.83	3.55
K,0	2,29	2.50	1.93	2.09	2.12	2.04	2.36	1.64	1.72	2.44
H,0	1.09	1.13	1.39	1,37	1.36	1.26	1.88	.74	1,43	1.50
PaOs	.16	.08	.26	.26	.25	.26	.30	.20	.15	.40
		Calculated as Wat	er-free
SiO,	65.82	67.67	60.31	59.19	57.56	60.35	58.65	59.92	62.01	63.20
TiO,	.55	.33	.65	.81	.85	.78	.80	,48	.43	1.67
A1,0.	15,99	16.81	16.75	16.51	16.90	17.54	17.67	17.51	17.91	16.35
Fe,03	1.66	2.47	2.67	3.02	3.20	3.37	3.85	2.98	2.93	3.67
FeO	2.69	1.35	4.17	4.17	4.46	3.17	3.69	3.70	2.44	2.23
MnO	.05	.04	.08	.13	.13	.18	.22	.15	.15	.21
MgO	2.19	1.23	3.80	3.93	4.23	2.78	2,90	3.31	2.48	2.06
CaO	4.71	3.31	6.33	6.47	6.83	5.87	5.92	6.66	5.88	4.11
Na,0	3.86	4.18	3.02	3.39	3.44	3.63	3.60	3.44	3.88	3.61
K,0	2.32	2.53	1.96	2.12	2.15	2.07	2.40	1.65	1,74	2.48
P,0,	.16	.08	.26	.26	.25	.26	,30	.20	.15	.41
		Each sum = 10<	).00.	1

r

Digitized by VjOOQIC

224

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

GROUP VI.

No. of Anal3rse8.	Plutonigb.	ErruBivxs. 1
38	39	40	41	42	43	44	46
1	1 3	111	Basalt, as named by Authors {inrludinp: also Anamesite. Tachyliic, etc.) (Osann).	1	J o	^	g 1
7	41	198	161	20	17	11	9
SiO,	50.16	48.24	49.06	48.78	50.12	50.10	50.60	49.50
TiO,	1.64	.97	1.36	1.39	1.41	1.25	.68	1.42
A1.0,	18.61	17.88	15.70	15.85	15.68	14.43	17.40	14.37
Fe.0.	1.88	3.16	5.38	5.37	4.55	5.06	4.57	6.55
FeO	9.29	5.95	6.37	6.34	6.73	6.31	6.29	5.84
BinO	.14	.13	.31	.29	.23	.25	.46	.17
MgO	5.97	7.51	6.17	6.03	5.85	7.32	4.89	7.75
CaO	7.90	10.99	8.95	8.91	8.80	9.53	8.09	9.96
Na,0	2.72	2.55	3.11	3.18	2.95	2.75	3.23	2.50
K,0	.80	.89	1.52	1.63	1.38	.73	1.76	.84
H,0	.76	1.45	1.62	1.76	1.93	2.00	1.83	.66
P,Os	.23	.28	.45	.47	.37	.27	.20	.44
			Calculated	as Water-f 1	nee.
SiO,	50.54	48.95	49»87	49.65	51.11	51.12	51.54	49.83
TiO,	1.65	.98	1.38	1.41	1.44	1.27	.69	1.43
A1,0.	18.65	18.15	15.96	16.13	15.99	14.73	17.73	14.47
Fe.0,	1.90	3.21	5.47	5.47	4.64	5.16	4.66	6.59
FeO	9.36	6.04	6.47	6.45	6.86	6.44	6.41	5.88
MnO	.14	.13	.32	.30	.23	.25	.47	.17
MgO	6.02	7.62	6.27	6.14	5.96	7.47	4.99	7.80
CaO	7.96	11.15	9.09	9.07	8.97	9.73	8.24	10.02
Na^O	2.74	2.59	3.16	3.24	3.01	2.81	3.29	2.52
K,0	.81	.90	1.55	1.66	1.41	.74	1.78	.85
PA	.23	.28	.46	.48	.38	.28	.20	.44
			Each 8U1	m - 100.0C	).

Digitized by LjOOQIC

DALT. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES,

225

GROUP vn.

No. of Analyses.	PUITONICS. 1
48	47	48	49	60
5	g o	Norite, excludinc Olivine Norite (psannand Walker).	5 5^
24	17	5	2	12
SiO,	49.50	46.49	50.08	50.38	50.40
TiO,	.84	1.17	1.44	2.04	.15
A1.0.	18.00	17.73	18.62	18.27	28.30
Fe.0.	2.80	3.66	2.35	.73	1.06
FeO	5.80	6.17	8.87	10.35	1.12
MnO	.12	.17	.11	.20	.05
MgO	6.62	8.86	6.22	5.32	1.25
CaO	10.64	11.48	7.89	7.91	12.46
Na,0	2.82	2.16	2.53	3.18	3.67
K,0	^98	.78	.71	1.02	.74
H,0	1.60	1.04	1.01	.26	.75
P.O.	.28	.29	.17	.34	.05
		Calculated a	LS Water-free.
SiO,	50.31	46.97	50.60	50.51	50.78
TiO,	.85	1.18	1.45	2.05	.15
A1,0.	18.30	17.92	18.81	18.32	28.61
Fe,0.	2.85	3.70	2.37	.73	1.07
FeO	5.89	6.24	8.96	10.38	1.13
BinO	.12	.17	.11	.20	.05
MgO	6.73	8.96	6.28	5.33	1.26
CaO	10.81	11.60	7.97	7.93	12.55
Na,0	2.86	2.18	2.56	3.19	3.70
K,0	1.00	.79	.72	1.02	.75
P.O.	.28	.29	.17	.34	.05
		Each sum	I - 100.00.

VOL. XLV. — 15

Digitized by VjOOQIC

226

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

GROUP VIII.

No of Analyses.	Plutonics.	EfTD- BIVB.
61	62	63	64	66	66	67	68
«	1 1	i i	\|l3	1	.i	5 ll <
4	4	3	4	3	4	49	3
SiO,	42.09	63.65	48.13	43.86	40.06	49.82	44.39	43.24
TiO,	.12	.14	.87	....	....	1.46	.88	....
A1,0.	4.83	1.66	6.60	6.00	.67	5.12	6.14	16.19
Fe,0.	4.98	1.90	2.01	2.64	2.29	1.83	3.88	8.62
FeO	4.68	5.36	11.73	6.30	7.32	7.44	6.70	7.89
MnO	.06	.17	.08	.12	.24	.09	.19
MgO	31.80	22.67	21.01	36.96	46.62	19.56	29.17	8.56
CaO	6.37	13.37	6.17	2.70	.35	13.00	6.31	13.78
Na,0	1.02	.20	1.15	....	.01	.37	.64	.54
K,0	.29	.07	.68	....	....	.21	.76	.48
H,0	3.85	.85	1.62	2.53 »	2.63	1.06	1.80	1.21
PsOs	.01	.07	.15		.01	.05	.14	.49
		(	[Calculated	as Water-f 1	■ee.		1
SiO,	43.78	64.11	48.93	44.99	41.10	60.36	45.20	43.77
TiO,	.12	.14	.88	• . . •	....	1.48	.90
AI3O.	5.02	1.67	6.61	6.13	.68	6.17	6.26	16.37
Fe,0.	6.18	1.92	2.04	2.61	2.35	1.86	3.95	8.72
FeO	4.77	6.40	11.92	6.46	7.61	7.52	6.82	7.99
MnO	.06	.17	.08	.12	.26	.09	.19	....
MgO	33.08	22.76	21.36	37.92	47.83	19.76	29.70	8.66
CaO	6.62	13.49	6.27	2.77	.36	13.14	6.43	13.95
Na,0	1.06	.20	1.17	• . • •	.01	.37	.66	.65
K,0	.30	.07	.69	• • . •	....	.21	.77	.49
PsO,	.01	.07	.16	....	.01	.06	.14	.60
			Each sun	a - 100.00
			' L068O	n ignition.

Digitized by ^

DALT. — COBfPOSrnONS OP IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.

227

GROUP EX.

No. of Analyses.

SiO,

TiO,

AI3O.

Fe.0.

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Na,0

K,0

H,0

PA

SiO,

TiO,

AlaO.

Fe.0.

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Na,0

K,0

P,0.

Plutonic.

59

11

48.40

1.71

16.67

5.31

6.03

.15

4.48

9.05

4.45

2.13

.95

.67

EFrUBXVBS.

60

^

54.81 .42

20.01 3.98 1.93

2.32 5.60 5.86 3.13 1.46 .48

61

41.69

.67

14.80

I 15.04 I

8.64 11.98 3.52 1.17 2.36 .13

Calculated as Water-free.

48.86 1.73

16.83 5.36 6.09 .15 4.52 9.14 4.49 2.15 .68

55.62 .43

20.31 4.04 1.96

2.35 5.68 5.94 3.18 .49

42.69

.68

15.18

I 15.43 I

8.85

12.27

3.58

1.19

.13

Each sum - 100.00.

6

42.25 2.52

16.26 8.43 5.46

5.49 9.75 4.45 1.92 2.43 1.04

43.30 2.58

16.67 8.64 5.59

5.63 9.99 4.56 1.97 1.07

Digitized by LjOOQIC

228

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

GROUP X.

No. of Analyses.	Plutonics.	EFrusxvBS. 1
63	64	66	66	67	68	68	70
•-§	S^	%	1 3	1^		h fi
6	6	24	20	4	20	16	4
SiO,	45.61	48.66	49.14	44.41	46.91	49.90	44.20	45.34
TiO,	1.96	.97	1.00	1.56	1.81	.16	1.64	1.30
A1,0.	14.35	12.36	16.57	15.81	15.25	16.94	15.64	16.59
Fe,0.	6.17	3.08	3.65	4.66	7.70	3.02	4.35	6.83
FeO	4.03	5.86	6.68	5.85	4.06	7.15	6.14	4.76
MnO	.19	.13	.30	.14	1.43	.23	.19	.01
/MgO	6.05	8.09	3.98	8.20	2.95	4.22	8.89	6.43
CaO	9.49	10.46 »	9.88	10.12	9.36	10.04	9.74	11.64
Na,0	5.12	2.71	2.57	3.81	4.25	2.24	4.03	2.93
K,0	3.69	6.15	3.39	2.37	2.63	3.67	1.83	4.65
H,0	2.60	1.46	2.00	2.42	2.51	1.74	2.67	1.12
P,0,	.74	1.07	.84	.65	1.14	.79	.68	.50
Calculated as Water-free. \|
SiO,	46.83	49.38	50.15	45.51	48.12	50.79	45.41	45.86
TiO,	1.98	.98	1.02	1.60	1.86	.16	1.68	1.31
A1.0.	14.73	12.55	16.90	16.20	15.65	17.24	16.07	16.78
Fe.0.	6.34	3.12	3.72	4.78	7.89	3.07	4.47	6.90
FeO	4.14	5.95	6.82	5.99	4.16	7.28	6.31	4.81
MnO	.19	.13	.31	.14	1.47	.23	.20	.01
MgO	6.22	8.21	4.06	8.41	3.02	4.30	9.13	6.49
CaO	9.75	ld.6i»	10.08	10.37	9.60	10.22	10.01	11.77
Na,0	6.27	2.75	2.62	3.90	4.36	2.28	4.14	2.96
K,0	3.79	5.23	3.46	2.43	2.70	3.63	1.88	4.60
PA	.76	1.08	.86	.67	1.17	.80	.70	.61
Each sum - 100.00. \|
		* Includ<	58 .40% BaO and .09% SrO^
		» Include	BS .41% BaO and .09% SrO.

Digitized

DALT. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.

229

GROUP XI.

No. of Analyses.	Plutonicb.	E1TDSIVK8.	Plutonic.	E1TDSXVX8. 1
71	72	73	74	76	76	77
1 h	Is	1		5	1	11
1	2	7	7	6	9	26
SiO,	51.70	44.27	46.47	47.72	43.51	41.17	39.87
TiO,	.23	1.37	1.33	.52	1.07	1.35	1.50
AI3O,	14.60	10.73	15.97	18.19	19.54	16.83	13.58
Fe.0.	5.07	3.63	5.97	4.74	3.77	7.61	6.71
FeO	3.58	5.87	4.27	3.90	3.88	6.64	6.43
MnO	.01	.06	.01	.06	.16	.16	.21
MgO	4.55	13.05	6.87	3.46	2.94	3.72	10.46
CaO	7.40 »	11.46 »	10.54	7.27	9.89	10.12	12.36
Na,0	2.93	1.07	1.69	4.51	10.68	6.45	3.86
K3O	7.60	4.43	4.83	7.66	2.26	2.49	1.87
H,0	2.25	3.23	2.32	1.51	.86	2.42	2.22 »
PsO.	.18	.83	.73	.47	1.54	1.04	94.
		Calculated as	Water-free.	1
SiO,	52.89	45.75	47.58	48.45	43.89	42.19	40.77
TiO,	.24	1.41	1.36	.53	1.08	1.38	1.53
AI3O,	14.83	11.09	16.35	18.47	19.71	17.25	13.88
Fe.0,	5.18	• 3.75	6.11	4.81	3.80	7.79	6.86
FeO	3.66	6.07	4.37	3.96	3.91	6.81	6.57
BinO	.01	.06	.01	.06	.16	.17	.21
MgO	4.65	13.49	6.01	3.60	2.97	3.81	10.73
CaO	7.57*	11.85 »	10.79	7.38	9.98	10.37	12.65
Na,0	3.00	1.10	1.73	4.68	10.67	6.61	3.94
K,0	7.79	4.57	4.94	7.78	2.28	2.55	1.90
P.O.	.18	.86	.75	.48	1.55	1.07	.96
		Each sum	- 100.00.
* Includes • Includes	.30%BaC .29% CO,	>and.07%SrO. •Includes .60% B	•Includes .48% Ba * Includes .31 %Ba aOand.l9%SrO.	Oand.l8%SrO. Oand.07%SrO.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

230

PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEBIT.

GROUP xn.

No. of Analyses.	Plutonicb. I
78	79	80
Alaaldte (Osann).	Diorit© of Electric Peak (Roeenbuach).	Malignite (Osann and Daly).
3	10	4
SiO,	76.47	62.21	50.34
TiO,	.07	.60	.34
AlaO,	13.03	16.45	14.76
Fe.0. FeO	1.04	2.53 2.89	4.18 2.76
MnO	.01	.02	.11
MgO	.06	3.32	4.23
CaO	.45	4.96	10.43
Na,0	3.53	3.88 »	6.27
K,0	4.81	2.21	5.21
H,0	.62	.80 »	1.20
P3O.	.01	.13	1.19
Calculated as Water-free. \|
SiO,	76.87	62.71	50.95
TiO,	.07	.60	.35
A1.0,	13.10	16.58	14.93
Fe,0. FeO	1.05 1	2.55 2.92	4.23 2.78
MnO	.01	.02	.11
MgO	.06	3.35	4.28
CaO	.45	5.00	10.56
Na,0	3.55	3.91 »	5.33
K,0	4.83	2.23	5.27
P3O,	.01	.13	1.21
Each sum - 100.00. \|
	» Includes .07% Li,0.
	» Includes .05% CI and .05% SO,.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.

231

			GROUP	XIII.
No. of Analyses.	Effubivbs. I
81	82	83	84	86	86	87
it	1. 2?	l\|	ll	5"^ '<'^	^1	5i TS 5 1^
10	''	4	8	5	2	6
SiO,	74.04	48.36	52.04	53.56	60.11	47.45	36.19
TiO,	.18	.66	.76	.82	.96	.81	. 7.11
A1,0,	13.19	15.40	17.65	17.88	13.04	11.43	10.62
Fe,0,	1.35	6.48	4.66	4.51	4.68	3.22	8.48 »
FeO	1.01	10.07	2.75	3.05	3.94	6.78	5.97
MnO	.04	.80	.13	.07	.11	.12
MgO	.32	4.19	3.33	3.62	9.27	14.60	14.59
CaO	1.19	8.69	5.11	6.45	7.63	8.18	9.88
Na,0	3.88	3.34	4.10	3.41	1.94	2.32	3.28
K,0	3.75	1.30	6.03	3.76	4.16	2.99	2.03
H,0	1.02'	.43	3.74	2.32	3.68	2.60	1.94'
PaO,	.03	.28	.70	.55	.69	.60	.01
		Calc	ulated as	Water-free.
8iO,	74.80	48.57	54.06	54.84	61.97	48.67	36.90
TiO,	.18	.66	.79	.84	1.00	.83	7.25
A1,0.	13.33	15.47	18.34	18.31	13.52	11.73	10.73
Fe,0.	1.37	6.51	4.84	4.62	4.74	3.30	8.66^
FeO	1.02	10.11	2.85	3.12	4.08	6.93	6.09
MnO	.04	.80	.14	.07	.12	.12	....
MgO	.32	4.21	3.46	3.70	9.62	14.97	14.88
CaO	1.20	8.73	5.31	6.60	7.91	8.39	10.08
Na,0	3.92	3.35	4.26	3.49	2.01	2.38	3.34
K,0	3.79	1.31	5.22	3.85	4.31	3.06	2.07
PsO,	.03	.28	.73	.56	.72	.62	.01
		£	lach sum	- 100.00
' Include ' Loss 01	is 2.85 % ( 1 ignition.	>«o,.	t 4	Includes .02 % Li,0 and .23 Includes 2.47 % OjO,.	%so,.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

232 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMT.

GROUP XIV.

DIKS-ROCK8.

No. of Analyses.

SiO,

TiO,

AlaO.

Fe.0,

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Na,0

K,0

H,0

P.O.

88

hi

15

75.00

.30

13.14

.58

.40

.07

.30

1.13

3.54

4.80

.71

.03

61.32

.89

18.43

3.84

1.60

.01

.46

1.45

6.75

4.94

1.31

90

28

|S5

70.91

.48

11.50

4.68

1.88

.39

.11

.39

6.43

4.08

.25

91

8

62.16

.31

17.68

3.06

1.80

.18

.48

1.11

7.30

4.96

1.04

.04

92

hi

16

65.02

.36

20.42

3.06

1.82

.22

.69

1.67

8.63

6.38

2.77

.06

Calculated as Water-free.

SiO,

TiO,

A1,0,

Fe,0,

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Na,0

K,0

P.O.

76.64

.30

13.23

.68

.40

.07

.30

1.14

3.67

4.84

.03

62.14

.90

18.67

3.89

1.62

.01

.47

1.47

6.82

6.01

71.09

.48

11.63

4.69

1.89

.39

.11

.39

6.44

4.09

62.82

.31

17.77

3.08

1.82

.18

.49

1.12

7.37

6.00

.04

66.69

.37

21.00

3.16

1.87

.23

.61

1.72

8.87

6.63

.06

Each sum - 100.00.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

DALT. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.

233

GROUP XV.

No. of Analyses.

SiO,

TiO,

A1,0,

Fe.0,

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Na^O

K,0

H,0

PaO,

8iO,

TiO,

AlaO,

Fe,0,

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Na^O

K,0

P,0,

DiKE-BOCXS.

93

I-

10

49.45 1.23

14.41 3.39 5.01 .13 8.26 6.73 2.54 4.69 3.04 » 1.12

94

j^-ff

20

60.79 1.02

15.26 3.29 5.54 .07 6.33 5.73 3.12 2.79 5.71 « .35

95

5e

52.62

.54

14.86

3.60

4.18

.84

8.55

5.86

3.21

2.83

2.70

.21

96

-I

15

40.70 3.86

16.02 5.43 7.84 .16 5.43 9.36 3.23 1.76 5.59* .62

97

H

oO

16

45.17 1.90

14.78

5.10

5.05

.35

6.26

11.06

3.69

2.73

3.40

.51

Calculated as Water-free.

50.99 1.27

14.86 3.50 5.17 .13 8.53 6.95 2.62 4.84 1.14

53.87 1.08

16.18 3.48 5.88 .07 6.71 6.09 3.31 2.96 .37

Each sum - 100.00.

98

^1

6

32.31

1.41

9.50

5.42

6.34

.01

17.43

13.58

1.42

2.70

7.50*

2.38

54.08	43.10	46.76
.56	4.09	1.96
15.28	16.97	15.30
3.70	5.76	5.28
4.29	8.30	5.23
.86	.16	.36
8.79	5.76	6.48
6.02	9.92	11.45
3.30	3.42	3.82
2.90	1.86	2.83
.22	.66	.53

34.93 1.52

10.27

5.86

6.85

.01

18.84

14.68 1.53 2.92 2.59

» Includes .61% CO,. » Includes 2.97% CO,.

« Includes 2.61% CO,. * Includes 4.35% CO,.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

234

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Index to Table II.

Absarokite 86

Akerite 11

Alaskite 78

Alnoite 98

Amphibole andesite 36

Andesite (all) 33

Anorthoeite 60

Augite andesite 34

Augitite 62

Banakite 83

Basalt (aU) 40

Basalt as named by authors . . 41

Basalt of Hawaiian Islands ... 82

Basanite (aU) 66

Bostonite 89

Camptonite 96

Dacite 29

Diabase 42

Diorite, including quartz diorite . 31

Diorite, excluding quartz diorite . 32

Diorite of Electric Peak .... 79

Dolerite 45

Dunite 66

Eleolite syenite 24

Essexite i . . . 69

Fergusite 71

Foyaite 21

Gabbro(aU) 39

Gabbro, excluding olivine gabbro 46

Granite of all periods 4

Granite younger than the Pre-

Cambrian 3

Granites (Pre-Cambrian, includ- ing 16 analyses of Swedish

types) 1

Granites (Pre-Cambrian, of

Sweden) 2

Granite-aplite 88

Granodiorite 28

Grorudite 90

Harzburgite 64

Hornblende andesite 36

Hypersthene andesite 36

Ijolite 76

Keratophyre 16

Kersantite 94

Latite 20

Laurdalite 23

Laurvikite 17

Leucite absarokite 86

Leucite basalt 73

Leucite basanite 70

Leucite phonolite 26

Leucite tephrite 68

Leucitite 74

Leucitophyre 27

Lherzolite 61

Limburgite 61

Liparite (all) 6

Liparite, as named by authors 6

Malignite 80

Melaphyre 44

Melilite basalt 87

Mica andesite 37

Minette 93

Missourite 72

idonchiquite 97

Monzonite 19

Nephelite basalt 77

Nephelite basanite 69

Nephelite syenite 24

Nephdite tephrite 67

Nephelinite 76

Nordmarkite 9

Norite(aU) 38

Norite, excluding olivine norite . 48

Olivine diabase 43

Olivine gabbro 47

Olivine norite 49

Peridotite (all) 67

Phonolite 26

Picrite 68

Pulaskite 10

Pyroxenite 66

Quartz diorite SO

Quartz keratoph3rre 16

Quartz porphyry 8

Rhomb-porphyry 18

Rhyolite, as named by authors . 7

Rhyolite of Yellowstone Park 81

Saxonite 64

Shonkinite 64

Shoshonite 84

S51vsbergite 91

Syenite (all) 13

Syenite (alkaline) 12

Tephrite (all) 66

Theralite 63

Digitized by

Gor.

DALT. — COBIPOSITIONS OP IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES.

235

Tinguaite . \ 92

Trachydolerite 60

Trachyte 14

unite 22

Vogesite 95

Websterite 62

Wehrlite 63

AvEBAQE Specific Gbavities of Ceetain Types.

The average specific gravities of holoorystalline tyx>es have been calculated, with result shown in the following accessory table. Most of the determinations were taken firom Osann's book.

•

Number of Speci- mena averaged.

Average Specific Gravity.

Granite

Granodiorite

Syenite

Monzonite

Nephelite syenite ....

Diorite

Gabbro

Olivine gabbro

Anorthosite

Peridotite

Essexite

58

5

11

2

13

17

19

4

6

21

2

3

4

2.660 2.740 2.773

2.805 2.600 2,861 2.933 2.948 2.715 3.176 2.862 2.917 2.884

Theraiite

Malignite

Some Applications.

The uses to which the averages may be put are diverse and, in cer- tain instances, direct and important. A brief note in this place will indicate something of the range of the considerations affected.

1. The writer has found from personal experience that the averages have been of decided benefit in showing the chemical individuality and true nature of the igneous-rock types as actually mapped. To student and investigator alike such averages are, for many purposes, more valuable than single analyses. They help to show that eruptive rocks

';::itized by

Google

236 PB0CEEDIN6S OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

do not fonn an infinite series, but that the yari0tie9 duster about ''center-points." Osann's great compilation proves that Rosenbasch's classification is an objective and "natural" one to a highly useful degrea

2. The obvious error involved in computing " the average composi- tion of the primitive crust of the earth," or "the average igneous rock/' or "the mean composition of the accessible parts of the earth's crust," by averaging a large number of analyses compiled at random, has not deterred a goodly number of authors from using such results as those deduced by Clarke, Washington, and Harker. These averages are bound to bre^ further errors when used as a basis for quantitative studies in geology or oceanography. The discovery of " the average igneous rock " is of the highest importance for many problems such as the chemical denudation of the lands and iiie chemical evolution of the ocean. The mean composition of the accessible crystalline rocks of the globe must ultimately be obtained by taking account of the relative volumes of the different rock-t3r{jes. In computing the mean the average analyses for the principal individual species must be em- ployed. Since the only approach to success is through the quantita- tive study of geological maps and memoirs, it is clear that for many years to come the averages for the types recognized in Rosenbusch's system are to be basal to the calculation.

A glance at Table 11. shows, however, that this new world-average will differ little from the earlier world-averages with respect to one oxide, namely, soda. For each of the areally and volumetrically im- portant rock-types the average soda never departs £Bir from a mean of about three and one half per cent The soda in the averages of Clarke, Washington, and Harker (calculated as water-free) is, respec- tively, 3.63 per cent, 3.34 per cent, and 3.90 per cent.^ The agree- ment is fortunate, since, for example, the quantitative problem relative to the sodium in the ocean can be pursued without waiting for the close determination of "the average igneous rock." Incidentally, it may be remarked that the estimates of Joly^ and Sollas^ regarding the age of the ocean, as determined by the sodium content, need revis- ion, since neither author has allowed for the great variations in the area of the lands during geological time.

3. The recurrence of the main types of igneous rock in every conti- nent shows that general processes of differentiation have been at work

» F. W. Clarke, Bull. 228, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 16. « J. Joly, Sci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Society, 7. 23 (1899). * W. J. SoUas, Quart. Join*. Geol. Soc., Presidential Address, 66, p. Ixxix (1909).

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DALT. — COMPOSITIONS OP IGNEOUS-BOCK TYPEa

237

from the earliest recorded time. There is no reason to doubt that the diorite or the nephelite syenite of the pre-Cambrian periods have generally owed their origin to the same physico-chemical reactions as those responsible for the Mesozoic or Tertiary diorite or nephelite syenite. If this be true, the world-averages for the different principal types should be so many tests of theoretical conclusions as to the causes of the differentiation of those tjrpes. The question as to the derivation of augite andesite from basalt through fractional crystallization has been thus tested, with, so £str as this test goes, an affirmative answer.^ Sometimes the averages themselves suggest lines of thought For example, the average granite analysis (calculated water-free ; 236 analy- ses) is close to the average of four analyses of the glassy base of augite andesite (calculated as water-free). The comparison may be made from the following table :

	Oxanite of all Periods.	Ground-mass (base) of Augite andesite.
No. of Analyses	236	4
SiO,	per cent. 70.47	per cent. 69.31
TiO,	.39	....
AI3O.	14.90	17.11
Fe,0.	1.63	2.15
FeO	1.68	.60
MnO	.13	....
MgO	.98	.70
CaO (BaO and SrO)	2.17	2.63
Na,0	3.31	3.20
K,0	4.10	4.30
PA	.24	....
100.00	100.00

The exact meaning of the correspondence between the two averages may not be discussed here ; but it does suggest an explanation of the

* Journal of Geology, 16, 401 (1908).

r-

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238

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

common association of granites (and liparites) with andesites (and diorites) in nature. The qaestion is open as to whether the primitive granite-liparite magma was not a polar differentiate of an andesitic magma, preferably by a settling-out of the phenocrjrstic constituents (in solid or liquid phases)from the andesitic magma.

Other related questions are raised by the comparison of the mean of average granite and average basalt with average diorite (including qaartE diorite).

	1. Average Granite.	2. Average Basalt.	3. Mean of 1 and 2.	4. Average Dionte.
No. of Analyses	236	161		89
SiO, •no, A1,0. Fe,0. FeO MnO MgO CaO Na,0 K,0 PaO,	per cent. 70.47 .39 14.90 1.63 1.68 .13 .98 2.17 » 3.31 4.10 .24	percent. 49.65 1.41 16.13 5.47 6.45 .30 6.14 9.07 3.24 1.66 .48	per cent. 60.06 .90 15.52 3.55 4.06 .21 3.56 5.62 3.28 2.88 .36	per cent. 59.19 .81 16.51 3.02 4.17 .13 3.93 6.47 3.39 2.12 .26 100.00
100.00	100.00	100.00
» Includes .06% BaO and .02% SrO.

Is basalt the basic pole, granite the acid pole, of a primitive differ- entiation of diorite magma t Is diorite the product of mixture of primitive, granitic crust and primary basalt still molten beneath t Though the averages give no answer, they tend to keep these funda- mental queww before the eye of the petrologist

4 The Averagefl have been arranged so aa generally to place

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DALY. — COMPOSITIONS OF IGNEOUS-ROCK TYPES. 239

together those of plutonics and the corresponding effusive rooks. The comparisons show the truth of Rosenbusch's statement that the effusives are, on the whole, somewhat higher in silica and alkalies and lower in iron oxides, lime, magnesia, etc., than the respective plutonics.

The importance of this rule is at least two-fold. It proves the value of Rosenbusch's primary division into the deep-seated types and the surface lavas. It shows therewith one of the reasons why the Norm B Classification of igneous rocks is largely a failure so £Bir as either the field-geologist or the student of petrogeny is concerned.

Secondly, the rule suggests clearly that at volcanic vents there is a general cause for the removal of iron, magnesium, and calcium oxides fix)m the magmatic columns and that the cause is more effective in vol- canic vents than in the average plutonic body. The cause is most probably to be found in the gravitative settlement of part of the ferro- magnesian and other constituents of early cr3rstallization. These con- stituents may settle out either as solid crystals or as liquid firactions immiscible near the consolidation point of the magma. Since, on the average, the column of fluid magma is taller in an active volcanic vent than in a plutonic mass, the overlying phase of the splitting magma should be, in general, slightly more acid and alkaline than the corresponding pole of differentiation in a deep-seated mass. In the nature of the case the more acid-alkaline pole is the one most liable to flow out at the sur£M^ Though volcanic vents are much narrower than plutonic chambers and therefore subject to quicker chilling, with a resulting check to differentiation, this tendency is largely counter- balanced by the passage of very hot gases through vents. The mere agitation in the vents £9M3ilitates the separation. Whatever additional considerations are necessary to complete the comparison, it must here suffice to note that, as a rule, the laws of solution as applied to magmas seem to demand a differentiation with slow cooling, whereby a surface lava is less basic and ferromagnesian than the plutonic body feeding the vent of that lava. The corroboration of Rosenbusch's above-mentioned rule through the world-averages appears, therefore, to be of use in illustrating one of the world-wide influences controlling the origin of igneous rocks.

Some special conclusions regarding classification may be noted. From the averages it is evident that dacite is the effusive correspond- ent of granodiorite and not of quartz diorite. The contention of

' Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rooks, by W. Cross, J. P. Idd- ings, L. V. Firsson, and H. S. Washington, Chicago and London, 1903.

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240 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

American geologists that the vast development of granodiorite in the Cordilleras of North and South America should alone give the name a primary place in rock classification, is again justified. The many occurrences of dacite throughout the world represent just so many additional masses of cooled magma which were chemically identical with, or closely related to granodiorite. In volumetric importance, as in mineralogical and chemical individuality, the granodiorite t3rpe should rank as of the same order as granite itself.

Quart? porphjrry, liparite, and rhyolite show that essential identity of composition which has long been apparent firom more qualitative comparison.

5. There is little noteworthy chemical difference between the aver- age pre-Cambrian granite and the average granite of later periods. How £5u: the differences in alumina and potash (columns 1, 2, and 3) are due to the relative fewness of anal3r8es of pre-Cambrian types cannot be stated. In spite of any such uneertainties the stabili^ of the chemical type represented by granite throughout geological time is manifest The explanation of the fact may wdl be found in Vogt's idea that granite is an "anchi-eutectic," a crystallized mother-liquor, a nearly extreme product of magmatic differentiation. It is possible that some of the older pre-Cambrian granite represents the differentia- tion of primeval magna. For many reasons it seems probable that most, if not all, post-Cambrian granites are differentiates from syntec- tio magma, chiefly composed of primary basaltic magma which has locally redissolved the ancient, acid shell overlying. In such case the splitting of the sjmtectic would ultimately give an acid differentiate similar to that formed in the primitive tima In general, differentia- tion in batholiths, when well advanced, restores the condition tempo- rarily disturbed by magmatic assimilation. On this (confessedly hjrpothetical) view one may feel no surprise in noting a &irly steady composition in the granites from the average oldest type to the average youngest

Massachusetts Institutb of Technoloqt, Boston, January, 1910.

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Proceedings of the Ainericftii Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 8. — Mabch, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

ON THE APPLICABILITY OF THE LAW OF CORRE- SPONDING STATES TO THE JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT IN WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE.

By Habybt N. Davis.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

ON THE APPLICABILITY OF THE LAW OF CORRESPOND- ING STATES TO THE JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT IN WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDR

By Harvey N. Davis. Presented by John Trowbridge, December 8, 1909; Received December 30, 1909.

In the classical plug experiments of Joule and Kelvin certain gases were forced by pressure through a porous plug under circumstances which permitted the accurate measurement of any small resulting change in their temperature. It can easily be shown that a perfect gas would show no such change. As a matter of &ct, hydrogen was found to be slightly warmer on the low pressure side of such a plug than on the high pressure side, while air, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide were slightly cooler. The ratio of the observed drop in tem- perature to the drop in pressure in such a plug has ever since been called the Joule-Thomson coefficient

The results of such experiments afford the best known means of computing corrections for reducing the temperature scale of a gas thermometer to Kelvin's absolute thermodynamic scala For this pur- pose one must know the Joule-Thomson coefficient of the gas in the thermometer at all temperatures between 0^ C. and the t"" C. at which the correction is desired. Unfortunately, none of the experiments either of Joule and Kelvin or of any of their successors are at temper- atures other than between 0° C. and 100** C, except for certain inver- sion points of Olschewsky obtained under circumstances not yet fully understood. These are not enough to give a direct determination of the absolute thermodynamic scale above 100^. In order to get one indirectly, it has been customary to assume that, at least in the five gases, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air, the Joule- Thomson effect obeys the law of corresponding states. That is, it is assumed that if the coefficient for each gas is expressed in terms of the critical pressure and temperature of that gas as units, and if the results are plotted against the temperature expressed in the same

i

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244

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEBfY.

"reduced*' units, the resulting curves will be identical for all five gases. The observations at ordinary temperatures on hydrogen, whose critical temperature is very low, will then correspond to observations at very high temperatures on other gases, and will afford a useful though precarious extrapolation of their curves to above 1000° C.

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The experimental justification of this use of the law of correspond- ing states is, as yet, meager. Figure 1, which is taken firom a recent paper by Buckingham, represents the available data. It will be seen that neither the hydrogen nor the carbon dioxide observations overlap those on the other tiiree gases, and that the points for each of these

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DAVIS. — THE LAW OP COHHESPONDINO fiTTATES. 245

three gases show sach disorepanoies among themselves as to make un- certain any judgment as to their agreement with each other. What evidence there is, is in &vor of the validity of the law of corresponding states ; but an accurate verification of it, especially for two substances with very different critical temperatures, would put the whole subject on a much more satis&ctory basis.

In this paper it will be shown that this law is verified for carbon dioxide and water within the limit of error of the available observa- tions on water! This limit of error is unfortunately quite as great as that of the oxygen, nitrogen and air observations plotted in Figure 1. Nevertheless, a multiplication of evidence, even of an inferior sort, is often valuable, and in this case there is an added interest because, if water, which is known to be anomalous in many ways through associa- tion, is found to obey the law of corresponding states as to its Joule- Thomson effect^ it is probable that the permanent gases will also obey l^tlaw.

There are four sets of experiments on water which can be used. They were all undertaken for the purpose of determining the variation of the specific heat of superheated steam with pressure and temperature, an investigation which has since been more satisfiu^torily accomplished in other ways. Of the four observers, Griessmann^ used a porous plug very much like that of Joule and Thomson, while the other three, Grindley, ^ Peake^ and Dodge,^ used what engineers call a throttiing or wiredrawing calorimeter. The essential part of this instrument is a small orifice through which the steam flows tumultuously firom one chamber into another, the high velocity of the steam being subse- quently destroyed by firiction at the sur&ces of the walls of the second chamber and within the steam itself. During this process the kinetic energy of the steam is transformed into heat, all of which, if the thermal insulation is perfect, goes back into the steam. If this trans- formation is complete, the throttiing calorimeter is exactly equivalent to a porous plug. To ensure this completeness, one of the three ob- servers (Peake) put a quantity of wire gauze in the path of the steam firom the orifiee, and another (Dodge) used at times four small orifices instead of one larger one witliout noticeable change in the results. Grindley took no especial precautions of this sort, but the

^ Zeitsch. Ver. d. Ing., 1903, 47, 1852 and 1880; also ForBchungBaib., Ver.

Ing., 1904, 13, 1.

« Phil. Trans., 1900-1, 194A, 1.

» Proc. Roy. Soc., 1905, A, 76, 185.

« Jour. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1907, 28, 1265; and 1908, 80, 1227.

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246 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEBfT.

fieict that his results agree with those of Peake and of Oriessmann shows that none were necessary in his apparatus.

This agreement is in many other ways a significant one, for it is inconceivable in view of the great differences in almost every respect between the details of the three sets of apparatus, that any serious systematic errors should have been present in any one of the sets of results without completely destroying the agreement between them. This is particularly true in the matter of heat insolation, where the precautions taken by the three observers had almost nothing in com- mon except effectivenesa In Dodge's work also this point was care- fully considered but the results are not so satisfactory. They will be discussed and a correction computed on page 262.

In all four cases the thermometry is the weakest part of the work. It is especially unfortunate for the present purpose that the original aim of the experiments did not require or suggest that the difference between the temperatures before and after the expansion be measured as such, as by a thermocouple or a differential resistance thermometer. The subtraction which must now be made of one reading on a mercury thermometer from another reading on another thermometer, to give a small difference, is not a particularly accurate method of getting that differenca The same is true of the determination of the pressure drop. The individual measurements were comparatively good, being made in three of the cases with carefully calibrated Bourdon or spring gauges, and in the fourth case by an extra measurement of the temper- ature of resaturation of the low side steam, but the differences needed in this paper must inevitably be subject to comparatively large errors. The reader must therefore be prepared for much lack of self-consistency in the results. It is hoped that the errors are largely incidental errors such as can be eliminated by averaging.

Grindley's experiments were performed in England during the winter of 1897-8. His data are given in full in his paper and are plotted in his Diagram 5 reproduced here as Figure 2. It will be observed that in every case his steam drops several pounds in pressure before it leaves the saturation line. This he explained by means of a curious and now discredited "heat of gasification." A better explanation is that his steam was initially slightly wet Since this source of error affects the high side data of every one of his experiments, it might seem that all of his work must be rejected. It will be noticed, however, that his experiments are grouped into runs ; that is, if in a certain experiment steam in a certain initial condition has been throttled to a certain low side pressure and temperature, then in later experiments of the same group, steam in the same initial condition is more and more throttled

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DAVIS. -^ THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES.

247

to lower low side pressares and temperatures, which when plotted together form the tlurottling carves of Figure 2. Since it is character- istic of throttling l^t the total heat, J7, of the steam is the same on the high and low sides, it foUows that H is constant along the whole of any throttling curve, and that any two low side points of a run may be ts^en, one as describing the high side conditions and the other as describing the low side conditions of a possible throttling experiment

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In other words, the slope of a throttling curve at any point is a value of the Joule-Thomson coefficient under corresponding conditions. It is therefore possible, even while rejecting all of Grindley's high side points together with that one of the low side points which is obviously affected by the same error, to use the remaining low side points in pairs. There were 101 of them in all, Ijring on seven throttling curves. They were first grouped so as to give 29 average points, the averaging being justified by the fieict that for a range of not more than 5^, a throttling curve can be considered straight These means were then taken two by two consecutively to give 22 values of the Joule-Thomson

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248

FBOCESDINGS OF THE AMERICAN AOADEUT*

coefficient, each of idiioh is assximed to oonespo&d to the mean of the high and low side tempemtmes firom which it was obtained. The yalaes of the coefficient have been '* ledaced " by mohiplying by 2.56,

TABLE I.

StTiaCABT OF GtUNDLBT's ThBOTTLINO ExFBBIMBNTS.

Curve.

No. of Points.

Avenge Preaaure

Avenge Tempenture

Reduced

Joule- Thomson CkMfficieot.

Ibe.per •q.m.

Redueed.

Fahr.

Reduced.

A

B

C

D

E

Pfl F6

1-1 1-2 2-1 1-2 2-2 2-1 1-1

2-1 1-3

a-1

1-2 2-3

3-6

4-8 8-4

4-3 5-1

8-5 5-4

6-7 6-5

141.6 121.7 101.6 81.7 61.0 40.3 22.7

87.5 74.7 58.2* 40.3 * 25.5

50.7 37.5 24.3 12.4

26.3 12.4

24.2 12.8

12.2 11.5

0.0480 0.0412 0.0344 0.0277 0.0207 0.0137 0.0077

0.0296 0.0253 0.0197 0.0137 0.0086

0.0172 0.0127 0.0082 0.0042

0.0089 0.0042

0.0082 0.0043

0.0041 0.0030

360.2 353.9 347.4 340.5 832.3 322.9 315.0

326.3 321.0 313.6 306.1 299.9

288.0 281.4 274.7 268.4

, 267.2 259.5

251.7 245.1

229.3 228.7

0.714 0.708 0.703 0.697 0.600 0.682 0.675

0.685 0.680 0.673 0.667 0.662

0.651 0.645 0.640 0.634

0.633 0.626

0.620 0.613

0.600 0.600

0.82 0.79 0.86 0.92 1.12 1.20 1.11

1.00 1.13 1.15 1.00 1.14

1.27 1.29 1.31 1.39

1.40 1.47

1.39 1.57

1.74 1.69

Column 2 indioates tiie nmnbor of obs^rvatiops invdved in eseh

used as the hi^ side point of the pair included 6 of the. points plotted in figure 2, while that used as the low side point involved 7.

a £EM^r which is the ratio of the critical prcBSure of water expressed in ponnds per square inch (2947 lbs. per sq. in. or 200 atmospheres ^) to its critical temperature in Fahrenheit degrees absolute (1149^ F. abe. or 365^ C. ord.^. The results are summiuized in Table I, which gives

i Qkilletet and Colaideau, Jour, de Fhys., 1891, 10, 333.

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DATIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES.

249

also the corresponding " reduced " pressures and temperatures. These values of the coefficient are plotted as open circles in Figure 6.

The experiments of Griessmann were performed in the mechanical engineering laboratory of the " Technische Hochschule " in Dresden, and were published in 1903. They were primarily undertaken to test the heat of gasification hypothesis already mentioned, and are a critical

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repetition of Ghindley's work The data are given in full in the paper in the Forschungsarbeiten, and are plotted in his Figure 7, which is reproduced here as Figure 3* He records 13 runs with 87 sets of low side observations, which with the 13 high side observations give 100 points on his diagram. Of these, three points on curve 2, one point on curve 7, three points on curve 8, and three points on curve 9 lie so &r off the smooth curves determined by the neighboring points that diey have arbitrarily been omitted from these caJculations. The re- maining 90 points, lying on 11 curves, have been grouped in 44 means

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250

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEBfT.

TABLE n.

SUMMABT OF GRIESSMANN's OBSERVATIONS.

Curve.	No. of PointB.	Average Pressure	Average Temperature	Reduced Joule- Thomson Coefl&cient.
kgs./sq. cm.	Reduced.	Cent.	Reduced.
1	2-2 2-1	2.19 1.37	0.0106 0.0066	129.8 126.1	0.632 0.625	1.33 1.64
2	1-1 1-1	2.86 1.42	0.0138 0.0069	137.6 131.4	0.644 0.634	1.34 1.56
3	2-2 2-2	2.97 1.81	0.0144 0.0088	139.2 134.4	0.646 0.639	1.26 1.44
4	2-5 5-4 4-2	4.35 2.85 1.46	0.0210 0.0138 0.0071	148.2 142.3 136.5	0.660 0.651 0.642	1.19 1.30 1.47
5	1-1 1-1 1-1	4.11 2.53 1.52	0.0199 0.0122 0.0074	149.2 142.3 138.2	0.662 0.651 0.644	1.27 1.23 1.44
6	2-2 2-3 3-4 4-2	5.36 4.18 2.98 1.64	0.0260 0.0202 0.0144 0.0079	156.1 152.2 147.9 142.5	0.673 0.667 0.660 0.651	1.07 1.06 1.22 1.42
7	2-2 2-3	5.56 3.64	0.0219 0.0176	160.3 154.1	0.679 0.670	0.93 1.18
8	3-2 2-1	6.37 4.90	0.0308 0.0237	165.4 161.0	0.687 0.680	0.88 1.08
9	1-2 2-1 1-1	6.46 3.73 1.46	0.0313 0.0180 0.0071	166.9 158.2 150.2	0.690 0.676 0.663	0.84 1.13 1.25
10	2-2 2-1 1-1 1-1	8.22 5.02 2.55 1.55	0.0398 0.0243 0.0123 0.0075	174.1 164.7 156.8 152.8	0.701 0.686 0.673 0.668	0.88 0.99 1.23 1.29
11	1-2 2-2 2-1 1-1 1-1 1-1	9.05 7.17 5.53 3.89 2.48 1.52	0.0438 0.0347 0.0268 0.0188 0.0120 0.0074	176.6 171.9 167.3 162.2 157.4 153.8	0.705 0.698 0.690 0.682 0.675 0.669	0.75 0.88 0.96 1.01 1.19 1.25

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DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES.

251

which have been used as above to give the 33 values of the Joale- Thomson coefficient which are presented in the following table. They are plotted as circles with diagonal crossbars in Figure 6. The re- duction fiM^tor in this case is 0.324, Oriessmann's pressures being in kilograms per square centimeter and his tQmperatures in Centigrade

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FiouRB 4. Peake's throttling curves. From his paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society.

Peake's experiments were carried out in the engineering laboratory of Cambridge University in England and were begun in the &11 of 1898. The appearance in 1900 of Grindley's work along almost iden- tical lines at first inclined Peake to discontinue his investigation, but a careful examination of Orindley's data as compared with his own, led him to the discovery in both of the heat of gasification error already mentioned and to its true explanation, and his experiments were con- tinued with this particular point in view. His apparatus was there- fore redesigned so as to bring the steam as quickly as possible firom the boiler to the orifice to avoid condensation on the way, and he, like

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252

'PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AHEBICAN ACADEMY.

TABLE ni. SmcMART OF Peakb's Thbottlino Expebimentb.

		Avermge PreBsure	Average Temperature	Reduced
Curve.	No. of Pointa.			Joule- Thomson

		mm. of Ha.1	Reduced.	Cent.	Reduced.	Coefficient.
A	3-3	9724	0.0639	192.3	0.730	0.86
	3-3	8503	0.0569	187.8	0.722	0.94
	3-2	7632	0.0502	184.4	0.716	0.90
	2-3	6282	0.0413	179.4	0.709	0.87
	3-2	4617	0.0304	173.1	0.699	0.94
	2-4	3239	0.0213	167.8	0.690	0.87
	4-4	1925	0.0127	162.5	0.683	1.05
B	4-9	7594	0.0499	181.6	0.712	0.97
	9-3	6128	0.0403	175.6	0.703	0.97
	a-2	4735	0.0312	170.0	0.695	0.95
	2-2	3359	0.0221	164.3	0.686	1.01
	2r-2	1914	0.0126	158.2	0.675	1.00
C	2-2	6162	0.0405	171.8	0.697	1.09
	2-2	5762	0.0379	170.0	0.694	1.10
	2-1	5017	0.0337	166.6	0.689	1.05
	1-1	4163	0.0274	162.8	0.683	1.13
	1-1	3030	0.0199	157.4	0.675	1.11
	1-1	1513	0.0100	150.6	0.665	1.06
D	1-1	4212	0.0277	156.6	0.674	1.05
	1-1	3960	0.0260	155.3	0.671	1.14
	1-1	3547	0.0233	153.4	0.668	1.11
	1-1	3035	0.0200	151.0	0.665	1.17
	1-1	2502	0.0165	148.3	0.661	1.17
	1-2	1984	0.0131	145.6	0.656	1.36
	2r-\	1460	0.0096	142.7	0.652	1.29
	1-1	986	0.0065	140.0	0.648	1.53
E	2-1	2045	0.0135	135.4	0.640	1.41
	1-1	1468	0.0096	132.1	0.635	1.35
	1-1	1050	0.0069	129.6	0.631	1.44
F	1-1	1404	0.0092	122.2	0.619	1.66
	1-1	1044	0.0069	119.7	0.615	1.63
1	All of Peake's pressures were computed from suitable temperature
meai	mrements by means of Regnault's steam table. As a special pre-
caut	ion they have been recomputed with the new table of Holbom and [ling, and are therefore left in the metric units in which they were
Hen]
thus	found. The " reduction factor " to give / is 238.

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DAVIS. — THE lAW OP COBBSSPONDINO STATES.

253

Orieesmann, practioally elimiiuited the effect whioh OrincUey had found. His results are plotted as his Figure 4 which is reproduoed as Figure 4 of this paper. He records 10 runs with 68 low side observations, making 78 points in alL Two of the high side points and two of the low side points still show traces of the wet steam effect and have therefore been rejected. The other low side points are much more

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. FiouBB 5. Dodge's throttling curves. Plotted from the original data sheets.

self-consistent than Griessmann's. The ten runs correspond to only six throttling curves. The 74 satis&ctory points were grouped into 83 means, giving the 27 values of die Joule-Thomson coefficient which are presented in TaUe UI and Ure plotted as circles with horizontal crosdi)ar8 in Figure 6.

Dodge worked in the laboratories of the O^aeral Electric Company at Schenectady, N. T., from 1901 to 1906. His data were not given at all in his first p^>er and were publisbed <»ily in part in his second

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254 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEHT.

paper. What follows is based on a study of the original records, the generous loan of which for this purpose is very gratefully acknowledged. On his advice, the first 26 of his 92 runs were disregarded as prelimin- ary, and 9 other runs were rejected, either because of experimental mishaps, or because the log did not show satisfiu^torily steady condi- tions. The data selected were corrected for probable radiation and conduction losses in the way explained in the appendix of this paper (page 262).

Of the 47 selected tests, 14 were like those already discussed, except that the temperatures were much higher, the high side steam being superheated instead of saturated. The results of these 14 tests are plotted in Figure 5. It wiU be noticed that in every case a smooth curve through the low side points runs considerably below the corresponding high side pointy just as did Grindley's curves. In Orindley's case this was because the entering steam carried water in suspension, the pres- ence of which made.the true total heat of the incoming mixture less than its apparent total heat regarded as homogeneous saturated steam, and dropped all the low side points onto throttling curves lower than those on which they apparently belonged. A similar phenomenon may be in evidence in Dodge's case, for although the incoming steam was superheated, it may still have been canying in suspension a part of the water which had been sprayed into it for temperature regulation just before it reached the high side chamber.^ It must, however, be ad- mitted that if this explanation is to account for the whole of tiie dis- crepancy in Dodge's results, an extraordinarily large amount of water in suspension must have reached the high side chamber — fix)m one to one and a half per cent of the whole weight present. It is therefore probable that there is another source of error not yet discovered. Nevertheless, if the high side points are disregarded and the low side points are taken together in pairs as in Orindley's case, it is probable that tiie resulting values of the Joule-Thomson coefficient will be trustworthy.

Each of the 14 runs was handled separately. It did not seem best to take consecutive points together as in the other cases, because, at the very high temperatures here dealt with, the temperature difference be- tween consecutive points is much smaller than at lower temperatures, and so an error in either observation would make much more difference in the coefficient. Furthermore, the throttling curves are more nearly straight in this range than at lower temperatures. The lowest point of a run has therefore been taken ¥rith the point just beyond the middle

* See the work of Knoblauch and Jakob, Forschungsaib., 1006, 84, 109.

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DAVIS. — THE LAW OP COBRESPONDING STATES.

255

TABLE IV.

SUMMABT OF DoDGE's ThBOTTUNO CuRVB TeSTS.

Test.	Average Pressure	Avermge Temperature	Reduced Joule- Thomson CJoefficient.
lbs. per sq. in.	Reduced.	Fahr.	Reduced.
70 o	36.5 67.6 85.2	0.0124 0.0196 0.0289	663 569 672	0.892 0.895 0.899	0.52 0.39 0.36
706	64.2 73.0	0.0184 0.0248	476 479	0.816 0.818	0.38 0.46
71	36.5 67.5 84.9	0.0124 0.0195 0.0288	356 362 369	0.711 0.716 0.722	0.72 0.62 0.75
72	36.5 67.4	0.0124 0.0195	621 523	0.855 0.857	0.30 0.20
73	36.7 52.4 84.8	0.0125 0.0178 0.0288	418 424 248	0.765 0.770 0.774	0.55 0.48 0.44
74	64.0 72.6 102.2	0.0183 0.0246 0.0347	522 627 630	0.856 0.860 0.863	0.32 0.27 0.32
76	84.3 114.6	0.0286 0.0389	373 381	0.726 0.733	0.58 0.52
76	127.3 101.0	0.0432 0.0343	534 627	0.866 0.860	0.32 0.24
77	200.6 225.6	0.0681 0.0765	547 651	0.877 0.881	0.50 0.44
78	67.5 105.0 142.0	0.0195 0.0356 0.0482	668 576 680	0.895 0.902 0.906	0.35 0.32 0.36
79	57.9 105.0 .142.0	0.0196 0.0356 0.0482	627 635 648	0.860 0.867 0.878	0.50 0.49 0.67
80	90.7 120.4 152.0 184.4	0.0308 0.0409 0.0516 0.0626	636 639 643 648	0.867 0.870 0.874 0.878	0.43 0.39 0.34 0.35
81	90.3 120.3 152.0 184.0	0.0306 0.0409 0.0516 0.0625	484 489 495 601	0.822 0.826 0.832 0.837	0.54 0.49 0.48 0.47
82	90.3 120.3 152.0 184.0 213.5	0.0306 0.0409 0.0516 0.0625 0.0724	434 441 447 452 458 "	0.779 0.785 0.790 0.795 0.800	0.57 0.62 0.54 0.52 0.42

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256

PBOCBSDINOfl OF THX AMEBICAN ACADBlfT.

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DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 257

of that run, and so on, no point being used more than once. The 41 valaes of the coefficient obtained in this way are summarized in Table IV, and are plotted as small open circles in Figure 6. They lie in the range between 0.8 and 0.9 reduced temperature, filling a gap of con- siderable importance in that figure.

The remaining 33 of the selected runs cannot be handled in the same simple way, because the experiments which make up each of these runs are not so related as to give throttling curves, but are related in an- other way much better suited to the original purpose of the work, but much less suited to the present purpose. Nevertheless the gap be- tween 0.7 and 0.9 in Figure 6 is so important that it is desirable to use every bit of information about it that can be obtained. These 33 additional runs have therefore been discussed at some length in the ' appendix of this paper, and, suitable corrections for the high side tem- peratures having been applied, the more &vorable of them have been used to get the 77 values of the Joule-Thomson coefficient which are presented in Table IV. These values are plotted in Figure 6 as small black dots. They are more self-consistent than the values in Table IV above, but their trustworthiness is more uncertain as each involves two uncertain corrections of the original data instead of one. They are nevertheless valuable corroborative evidenca ,

Figure 6 is now complete. The 82 values of the coefficient which are summarized in Tables I., II., and III., lie in the range between 0.6 and 0.7 units of reduced temperature, and form a broad but reasonably well defined band, within which there is no evident tendency for either of the three sets of points to separate themselves from the others. The 118 values of the coefficient which were computed from Dodge's data, and which are presented in Tables IV. and V., lie between 0.7 and 0.9 and form a satisfisu^tory continuation of the band. Above 0.9 are five large circles with diagonal crossbars representing on the same scale the origi- nal observations of Joule and Thomson on carbon dioxide, six large circles without crossbars representing Kester's ^ experiments, and one large circle with a horizontal crossbar representing Natanson's * result. These circles form a surprisingly good continuation of the curve sug- gested by the band of steam points. The law of corresponding states is therefore verified for carbon dioxide and water within the limits of error of the observations on the two substances.

The various values in Tables I to V have been grouped according to temperature and averaged. For this purpose a number was assigned

' Phys. Zeitsch., 1905, 6, 44; repeated and revised in Phys. Rev., 1905, 21, 260.

• Wied. Ann., 1887, 31, 502.

VOL. XLV. — 17

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258

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

TABLE V. Summary of Dodge's Main Series op Tests (Corrected as Described).

	Average Pressure	Average Temperature	Reduced
Teat.			Joule- Thomson

	lbs. per sq. in.	Reduced.	Fahr.	Reduced.	Coefficient.
2S	328	0.112	558	0.886	0.48
	n	tt	534 •	0.865	' 0.50
	11	tt	503	0.839	0.52
	n	tt	430	0.775	0.55
	«	tt	463	0.804	0.56
	<(	tt	574	0.901	0.49
29	380	0.129	568	0.895	0.42
	<<	tt	544	0.875	0.42
	ft	tt	520	0.853	0.45
	it	tt	483	0.821	0.49
	n	It	460	0.803	0.54
	It	tt	504	0.839	0.51
	it	it	538	0.869	0.45
31	330	0.112	511	0.846	0.41
	tt	tt	474	0.813	0.48
	• tt	tt	441	0.785	0.47
32	379	0.129	558	0.886	0.38
	** •	tt	540	0.871	0.40
	tt	tt	524	0.857	0.42
	tt	tt	507	0.842	0.45
	tt	ft	493	0.830	0.48
	tt	tt	469	0.809	0.54
	tt	tt	444	0.787	0.58
36	385	0.131	563	0.891	0.39
	((	tt	539	0.870	0.41
	It	tt	516	0.850	0.44
	tt	tt	491	0.829	0.48
	it	tt	460	0.801	0.54
37	338	0.115	571	0.898	0.39
	tt	tt	545	0.875	0.40
	ft	tt	516	0.850	0.43
	tt	tt	480	0.819	0.50
	tt	tt	456	0.798	0.54
41	205	0.070	562	0.890	0.36
	tt	tt	527	0.860	0.40
	tt	tt	462	0.803	0.50
	t*	It	432	0.777	0.59
42	255	0.087	565	0.893	0.37
	It	It	540	0.871	0.40
	tt	tt	515	0.850	0.43
	tt	It	492	0.829	0.46
	tt	tt	459	0.800	0.53
	tt	tt	437	0.781	0.55

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DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES.

259

TABLE y ^(continued).

	Average Preaaure	Average Temperature	Reduced
T«t.			Joule- Thomson

	lbs. peraq.in.	Reduced.	Fahr.	Reduced.	Coefficient.
43	302	0.103	550	0.880	0.41
	«	it	533	0.865	0.43
	it	if	514	0.847	0.46
	i<	it	495	0.832	0.47
	tt	it	468	0.808	0.54
	11	it	444	0.786	0.56
56	256	0.087	513	0.848	0.38
	(<	it	475	0.815	0.46
	it	ti	435	0.780	0.55
59	252	0.086	560	0.888	0.38
	<(	tt	531	0.863	0.41
	ti	ti	488	0.826	0.48
	n	it	441	0.785	0.59
	n	it	463	0.804	0.53
60	204	0.069	500	0.837	0.46
	li	it	470	0.810	0.52
	ti	a	431	0.776	0.62
61	168	0.057	493	0.830	0.43
	it	it	464	0.805	0.48
	a	ti	432	0.777	0.58
	a	it	400	0.749	0.69
62	200	0.068	569	0,896	0.36
	ti	tt	513	0.848	0.42
64	302	0.103	550	0.880	0.41
	it	ft	526	0.859	0.44
	a	it	493	0.830	0.49
	it	it	467	0.807	0.54
	it	it	436	0.780	0.54
68	166	0.056	485	0.823	0.46
	tt	tt	449	0.791	0.53
	it	it	409	0.756	0.66
69	162	0.055	483	0.821	0.47
	' it	((	446	0.790	0.56
	It	tt	406	0.754	0.67

to each of the values in Tables I, II, and III equal to the product of the total number of observations involved at both ends of the determina- tion of the coefficient and the corresponding temperature drop meas-

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2(50

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

ured in Centigrade degrees; proportional integral weights from 1 to 6 were then used in forming the weighted means in Table VI. The relative weights of the means themselves which are given in the last column of Table VI are proportional to the square roots of the sums of the above products which entered into each mean; they are given

TABLE VI. Summary op Weighted Means prom Tables I to V.

Observer.	Temperature	Reduced	Weight.
Cent.	Reduced.
Grindley Peake Dodge Table IV Table V	109.4 122.3 . 131.0 138.6 158.4 176.2 128.3 134.7 152.7 167.0 120.6 137.9 160.1 179.0	0.600 0.620 0.633 0.645 0.676 0.705 0.628 0.646 0.667 0.690 0.616 0.644 0.679 0.708 0.770 0.870 0.794 0.861	1.719 1.475 1.399 1.290 1.121 0.850 1.454 1.377 1.140 0.923 1.641 1.400 1.075 0.927 0.549 0.389 0.543 0.432	4 4 3 3 4 2 2 5 5 4 1 2 4 6 (16) » (25) » (34) » (43) »
* These are not weights comparable with those above. They give simply the number of observations involved in the corresponding means.

merely as a rough guide for anyone who may wish to use these means for other purposes. If weights had been assigned to Dodge's means on the same basis, they would have been misleadingly large because all the temperature diflferences retained were large (see the Appendix). The numbers in parentheses in the last column of Table VI are the number of separate coefficients involved in each of the means.

The small figure in the upper corner of Figure 6 is Buckingham's figure (Figure 1 of this paper) replotted on a different scale with the

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DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING OTATE8. 261

500* 600^

— 1— — 1 j.7

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Figure 7. Joule-Thomson coefficient in ordinary units. In the lower j)art of the figure these are Centigrade degrees for a pressure drop of 1 kg. per sq. cm. (scale at left). In the upper part they are Fahrenheit degrees for a pres- sure drop of 1 lb. per sq. in. (scale at right).

18 means of Table VI added as large circles. The six small circles near ^1 are Eester's carbon dioxide points, the other carbon dioxide points being omitted for cleamcHs. The other points in the figure are easily recognizable on comparison with Figure 1.

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262 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AAfERICAN ACADEMY.

Figure 7 shows the smooth curve that best represents the band of Figure 6, translated back from "reduced" to ordinary units, both Centigrade and Fahrenheit. This curve has proved useful in several unexpected ways. For example, it will be made the basis of a dis- cussion of the specific heat of very highly superheated steam in a later paper (see page 292 of these proceedings). It has also made certain cumbersome and uncertain computations in continuous flow calorimetry unnecessary (see " Power," June 2, 1908, page 871). It is hoped that the various scales of Figure 7 are open enough to make the curve useful to others.

All of the observations discussed in this paper have been examined with considerable care, both arithmetically and graphically, for traces of a systematic variation of the Joule-Thomson coeflicient with pressure at constant temperature, without success. If such a variation exists even close to the saturation line, it is within the limit of error of the data.

Appendices.

Discussion of Dodge's Data.

In Dodge's apparatus the low side chamber was protected against loss of heat to its surroundings chiefly (although not wholly) by an independently heated steam jacket made in one piece with the wall of the chamber, smd kept as nearly as possible at the same temperature as the low side steam. Thermometers were placed in this jacket and their temperatures recorded with the other routine data of each run. As a matter of fiu^t, the jacket temperatures usually ran somewhat lower than the low side steam temperatures, so that some loss of heat by conduction through the chamber wall was to be expected. The high temperatares employed would also tend to make probable some loss of heat by radiation. The possibilities were tested in six special runs numbered 83 to 88, in which the partition between the high and the low side chambers, with its orifice, was completely removed. It was found that the low side thermometers in these tests did read somewhat lower than the high side thermometers although there was no throttling. The 27 observed difiierences can be fidrly well repre- sented by the empirical equation

_ 12 (low side temp, —jacket temp.) + ^ (high side temp.) ~ flow in lbs. per hour

The forms of the two terms in the numerator were intended to cor- respond to the two sorts of heat loss mentioned above. Corrections corresponding to this formula were accordingly applied to the main

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J

DAVIS. — THE LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES. 263

tests. The corrections in the tests sammarized in Table IV averaged 2.4° F., and only occasionally amounted to 4**. Those in the tests summarized in Table V averaged 2.9"^ F. and only occasionally amounted to 5°,

The second set of corrections which are involved in Table V but not in Table IV are much more uncertain. As has been stated, the ex- periments of the runs of Table V could not be grouped into throttling curves whose various low side points could be combined with each other, all the high side observations being ignored except as indicatmg constancy of initial conditions, as was done in preparing Table IV. If the data were to be used at all, each low side point had to be taken with its own high side point When this was done with only the radiation and conduction corrections made, the resulting values of the Joule-Thomson coefficient were not at all self-consistent> the values in each run which corresponded to small temperature drops and therefore to high mean temperatures being abnormally high. This tendency of the points near 0.9 in Figure 6 to swoop upward was unmistakable, and indicated clearly the presence in the tests of Table V of the same " wet steam " error shown in Figure 5 for the tests of Table IV.

The necessary corrections were obtained from the tests of Table IV. It seemed that they alone gave enough of a verification of the law of corresponding states to justify the drawing of a tentative curve like those of Figure 7, and this curve was then used to compute what correction would have to be applied to each of the high side tempera- tures of the tests of Table IV to make them self-consistent These corrections were surprisingly constant They were examined for systematic variations with mean pressure, with pressure drop and with quantity of steam discharged, without success. There seemed, how- ever, to be a slight variation with the mean temperature and the following scheme was adopted :

If the mean reduced decrease the high

temperature is side temperature by

0.9 14**

0.85 13°

0.8 12°

0.75 11°

It should be noticed that these corrections were deduced wholly from the 14 throttling curve tests of Table IV. When they were applied to the tests of Table V, the resulting values of the coefficient showed none of their previous tendency to run high near 0.9, and were

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264 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

in general much more self-consistent Further, they now agreed very definitely with the tests of Table IV in verifjring the law of correspond- ing states and lay close along the tentative curve previously drawn. These fiu^ts, particularly the disappearance of the tendency to swoop near 0.9, seem to show that this reasoning is not a '* circular blhucy" and that the values in Table V are a real corroboration of those in Table IV.

As a precaution against using these corrections too freely in cases where they might, perhaps, not apply, it seemed best to include in Table V only such of the 33 selected tests of the t3rpe in question as resembled the tests firom which the corrections were determined in having comparatively large steam flow (more than 80 lbs. per hour). Furthermore, all tests or parts of tests were rejected for which the observed temperature drop was not as great as five times the correc- tion, as the application of any correction amounting to more than 20 per cent of the quantity involved seemed unsafe. The 33 tests were thus reduced to 19, and these, corrected as above, gave the 77 values of the coefficient in Table V.

Note an the Vertical Scale of Figure 1.

The numerical values of the ordinates in Figure 1 are not the "reduced " Joule-Thomson effect in the ordinary sense, because Buck- ingham, in computing them, used 100 in. of mercury as his unit of pressure, but nevertheless expressed his critical pressures in atmos- pheres. The true reduced values of fi are ,those indicated in the upper comer of Figure 6.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, ^

Cambridge, Mass., December, 1909.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 9. — March, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

NOTES ON CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM.

By Habvet N. Davis.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

NOTES ON CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM.

By Hakvby N. Davis.

PreBonted by John Trowbridge, December 8, 1009; Received December 30, 1009.

§ 1. Introduction 267

§ 2. On the Cp values available for the present purpose 269

§ 3. On the total heat of saturated steam

A. The determination of H — H^^ 272

B. The value of Hioo 280

C. Extrapolation formulae for H and h 281

§ 4. Discussion of the specific heat of superheated steam, including

A recomputation of Regnault's values 286

Computations based on the Joule-Thomson efifect 289

Computations with Planck's equation 295

§5. Clausius' "Specific heat of saturated steam " 303

§ 6. The critical volume of water 305

Summary of the results in this paper 310

1. Introduction.

It is the purpose of this paper to coUeot and correlate certain material on the thermal properties of steam. A part of this material was published in a technical journal a year ago.^ Other parts of it have been contributed as discussion of papers by others in that journal and elsewhere. Still other parts of it have been used in a recent book.^ The rest appears here for the first time. It all centers around a new determination of the total heat of saturated steam.

The previous determinations of the total heat of steam {n\ and of the closely related latent heat of evaporation (X), will first be summa- rized. The most &mous of them was published by Regnault in 1847. His experiments were so numerous, covered such a wide temperature range, and were characterized by such perfection of detail as to be accepted as the foundation of the engineering practise of the world,

1 Jour. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engs., 1908, 30, 1419. * Marks and Davis, Steam Tables and Diagrams.

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268 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

and to remain standard for sixty years. He himself deduced from them the well-known linear formula

ir= 606.5 + 0.305 t calories.

Others have represented them by second degree formulsB with negative second degree terms.

The more modem experimental work began in 1889 with a measure- ment of L at O'' C. by Dieterici.^ He was followed by Griffiths,* Joly ^ and Smith,^ working at various temperatures between O*' and 100** C, and finally in 1906 by Henning,^ of the Reichsanstalt, who published an excellent series of values covering the range from 30^ to 100** C. The results of all these observers are in excellent agreement and show that Regnault's formula for H gives values which are much too high near 0** and somewhat too low near 100**.

In 1908 the formula which is the basis of this paper was presented to the American Physical Society ® and to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.^ It was based on the results of certain throttling experiments by Grindley,^^ Griessmann ^^ and Peake.^^ These experi- ments were originally undertaken for the purpose of computing, with the help of Regnault's total heats, the variation with pressure and temperature of the specific heat, C^ of superheated steam. This attempt was unsuccessful, because the total heats entered into the computations in such a way as to cause the errors in them to be tremendously magnified in the results. The desired information about C> has since been obtained in other more direct ways, and the throt- tling experiments have been ignored. It is, however, possible, by reversing the computation processes of Grindley, Griessmann and Peake, to proceed from the recently determined values of C> which were to have been their goal, back to d new determination of the values of H which were their starting point. The very sensitiveness of their procedure to errors in H ensures the insensitiveness of the

• Wied. Ann., 1889, 37, 494.

• PhU. Trans., 1895, 186 A, 261.

■ In an appendix to Griffiths' paper, page 322.

• Phys. Rev., 1907, 26, 145. » Wied. Ann., 1906, 21, 849.

• Phys. Rev., 1908, 26, 407.

• Journal, loc. cit.

w PhU. Trans., 1900, 194 A, 1.

" Zeit. Ver. d. Ing., 1903, 47, 1852, and 1880; also Forschungsarb., 1904, 13.1.

" Proc. Roy. Soc., 1905, 76 A, 185.

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present prooednre to errors in Cp, The result of such a reversal of their reasoning is the formula which was suggested two years ago, namely,

J5r= ^100 + 0.3745 {t - 100) - 0.000990 (t - 100)^.

This formula belongs only to the range between 100° and 190° C. Within this range its accuracy is believed to be of the order of one tenth of one per cent

When the new formula was announced, there were no direct experi- mental determinations oi H or L above 100° by which it could be checked except Regnault's, but more recently Henning ^^ has published a continuation of his admirable research to 180°. The extent of the agreement of this with the formula will be discussed later.

As has been indicated, the computations leading to the new formula involve two diflFerent sorts of experimental data. The first of these, namely, the throttling e±periments of Grindley, Griessmann and Peake, have been sufficiently discussed in a previous paper. ^^ The second, the direct determinations of C, mentioned above, will be discussed in the next section.

2. On the Cp Values Available for the Present Purpose.

There are three direct calorimetrio determinations of the variation of C^ with pressure and temperature, namely, those of Lorenz,^* of Knob- lauch and Jakob ^^ and of Thomas. ^^ That of Lorenz was the earliest of the three and was, as he himself says, a preliminary survey for the sake of those engineers who could not afford to wait for more accurate work. It is not ordinarily considered comparable with Knoblauch's.

Both Knoblauch's and Thomas' results were obtained by determin- ing the electrical energy necessary to increase by a known amount the temperature of previously superheated steam. In Knoblauch's appa- ratus the original superheating took place in an electrical preheater. The steam was then still further heated in a separate calorimeter, the energy added being the object of a direct measurement In Thomas' case the separate preheating and calorimetrio coils of Knoblauch's apparatus were replaced by a single coil, by means of which initially wet steam was brought, first just to dr3mess, and in a later experiment

" Wied. Ann., 1909, 29, 441. " These Proceedings, page 241.

w Zeitsch. Ver. d. Ing., 1904, 48, 698; Phys. Zeitsch., 1904, 5, 383; and Forschungsarfo., 1905, 21, 93.

" Zeitsch. Ver. d. Ing., 1907, 51, 81 and 124; Forschungsarb., 1906, 35, 109. ^v Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1907, 29, 633.

:' .

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PBOCEEDINQS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMT.

to a high superheat. The amount of energy necessary for the super- heating was then found by a subtraction. It is, therefore, liable to a percentage error much greater than that in either of the observed components. Knoblauch's method is obviously preferable to Thomas' in this respect.

His experimental arrangements also seem superior to Thomas'. In his separate calorimeter there were only small temperature differences between the inlet and outlet pipes ; in Thomas' combination calori- meter there were very large diffierences. In Knoblauch's case the heat losses through these pipes were determined ; in Thomas' case they

Figure 1. Knoblauch's Cp. diagram.

were ignored. Furthermore, although both calorimeters were very carefully lagged, Knoblauch determined his radiation losses in each experiment, while Thomas, in the final form of his apparatus, relied on eliminating them, a difi&cult thing to be sure of. Finally, Knoblauch's thermometry is apparently more refined than Thomas'. It is there- fore probable that wherever the two sets of results disagree, Knob- lauch's are to be preferred.

As a matter of &ct, the two sets of results agree fi&irly well in the region of moderate superheats, as will be seen in Figures 1 and 2, but disagree fundamentally in exactly that part of the diagram which will be most used in what follows, namely, the region of moderate pressures and very low superheats (the lower left-hand comer of Figure 1). The

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sudden rise in Thomas' carves near satnration indicates, according to his interpretation, that a comparatively large amonnt of heat is re- qaired to change dry steam into slightly 8u|)erheated steam. But it may also indicate that what he believed to be dry steam really carried a small amount of water floating as a mist This would have to be evaporated at the expense of some extra heat in addition to that re- quired for the actual superheating, and C, would come out too large.

.200" .2W

FiaxTRB 2,

That this explamation is a reasonable one is shown by a comparison of his apparatus with Knoblauch's. The latter's prebeater, mentioned above, was a pipe made up of 15 sections each 20 cms. in diameter and 20 cms. long, each filled with a dense grid of constantan ribbons which ensured thorough mixing of the passing steam. All of the heat neces- sary for the desired saperheating was ordinarily put in in the first one or two sections, and the sole purpose of the rest of the prebeater was to bring the resulting mixture of highly superheated steam and floating

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mist into a homogeneous state. Knoblauch and Jakob say that traces of moisture were observable through several of the mixing sections, and it is easy to show thAt even if " several " means as few as two, and even if the steam in these sections had always had the greatest specific volume which it ever had, the floating mist must have persisted for a time which was never less than a second and averaged more than two seconds, and this after cUl of the heat necessary for the high superheat had been put in. In Thomas' apparatus, on the other hand, the evapora- tion and superheating had to take place in 24 quarter-inch holes in a soapstone block something like 5 inches long, and in a small chamber just above it, and a similar computation shows that even if the specific volume of the steam had never been greater than that of the original saturated steam, it must have passed the thermocouple, always within nine tenths of a second, sometimes within a thirtieth of a second, and on the average within less than half a second of the time when the first of the superheating heat was put in. It is, therefore, very proba- ble that Thomas' "saturated steam" was slightly wet, and that the percentage of moisture passing the thermocouple decreased from ex- periment to experiment as the final superheat was increased, giving too high values of C> near saturation. Knoblauch's values have there- fore been used in preference to Thomas' in this work. Confirmations of this decision will be found on pages 287, 298 and 302.

8. The Total Heat of Saturated Steam.

A. The determination of H — ^100. "— A part of the fol- lowing account of the method by which the total heat of satu- rated steam has been computed is reprinted with minor changes firom the Proceedings of the American Society of Mechan- ical Engineers.

Let Figure 3 represent a throttling curve of the sort published by Grindley, Griess- man or Peake. Supposedly dry and saturated steam at the pressure and temperature corresponding to the point A is first throttled to lower pressure and temperature corresponding to the point B ; then in a later experiment

Showing how the Total Heat Curve ob^cfd* is obtained from a Throttling Curve ABCD.

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in the same ran, it is throttled from exactly the same initial condition A to the condition C ; then to D and so on. The well-known law of throttling is that the total heat in the condition B, or G, or D, is eqaal to that in the initial condition A.

The point B represents superheated steam at the pressure ps ; the point B' represents saturated steam at the same pressure; and the amount of superheat at B is the measured temperature there minus the temperature at B', which can be taken from a steam table. Also, by definition, the total heat at B equals that of saturated steam at the same pressure (point B') plus the amount of heat required to superheat it at constant pressure from B' to B. This is the integral of C^ from B' to B, or simply the mean C^ from saturation multiplied by the known superheat If C^ is known, this integral, or increment in the total heat between B' and B, is easily evaluated.

This integral is not only the difference between the total heat of saturated steam at B' and that of superheated steam at B ; it is also the difference between the total heat of saturated steam at B' and that of saturated steam at A ; that is, between the two corresponding ordi- nates of the curve that gives the total heat of saturated steam as a func- tion of the temperature, the curve sought in this paper. To draw a piece of this curve, one chooses arbitrarily some horizontal line such as a:if in Figure 4, and lays off below it, at the proper temperatures, the distances &6', cc\ dd\ etc., which represent on the desired ^-scale the integrals or total heat differences between B' and B, C and G, D' and D, eta The curve aVc^df is an isolated piece of the trae curve of total heat against temperature. The relative height of its points, that is, its shape, is accurately determined ; the absolute height above the usual zero of total heats, namely, that of water at 0°C., is as yet wholly un- known. The experiments of Grindley gave seven independent sample pieces of this sort^ one for each throttling curve, their temperature ranges being known and greatly overlapping ; similarly Griessmann's data gave eleven such sample pieces, and Peake's six.

As was explained in the preceding paper on the Joule-Thomson effect, Grindley's incoming steam (point A), and occasionally Peake'js, was not quite dry, so that its total heat was not determined by its pressure and temperature. Whenever this seemed to be the case, the points A and a of Figures 3 and 4 were left out of consideration alto- gether. BGD would still be a curve of constant total heat, provided only that the quality of the incoming steam at A remained constant during a ran, and Vc^df would still be a useful piece of the desired total heat curva

All sample pieces of any one observer were then plotted carefully on

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very thin transparent rice paper, with vertical guide-lines at certain standard temperatures, which enaUed these plots to be accurately ori- ented as far as rotation and horizontal displacement were concerned, but left them free to slide up and down over each other. The sheets were then piled on top of one another on a transparent table lighted from below, each one placed so as to make its piece of curve coincide most satis&ctorily with the overlapping pieces already laid down. The exact relative displacements of the sheets were then carefully measured. This process was repeated for each of the three observers' sets of sheets independently, four different times for each set, in two very different orders and in those orders reversed, on different days, all with the ob- ject of avoiding as far as possible any routinizing effects of memory or habit which might disturb the real independence of the four determina- tions. The means of the measured displacements were then used to reduce each of the pieces of curve in any one of the sets to a zero com- mon to all the curves of that set The results are marked Gy^ Gs, and P in Figure 5. They are plotted separately for clearness, but they are simply different experimental determinations of exactly the same real curva The vertical scale of each is that indicated at the side of the diagram, but the height of each above its true zero is still unknown. Each of the circles represents at least one independent throttling ob- servation, and some of 'them two or three independent observations that happened to coincide. It will be noticed that no one of the curves is more than a fifth of a scale division, or four tenths of a calorie, wide between centers. Each is, therefore^ a self-consistent determination of the true curve within two tenths of a calorie, or about three hundredths of one per cent.

The next step was to establish a comparison between the three curves. The points of each were first divided into groups, each includ- ing some 20^ of temperature range, and the mean point of each group was used to represent the group. This procedure is justified by the £a^t that so short a section of the total heat curve can be considered straight without serious error. There were eighteen such means, seven representing Grindley's points, five Griessmann's and six Peake*a These means were then plotted on three more sheets of rice paper, the resulting curves were superposed in the way already described, and a determination was made of the corrections necessary to reduce all three sets of means to a common but still arbitrary zero.

In the meantime successive means from each of the three curves taken separately were used to compute the values of the derivative dll/dt which are plotted with large circles in Figure 6. It is evident that the results from the three sources agree with each other in deter-

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mining a straight line as the graph of dH/dt against t. The total heat curve itself can therefore be represented in the range between 100*^ and 190° by an equation of the second degree in ^, within the limit of error of the available data. The form selected is

H-Hxt» + a (^ - 100) - 6 (^- 100)1

The eighteen means, reduced to a common but still arbitrary zero, were

FiGUKB 6. dH/dt plotted against t, authorities as in Figure 5.

150 i 200

The symbols refer to the same

nsed to give a least squares determination of the constants JTioo, cl and b and of their probable errors, with the following results;

Hiwi = arbitrary ± 0.03, a = 0.3745 ± 0.0014, b = 0.000990 ± 0.000020.

The agreement of the eighteen individual means with this formula is shown in the upper part of Figure 5, the curve being drawn to represent the formula as accurately as possible. It is also shown by the smallness of the three probable errors. Even if these errors are combined in the most unfavorable way, the change in the computed value of H at 200°C. is only 0.37 calories, or about one eighteenth of one per cent of H itself; at lower temperatures the change would be still less.

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The value of ^loo which was obtained from the least squares process is entered in the above table as "arbitrary" because it is measured from an arbitrary zero. This value of ^loo was next subtracted from each of the eighteen means, giving new values for these means on a new scale whose zero is Hwy In other words, these means now represent the true values of iST — iSTioo. The resulting values are given in Table I, and are represented within their limit of error by the formula

H - ^100 = 0.3745 {t - 100) - 0.000990 {t - 100)*.

TABLE I.

Values op Ht — H^^ and of ^^

	/	^/— ^i»	Ht*
Grindley ....	67.56	-13.23	625.88
	82.70	- 6.80	632.31
	101.80	+ 0.71	639.82
	109.27	+ 3.31	642.42
	123.82	+ 8.36	647.47
	139.92	+ 13.46	652.57
	161.65	-1-19.26	658.37
Gricssixi&iin ...	99.61	+ 0.03	639.14
	119.80	+ 6.89	646.00
	139.18	-1-12.94	652.05
	156.01	-1-17.98	657.09
	172.60	+22.28	661.39
Peake	102.88	+ 1.15	640.26
	120.22	+ 7.16	646.27
	138.41	+ 12.87	651.98
	157.56	+ 18.36	657.47
	173.60	+22.22	661.33
	186.33	+ 24.77	663.88
♦ These values of Ht are computed from Ht — H,« on the assump- tion that //\|oo = 639.11 mean calories (see page 281). They are inserted here for the convenience of the reader, but the values of Hf — H^^^ are
the significant part of this table and indeed of the whole paper.

This formula gives, in mean calories, the total heat of saturated steam at any temperature between 100® and 190® C. in terms qf that at \0(f G. A value for the fundamental constant ^loo will presently be chosen from those available in the literature of the subject, but it should be remembered that even if this choice is wrong, or if new and different data near 100^ are hereafter published, whatever merit the above equa-

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tion may have will be wholly unaffected by the necessary change in

ijTioo-

It is interesting to compare the self-consistency of this work, as represented by the narrowness of the bands of plotted points, with that of Regnault's observations^ which are plotted at the bottom of Figure 5.^^ His band is at least eight or ten times as wide as any of

TABLE II. Henning's Measurements of H,

Temp.	Value of L.	Heat of the liquid.	H.	HyarH.	Hm.	VariatioD from 1
Aa reported.	Reduced.	First mean.	Second mean.
30.12 49.14 64.85 77.34 89.29 100.59 102.34 120.78 140.97 160.56 180.72	(579.0) 569.55 559.47 552.47 545.76 538.25 536.93 525.32 509.60 495.95 481.99	(579.5) 570.07 559.98 552.97 546.26 538.74 537.42 525.90 510.06 496.40 482.43	30.1 49.09 64.77 77.27 89.24 100.59 102.35 121.02 141.62 161.80 182.78	(609.6) 619.16 624.75 630.24 635.50 639.33 639.77 646.92 651.68 658.20 665.21	+ 14.39 + 8.99 + 4.13 - 0.22 - 0.87 - 7.36 -13.79 -19.06 -23.79	639;i4 639.23 639.63 639.11 638.90 639.56 637.89 639.14 641.42	-()!l9 -0.10 + 0.30 -0.22 -0.43 +0.23 -1.44 -0.19 +2.09	-6;i2 -0.03 +0.37 -0.15 -0.36 +0.30
Mean of	all	. 639.33 ±0.49 .. .
Mean of	firstsix	. 639.26 . . : . ±0.19
The values of L in the second column are in terms of Henning's " 15° Calorie " of 4.188 international Joules; those in the third column are reduced to mean calories of 4.1842 Joules. The heat of the liquid in the fourth column is from the steam tables of Marks and Davis. The probable error of each mean is 0.845 times the corresponding average error.

those above it It should also be noticed that something evidently happened to his apparatus at 178° C, and that allowing for this, his band shows anmistakably the s^e curvature as those above it The observations above 178° C. were, as a matter of febct, the last he made, and he speaks definitely of serious trouble with his apparatus at the

^* The large circle at the boiling point, 100^ C, represents the mean of 38 points, of which only the highest and lowest are plotted.

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very point at which the jump occurs ; in feet, he had to renew many of its parts, and to watch it continually thereafter, so that his conditions may well have been somewhat changed. This discontinuity in his curve has been noticed by many writers, one of whom attributes it. to a leak in his distributing valve, remedied at this point ; but this is not definitely mentioned in the memoir.

The recent publication by Henning of his measurements of L between 100'' and 180° gives a valuable test of the new formula. All his values in both papers are collected in the second column of Table II. They are expressed in terms of a calorie of 4.188^® international Wattseconds. It is probable that the mean calorie (0° to 100°) is about 4.184(2) international Wattseconds, for the fine work of Rey- nolds and Moorby ^^ by a mechanical method, leads, according to Smith,2i to the value 4.1836, while the equally good work of Barnes ^2 by an electrical method must now 23 be regarded as leading to the value 4.1849. Each of Henning's numbers should therefore be multi- plied by 4.188 / 4.1842 = 1.00091. The results are given in the third column of Table II. They lead to the values of i7 in the fifth column. In the sixth and seventh columns are given the values at the cor- responding temperatures of

H "11x00 = 0.3745 {t - 100) - 0.000990 (t - 100)^

and of ^100 itself The latter is practically constant as it should be if the new formula is true. It will be noticed that the probable error of the mean value of H is only one thirteenth of one per cent of that mean, and that this agreement is within the one tenth of one per cent which Henning claims for his observations. It will further be noticed that practically all of the discrepancy is in two of the last three values. If all three of these values are omitted, so that the range of the test is cut down to that between 65° and 121°, the probable error of the new mean is only ±0.19 calories, or one thirty-fourth of one per cent

In estimating the significance of the comparatively great disagree- ment between Henning's value at 180° and the new formula it should be remembered that Henning himself says, " Bei der hochsten Tem- peratur von 180° konnten nur an zwei tagen Versuchen angestellt werden " (instead of on four days as at most of the other temperatures).

*• This is Jager and von Steinwehr's value for the 15® calorie. The justi- fication for it has not yet been published. «• PhU. Trans., 1897, 190 A, 301. «i Monthly Weather Review, 1907, 36, 458. M Phil. Trans., 1902, 199 A, 149. » Proc. Roy. Soc., 1909, 82 A, 390.

^7.

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" Za B^inn des dritten Tages y^rsagte der Apparat seinen Dienst und es war infolge der durch die starke Hitze eintretenden allmahlichen Veranderungen des Materials and inbesondere infolge der Abnutzung des Hahnes H nicht wieder der erforderliche Grad der Dichtheit za erreichen." If a small leak of die same sort had been present without being noticed on the two days on which observations were made, its effect woald have been to make tiie observed L too large, jast as it seems to be. At any rate, the point at 180^ is not entitled to nearly as mach weight as the others. The x)oint at 140° was, however, as £ur as Henning coald judge, as good as any of the rest

One other aspect of Henning's paper tends to minimize the signifi- cance of the disagreement at the two high temperatures. He is led by his points at 140° and 180° to tie conclusion that the curve L =/{t) is a straight line between 120° and 180°. Now, of course, it is pos- sible that he and Regnault are both right in finding unexpectedly high values near 180°, and that, because of changing polymerization or some other disturbing condition, the character of the curve L =f(t) between 120° and 180° is very different firom that which it is known to have below 120° and fix)m that which it must begin again to have somewhere above 180°, if it is to come vertically to zero at the critical temperature as is commonly supposed. This is, however, not probable, and until Henning's 180° point is definitely verified by observations with unquestionable apparatus, the writer will still believe that the formula proposed in this paper is nearer the trutii than is Henning's straight line. The excellence of the confirmation between 65° and 121° and also at 160° seems more significant than the disagreements at 140° and 180°.

Another check of the new H formula can be obtained by computing fi'om it the specific volume of saturated steam by means of Glapyron's equation

This check has been carried through independently by Peabody^ and by the writer. 26 In both cases the necessary values of dp/dt were taken firom the recent paper of Holbom and Henning on the saturation pres- sures of steam,^ and the values of X were based on the formula pro- posed in this paper. The choice of a suitable value for JTioo and of suitable values for the heat of the liquid which has to be subtracted

«* Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1909, 31, 695. »• Marks and Davis, Steam Tables. «• Wied. Ann., 1908, 26, 833.

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from H to give Z, was in each case aooomplished independently o^ and to a minor extent in disagreement with, the judgment of the other, but in each case the greatest difference between thid computed values and those actually observed by Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe27 was under two tenths of one per 6ent» and in each case the average of the deviations was about one tenth of one per cent and they were nearly equally divided between plus and minus. It is probable that some of these deviations may properly be attributed to errors in the observed values.

The accuracy of the new H formula can now be estimated. It has been pointed out that the self-consistency of the computed i)oints indi- cates a precision of the order of a twentieth of one per cent. The actual error is probably larger than this because of systematic errors in Knoblauch's specific heats. It is possible that these will ultimately be raised enough to make ^im a tenth or even a sixth of one per cent larger. Inasmuch, however, as the other two tests which have been applied, based on Henning's direct nieasurements of H and on Knob- lauch, Linde, and Klebe's volume measurements, have both led to an estimated accuracy of a tenth of one per cent or better, a part of the outstanding disagreement in each case being furthermore reasonably attributable to possible errors on the observed as well as on the com- puted side of the comparison, it would seem that a claim of a tenth of one per cent for the accuracy of the new H formula between 100° and 190° is justified.

B. The valm of ffioo- — In what is to follow a suitable value for Hioo will be necessary. Henning's work has already been shown to lead to the value

^100 = 639.26 mean calories (Henning).

Another available value is that of Joly ^8 who compared the latent heat of steam at 99.96° with the mean specific heat of water between 11.89° and 99.96°. The latter number is 0.99949 according to the curve used in the steam tables already mentioned. The resulting value of i/ioo is

i/ioo = 638.82 mean calories (Joly).

In this determination of ZTioo Begnault's measurements wiU not be considered at all. They show unmistakable evidence of running lower than they should, probably for the same reason that makes

« Forschungsarb., 1905, 21, 33. >• Loc, cU,f on page 268.

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Thomas' values of C> at saturation correspondingly too high. Only recently has it become evident how difficult it is to remove the last traces of moisture from apparently dry steam, and if any remained in Regnault's steam, it would have made his results too low, just as they seem to be.

The mean of Henning's and Joly's values of iJioo is 639.04 if both are weighted alike, or 639.11 if Henning's has (as it seems to deserve) twice the weight of Joly's. The final formula for H is, therefore,

H = 639.11 + 0.3745 {t - 100) - 0.000990 (t ~ 100)* mean calories.

The steam table of Marks and Davis, which was computed before the appearance either of Henning's second paper or of Barnes' revision of his value of «/, was based on ZT^o = 639.08, which, as it happens, is between the two means just found, and nearer to either of them than the limit of error of the work demands. The values of H^ L and L/T in that table will be used in the rest of this paper as representing the best available dataw

C. Extrapolation formulm for H arid L, — The range within which the new H formula holds has been set as from 100^ to 190°. Above the latter temperature no observations are available. It is often important, however, both in scientific and in technical work, to have at least reasonably accurate steam tables at considerably higher tempera- tures. It is, therefore, desirable to develop as safe an extrapolation formula as possible for either H or L.

For this purpose the second degree H formula proi)osed above is wholly unsuited. Within the range for which it is proposed, it happens to be an unusually good three term Taylor's series development of the true function but it cannot be extrapolated safely either up or down.

Thali it cannot be used near 0°, is seen from Figure 6, where the small circles, not previously mentioned, represent values of the deriva- tive of H with respect to t, obtained from the five sets of experimental values mentioned on page 268. It is evident that the graph of dHjdt against t is not a straight line over the whole range from 0° to 200^. No second degree formula that fitted the observations above 100*^ could be expected to reproduce those near 0° also.

That a second degree formula is no less unsatisfiu^ry for a extrapo- lation to high temperatures can be shown as follows. Let it be as- sumed that the top of the steam dome on either the pv or the T N (temper»ture-entropy) plane is round like Figure la and not pointed like Figure Ib,^ This is the usual assumption, and it is corroborated

>* It follows from the Clapyron equation that if the dome is round on either plane, it will be on botL

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by the work of a number of observers.^ Now according to a familiar equation of thermodynamics

dff=TdN+vdp

for any transformation, and in particular for one along the saturation line. Dividing by dt and passing along that line to the critical temper- ature as a limit, gives

= — 00 + constant

4oor

FiouKE 7 a.

Figure 76.

The steam dome on the temperature-entropy plane. The full lines are drawn to scale; the dotted lines show two possible shapes near the critical point, of which the first is almost certainly right.

• That is, H must not only pass a maximum below the critical tempera- ture, but must approach that temperature with so sharp a turn down- ward as to reach it with a vertical tangent The H curve is throughout a curve not only of constantly changing slope but also of constantly increasing curvature as is shown in the upper part of Figure 8, and it is only in very limited regions that the first three terms of a Taylor's development can be expected to represent it with sufiicient exactness. It might be possible to invent a function having the general properties indicated by Figure 8, if one knew the value of H at the critical

»• See for example papers by Cailletet and Mathias, C. R., 1886, 102, 1202, and 1887, 104, 1663; by Amagat, C. R., 1892, 114, 1093; and by Young, Phil. Mag., 1900, 60, 291. See also the diagrams for normal pentane on pages 166 and 167 of Young's book on Stoichiometry, Longman's (1908).

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283

temperature. Inasmuch as nothing is known about that final value of H^ui such an empirical treatment gives no promise of significance.

In the case of X, on the other hand, one learns from an inspection of figure 8, not only that dLfdt == — od at the critical i)oint, but also that Z = 0 there. This led Thiesen in 1897,^^ to the fortunate suggestion

400

Figure 8. The steam dome on the Hi plane, showing the relationship between the graphs representing the "total heat of saturated steam" and the *' heat of the liquid." The former (the upper boundary of the steam dome) is the cur/e that Regnault beUeved to be a straight line. It obviously passes a maximimi and reaches the critical point with a negatively infinite derivative.

that if the known values of L at ordinary temperatures can be repre- sented by a formula of the form

L-A (t, — 0^ n<l,

one could also be sure that it gave correct values both for L and for dL/dt at tiie critical point, so that the use of the formula for other high temperatures would be, in a sense, an interpolation rather than an extrapolation. The constants can be determined and the formula tested in the range of the known X's by writting it in the logarithmic form

»i Verb. Phys. Gesch., Berlin, 1897, 16, 80.

gedbyGoOgle

284

PB0CEEDING8 OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

log X = n log (tc — 0 + log A.

That is, if log L is plotted against log (t^ — t) one should get a straight line. This turns out to be remarkably near the truth. Thiesen origi- nally suggested n = 1/3 ; Henning ^^ showed that his observations below 100° could be represented by putting n = 0.31249 and A = 94.21 ; a careful plot^ a year ago, of the values available before the appearance of Henning's work above 100°, but including the values in Table I. in this paper, led to n = 0.3150 and A = 92.93. The work has been carefully repeated this £edl. Including Henning's new work and the values in this paper, 37 values of L are available. They were

TABLE III.

Range.	No. of deviations.	Ali^ebraic average of deviations in fractions of one per cent.
+	-
O- 70'' 70''- 130 130«-190«»	2 14 4	9 0 8	-0.027% +0.023% -0.003% ♦
37-20 + 17
* This includes Henning's point at 181° with a deviation of +0.167% (see page 278) ; if this one point is omitted, the last value in the above table would be —0.018%.

plotted logarithmically on a large scale, and the slope of the line that best represented them was determined graphically by stretching a thread among the points. This was done several times by each of two different people, their results being closely accordant The average of their values of n was then used to compute A arithmetically. The result is exactly the same as that of a year ago, namely,

L = 92.93 (365 - 0^*""

The average of the numerical values of the differences between the 37 observed values of L and the numbers computed by means of the above formula is one fourteenth of one per cent, which is less than the probable accuracy of the measurements. It is true that there is some evidence of regularity among the deviations as the above table shows.

M Wied. Ann., 1906, 21, 870.

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DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERBiAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 285

These average deviations are, of course, very small, but the larger deviations in eaoh group tend to cluster and to approach the limit of accuracy of die measurements, so that the S3rstematic variation may be real In any case, its amplitude is so small that it deserves but little consideration at this time.

4. Discussion op the Specific Heat of Sttperhbated Steam.

It is the purpose of the rest of this paper to collect and revise such useful computations of other thermal properties of steam as are affected by a change in the accepted values of the total heat of saturated steam, together with such other results as are valuable for comparison with them. Section 4 will be concerned with the specific heat of superheated steam. Many papers on this subject have been published during the last ten years, especially in the technical press. They can be roaghly classified under the following heads.

A. Direct experimental determinations.

B. Indirect experimental determinations and computations from other data.

a. Throttling experiments.

b. Gompatations based on characteristic equations or on volume

measurements.

c. Computations based on the Joule-Thomson effect.

d. Computations along the saturaticm . line based on Planck's

equation.

e. Other computations.

C. Resumes and discussions.

Each of these possible sources of information will be discussed in turn, with the object, not so much of reviewing previous papers, as of getting by each method the best information that the new material in this and in the preceding paper makes possibla

A. Direct experimental determinations. — Three of the papers that belong in this subsection have already been discussed in Section 2. The conclusion there reached was that of the three, that of Knoblauch, Linde and Elebe was the most reliable. Their results will therefore be used as the point of departure of this section, it being the object of each subsection, either to test the justice of the decision that their work is preferable to Thomas \ or to determine what changes should be made in their curves to bring them nearer to the truth.

The most fiunous of all contributions to this subject is Begnault's direct experimental determination of C, in 1862.^ It seems not to be

M Mem. Inst, de France, 1862, 26, 167.

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generally known that his compatatibns involve one step which modem work has shown to be erroneous. He made four sets of experiments, all at atmospheric pressure, and all covering about die same range of superheat. In each experiment, first slightly superheated steam, and later highly superheated steam at the same pressure, was condensed in a water calorimeter. The heat released per gram of steam in the first process was then subtracted fi*om that released per gram of steam in the second process and the difference divided by the difference in superheat to give Cp. The results which he deduced irom his experi- ments will be found in the third column of Table IV. below. The error which he made was in the determination of the quantity

TABLE rv. A Recomputation op Regnault's Values op Cp,

	Temp, range	R's value ofC,.	New value ofCp.	Kn'a value ofC,».
Series 1 Series 2 Series 3 Series 4	127.7-231.1 137.7-225.9 124.3-210.4 122.8-216.0	(0.46881) ♦ 0.48111 0.48080 0.47963	(0.4655) ♦ 0.4769 0.4736 0.4780	0.462 0.462 0.462 0.462
Mean of last three . . . 0.48051 0.4762
* " . . . les r^sultats de la premiere s^rie, qui m'inspirent moins de confiance que les autres. . . . Regnault, p. 178.

of water in his calorimeter. This he accomplished, not by weighing, but by a volumetric measurement in a sheet iron tank filled each time to a scratch on the glass tube that formed its neck. Regnault knew that the coefficients of expansion of the water and of the tank were such that the tank would hold fewer grams of water at the room temperatures at which he worked than at 0°, the temperatare at which he had calibrated the tank. But he supposed that he also knew the specific heat of water to be an increasing function of the tempera- ture at room temperatares as well as above 100° where he had care- fully studied it He therefore neglected both temperature changes, thinking that they neutralized each other, and used at all room temperatures the weight that would have filled the tank at 0°, and the specific heat 1.

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DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OP STEAM. 287

We now know that the specific heat of water decreases with in- creasing temperature from 0° to above 25°. There is some difference of opinion between Barnes and Dieterioi, the two leading investigators of the subject, as to the exact shape of the curve of variation, but it is near enough to the truth to take, as in the steam tables already mentioned, a mean curve between that of Barnes and that of Dieterici, giving the former twice the weight of the latter.

Regnault's values of C, have been recomputed from the data in his memoir, using his own value for the coefficient of expansion of sheet iron, modem data for the density of water, and the mean curve just mentioned for the specific heat of water. The new results are given in the fourth column of Table IV. They are somewhat lower than his original values and are thereby brought nearer to the corresponding values obtained by Knoblauch and Jakob, which are given in the fifth column of the table.

In the present unsettled state of our knowledge of C,^ Regnault's work should have considerable weight

The only other important direct experimental determination of G^ is that of Holborn and Henning.^ Their work, like Regnault's, was only at atmospheric pressure, but^ unlike his, it covered a very wide temper- ature range, reaching 1400^ G. It is certainly to be regarded as standard in the region of high superheats. It shows that in that region C^ in- creases with increasing temperature, but not as rapidly as Eoioblauch's curves would indicate.

In a " Memorandum by the Chief Engineer for the year 1906 to the Executive Committee of the Manchester Steam Users Association," ^5 the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, England, is said to have found Cp = 0.532 at saturation at 4.3 atmospheres (147° C). This value lies remarkably close to Knoblauch's saturation curve.

Ba. Throttling experiments. — The failure of even the best throt- tling experiments to give satisfactory values of C^ by the ordinary methods has already been mentioned. A new method elaborated by Dodge ^ is much more promising, but no thoroughly reliable results have yet been obtained by it.

Bb. Characteristic equations : — If a sufficiently accurate character- istic equation, /(p, v, t)=0, were known for superheated steam, much useful information about C> could be obtained from Clausius's equation

(Wr"""'K^v;

»• Ann., 1907, 23, 809. » Manchester, June 4, 1907.

»• Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1907, 28, 1266 and 1908, 30, 1227.

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At the present time this is not a good way to get information about Cp for two reasons. In the first place, all of the most reliable set of volume measurements yet made (Knoblauch, Linde and Elebe) lie close to the saturation line, not one of them reaching either 50° of superheat or 190*^ of temperature. No characteristic equation based on them can be depended on at i)oint8 £aur out in the superheated region. And in the second place, Glausius' equation inyolyes a second derivative of the observed quantity v^ and even the first derivative of an empirically determined function is liable to relative errors much

100 200 800 t 400

Figure 9. Knoblauch and Jakob's measurements of Cp^ reduced to a pressure of 1 kg. per sq. cm. by means of Clausius' equation, using the char- acteristic equation developed by Linde to represent the volume measurements of Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe. The smallest circles correspond to the highest original pressure (8 kg.)> the next smallest to 6 kg., and so on. The progressive departure from a single curve with increasing pressure is marked.

larger than any in the observed quantity itself, while a second deriva- tive is still more uncertain. This is illustrated by the fact that a characteristic equation of Tumlirz's form, which was shown by Linde to represent Knoblauch's volume measurements within four fifths of one per cent throughout their range, leads through Clausius' equation to the startling result that C, does not vary at all with pressure at constant temperature, whereas it is known to vary within that same range by something like 60 per cent of its initial value.

The contention that even the best i)0S8ible representation of Knob- lauch's volume measurements is still too inaccurate to give reliable values of C>, through Clausius' equation, can be further substantiated by an examination of the experimental data already described. Knob- lauch and Jakob made observations on C^ at four pressures, all greater

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DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 289

than one atmosphere. If these are all "redaced " to one atmosphere hy means of Glausias' equation, using Linde's best characteristic equa- tion to represent the volume measurements, the results, plotted in Figure 9, show deviations from a common curve that increase with the pressure. The same is more strikingly true in Thomas' case. If his results, so recomputed ^7 as to partly eliminate the wet steam error already mentioned (see page 271), are similarly reduced to one atmos- phere by means of Clausius' thermodynamic equation and Linde's best characteristic equation, the progressive departure with increasing pressure from the probable curve" for one atmosphere is very marked, the 500 lb. and 600 lb. values disappearing beyond the bottom of the diagram altogether. That is, although Linde's second best equation gave no variation of C^ with pressure at all, his best one gives alto- gether too much. The experimental evidence is thus wholly against die reliability of any C^ values obtained by means of Glausius' equation from any volume measurements as yet available

Be. The Joule-Thomson ^ect. — There are three ways in which C^ can be connected with the Joule-Thomson coefficient fu The first of these was suggested almost simultaneously by Linde and by Planck.^ It is thermodjmamically rigorous, except for the assumption of the form of an analytical expression for /a as a function of t The one they used, namely,

_ Const.

was proposed by Joule and Thomson in their original memoir on air, and is not at all accurate, especially for steam. If it is replaced by a more complicated expression, the integration of the partial differential equation, to which the reasoning of Linde and Planck leads, is impossible.

A second equation connecting Cp with fi is used by Griessmann ^ in the discussion of his throttling experiments. It is not a thermody- namic equation in the true sense because it does not involve either of the two laws of thermodynamics ; it is merely a manipulative identity that can be proved by the laws of partial differentiation — that is a truism. It says that at any point in any thermodynamic plane

« Davis Proc. Am. Soc. Mech. Engs., 1908, 30, 1433. »• Linde, Sitzimgsber, bays. Akad., Math. Kl., 1897; Planck, "Vorlesungen Qber Thermodynamik," 1897, 117; Eng. ed., 1903, 124. »» Forechungsarb., 1904, 18, 7 and 46. VOL. XLV. — 19

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PBOCKEDINQS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

provided only that both derivatives are taken in the same direction from the point Griessmann uses the equation over the whole plane, but makes certain experimentally deduced assumptions which do not now seem to be j ustified.

The equation is likely to be most useful along the saturation line where dH/dt and dp/dt are both well known. Unfortunately n is not as yet well known at such low temperatures, and it will be interesting to see whether, in the development of the subject^ Griessmann's truism turns out to be more useful for the computation of C, at saturation from fi or of fi from C^

The only use that will be made of the equation in this paper is to deduce from it the well-known theorem, usually attributed to Bankine, that at ordinary temperatures Cp at saturation must be numerically greater than dH^at/dt^ At most temperatures this condition is so overwhelmingly fulfilled as to be of no value. At 0**C. it requires that Cp at saturation be as great as 0.44. Now if Knoblauch's satura- tion curve is continued to temperatures below 100° C, this condition will be found to require, either that the curve passes a minimum between 100° and 0°, or that it must lie somewhat higher between 100° and 150° so as to approach smoothly the right value at 0°. The existence of such a minimum has several times been suspected as a result of other indirect computations, and its experimental verification would be a matter of some interest ; in the mean time the other alter- native seems more probable, especially as it brings Knoblauch's values of Cp at atmospheric pressure into better agree- ment with Regnault's. Additional con- firmation of this decision will be found on pages 293 and 300.

The third of the methods referred to above for connecting Cp with fi is appar- ently new. It involves an equation which, like Griessmann's, is merely a manipula- tive identity or truism. It can be devel- oped as follows. In Figure 10, let ab and cd be parts of two throttling curves on the usual tp diagram, the corre- sponding values of the total heat being If and H + AH, Then at the pressures p and j9 -h Ap we have

^ This follows at once from the fact that both /a and C/ are known to be positive.

Figure 10.

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291

C> lim

from which

and (^p+^p-^i.o^^—f.

Now, except for tenns of higher order than AZT and Ap,

Substitating this above gives

^p+^p — Q> lim

and the limit sign is no longer necessary. Dropping it, dividing by A/>, and then letting Ap approach zero, gives

Integrating this at constant H gives as the final equation *i

^ The differential form of this equation can also be proved analytically as follows: For any three related quantities p, tj and H, one has the identity

But

and therefore

\dt)H\dH)Adv)i " ^'

18 C/ which can be one has a second i< (dCj,\ (dCA /dp\ (dCA (dt\

(1)

But for any function such as C/ which can be expressed in terms of any two of the variables p, (, and H, one has a second identity

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292 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

This fonniila has the disadvantage, as compared with Griessmann's, of involving the derivative of the inaccurately known function /*. This prohibits its use at the low temperatures close to saturation where fi is scarcely known at all, but makes much less difference at very high temperatures where the CO2 jwints of Figure 5 of the preceding paper help to place the fi =/(0 curve with great definiteness. This method of computation is therefore at its best where many others tail completely.

The use of the new equation at ordinary temperatures is a matter requiring patience and much labor. First one computes and plots against t the derivative of the fi=/(t) curve of the preceding paper. Next one computes from the curve of fi itself the progress of some curve of constant ff across the p t plane ; this is necessary so as to be able to express dfi/dt as a function of p in the int^fral. Then the integral has to be evaluated, either by replotting dfA,/dt against p for the particular H curve in question and using an int^fraph, or by a step by step numerical process. The results are the Naperian loga- rithms of the desired ratios.

This process has been carried through for four curves in the region of moderate superheats. The results, which are presented in the first part of Table V., are in general in substantial agreement with the corre- sponding ratios computed from Eoioblauch's curves, which are given in

"- (t).-(t).-'(fi- ^

Now from the definition of C/

(V// " \d^)r \dth 'dvdt' ^^^

and from (1)

Substituting (3) and (4) in (2) and using (1) gives the desired equation. Neither of the Laws of thermodynamics has been used.

The differential form of the equation can also be deduced immediately from the equation

which Grindley proves on pages 31 and 32 of his paper in the PhUosophieal Transactions. His proof depends twice over on each of the two laws of thermodynamics, but it need not have, as the above derivations show. The use which he makes of his form of the equation is quite different from that here proposed.

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the last of ea<5h set of columns. The chief disagreement is along carve 1 where Knoblauch's carves are too condensed. This means either that his carve at atmospheric pressure should be lower, or that the lower part of his saturation curve, with the constant pressure curves near it» should be. higher. The first of these possibilities would mean even less agreement between Knoblauch and Regnault than at present, and may therefore be rejected. The remaining possibility has already been suggeste^l by the result obtained firom Griessmann's truism (see page 290). Furthermore, it will be corroborated again in the next section (see page 300). It may therefore be accepted the more readily here. At veiy high superheats, where the method is most valuable, the

TABLE V. Cp Ratios obtainbd from the Joulb-Thomson Effect.

Press	{	[hirvel.	{	[hirve2.	Curves. 1
kgysq.				"	1
							1
cm.	Temp.	Cp/C,^.	Kn.	Temp.	c,lc,^.	Kn.	Temp.	C,/Cp^. Kn. 1
0.1	121.3	0.946	0.97	149.0	0.960	0.98	204.5	0.984	0.98
0.5	123.3	0.970	0.98	150.5	0.979	0.99	205.4	0.991	0.99
1.0	125.8	1.000	1.00	152.3	1.000	1.00	206.4	1.000	1.00
1.5	128.2	1.030	1.02	154.0	1.020	1.02	207.5	1.009	1.01
2.0	130.6	1.060	1.03	155.8	1.041	1.03	208.5	1.018	1.02
2.5	132.9	1.090		157.5	1.062		209.5	1.026
3.0	135.1	1.120	1.07	159.1	1.082	1.06	210.5	1.034	1.04
3.5	137.2	1.150		160.7	1.102		211.5	1.043
4.0	...	...	...	162.3	1.122	i.io	212.5	1.051	1.06
5.0				165.5	1.161		214.5	1.067
6.0				168.5	1.200	1.17	216.5	1.084	1.09
7.0				171.4	1.237		218.4	1.101
8.0				174.3	1.264	1.25	220.2	1.118	1.12
9.0	...	...		177.0	1.309	...	222.1	1.135
10.0				179.7	1.344	1.34	223.9	1.151	1.15
12.0							227.5	1.183
14.0				...	...	...	230.9	1.215
16.0	...		...	. . .	...	...	234.3	1.246
18.0		...		...	...		237.6	1.277	...
20.0							240.9	1.307
22.0				...			244.1	1.337
24.0			...	...	...	. . .	247.2	1.367
26.0							250.3	1.396
28.0							253.4	1.424	...

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TABLE y^ continued.

PrMm		Curve 4.		Curves,	Curve 6,	Curve?,	Curves,
kg./8q.				near 486° C.	near 600° C.	near 926° C.	near 1480° C.

cm.	Temp.	C,/Cp^.	Kn.	Cp/C,^.	Cp/Cp^.	Cp/Cp^,	Cp/Cp^
0.1	287.8	0.994	0.99
1.0	288.9	1.000	1.00	i.booo	1.6660	1.6660	1.6660
2.0	290.1	1.007	1.01	1.0025	1.0016	1.0009	1.0004
4.0	292.4	1.020	1.025	1.0053	1.0036	1.0020	1.0010
6.0	294.7	1.032	1.035	1.0082	1.0055	1.0031	1.0015
8.0	297.0	1.044	1.045	1.0106	1.0072	1.0041	1.0019
10.0	299.2	1.057	1.055	1.014	1.009	1.005	1.002
12.0	301.4	1.069	• • •	1.016	1.011	1.006	1.003
14.0	303.6	1.081		1.019	1.013	1.007	1.003
16.0	305.8	1.093	• • •	1.022	1.015	1.008	1.004
18.0	308.0	1.105		1.025	1.017	1.009	1.004
20.0	310.1	1.117		1.028	1.019	1.011	1.005
22.0	313.3	1.128	• . .	1.030	1.020	1.012	1.005
24.0	314.4	1.140	• • •	1.033	1.022	1.013	1.006
26.0	316.4	1.151	• . .	1.036	1.024	1.014	1.006
28.0	318.5	1.163		1.039	1.026	1.015	1.007

computation is simpler for two reasons. In the first place, ft. and dfi/dt are both so small that the temperature can be assumed constant iJong a curve of constant ff. dfi/dt is then constant in the integra- tion. And in the second place dfi/dt can be compnted firom Bucking- ham's ^ equation for ftf against f, both in reduced units, namely,

, _ 0.209 ^ ^ i! - 0.32

- 0.0368.

This is corrected for the £eu)t that although, in his paper, 100 inches of mercury is taken as the unit of pressure, his critical pressures are ex- pressed in atmospheres. It was shown in the preceding paper that this equation can safely be assumed to hold for steam at very high superheats, since it is known to hold for the other gases which Buck- ingham discusses, and they are known to be connected with steam by a law of corresponding states.

This simpler process has been carried through for the four very high temperatures mentioned in the last part of Table V, with the results there presented. These results are the basis of the high superheat part of the Steam Tables of Marks and Davis.

^ Bui. Bureau of Standards, 1907, 3, 263.

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B<L Planck's equation : — There remains the most interesting of all the indirect attacks on C, at ordinary temperatures. In 1897 Planck published in his thermodynamics the equation

_dH_LL ^~ dt T^ u

L\^* )"<«-. V»*A«.J

This equation holds only along the saturation curve. For its deriva- tion the reader is referred to the English translation of Planck's book*3 or to Griessmann's paper.** The two partial derivatives must be such as to describe the behavior of superheated steam and of water, both close to the steam dome, not of steam within the steam dome. In practise, the second of these derivatives is always negligible in comparison with the first

Two sorts of experimental material are necessary for computations with this equation, a set of total heat values (those proposed in this paper will be used), and a set of values of (dv/dt)p for superheated steam close to saturation. The latter can be based on the volume measurements of Knoblauch, Linde and Elebe,*^ or on those on Ram- say and Young,*® or on those of Battelli.*^ These three sources will be considered in turn.

In the experiments of Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe, the volume was held constant while tiie pressure and temperature were varied. Their results, when plotted on the p t plane, gave isochors or lines of constant volume. These turned out to be straight lines within the limit of error of the meas- urements. Their slopes are entered with other data in the main table of the original paper. These slopes are values of (dp/dt)p and some manipulation is necessary to get from them the desired values of {dv/dt)^ Let Figure II represent a portion of the

p t plane drawn, like an analytical geometry figure, with the same unit of length along each axis. Then

Figure 11

*» Treatise on Thermodynamics, 1903, 147.

** Forschungsarb., 1904, 13, 8.

*» Forschungsarb., 1905, 21, 33. ♦• Phil. Trans., 1893, 183 A, 107.

*» Mem. di Torino, 1893, 43, 63; condensed in Ann. Chim. et Phys., 1894,

408.

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296 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

'"(«+«=(l).

This derivative is well known from the work of Holbom and Henning.*® Also

tan p = (dp/dt\.

This is the derivative given by Enoblanch, Linde, and Elebe, as just explained. Along OB, v is constant ; along OD, which is perpendicular to OBy V increases most rapidly. The following equations can then be verified, " Grad. v " being the space rate of v'a increase along OD.

n J 1 «?4 — %

Orad. t? = — ^ "

sma 03

UV'QTBA,vsmp

At

sin pTJU „„ v^-vo

A/^O '

sin a 03 -^-^ At sin P

;-<•+«©.

sm a The last term of Planck's equation can then be written in the fonn

^\^^ /P(ste«n) \^^ /«t. \^^ Jp Vi /sat. Sm a

In this transformation use has been made of the familiar Clap3rron equation and of the definition of tan (a + ^). The computations are carried through by determining (a + fi) and /3 from their tangents and getting a by subtraction. The necessary values of the differential coefficient (dv/dt),^:,t were formed from the values of v in the Steam Tables of Marks and Davis by the usual finite difference formula

dv = Av— i A^v -h

The results of the computation are summarized in the first part of Table VI., and are plotted as black dots in Figure 12.

*• Wied. Ann., 1908, 26, 836.

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The necessary values of (pv/dt)p can also be obtained by differentiat- ing the complicated characteristic equation which Linde has developed

TABLE VI.

Values of Cp at Saturation from Planck's Equation, using: a. Knoblauch, Linde, and Klebe's 6. Linde 'a Characteristig

EXPEBIMENTAL DaTA. EQUATION.

Temp.	c^	Temp.	Cp.	Temp.	. 1
Knoblauch.*	Thomaa.*
101.4 102.4 108.1 110.7 112.4 114.8 115.3 119.1 119.3 122.1 122.6 126.3 131.5 131.9 133.0 139.1	0.46 0.55 0.44 0.56 0.49 0.40 0.36 0.50 0.52 0.49 0.53 0.49 0.53 0.51 0.47 0.53	140.9 143.0 143.2 144.1 149.8 150.2 153.7 154.2 157.6 159.6 163.7 166.0 170.0 174.6 180.8 183.0	0.54 0.65 0.52 0.52 0.58 0.54 0.56 0.60 0.56 0.58 0.64 0.59 0.58 0.62 0.64 0.66	100.6 126.3 153.1 170.1 193.2 205.1 215.8 225.1 235.8 245.2 253.5	0.484 0.506 0.560 0.615 0.722 0.794 0.875 0.956 1.067 1.179 1.293	0.519 0.533 0.585 0.634 0.737 0.808 0.885 0.966 1.075 1.184 1.298
♦ The column headed " Knoblauch " is based on the H formula of this paper. That headed "Thomas "is based on a modified H formula derived from his values of Cp. It is inserted only for comparison with the preceding one (see page 299). In both columns values above 200** involve a doubtful extrapolation of Linde's equation beyond its proper range. All temperatures are on the centigrade scale.

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TABLE YL — continued.

Values op Cp at Saturation from Planck's Equation, using:

c. Ramsay and Young's , Ti*„«*,Tr,'o <<t*»t« iwr »

Experimental Data. d. Battellis Table M.

Temp.	Cp.	Temp.	Cp.
130.3	0.69	99.5	0.46
133.2	0.69	129.9	0.42
136.9	0.60	133.9	0.48
144.3	0.72	140.6	0.49
154.1	0.74	143.8	0.50
168.2	0.64	149.2	0.50
180.4	1.04	160.9	0.49
191.3	0.80	178.5	0.48
		180.9	0.54
		192.0	0.55
		199.0	0.59

to represent the same data. This alternative compntation seems worth while, partly because of the automatic smoothing effect which the use of an equation based on all the observations necessarily has, but more because it means a redistribution of the dependence of the computed values of Cp on the volume measurements on the one hand and the new 11 formula on the other. The results of eleven computa- tions of this kind are summarized in the second part of Table VI., and five of them are plotted as circles in Figure 12.

Two conclusions can be drawn from Figure 12. In the first place, both sets of points agree in confirming the conclusion reached on page 272, that Knoblauch's saturation curve is nearer the truth than Thomas'. It will probably be argued this confirmation is simply a circular fallacy, inasmuch as the ff formula of this paper was based on Knoblauch's values of Cp and might therefore be expected to lead back to them in the end. This is true only in a very small measure. The dependence of H on Cp is such that comparatively large changes in the Cp curves used at the beginning of this paper would have made

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299

only small changes in the H fonnula, Cp being a factor, not of H itself but only of ^H, And in the second part of the computation, the re- dependence of Cp on H is again insensitive to errors in the assumed function, which this time is H, All this can be strikingly illustrated as follows. It is easy to compute approximately by the method of Section 3 of this paper a value of AJST near 140** and one near 180"^ using Thomas' values of C, instead of Knoblauch's. These, with

F200

Figure 12. Values of Cp computed by Planck's method. The dots are based on the original volume measurements of Knoblauch, Linde and Klebe; the circles are based on Linde's characteristic equation. The lower curve is Knoblauch's saturation line; the upper one is Thomas'.

^H = 0 at 100°, give a new second degree equation for II=/(t) based wholly on Thomas' values. Finally this new H equation can be used with Linde's characteristic equation to compute, by means of Planck's equation, a set of values of Cp at saturation which are exactly com- parable with those in the second part qf Table VL, except that Knob- lauch's C, work is wholly replaced by Thomas'. If there is a circular fallacy in the confirmation mentioned at the beginning of this para- graph, the new results ought to confirm Thomas' C, values at satura- tion just as definitely as the old ones did Knoblauch's. As a matter of tsyot, this is not at all the case. The new results are compared with the old in Figure 13, and agree strikingly in confirming Knoblauch's saturation curve. In other words, no matter which set of C, values

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one starts with, one is led by this method of successive approximations to something much like Knoblauch's curve in the end.

The second conclusion that can be drawn from Figure 12 is that the true saturation curve, although close to Knoblauch's curve, prob- ably runs somewhat higher in the range covered by these computations.

Figure 13. Values of Cp computed by Planck's method from Linde's characteristic equation. The circles come from an H formula based wholly on Knoblauch's Cp measurements, the crosses from a similar H formula based wholly on 'Thomas' Cp measurements. Both confirm Knoblauch's saturation curve {K) rather than Thomas' (T).

It will be remembered that the same conclusion was reached in two different wajrs in the last subsection (pages 290 and 293), and that it is further confirmed by the fsfit that Regnault's values near saturation at atmospheric pressure are higher than Knoblauch's.

The volume measurements of Ramsay and Toung and of Battelli are not so conveniently arranged for the purposes of this particular compu- tation. In both cases the temperature was held constant while the pressure and volume were varied. In the case of Ramsay and Toung it is possible to rearrange the data so as to give i^pnmmate isochors

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301

which can then be reduced to suitable absolutely constant yolumes by interpolation. The curves thus obtained are, however, irregular, and furthermore they show unmistakable evidences of a phenomenon ex- actly analogous to the wet steam error into which Thomas is believed to have fiaJlen. The presence of this error, which took the form of surfishce condensation in the experimental bulb as saturation was approached, is specifically mentioned by the authors, but no attempt was made to eliminate it on the ground that, "however interesting

FiGUHE 14. Values of Cp computed by Planck's method from the volume measurements of Ramsay and Young (circles) and of Battelli (dots).

from a theoretical point of view the absolute expansion of water-gas may be, in practise it is always in contact with a surface; and an indication of the behavior of steam in contact with glass cannot &il to be of use in considering the practical case of steam in contact with iron." It is therefore interesting to find that the values of Cp which have been computed from the data of Ramsay and Toung and which are plotted as circles in Figure 14, run dose to Thomas' saturation curve. This agreement is an indication that both are subject to the same error.

Battelli was also troubled by surfiu^e condensation, but was at great pains, in discussing his results, to eliminate its effects. It has there- fore seemed best to work not from his data, but firom a table near the

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302 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEBffT.

end of his memoir (" Table M ")» ^ which are given certain graphically detennined values of the coefficients in the fonnula

p=zb t + a, which he, like Knoblauch, Linde, and Elebe, uses to represent his isochoTs. The coefficient b in this formula is the same as the {dp/dt)^ in the main table of Knoblauch's paper, and can be used in the same way. The values of C^ computed from Battelli's table M with con- densation effects eliminated, run even lower than Knoblauch's satura- tion curve throughout the range of Figure 14. This indicates that Battelli rather more than eliminated the condensation errors in his discussion of his data.

The contrast between the values obtained from Ramsay and Young's work, where the wet steam error is known to exist, and those obtained from Battelli's work, where it is known to have been consciously eliminated, is so much like the contrast between Thomas' saturation curve and Knoblauch's as to be a striking verification of the conclusion reached on page 272.

It is not probable that either of the three sets of volume measure- ments are reliable enough to make the results computed in this section worthy of much consideration as new determinations of C^ Their value is chiefly as corroborative evidence on one side or the other of the various doubtful points that have been mentioned.

Be. Other indirect computations, — ) -• - ,, , . ,

C. Reswmes and discussions.- [None of the papers which

might be listed under Be or C are such as to be improvable by the use of the new material in this and in the preceding paper, or to be of im- portance in the present connection. They will not be discussed in detail.

Summary of this Cp discussion : —

1. Knoblauch's curves in general, and his saturation curve in particular, are much nearer the truth than Thomas'. The evidence for this is to be found on pages 287 and 298 to 302.

2. Knoblauch's saturation curve runs somewhat too low at low temperatures (see pages 290, 293 and 300).

3. The low temperature end of Knoblauch's 1 kg. curve should be somewhat raised, not only because of conclusion 2 above, but also so as to agree better with Regnault's recomputed results (see page 286).

4. Knoblauch's 1 kg. curve should be relocated at high superheats so as to agree with that of Holbom and Henning.

5. The spacing at high superheats of the curves corresponding to pressures higher than 1 kg. is best determined by a new method involving the Joule-Thomson coefficient (see pages 290 to 294).

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DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 303

6. The reconcfliation, tiirough Clausius' thermodynamic relation, of the accepted volume and specific heat measurements in the superheated region is impossible. This is probably the most important of the out- standing problems in this field.

All these conclusions have been embodied in the C> diagram which is the basis of the Steam Tables already mentioned,^ and it is partly for the purpose of gathering in one place all of the underlying evidence that justifies those tables, much of it unsuitable for presentation there, that this section of the present paper has been written. The Cp curves which were used were as faithful a translation and extrapolation of Knoblauch's curves as possible, except for the differences stated abova In particular they reproduced the tremendous rise of his saturation curve at even moderately high pressures and temperatures. It is probable that this feature of Knoblauch's curves, although near enough to the truth to satisfy the present needs of engineering practise, will have to be revised later. It is, however, the only rational guess yet published, and it is not worth while to cumber the literature with any more " harmonized " sets of C> values at high pressures until there is something definite to build on. The problem of determining the true course of the high pressure end of the saturation curve on the Cp dia- gram is second in importance only to that mentioned at the end of the summary just above.

5. Clausius' "Specific Heat of Saturated Steam."

This section will be devoted to a revision of a computation first made by Clausius, which, although no longer of especial importance, is usually of considerable interest to students of thermodynamics. In the sixth chapter of the first volume of his " Mechanical Theory of Heat " he defines the specific heat of saturated steam as the quantity of heat that must be added to saturated steam at any temperature U) turn it into saturated steam one degree hotter, account being taken of the fact that it will have to be compressed to keep it saturated. For steam and for most other substances it is negative at ordinary tempera- tures, because the work of compression is more than enough to provide the corresponding increase in the internal energy. But in the case of most substances including steam it is at ordinary temperatures an increasing function of the temperature and may, therefore, pass through zero and become positive if the temperature is sufficiently raised. This Clausius found to be actually the case for ether at ordinary temperatures and for chloroform above 130°, and the ex-

*• See page 97 of the Tables.

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periments of Cazin and of Him confinned this result For snch sabstanoes, the top of the temperature-entropy diagram must have the curious shape shown in Figures 15a and 15&

J

/

f

% %

IM

/

,1

A

^

X

J

«■ J

Figure 15 a. Temperature-en- tropy diagram for ether.

Figure 156. Temperature- entropy diagram for chloroform.

The extrapolation formula for L in sub-seotion 3C enables one to compute this specific heat of saturated steam from Glausius' equation.

with the following results.

TABLE VII. The Specific Heat op Saturated Steam.

Temp.	C^.	Same ace. to ClausiuB.
0**	-1.69	-1.916
60<»	-1.33	-1.465
100*»	-1.08	-1.133
150«	-0.90	-0.879
200«	-0.80	-0.676
260<»	-0.82
300*»	-1.13

DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 305

The neoessary values of the specific heat of water, c, are taken from Marks and Davis' Steam Tables. Above 100"^ they are based on the experiments of Dieterici which ran to 303"^. The Table shows that C^t. passes its maximum below 250° without becoming zero or positive, and that at 300"^ it is already well on its way toward the value minus infinity which it has at the critical point The temperature-entropy diagram for steam (see Figure la) is, therefore, fundamentally difier- ent in shape firom that of ether or chloroform.

6. The Critioal Volume op Water.

The extrapolation fommla for L also makes possible a computation of the critical volume of water by the method of Cailletet and Mathias. These investigators announced in 1886^ their well-known "law of the straight diameter," according to which, if the densities of a liquid and its saturated vapor are plotted against the corresponding tem- peratures to form a steam dome, the mid-points of the horizontal chords of the dome lie in a straight line. This law has been tested by a number of observers,*^ but particularly by Young, who proved that the diameter is accurately straight only in the case of a few "normal " substances of which normal pentane is the best known example, but that it is always nearly straight and can almost always be represented within the limit of error of the observations by a second degree equation in t. In certain cases, notably acetic acid and the alcohols, a third degree equation is necessaiy. All departures of the diameter firom perfect straightness are oommonl^ attributed to association in the liquid.

If the equation of the diameter is known, the substitution in it of the critical temperature gives the critical density with an accuracy far surpassing that of any known method of direct measurement. This accuracy is greatly increased by the fact that the diameter is always so nearly parallel to the t axis that even a considerable error in the critical temperature makes very little difference in the critical volume.

In applying this method to the determination of the critical density of water, one finds available in the third (1905) edition of Landolt and Bernstein's " Physikalische Tabellen " a satisfiwjtory set of values

»• C. R., 1886, 102, 1202.

w Mathias, Ann. de la Fac. des Sci. Toulouse, 1892, 6, Ml; C. R., 1892, 116, 35; M6m. Soc. Roy. des Sci., Liege, 1899, 2; Joum. de Phys., 1899, 8, 407; and 1905, 4, 77 ; Young, Joum. Chem. Soc., trans., 1893, 63, 1237 ; Phil. Mag., 1892, 34, 503; and 1900, 60, 291 ; Guye, Archives des Sci. Phys. et Nat., 1894, 31, 43; Tsuruta, Phys. Rev., 1900, 10, 116. See also Young's "Stoichiome- try," 1908, 165.

VOL. XLV.— 20

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of the density of water up to 320°C. Furthennore, the pressure of saturated steam has heen observed up to the critical point itself by a number of observers, of whom Cailletet and Colardeau *2 seem the most trustworthy. From their values and the extrapolation formula for Zr, one can compute the change of volume during vaporization up

400

"1 — r

800

200

lOOj

T

.00--0 — o-^

N-

/ o o -o o o o o o o o

o o

o o o

o

o o o

o

OH

o

c

LO

Figure 16. The steam dome on the temperature-density plane, with the ''straight diameter" of Cailletet and Mathias, and the critical point according to Nadejdine (N), Battelli (B), Dieterici (D), and the present writer.

to 320° and indeed up to the critical point itself. The sum of these values and the volumes of the liquid mentioned above are the volumes of saturated steam up to 320°. The results are tabulated below and are plotted in Figure 16. The diameter is seen to be, as usual, nearly but not quite straight It is not possible to represent the whole of it even by a third degree formula in t, because of the peculiar behaviour of the density of water at low temperatures. The 20 points above

w Journ. de Phys., 1891, 10, 333; also Ann. Chem. et Phys., 1892, 25, 619; also Physik. Rev., 1892, 1, 14; also a short note in C. R., 1891, 112, 563; see also Risteen, The Locomotive, 1907, 26, 219.

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307

TABLE VIII. The Law of the Straight Diameter for Steam.

Temp.	Density of	Density of	Mean	ITrti ii'tiilii	Diflf.
C.	Water.	Steam.	Density.	f onuuia*
O*'	0.9999	0.000005	0.5000
10«	0.9997		0.4999	...	...
20*>	0.9982		0.4991		• • •
30*^	0.9957		0.4978		• • «
40<>	0.9922	0.06605	0.4961	...	...
60°	0.9881	0.00008	0.4941		...
60°	0.9832	0.00013	0.4917	. . .	...
70°	0.9778	0.0002	0.4890		, , ,
80°	0.9718	0.0003	0.4860	• • •	...
90°	0.9653	0.0004	0.4828	...	...
100°	0.9584	0.0006	0.4796		...
110°	0.9510	0.0008	0.4759		. . .
120°	0.9434	0.0011	0.4722	. . .
130°	0.9352	0.0015	0.4684	0.4688	+ 6.6604
140°	0.9264	0.0020	0.4642	0.4644 ^	+0.0002
150°	0.9173	0.0026	. 0.4699	0.4599	0.0000
160°	0.9075	0.0033	0.4554	0.4552	-0.0002
170°	0.8973	0.0041	0J507	0.4504	-0.0003
180°	0.8866	0.0052	0.4459	0.4454	-0.0005
190°	0.8750	0.0064	0.4407	0.4403	-0.0004
200°	0.8628	0.0079	0.4354	0.4351	-0.0003
210°	0.850	0.010	0.430	0.431	+0.001
220°	0.837	0.012	0.424	0.424	0.000
230°	0.823	0.014	0.419	0.419	0.000
240°	0.809	0.017	0.413	0.413	0.000
250°	0.794	0.020	0.407	0.407	0.000
260°	0.779	0.024	0.402	0.401	-0.001
270°	0.765	0.029	0.397	0.395	-0.002
280°	0.75	0.03(4)	0.39(2) 0.38(0)	0.388	-0.00(4)
290°	0.72	0.03(9)	0.382	+0.00(2)
300°	0.70	0.04(6)	0.37(3)	0.375	+0.00(2)
310°	0.68	0.05(5)	0.36(8)	0.368	0.00(0)
320°	0.66	0^06(5)	0.36(2)	0.362	0.00(0)

120° can, however, be represented with an average deviation of about one ninth of one per cent by the formula

s = 0.4552-0.0004757 (^-160)-0.0000(X)685 (^-160) ^ gr,/cm.* It should be noticed, in judging of the reliability of the formula, that comparatively large relative errors in the density of steam make only

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very small relative errors in the mean of the densities. Thus in the most unfevorable case, at 320°, if an error in either dpjdt or in the extrapolated yalae of L made the computed change of volume wrong by five per cent^ the resulting error in the mean of the densities would be less than half of one per cent

The substitution of Cailletet and Colardeau's value for the critical temperature of water, tc = 365°G., in the equation of the diameter gives

B^ = i/vc = 0.329 gr./cm.*,

from which it follows that the critical volume is

Vc = 3.04 cm.Vgr.

There are three previous determinations with which this can be com- pared, two of which are direct measurements. These are

Vc = 2.33 cmVgr. (Nad.), found by Nadfejdine^ in 1885, and

Vc = 4.812 om.Vgr. (Batt),

found by Battelli ^ in 1890. In both cases a known weight of water was enclosed in a steel tube and heated at constant volume until the contents became homogeneous. If there was too little liquid, this oc- curred when it was all evaporated ; if too much, when it had so ex- panded as to fill the tube ; if just enough, at the critical point. The last case they hoped to recognize because of its corresponding to a higher temperature than either of the others. Such a method gives an excellent determination of the critical temperature, but it can hardly be expected to give an accurate determination of the critical volume. It amounts to tr3ring to find the highest point of the steam dome by selecting experimentally its longest ordinate on the v t plane. The ex- tremely flat top of the steam dome makes this almost impossible, and it is interesting to notice that both Nadejdine and Battelli fell within the nearly flat region, one at one end and one at the other. The present determination lies between theirs and should be much more accurate than either.

•» Univerdtatftkija Investia Kiew., 1885, 6, 32; Mel. Phys. et Chim. tir^s du Bull, de TAc. de St. P^tersb., 1885, 12, 299; Chem. CBL, 1885, 17, 401. M Mem. deU. Ac. di Torino, 1891, 41, 76; Physikal. Rev., 1892, 2, 1.

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DAVIS. — CERTAIN THERMAL PROPERTIES OP STEAM. 309

The third published valae of the critical volume^ Vc = 4.025 cm.Vgr. (Diet),

was computed by Dieterici*"^ in 1904, from the empirical law of Young ^ that^ for "normal " substances, the ratio of the actual to the gas-law density at the critical pressure and density is 3.8. Dieterici's belief that water becomes a " normal " substance at high temperatures, even though it is known to be very abnormal at ordinary temperatures, is based on the &ct that the ratio of the change of internal energy dur-

FiouBB 17. The pol3rmerization factor for liquid water as a function of the temperature. The small circles below 150® are Ramsay's earlier values; the large circles below 150^ are his revised values; the circle at 365^ is the value indicated by the critical volume. ,

ing evaporation to the whole heat of evaporation, L, seemed to ap- proach a value which he had predicted for " normal " substances. The present determination of Vc shows that water is, as one would have ex- pected, still abnormal at the critical point. K interpreted in the usual way, it would indicate a polymerization factor of 1.3. Figure 17 shows how well this number fits a smooth curve through Bamsay's earlier large values of the polymerization £BK)tor at ordinary temperatures ;^7

•• Wied. Ann., 1904, 16, 864.

•• Phil. Mag., 1892, 34, 507, and Jour. Chem. Soc., Papers, 1893, 63, 1251.

w Phil. Trans., 1893, 184A, 647; translated in Zeitsch. Phys. Chem., 1893, 12, 433; second paper in Jour. Chem. Soc., 1893, 63, 1089; translated in Zeitsch. Phys. Chem., 1893, 12, 458.

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310 PKOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

there seems, however, to be little chance of reconciling it with his later "corrected" values.^ This is an example of the uncertainty that seems to characterize the whole subject of polymerization in liquids, especially on its quantitative side.

The equation of the mean diameter which has just been obtained can also be used for the computation of a rough but useful extension of certain columns of the ordinary steam tables up to the critical point As was mentioned on page 306, the extrapolation formula for L of Sec- tion 3 determines the change of volume during evaporation at all tem- peratures between 320^ and th^ critical temperature. From these and the mean densities given by the equation of the diameter, it' is easy to compute each of the densities separately, and to fill in the rest of the steam dome on the t s (temperature-density) planes. The results are shown by the dotted lines in Figure 16, and are given in detail at the end of Table I in the Steam Tables already mentioned. Any values obtained in this way are, of course, only rough approidmations to the truth and should not be too much relied on.

Summary of the Results in this Paper.

1. It presents a new set of values for the difference between the total heat of saturated steam at certain temperatures between 65^ and 190°C. and its value at 100°.

2. It shows that these differences can be represented within their limit of error by the first three terms of a Taylor's series, but that such a development should not be extrapolated far in either direction. The best direct measurements of H indicate that its value at 100° is 639.11 mean calories. If this be accepted, the proposed formula for H is

H = 639.11 -h 0.3745 (t - 100) - 0.000990 (t — 100)* mean calories.

The last two terms of the formula are the real contribution of this paper, and may still be valid, even if the first term is later found to be wrong.

3. Thiesen's formula for L with recomputed constants is shown to represent satis£a<;torily all of the reliable values of Z, including those in this paper. It is believed to be the safest known means of extrapo- lating to high temperatures.

4. The literature on the specific heat of superheated steam is sys- tematically discussed and revised in the light of the new values of ff

•• Third paper; Proe. Roy. See., 1894, 56, 171; translated in Zeitsch. Riys. Chem., 1894, 16, 106.

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DAVIS. — CEKTAIN THERMAL PROPEBTIES OF STEAM. 311

and of the Joule-Thomson coefficient presented in an earlier paper. In particular the choice of Knoblauch's values of C> as the foundation of the determination of H in this paper is justified.

5. It is shown that Glausius' specific heat of saturated steam passes its maximum without becoming zero or positive, so that the temperature-entropy diagram for steam must be essentially simpler than that for either ether or chloroform.

6. The extrapolation formula for L mentioned in 3 above is made the basis of a determination of the critical density of water by the method of Cailletet and Mathias. The result is

Vc = 3.04 cmVgr.

The specific volumes of water and of saturated steam at other high temperatures have also been computed and embodied in a steam table running up to the critical temperatura

Jeffebson Physical Labobatobt, Cambridge, Mass.,

December, 1909.

pi

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Frooeedings of fhe Amerioan Aoademy of Arts and Soienoei. Vol. XLV. No. 10. — March, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND IN THE REGION OF EXTREMELY SHORT WAVE-LENGTHS.

Bt Theodore Ltman.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND IN THE REGION OF EXTREMELY SHORT WAVE-LENGTHS.

Bt Theodorb Ltman. Presented December 8, 1909. Received Januaiy 3, 1910.

In the region of extremely short wave-loDgths discovered by Schamann the spectra of two gases only are easily ol)taiQed ; the one is due to hydrogen, the other to some compound of carbon.^ The hydrogen spectrum consists of a great number of fine lines extending firom X 1675 to X 1030 ; the wave-lengths of the most prominent of these lines have been determined.^ The carbon spectrum consists of a considerable number of bands extending from the less refrangible end of the Schumann region to the neighborhood of X 1300. The purpose of the present investigation was to measure the position of these bands.

The results are chiefly valuable because the bands in question fill the gap between X 1854 and X 1675 and form convenient standards of wave-length in a region which up to this time has lacked points of reference.

The appearance of the spectrum is shown in Plate VIII, Volume 13, of the Memoirs of this Academy. It is marked " Air." The bands are most intense in the less refrangible region, but they are all of the same general type with heads directed toward the region of shorter wave-length. The strongest bands are evidently double. The system, at least throughout its less refrangible part, forms a continuation of the " Fourth group " as described by Deslandres in his paper, " Spectre de bandes ultra-violet des composes hydrog^n^s et oxyg^n^ du car- bone."^ The spectrum under mvestigation is thus related to the series of bright bands in the visible and ultra-violet attributed to car- bon monoxide and oflen observed in ill-prepared vacuum tubes.

* Smithsonian Contributions, 1903, 29, No. 1413.

■ Lyman, Memoirs of this Academy, 1906, 13, 125.

• Comptes Rendus, 1888, 106, 842.

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316 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

It is only too easy to obtain the bauds in the region of short wave- lengths, for, to quote Schumann himself,* they are " the unwelcome attendants of all my spectra.'' In order to determine the cause of the phenomenon, however, experiments were made with both carbon mon- oxide and carbon dioxide and with a variety of conditions in the dis- charge tube. The results of these experiments may be stated as fol- lows : Exactly the same bands are obtained when carbon monoxide is used as when carbon dioxide is employed, but in the former case the strength of the whole spectrum is considerably greater than in the latter. With increased current strength from a transformer, between five and twenty milliamperes the intensity of the bands increases in a uniform manner throughout the extent of the spectrum. When a spark gap is placed in series with the tube and a condenser is intro- duced in such a way as to produce a disruptive discharge, the spectrum at first weakens and then vanishes altogether. The effect is accom- panied by a very marked decrease in pressure in the tube and by the formation of a dark deposit on the walls of the capillary. When precautions are taken to exclude the introduction of carbon monoxide or prevent its formation, the spectrum is greatly weakened if it does not vanish altogether.

These data go to confirm the results of Schumann, as they show that the spectrum is due to carbon monoxide. The occurrence of the bands when carbon dioxide is present may be explained by the fact that this gas is known to be transformed into carbon monoxide under the influ- ence of light and the electric discharge.^ The disappearance of the spectrum with the disruptive discharge is due to the destruction of the carbon monoxide. The oxygen set free by the reaction seems to combine with the electrodes, while the carbon is deposited This property of a condenser discharge is useful, since it permits the spec- troscopist to firee his apparatus of an annoying impurity. The decrease in pressure which accompanies this reaction is often a striking and important phenomenon.

In making measurements in the region between X 1880 and X 2080 a concave grating of six foot radius with 15028 lines to the inch was employed. Schumann plates were used throughout the work. For the experiments in the region on the more refrangible side of X 1880 the writer's vacuum spectroscope was employed ® in the same manner as when the hydrogen spectrum was under investigation. An improve- ment in the discharge tube, however, has been introduced. The nature

* Loc. cit., p. 16.

» Herchefinkel. Ck)inpte8 Rendus, 1909, 149, 395.

• See note 2,

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LYMAN. — THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND. 317

of the change will be understood by consulting the illustration on page 90 of volume 27 of The Astrophysical Journal. The brass collar A is no longer provided with a screw thread as shown in the illustration, but it is now made to fit into the cup B air tight by means of a cone joint 2.8 cm. long. The discharge tube itself is no longer cast into the collar A with Khotinski cement, but is blown on a platinum tube 3.5 cm. long by 1.5 cm. in diameter. This tube is soldered into the collar A. By this arrangement the gas does not come in contact with grease in the joints, and the danger of leak is considerably reduced.

Measurements in the region between X 1850 and X 1675 where no fiducial lines exist were made by the two slit method.^ In the region firom X 1675 to X 1300 direct comparison was made with the spectrum of hydrogen.

The values of X refer to the heads of bands, and they are accurate to 0.3 of an Angstrom unit In the class of the double bands marked " d " the wave-length given is for the stronger component. The inten- sities are represented on a scale of ten. The absorption of fluorite, which begins to make itself felt near the end of the spectrum, renders the relative intensities of the most refrangible bands rather uncertain. As usual, the wave-lengths and frequencies are in vacuum.

In addition to their value as standards of wave-length, the results are of some theoretical importanca Deslandres in the paper just quoted ® htis used his measurements of the carbon spectrum to test his Laws. As the spectrum under discussion seems to form a continuation of that described by Deslandres, it is interesting to see if its bands also show the numerical relations described by the earlier investigator. In making the comparison, however, it will be necessary to confine the attention to those relations which deal with the heads of the bands, for the dispersion employed does not permit of the study of the lines of which each band is composed. It must also be remembered that the region of high firequencies is not perfectly adapted to such a test, since a small error in the wave-length is magnified in relations which deal with firequencies.

The laws under discussion are two in number: first, that a group of bands may be broken up into sets of series such that the diflferences in firequency of the heads of the bands in any one series form an arith- metical progression ; second, that all the series are similarly constructed. The first rule may obviously be stated in another way, — the second differences of the firequencies of the heads of the bands in any one series are constant.

^ See note 2. • Loc. cit.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

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LYMAN. — THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND.

319

Deslandres has aDalysed his Fourth Groap into five series, character- ized by sn^^U and not very regular second differences. The writer has

TABLE II. . Fourth Group.

DXSLANDBKS.

First Differences.

Series

IV

482 480 400 512 521 523 536

472 477 505 520 530 527 546 ^57

VI

474 501 513 533 539 549

Ltman.

First Differences.

VII VIII

534 541 547 555

556 567 576

IX

584 589 605 607 614 631

633 652

XI

666 673

been able to follow the arrangement into the region between X 2000 and X 1600 and has added seven new series of the same type. Table I.

jk

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320

PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEBfT.

shows these new members. They are numbered from VI. to XL; series IV. and V. of Deslandres' are included in the table for the sake of com- parison. The first two bands in the fifth series were measured by the writer. When it is remembered that the errors of observation make the fifth place in the frequencies very doubtful, it will be seen that the law of constant second differences is fairly well obeyed.

TABLE III. Fifth Group.

Series	1	2	3	4	5	6
Av.2d Diffs.	N.	2nd Diflfs.	N.	2nd Diffs.	N.	2nd Diffs.	N.	2nd Diffs.	N.	2nd Diffa.	N.	2nd Diffs.
65772 65531 65181 64721 64131 63432 62602	109 110 130 109 131 118	66366 65976 65462 64842	124 106	67527 67204 66765 66194	116 132	69266 68852 68320 67659	118 129	70852 70721 70472 70121 69657 69109	118 102 113 84	71649 71372 70972 70472	123 100
• •	• •	115	• •	124		123		104		112

Table II., which gives the first differences for each series, is arranged to show the similarity which exists among the members. It will be observed that the second rule is obeyed, for the series resemble each other. An exact similarity is not demanded by the rule as has been recently pointed out by Deslandres himself.^ The arrangement of the series, however, does not permit of the "second progression " ^^ men- tioned by Olmsted and others.

In addition to the series VI. to XL there appear to exist two others, in the region near X 1800. These show larger second differences than the first type. They have not been included in the tables.

» Comptes Rendus, 1904, 138, 317.

*• Comptes Rendus, 1902, 134, 748; Zeits. f. Wiss. Photographie, 1906; 4, 255.

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LYMAN. — THE SPECTRUM OF A CARBON COMPOUND. 321

TABLE IV.

A	I.	N.	A.	I.	N.
1335.0	1	74,906	1615.1	2	61,916
1339.0	1	74,683	1623.4	1	61,599 .
1343.0	1	74,460	1629.6	3	61,365
1353.6	1	73,877	1630.3	6	61,338
1356.1	2	73,741	1648.2	5	60,672
1361.3	2	73,459	1653.3	4	60,485
1368.0	1	73,099	1666.7	1	59,999
1371.8	2	72,897	1669.9	6	59,884
1374.1	2	72,775	1685.3	1	59,337
1378.1	2	72,564	1688.5	1	59,224
1384.4	1	72,233	1698.8	1	58,865
1386.4	1	72,129	1705.3	6	58,641
1392.2	1	71,829	1712.2	7	58,404
1395.7	2	71,649	1723.9	6	58,008
1401.1	2	71,372	1729.5	Sd	57,820
1404.0	1	71,225	1743.5	3	57,356
1405.5	1	71,149	1747.3	7	57,231
1409.0	2	70,972	1774.9	Sd	56,341
1411.4	1	70,852	1785.1	6	56,019
1414.0	1	70,721	1792.6	10 d	55,785
1419.0	2	70,472	1801.9	2	65,497
1426.1	3	70,121	1804.9	8	65,405
1435.6	2	69,657	1811.0	10 d	55,218
1438.7	1	69,507	1825.7	7	64,774
1443.7	1	69,266	1830.1	9	54,642
1447.0	1	69,109	1837.2	1	54,431
1452.4	3	68,852	1841.3	8	64,309
1463.7	3	68,320	1846.7	2	64,151
1473.0	1	67,889	1849.4	4	54,072
1475.4	1	67,778	1859.6	10 d	63,775
1478.0	2	67,659	1870.3	3	53,467
1480.9	2	67,527	1878.5	10 d	63,234
1488.0	2	67,204	1891.2	6	52,876
1493.8	3	66,943	1898.0	10	52,687
1497.8	3	66,765	1914.0	1	52,247
1506.8	2	66,366	1918.2	7	52,132
1510.7	2	66,194	1931.5	6	51,773
1515.7	3	65,976	1933.6	2	51,717
1520.4	1	65,772	1950.4	4	51,272
1526.0	2	65,531	1951.7	5	51,237
1527.6	3	65,462	1953.0	5	51,203
1534.2	2	65,181	1970.1	8	50,759
1542.2	5	64,842	1991.0	1	60,226
1545.1	3	64,721	2007.2	5	49,821
1559.3	5	64,131	2012.6	8	49,687
1576.5	4	63,432	2026,4	7	49,349
1596.1	1	62,653	2031.7	1	49,220
1597.4	3	62,602	2035.1	4	49,138
1603.3	1	62,371	2047.0	8	48,852
1611.7	3	62,046	2068.4	8	48,347

VOL. XLV. — 21

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322 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

On the more refrangible side of X 1600 matters are not very satis- &ctory. The bands must be arranged into series showing very large second differences which are Only approximately constant These series, which are numbered from 1 to 7 go to make up the Fifth Group. Their fr^uencies together with the second differences are given in Table III. No attempt has been made to adopt an arrangement which would show the similarity between the members of the group. In fact these series Ml in with the second rule only to a limited degree ; 1 and 5 resemble each other, as do 2 and 6, and 3 and 7, but the relations are not exact

The writer makes no claim that the arrangements given in this Fifth Group are the best possible, they are only the most obvious.

The spectrum contains a great many bands which are either too feeble to measure or whose positions are made uncertain by the tails of stronger bands ; if these could be included in the series a better system would probably result

It is to be remembered that although relations similar to Deslandres' laws have been proved to hold vrithin the limit of error of observation for the distribution of lines within a band,ii qq such accuracy of agree- ment has been found when the laws of the distribution of the heads of the bands themselves have been tested. In &ct, the rule of constant second differences as applied to the heads of bands must be looked upon as a first approximation only. The work which has just been described indicates that the approximation holds even in the region of extremely short wave-lengths.

In conclusion the writer wishes to point out that the important re- sults of the investigation are the values of the wave-lengths contained in Table IV.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass., December, 1909. *

11 V. Carlheim-GyllenskSld, K. Svensk. Vetenskaps-Akad., Handl., 1907, 42, No. 8.

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Prooeedings of the Amerioan Academy of Arte and Sdencei.

Vol. XLV. No. U. — Mabch, 19X0.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE ELECTRICAL OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ RECTILINEAR OSCILLATOR.

Bt George W. Pibrcb.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE ELECTRICAL OSCILLATIONS OP A HERTZ RECTILINEAR OSCILLATOR.

By Georgb W. Piercb. Presented December 8, 1900. Received January 3, 1010.

Whilb engaged in oalibrating a wavemeter for electric waves, I have made a series of measurements of the wave-length produced by a long Hertz rectilinear oscillator, consisting of two oppositely extending hori- zontal wires with a spark-gap between. By yarpng the length of the oscillator, wave-lengths from 16 to 63 meters were obtained. The ex- periments were conducted in a long room in the third story of the laboratory, so that the oscillator was at a height of 10 meters above the sur&ce of the earth, and represents approximately the conditions that exist when the oscillator is alone in free space.

The experimental results, which give a rdation of the wave-length to the length of the oscillator, may be not without interest ; because of the existence of numerous very thorough mathematical discussions of the problem.

Apparatus and Plan qf the Experiment. — A general idea of the experiment may be had by a reference to Fig. 1, which shows in ground plan the arrangement of the apparatus.

The wavemeter, shown at the left of the figure, consists of a variable condenser C in series with a loop of heavy wire L and a high-fr^uency electrodynamometer I. The loop of wire L is in the form of a square 30 cm. on a sida The condenser consists of two sets of semicircular plates — one set fixed and the other set movable by rotation about a vertical axis so as to permit variation of capacity by bringing a greater or less area of the two sets of plates into an interlapping position. A scale carried by the top movable plate passes under a fixed pointer, so that the position of the movable plates with respect to the fixed plates can be read after any adjustment of Hie apparatus.

The high-firequency dynamometer I is of the form jMreviously ^n- ployed by me in a series of experiments on resonance in wireless tele-

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

graph oironits,^ and consists of a diso of silver, suspended by a quartz fibre, so as to hang near a small coil of a few turns of wire, with the axis of which the plane of the disc makes an angle of 45°, as is shown in Fig. 2. The disc is at M ; and the coil, whi<^ in this experiment consisted of five turns of wire wound . / on a vulcanite tube, is shown at G, Fig. 2. The ter- minals from the coil are connected to binding posts by which the coil is put into the wavemeter circuit The front of the disc M carries a small mirror, ena- bling the deflections of the disc to be measured by means of a telescope and scale.

FioimB 1. Wavemeter circuit and Hertz oecillator.

ot

The mounting of the instrument is shown in Fig. 3. The disc is suspended in the vertical vulcanite tube, which stands on a base provided with leveling screws ; the support of the coil is inserted in the side of the vertical tube, and is arranged to be moved in and out by a micrometer screw. This delicate motion of the coil in or out brings the coil nearer to or &rther from the suspended silver disc so as to vary the sensitiveness of the instru- ment to make it suitable for measuring small or large oscillating currents.

^ Phys. Review, 1904, 19| 196; 1905, 20, 220; 1905, 21, 367; 1906, 22, 159; 1907, 24, 152.

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PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSaLLATOR.

327

0

Figure 2. Coil and suspended disc of the high-frequency dy- namometer.

The action of the instroment is as follows : Osoillations in the coil induce oscillations in the disc, and between these two sets of oscilla- tions there is a force which causes the disc to tend to set itself at right angles to the plane of the coiL A mathemati- cal theory of the instrument) together with some experiments showing that the deflections of the disc are proportional to the square of the current in the coil, is given by me in volume 20, page 226, of the Physical Review for 1905.

In place of the djmamometer, a Geissler tube, connected to the two sides of the condenser, was used in some of the experiments.

The Calibration of the Wavemeter. — For wave-lengths greater than 350

meters, I have a set of standard oscillators whose periods have been determined by spark-photographs taken with the revolv- ing mirror.2 These could, however, not be employed in the present experiments, where the greatest length of oscillator that could be set up in the room had a wave-length of only 63 meters. It was, therefore, necessary to use another method of calibrating the wavemeter of Fig. 1; namely, by tuning it to resonance with an oscillator consisting of various lengths (4 to 17 meters) of two parallel wires, 1 mm. in diameter and 8 cm. apart It was assumed that the wave-length of such a parallel-wire oscillator is four times the length of one of the wires. This assump- tion is on the supposition that there is a loop of potential at the iree end of the Figure 3. Mounting of oscillator, and that the velocity of the waves on parallel wires is equal to the velocity of light In regard to the loop at the free end, Bumpstead^ has shown that this loop of potential for a parallel- wire oscillator is really beyond the

d}rnamometer with variable sensitiveness.

* Phys. Review, 1907, 24, 152.

» Am. Jour. Sci., 1902, 14, 359.

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328 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

free end by an amoant a little less than half the distance apart of the wires. This correction, applied to my experiments, amounts to less than one per cent in the case even of the shortest parallel-wire oscillator used in the calibration, and has been taken into account.

That the velocity of the waves on the wires is equal to the velocity of light has its theoretical basis in the &ct that for rapid oscillations guided by parallel wires, the self-induction per unit of length multiplied by the capacity per unit of length is the reciprocal of the square of the velocity of light. That the velocity of propagation on the parallel wires is the velocity of light has been shown experimentally by Trow- bridge and Duane ^ and by Saimders.^ Recently also Diesselhorst® of the Reichsanstalt has made some experiments which indicate that the wave-length on the parallel wires differs from the wave-length in air by less than one-third of one per cent when the parallel wires are not more than 100 meters long.

Wave-length of the Wave Produced by the Hertz Oscillator, — If now we take the two parallel wires, separate them, and extend them out oppositely so as to form a Hertz oscillator, the capacity per unit of length diminishes, while the inductance per unit of length increases. Does the wave-length remain the same ; namely, four times the length of the half-oscillator, or X = 2 /, where / is the length of the whole oscillator 1 Some theoretical writers (Abraham,^ Rayleigh ®) say that it does remain very approximately the same (if the diameter of the wire is a small fraction of the length) ; while, on the other hand, Macdonald ^ has concluded that X is equal to 2.53 /, and he is supported in this con- clusion by Pollock and Close. ^^

Experimental tests of the question have heretofore usually been made with very short vibrating systems, to which the theoretical de- ductions are not directly applicable A. D. Cole ^^ finds X = 2.52 l^ for a Klemencic receiver 7 to 8 cm. long and 3.1 mm. in diameter. This is in good agreement with Macdonald's theoretical relation. It is doubtful, however, if Macdonald's equation, which was derived by con- sidering the oscillator or receiver to be indefinitely thin in comparison with its length, was intended to apply to the relatively thick receivers of Cole's experiment

Another very admirable set of measurements with short oscillators has recently been published by Webb and Woodman.^ With an un-

* Am. Jour. Sci., 1895, 49, 297. • Phys. Review, 1896, 24, 152.

• Elektrotech. Zeits., 1908, 29, 703. » Wied. Ann. 1898, 66, 436. » Phil. Mag., 1904, 8, 105. • Electric Waves, 111.

" Phil. Mag. 1904, 7, 635. " Phys. Review, 1905, 20, 268.

" Phys. Review, 1909, 29, 89.

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PISBCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HEBTZ OSCILLATOR.

329

tuned receiver they have made measurements of the wave-length pro- duced by rod oscillators of various lengths between 2 and 10 cm., and various diameters between 0.2 and 1.3 cm., and have obtained the wave-length a linear function of the length when the ratio of diameter to length is kept constant^ and also the wave-length is a linear func- tion of the ratio of diameter to length when the length is kept con- stant By extrapolation from their measured values they find the limiting value of the ratio of the wave-length to the vibrator length, as the diameter approaches zero, to be 2.24.

Coming now to the experiments that have been made with the longer oscillators, I find two measurements mentioned by Drude ^^ in which he obtains for a wire 1 mm. in diameter and 4 meters long the wave- length 8.42 meters, and for a wire 2.5 meters long the wave-length 5.24. These two experiments give X = 2.10 £

Also there is a series of measurements by F. Conrat ^* for rectilinear oscillators 2 to 6 meters long (1 mm. diameter). These measurements are presented in Table I., and show the average relation X = 2.12 /.

TABLE I. Conrat's Values for Relation op X to I.

I

Lenffth of OsciTlator in Met era.

A.

Wave-length

in Metera.

A/I.

•2.00 3.84 4.00 5.50 6.30

4.20

8.00

8.40

12.00

13.40

2.10 2.09 2.10 2.18 2.12

Average 2.12

My measurements, extending the experimental records in the direc- tion of the longer waves, are given in Table 11. The diameter of the wire employed was 1 mm. The result obtained is that the wave-length of the oscillator is 2.094 times its length. This is in good agreement with the results obtained by Drude and in fair agreement with those of Conrat.

" Ann. d. Physik, 1903, 11, 965.

" Ibid., 1907, 22, 670.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Taking the present observation together with those of Dmde and of Conrat it appears that the wave-length of a Hertz rectilinear is very close to 2.10 times the length of the oscillator, provided the oscillator is not less than two meters long and is of comparatively small diam- eter. The influence of the diameter in determining the wave-length was not tested further than by a single observation, in which it was found that an oscillator made of two brass tubes, each 6 meters long and 22 mm. in diameter, had a wave-length 2.14 times its length.

TABLE II. Results obtained in Present Experiment.

I. Length of Oscillator in Meters.	Wave-length in Meters.	A/i.
8.0	16.9	2.11
9.0	18.9	2.10
10.0	21.2	2.11
11.0	23.2	2.11
12.0	24.9	2.08
14.0	29.5	2.10
• 16.0	33.6.	2.10
18.0	38.1	2.11
20.0	41.6	2.08
22.0	46.1	2.11
24.0	49.5	2.07
26.0	53.9	2.07
28.0	57.5	2.06
30.0	63.0	2.10
Averag	B	. . 2.094

Comparison qf the Result with Abraham* s Theoretical Relation. — The value obtained theoretically by Abraham, as a second approxima-

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331

tion for the wave-lengtii of a thin rod in terms of its length and diameter, is

X = 2/Cl + 5.60» where

1

€ =

4l0g.-^

in which / is the length of the whole oscillator, and d its diameter. The formula was derived by applying Maxwell's equations to a long, perfectly conductive ellipsoid of revolution, and taking the limit ap- proached by X when the square of the minor axis of the ellipsoid vanishes in comparison with the square of the major axis. Under these conditions the major axis becomes the length of the rod-oscil- lator and the minor axis its diameter.

To show the size of the 5.6 ^^ term of Abraham's formula, the follow- ing table (Table III.) has been computed for various values of l/d, cov- ering the range of the experiments by Webb and Woodman and those by Conrat and by ma

TABLE III.

Computation op the 6.6«* Term op Abraham's Formula.

l/d.	5.6c>	Range.
4	.081	\
5 7	.065 .050	' Webb and Woodman.
10	.039	J
160	.011
2000 4000 6000	.005 .0043 .0039	Conrat.
8000 12000 20000 30000	.0037 .0035 .0031 .0029	I Writer.

It is seen that in the range of my experiments, the 5.6 €* term raises the theoretical value of the wave-length to 2.006 1, and in Conrat's range to 2.01 /. This term is, therefore, entirely inadequate to account for the 5 per cent excess of the experimental values over the theoretical values of Abraham.

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332 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Also the presence of the spark-gap in the oscillator seems to he without influence, as the values of Conrat were obtained for rods without a gap.

In discussing the question, raised by Pollock and Glose,^^ as to whether a result obtained for an infinitely thin ellipsoid can be applied to an infinitely thin rod of uniform section, Lord Rayleigh ^® says : " It appears therefore that the wave-length of the electrical vibration associated with a straight terminated rod of infinitesimal section is equal to twice the length of the rod, whether the shape be cylindrical so that the radius is constant, or ellipsoidal so that the radius varies in a finite ratio at different points of the length, and that this conclu- sion remains undisturbed, even though the shape be not one of revolu- tion." Lord Rayleigh, however, raises the question whether a sufficient reduction of the diameter of ^e rod to comply with Abraham's ap- proximation is experimentally possible without too greatly diminishing the conductivity, which is assumed perfect in the theoretical discussion.

In reply to this note by Lord Rayleigh, Macdonald ^^ expresses the view that the rate of damping of the iree vibration associated with the terminated straight wire is very large, and in fiewjt not far removed bom the order of magnitude of the known result for a spherical vibrator. This large damping, if it exists, and especially if it is due to a large radiation firom the wire near the ends, would account for a distortion of the current distribution in the conductor so as to give a wave-length larger than twice the length of the conductor.

Since the question of the conductivity of the wire and the damping of the oscillations has a bearing on the question of its period, it is pro- posed to give the results of a measurement made on the damping of one of the oscillators used in the present experiments.

Damping. — The damping fiwtor of a rectilinear oscillator 14 meters long, consisting of two oppositely-extending horizontal wires 7 meters long and 1 mm. in diameter, was determined by a method recently given by K. K F. Schmidt^® The spark-gap was 3 mm. long. Schmidt's method consists in determining the average square current in a low resistance wavemeter circuit for various adjustments of the wavemeter in the neighborhood of resonance. To get the mean square current in the wavemeter circuit the dynamometer shown in Figs. 2 and 3 was employed. The deflections of this instrument have been shown to be proportional to the square of the current The values ob- tained are recorded in Table IV, which gives the wave-length adjust-

" Loc. cit. *• Loc. cit.

" Phil. Mag., 1904, 8, 276. " Phys. Zeits., 1908, 9, 13.

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PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSCILLATOR.

333

ment of the wavemeter and the correspondiiig relative deflections of the dynamometer.

TABLE IV. For Determining Damping.

Adjustment of Wavemeter. A in Meters.	A/A«.	D/Dm. Deflection relative to Maximum.
30.3	.992	.99
29.2	.960	.68
27.6	.908	.160 .
26.0	.859	.054
32.2	1.062	.39
33.9	1.111	.150
81.5	1.032	.71
30.5	1.000	1.00

These results are plotted in the curve of Fig. 4, in which the abscis- sas are A/A^ aud the ordinates DjD^

Schmidt's method of getting the damping from this curve consists in determining the width between the two branches of the curve at ordinates .55, .70, and .85, and then making use of a decrement diar gram which he has computed and plotted in his original paper, to which the reader is referred. This method applied to the present case gives the values in Table V.

TABLE V. Decrement by Schmidt's Method.

Ordinate.

Width of Res.

Curve, reduced to

Proper Scale,

«

.55

.70 .85

.88 .64 .40

.32 .33 .32

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The last column of this table gives the logarithmic decrement per complete oscillation. The value .32, including the Joulean decrement

af 7

o

".6 ui

^

S

J

l^

f \

t X

t ^c-

-4 \

7 \^

J^ \

-7 ^

^^ ^

•-^

Figure 4. Resonance curve \ised in obtaining logarithmic decrement.

as well as the radiation decrement, is 40 per cent higher than tiie logarithmic decrement due to radiation alone, as computed by Abraham's formula for the decrement, which is

8 =

9.74

4loge

2/

The value of the decrement is, however, too small to produce a change in the measured value of the wave-length by more than a small fraction of one per cent

Summary qf BemUs, — Assuming that the wave-length produced by the parallel-wire oscillator is four times the length of one of the wires, the wave-length produced by the fundamental electrical vibration of a long, thin, rectilinear Hertz oscillator was found to be 2.094 times the

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PIERCE. — OSCILLATIONS OF A HERTZ OSCILLATOR. 335

total length of the oscillator, for oscillators of length between 8 and 30 meters.

This result is 4.5 per cent higher than Abraham's theoretical value computed by the formulas

X = 2/(1 + 5.6 c^

4l0ge-5-

The results obtained in the present experiments are in approximate agreement with two measurements given by Drude and with a series of measurements obtained by Gonrat, both using oscillators of length between 2 and 6 meters.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass.,

December, 1909.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 12. — April, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE CONCEPTION OF THE DERIVATIVE OF A

SCALAR POINT FUNCTION WITH RESPECT

TO ANOTHER SIMILAR FUNCTION.

Bt B. Osgood Peibcb.

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CX)NTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE CONCEPTION OF THE DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION WITH RESPECT TO ANOTHER SIMILAR FUNCTION.

Bt B. Osgood Pbirce.

Presented December 8, 1009. Received January 6, 1910.

Ik modern treatises on Mathematical Physics it is customary to de- fine the deriyative of a scalar function, taken at a given point in space in a giyen direction, in a manner which emphasizes the fact that this derivative is an invariant of a transformation of coordinates. Accord- ing to this definition,^ if through the point P a straight line be drawn in a fixed direction («), if on this line a point P be taken near P so that PP has the direction «, and if Up^ Upf be used to represent the values at these points of the scalar point function ti, then if the ratio

"^^^ ' (1)

approaches a limit as P approaches P, this limit is called the derivative of Uy at P, in the direction 8. If u happens to be defined in terms of a system of orthogonal Cartesian coordinates, x^ y^ Zy and has continuous derivatives with respect to these coordinates ever3rwhere within a certain region, the limit just mentioned exists in this region and its value is

-.cos(^,.) + ~.cos(y,,) + g.cos(^,.). (2)

* Hamilton, Elements of the Theory of Quaternions; Tait, Elementary Treatise on Quaternions; Gibbs, Vector Analysis; Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism; Webster, Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid Bodies; Jeans, Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism; Lam6, Lemons sur les Coordonn^es Curvilignes; Peirce, Theory of the Newtonian Potential Function; Generalized Space Differentiation of the Second Order; Czuber, Wienerberichte. 101a, 1417 (1892); Boussinesq, Cours d* Analyse Infinit^male; H. Weber, Die PartieUen Differential-Gleich- ungen der Mathematischen Physik.

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340 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Of all the numerical valiies which the derivative of u can have at a given point, the greatest is to be found by making s normal to the level sur£sboe of u which passes through the point This maximum value,

is usually regarded as the value at the point of a vector point function called the gradient vector of u, the lines of which cut orthogonally the level surfiices of u^ and the components of which parallel to the coord- inate axes are

du du du .V

dx^ dy* dz

This vector is, of course, lamellar.

The value of the tensor of the gradient vector is often called simply the " gradient " of u and is denoted by Au* If at any point a straight Jine be drawn in the direction (») normal to the level surfigice of w, in the sense in which u increases, and if a length hu be laid off on this line, the projection,

Au • cos (», «), (5)

of this length on any other direction (s) is numerically equal to the derivative of u in the direction 8.

Most physical quantities — such as temperature, barometric pres- sure, density, inductivity — present themselves to the investigator as single valued point functions, which, except perhaps at one or more given surfiEbces of discontinuity, are differentiable in the sense just considered.

It is often desirable to differentiate a scalar function, ti, at a pointy in the direction in which another scalar function, v, increases fSa^test^ and if (t«, v) represents the angle between the gradient vectors of u and V at the point, the derivative is evidently equal to

Au»cos(tf, v). (6)

It frequently happens that in a question of maxima and minima, one wishes to determine the greatest (or the smallest) value which a quantity U may have, subject to the condition that another quantity V shall have a given value ( V^, If these quantities can be represented by point functions, the problem geometrically considered requires one to find the parameter of a surfeu^ of the constant U family, which is tangent to the surfisu5e of the V &mily upon which V is everywhere

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PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A 8CALAB POINT FUNCTION. 341

equal to Vo ; but at the point of tangenoy, the derivative of the function U in any direction in the tangent plane of the V surface is zero, that is, the normals to the U and V surfisices coincide, so that

(7)

and these &miliar equations usually furnish some general information about the problem independent of the value of F^. As an extremely

du

du _ 9y _

du

dz

dv dx

dv

ay

dv' dz

, \ . 1

"IT—

\\^

\\

\

1

\

^^

\

\ \

\

V

<^

I

A

\

<

\

^

<

<J

s

>v

^

^^

^

^^P

i^

V

'v

^ ^ >»

^^m

D

C

■B

"^^^

i-n,^

"

Figure 1.

simple example we may take the familiar problem concerning the rela- tive dimensions of an open tank of square base (x X x) and height y, which shall hold a given quantity ( r= x^.y) of water and have the smaU- est wet surface (U=a:^ + 4an/). Here we have the curve D of the V family, which has the given parameter, Vo, and are required to find that member of the P, Q, /?, S family which touches D. The equation (7) becomes in this case 2^ = ^, and it appears (Figure 1) that the curves of the two &milies which pass through any point of the line OJ/are at that point tangent to each other.

It is sometimes necessary to differentiate a point function, u, at a point P, in the direction of the line through the point, along which

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342

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

two other point functions, v, w^ are constant ; that is, along the line

V = Vp,W — Wp. If

X =

dv dv dy dz

dw dw

. M =

dv dv dz dx

dw dw

. N-=

dv dv dx dy

dw dw

dy dz

dz dx

dx dy

(8)

and if J?* = Z* -f M^ + N^ — which is equal to K^ • h^^y if v and w are orthogonal — this direction is defined by the cosines L/Rj M/R^ N/Ry and the derivative required is

i(

dx dy d.

0-

(9)

If the maxima and minima of the function u—f{xy y, 2;) are to be found under the condition that the functions v, w shall have given numerical values, the derivative of u taken in the direction in which v and w are constant must be made to vanisL Thus, if

w = ar^ H- y" + 5?*, and if the conditions are

ocyz = (? and x + y = d, equation (9) yields immediately the required relation

When/' (u) is positive, the direction of the gradient vector o(/(u) coincides with that of the gradient vector of u itself : these directions are opposed when/' (u) is negative. The tensors of both vectors are always positive. If

w =/(w), hy,^ = [/' (u)Y ; hu\ and cos {w, s) = cos {% s) : in particular, when

w = 1/m^ Av = Au/tt* and cos (w?, «) = — cos (u, 5),

so that

ds \uj ds u*

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PEIRCB. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 343

If u is the distance (r) to a point on a carve (s) from a fixed point outside the curve,

dr / \ ^ ^^^_ cos fa r)

dr , / X 5 /l\ cos (« ^^ = + C08(,.r).-y = ^

Any function of the complex variable {aa + fiy + izs/a^ + b^ has a gradient identically equal to zero, but every differentiable real point function has a gradient in general different frt>m zero. The gradient of a function may be constant throughout a region of space : if the gradient of u is constant, the surfaces upon each of which u is constant form a parallel system. If the gradient of a function, Uy is either con- stant or expressible in terms of u, any differentiable function of u has a gradient either constant or expressible in terms of u. If the gradient of u is expressible in terms of u alone [hu =/(t^)], it is possible to form

a function, a I jj-^ , of u the gradient of wliich shall be constant If

hu is neither constant nor expressible in terms of u, no function of u exists the gradient of which is expressible in terms of u. The functions «i = sin (^ + y 4- 5?), 1? = sin (^ + 2y — 32j), w = sin (5^ — Ay — z) illustrate the fact that the gradient of each of three orthogonal point functions may be expressible in terms of the function itself.

If the gradient of each of two orthogonal point functions, u, t?, were expressible as the product of a function of u and a function of % so that A^ = Z7i • Fi, and A» = Ut- Fa, it would be possible to form two func- tions I / y^, / -pr of «* alone and of v alone, respectively, the

gradient of each of which would be expressible in terms of the other. If the gradient vectors of two functions have the same direction at every point of space, one of these functions is expressible in terms of the other. If the gradients of two real functions, ti, t?, are ever3rwhere equal while the directions of their gradient vectors are different,

a(u+t?) dju-v) ^ d{u + v) d{u-v) ^K^^-v) K^-v) ^^ ,j^. dx dx dy by dz dz » v /

and the functions [w -f v], [t* — v] are orthogonal, as are F(u -f v), /(tt — r), where i^ and /are any differentiable functions. If u and v are orthogonal functions, the functions [F(u) +/(v)], [F(u) — /(v)] have gradients numerically equal to each other at every point.

Two scalar point functions, the level sur&ces of which are neither coincident nor orthogonal, may have gradients each of which is ex-

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344 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

pressible in terms of the other : the gradient of t? = |a?* — A:xf is equal at every point of the xy plane to the square of the gradient of u — a^'-y\ If fi and v are orthogonal functions of x and y, the product of their gradients is equal to the Jacobian,

du dv du dv dx By dy da The differential equation

(sr-CD^dy-.

which leads to systems of parallel surfaces, is of standard form. Its complete integral is

where a, &, (2 are arbitrary constants, and from this the general integral may be obtained in the usual manner.

If a direction s be determined at every point of a given region, T, by some law, the derivative of the function u becomes itself a scalar point function in 7", and if this is differentiable, it may be differentiated at any point in any direction, say s. It is usually convenient to defii^e 8 by means of three scalar point functions, I, m, n, the sum of the squares of which is identically equal to unity, and which represent the direction cosines of s. In this connection it is well to notice that if s has the direction at P of the tangent of a continuous curve which passes through the point, if P' be a point near P on the tangent and P^' a point near P on the curve, and if £7^ is any differentiable scalar point function,

t/p// ~ Up Up"- Up

PP" ' PP"

have the same limit, as JP' and P" approach P, that which has been defined as the derivative of U a,t P in the direction 8, It, then, du/d8 is differentiable

d fdu\ d f J du . du . du\

__ - 6^ d^u d^u du dl du dm du dn

"" dai^ dX'dy dxdz dx dx dy dx dz dx*

(11)

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PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAB POINT FUNCTION. 345

and

a^ dx^ bf dz* bx'dy dy*dz dxOz

If / is a direction defined by the cosines f, m\ n\ = /r • T-i +mm • T^ +nn •

a^\ a^? dy dzj di/\ dx dtf dz J

and it is clear that the order of differentiation is usually not com- mutativa Derivatives of this kind are often found in differential equations of orders higher than the first which define functions in terms of simple curvilinear coordinates.

If for instance spherical coordinates are to be used, the second derivative of u taken in the direction in which 0 increases fisistest is

T-j • cosV oos'<^ + T-a • cos'^sin'y + ^ • sm'^+ • cos* tf sin <^cos <^ • sm^cos^cos^ — r — T-'Sin^cos^sm <f> T--sin^cos^

dx'dz dydz rdx

■ sin ^ sin <^ ^ • cos 6 (14)

r-dj/ r-dz

and this, which contains derivatives of the first order, is in sharp con- trast to the second derivative of u taken in the direction r, which is,

r— a • sm* 6 Goer<^ + r-s • sin"^ sm'<^ + -z-^ • cos'^ + r — r- • surd sm6 cos<^ dor di^ dz^ dxdy

. 2d*tt . >j' /, . . , 2a'tl ./,/,. /,eN

+ r r- -Sm^OOS^Sm^ + r r- • Sin ^ COS ^ 008 6. (15)

by-dz OZ'OX ^

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346 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Sometimes s and / are fixed directions so that /, m, n, t, m\ n\ are constants throughout T^ and in this case the coefficients of du/dx^ du/di/^ du/dz in (12) and (13) vanish. The mutual potential energy TT, of two magnetic elements, M^ M\ of moments, wi, m\ can be written in the form

wi *fn

where r is the distance MM* and «, si are the directions of the axes of the elements. The force (due to the second magnet) which tends to move the first magnet in the direction of its own axis is then

and these differentiations assume that the direction cosines of b and / are constants.

In general, if s is the direction perpendicular to the level surface of 21, and if h is the scalar point function which gives the value of dei/d^,

b^u __ fdh ^ , ^ du dh du\ L . .

ds' ^\d~xdx^dyTy^dz'd'z)r' ^^^^

In the case of oblique Cartesian coordinates in a plane, x increases fastest in a direction which is not perpendicular to the line along which it is constant If the angle between the coordinate axes is a>,

— = Au-cos {x, Au), ^ = A„ -cos (y, hu\ ^ = Au-cos («, hu\

du _du sin (y, $) du sin (x, s) . .

ds dx sin w 6y sin w ^ ^

It is frequently necessary to differentiate one point function, f7, with respect to another, v, and the process usually appears in the form of a kind of partial differentiation. If, for instance, f/' is to satisfy a differ- ential equation in terms of a set of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates of which u is one, the derivatives of U with respect to t^ are to be taken on the assumption that the other coordinates remain constant This large subject has been treated eidiaustively in the many works on

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PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OP A SCALAR POINT FUNCTIOX. 347

orthogonal coordinates which have been published since Lamp's clas- sical treatise ' appeared.

Given a function, u, it is, however, not generally possible to find a S3rstem of orthogonal fiinctions of which u shall be one, and it is often convenient for a physicist to differentiate a physical function, Uy with respect to another, u, without considering the existence of any other related functions. A physical point function has a value at every point in space which is not altered by changing the system of coordinates which fix the position of the point, and it is well to define the deriva- tive of U with regard to u in a manner which shall emphasize the &ct that the derivative is an invariant of a change of coordinates and which shall not assume that two functions (i;, w) can be found orthogonal to each other and to u. When U and u are considered by themselves and not regarded as coordinated of necessity with other similar quantities, it is usually, if not always, the case that a " normal ** derivative ^ is required.

The normal derivative, at any point, P, of the diflferentiable scalar point function U, with respect to the difierentiable scalar point function w, may be defined as the limits when PP' approaches zero, of the ratio

^^^^^. (20)

Upf — Up ^ ^

where P' is a point so chosen on the normal at P of the surfiskce of con- stant u which passes through P, that up* — up shall be positive. If ( Uf u) denotes the angle between the directions in which U and u in- crease most rapidly, the normal derivatives of U with respect to u and of u with respect to U may be written

^'COq(U,u) and ^.cos(f7,u). (21)

If hu^hu these derivatives are equal An example of this is the equality of dn/dr and dr/dn in a familiar application of Green's Theorem, where n and r represent the normal distance from a given surface and the distance from a given fixed point respectively. If U and u happen to be expressed in terms of a set (;r, i/, z) of orthogonal

• Lam6, Lemons sur les Coordonn^ Curvilignes et leur Diverses Appli- cations; Salvert, M^moire sur I'Emploi des Coordonn^es Curvilignes; Dar- boux, Lemons sur les Syst^mes Orthogonaux et les Coordonn^ Cundlignes; Goursat, Cours d'Analyse Math^matique.

' Peirce, Short Table of Integrals, Theory of the Newtonian Potential Function; Generalized Space Differentiation of the Second Order.

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348 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Cartesian coordinates, the normal derivative of U with respect to u can be written

dUdudU du dU du

and it is easy to see that this is equal to the ratio of the derivatives of U and u taken in the direction in which u increases most rapidly.

It is occasionally instructive to use the conception of normal difiFer- entiation in studjdng some of the general equations of Physics : thus in the uncharged dielectric about an electric distribution, the potential function, F, is connected with the inductivity of the medium, /x, by the &miliar equation

in which fi is to be regarded as a point function discontinuous in gen- eral at each of a given *Bet of sur&ces at every point of which an equa- tion of the form

is satisfied. Now (23) may be put into the form

dV ^ hv' ""^' ^^^^

and according to Lamp's condition, the second term is a function of V only^ if the level surfaces of V are possible level surfaces of a harmonic function.

It is easy to make from (25), by inspection, such simple deductions as those which follow in this paragraph. If V is harmonic, either the dielectric is made up of homogeneous portions separated from one an- other by equipotential surfiswjes, or the level surfeices of fi and of F are everywhere perpendicular to each other. If F, though not harmonic, satisfies Lamp's condition [V^( F)/ hp^ = F( F)] the level surfeces of the inductivity are equipotential ; and if the level surfiswes of F and fi are identical, F satisfies Lamp's condition. If when the plates of a con- denser are kept at given potentials, the level sur&ices of the inductivity of the dielectric are equipotential, the value of the potential function in

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PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 349

the dielectric would be unchanged if ft weie changed to 0.fi, where O is any scalar point function orthogonal to F. If the continuous dielectric of a condenser in which the level surfaces of the inductivity, /x, are equipotential be changed so as to make the new potential function between the plates a function [ F' =/ ( V)] of the old, the new induc- tivity must satisfy an equation of the form / = Q.fi If ( F). If the F and the ft sur£a>ces are neither coincident nor orthogonal, F cannot be harmonic, and if F is given and one value of the inductivity found, no other value of the inductivity with the same level surfsu^es as this can be found except by altering the old value at eveiy point in a constant ratio. If F does not satisfy Lamp's condition, a new value of the inductivity found by multiplying the old value by any point function orthogonal to F, will jrield the same value of F, but the level surfisMjes of the inductivity will be altered. If the F and the ft surfisices are not coincident, no change of the inductivity which leaves its surfisices un- changed can make these surfaces equipotential

If a mass of fluid, the characteristic equation of which is of the form p—fip,T)/\% at rest under the action of a conservative field of force the components of which are X, F, Z^

%-'-^- %='-^- t-'-^- w

It follows immediately from these equations that p and F must be colevel, and the normal derivative of p with respect to F shows that equilibrium is impossible unless the distribution of temperature is such that the equipotential surfeuses are also isothermal

If the scalar point function, TF, is expressed in terms of the three orthogonal point functions, tf , v^ w^ the square of the gradient of W is well known to be equal to

If the vector point function Q is expressed in terms of «, r, Wy the diveigence of Q is equal to

Au • ^t> • Ai

\^^\Khw) ^\K'K) ^\hu'KJs

If the normal derivatives of u and v with respect to u^ be denoted by DyaU and />»«?, it follows from the definition that

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350 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Dw (w + v) = DwU + Du>% Dv,u^ = n • w^^ • D^u^

D^/(u)=^f{u)'Dy,(u). .

The normal derivative of u with respect to t? is a scalar fanction which^ if differentiable, has a normal derivative with respect to t?, and since by definition

(27)

^^ hv^l dx dx dy dy dz dz we may write

(28)

+ A

a^««

di? dv

d^ dv dv

6*t* 3^y dv

dx'dy dx dy dy-dz dy dz dz-dx dz dx A«*|dAd-2^ dx'dv) dy\dy dy' bv )

dz \ d;^ 62? dv

(29)

^ ^ _ 1 ( d^w dw dv d^u dw dv d^u dw dv ^'"^'''^'^h7hJ'\d^'d^'^xW''dy'Vy^

+

1 ( dr^u fdiv dv dw dv\ d^u f dw dv dw dv\ '^•kj^ \ dx'dy\dy dx dx dy ) ^ dy-dzydz dy dy dz ) d^u fdw dv dw dv\ dx'dz\dz dx dx dz) duYd^v dw

. d^v dw , dv dw\ + ^ — ^'"T" + - — ^- I

^v^ • ^* I dx\dxr^ dx ' dydx dy ' dxdz dz J

^ ^ du dvfdhv dw dho dw^ dh^ dw\ ) hf, dx dx\dx dx dy dy dz dz J )

hJ • hu

idufd^v dw d^v dy\dy^' dy dz-d^

dw

dv

'dy dz dydx

2 du dvfdho dw dth ^^ i ^^^ dw\ | Ih dy dy\dy dy dz dz dx dx J )

i

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PEIRCE. — DERIVATIVE OP A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION. 351

dv

1h'

'hu,^\dz\dz^' dz "^ dX'dz' dx dz'dy' dy)

2_ du dv^dhp ^w aA^ dw dh^ dw\ ) . . ho dz dz\dz dz dx dx dy dy J J ^ ^

It is evident that DvDu,u is asually quite different from DwD^u.

In the transfonnation of a partial differential equation from one set of independent variables to another set which does not form an orthogonal system; derivatives occur which are not normal in the sense of the last paragraphs. If a mass of fluid is in motion under the action of given forces, it is usually convenient either to express the orthogonal coordi- nates of a particle which at the time t has the position {xy y^ z) in terms of t and the coordinates x^, y^^ z^ which the same particle had at the origin of time, or to express Xf^y y^ z^ as functions of .r, y, z^ t

^0 =/i (^» y. ^» 0> yo =/« (^1 y» «» 0. ^o=/8(a,y, «, 0- (3i)

In this case, it fi^uently happens that the level surfiwjes of /i,/j,/g, are not orthogonal. According as we use the " historical" or the "sta- tistical " method of studjdng the motion, we shall express the pressure and the density in terms of Xq, y^, z^^ t, or in terms of x, y, z, t Sup- pose the second method to have been chosen, and dp /dx to have been found by the aid of Euler's Equations of Motion and the Equation of Continuity, and suppose that dp / dx^ is needed. We shall then have

dp __dp dx dp dy dp dz dXQ dx dxQ dy dx^ dz dx^'

If with the help of (31) we find the values of the determinants

(32)

X =

dy dz

dzo dz^ dy dz

, M =

dz dx

dZn dZo dz dx

, N =

dx dy

dZo dZo dx dy

(33)

and put

Q

■ L-'^ + M-'p + N

d^ >

dz'

IP = L* + JIP + IP,

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352 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

we may write the results of differentiating all the equations of (31) with respect to x^ y^ z^ in the form

so that

dp _Bdx Rdy "^ R' dz Bdx "^ Rdy '^ Rdz

(34)

(35)

and this is evidently equal to (9), the ratio of the directional deriva- tives of ^ and Xq taken in the direction (s) in the (x, y, z) space in which both ^0 a>nd z^ are constant If (Sy p\ (s, x) represent the angles between 8 and the directions of the gradient vectors of ^ and x respectively,

dp^ ^ hp'008(s,p) .

dxo Aa^-cos(«, ;ro)' ^ ^

It is convenient, therefore, to define the derivative of a scalar point function, u, with respect to another scalar point function, t?, at any given point in any direction (s), as the ratio of the directional deriva- tives of u and v taken at the point in the direction 8.

Derivatives of this kind which irequently appear in two dimensional problems in Thermodynamics and in Hydrokinematics, usually involve, as has been said, a transformation firom one set of coordinates to an- other which is not orthogonal

Jeffebson Physical Laboratobt, Cambbidoe, Mass. December, 1909.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 13.— April, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE EFFECT OF LEAKAGE AT THE EDGES UPON THE TEMPERATURES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS LAMINA THROUGH WHICH HEAT IS BEING CONDUCTED.

Bt B. Osgood Peircb.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

THE EFFECT OF LEAKAGE AT THE EDGES UPON THE TEMPERATURES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS LAMINA THE0U6H WHICH HEAT IS BEING CONDUCTED.

By B. Osgood Peibce. Presented December 8, 1909. Received January 6* 1910.

In many of the determinatioDS of thermal conductiyity which have been made during the last few years, the so called '* wall method " has been employed. That is, one &ce of a plate or wall of the material to be experimented upon has been kept at one constant temperature for a long time while the opposite Hb^cq has been maintained at another constant temperature, and the quantity of heat per square centimeter of either £ace, which under these circumstances has passed per second from one face to the other, has been measured in some convenient way.

In practice such a plate is of limited dimensions, and although it is easy to insure that the temperatures of the &ces shall be nearly uni- form, it is comparatively difficult to maintain a steady gradient from face to face at the edges so that the heat flow within the slab shall be the same as if the faces were infinite in extent. If, however, the hces of the specimen to be used are small enough, it is possible to prevent almost entirely the escape of heat at the edges by surrounding the periphery by an arrangement like a Dewar flask. This is impracticable when for any reason the plate has to be large, and in this case it is necessary to make the thickness of the wall so small compared with the dimensions of the faces that the lines of flow of heat from face to face in the central portion of the slab shall not be appreciably distorted by loss of heat through the edges of the wall.

Some time ago, in an attempt to obtain an accurate average value of the conductivity of a given stratum in a certain deep mine, I had occasion to apply the wall method to some blocks of stone which were not perfectly homogeneous, and in order to represent the material feirly it seemed best to use a slab eight centimeters thick for each determina- tion. The slabs were square and the edges were covered with lagging

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356 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

to make the loss of heat through them as small as possibla Under these circamstanoes there waa a very rough approximation to a uniform temperature gradient from the warm &ce to the cold one, at each edge, but it waa difficult to measure the edge temperatures accurately and the areas of the hoea were therefore made so large that the temperatures of points on the axis of the slab (that is, the line which joins the centres of the &ces) would surely be tiie same within one one hundredth of a degree of the centigrade scale, in the final state, whether the whole of each edge waa kept at the temperature of the warmer &ce or at the temperature of the colder face.

In anticipation of some further work of the same kind, I have been led to compute the final axial temperatures in a square slab (axax c) of thickness c, when one boQ is kept at temperature To while the other boQ and all the edges are kept at the lower temperature Ti, The work is straightforward enough, but the computation when the slab is rela- tively broad is very laborious, and in view of the practical importance of the wall method in determinations of the conductivities of poor con- ductors of heat, it seems well to record some of the results.

The problem just stated is solved (7\ - WTi + WT^) whai one has found ^ a solution (W) of the equation

which is equal to unity when 2; = 0, and to zero when 2; = c for all positive values of a and y not greater than a ; and which vanishes when a? = 0, or y = 0, or ;r = a, or y = a, for all positive values of z not greater than c, A convenient normal solution of (1) is

-4(e" — e " )8m sm---^, (2)

where Ar* = tn' + n^ and it is evident that

m-oDn^ . 16 . , irk(c-z) . mwx . nwy\ ,«.

^ 2( F'® — ^ — ^° — ^1 ^^

m- 1 n- 1 KTr^mn siuh — / a

where m and n are odd integers.

* Byerly, Fourier's series, etc., p. 127.

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PEIRCE. — TEMPERATUBES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS LAMINA. 357

The fonction

r=l-W(a^,y,e-z),

(4)

which satisfies (1), is eqaal to unity when 2; = 0, and also for all posi- tive values of z not greater than c, when a? = 0, or y = 0, or ar = a, or y = a. It vanishes when z = c, and the function

or

u=Ti-w(r-To)- r(Ti - r) (5)

r-W(a:,y,z)-{r^To)+W{x,y,c^z)^(Ti-r) (6) gives the temperatures in the slab if one &ce is kept at the temperature

TABLE I.

a	W
ic	0.014
ic	1.176
ic	6.720
ic	9.833
c	16.666
fc	31.570
2c	40.708
. 3c	47.556
5c	49.905

7oi the other fSsu^ at 7i, and the edges at 7^. In an infinite slab of thickness c, the &ces of which are kept at To and 7\, the temperatures are given by the expression

£roo=(7\-ro)-+7i

(7)

so that the difference between the values of the temperature at any point in the slab in the ideal case and the real case is

iTr-n)[l-W(x,y,e'-z)]+(r-To)[W{x,!,,z)+W(x,if,e-z)-l].

(8)

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358

PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEBIY.

The last fector of this expression has its maximum yalae at the middle point of the axis where z^ic.

p
			^TiT^
	/
	/
/
/					, 0
\ >	I	B C	^ 1	)

Figure 1. The ordinates of the curve show the temperatures, for dif- ferent values of a, of a point Q in the centre of the axis (C^) of a square slab (a X a X c) of given thickness c, when one face (a X a) is kept at the tem- perature 100® while the other face and the edges are kept at 0®, The hori- zontal unit is c, and it appears that when a = 5 c, the temperature (49.9° +) of Q differs only slightly from the temperature (50°) which it would have if a were infinite. The shaded area above indicates the section of the slab for different values of a.

The value of W for the centre of the axis of the slab is given for several different values of a in Table I. When the ratio of a to c is large, the double series which defines W converges very slowly. Thus to obtain the last number in the table more than one hundred and fifty terms of the series were needed.

Figure 1 represents the numbers of Table I. graphically.

It is interesting to compare these results with similar ones for cir- cular disks which Professor R W. Willson and I obtained ^ several years ago.

« These Proceedings, 1898, 34, 1.

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PEIECE. — TEMPERATUBES WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS LAMINA. 359

TABLE II.

Final Axial Temperatures in a Homogeneous Disk op Diameter d AND Thickness c, when one Face {z - 0) is kept at 100° C, the OTHER Face (z «- c) at 0° C, and the Edge at the Uniform Tem- perature 0.

d/c	9 C	0^09	tf-100°	«=60°
		14.05	99.88	56.95
		1.30	98.70	50.00
		0.12	85.95	43.03
		42.32	96.07 .	69.20
		13.93	86.07	50.00
		3.95	67.68	30.80
		68.15	88.83	73.49
		28.54	71.46	50.00
		11.17	41.85	26.51
2		66.41	82.86	74.63
2		38.39	61.61 ^	50.00
2		17.14	33.59	25.36
3		72.84	77.12	74.98
3		46.98	63.02	50.00
3		22.88	27.16	25.02
4		74.48	75.51	74.99
4		49.27	50.73	50.00
4		24.49	25.52	25.01
6		74.97	75.03	75.00
6		49.96	50.04	50.00
6		24.97	25.03	25.00
10		75.00	75.00	75.00
10		50.00	50.00	50.00
10		25.00	25.00	25.00

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360

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

FiouRB 2. The curves show the final temperatures on the axis (OS) of a circular disk of given thickness (c) and of diameter d, when one face is kept at the temperature 100^ and the other face and the rim at 0^. In A, B, C, D, and E, the diameter has the values ^ c, c, f c, 2 c, 3 c, respectively.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass., December, 1909.

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Prooeeding^ of the American Aoademy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 14.— April, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

ON EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF A SOLID SPHERE.

Bt Habbt W. Mobsb.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

ON EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF A SOLD) SPHERK

PRELIMINARY NOTE.

By Harby W. Morse.

Presented by John Trowbridge, Febnury 0, 1010. Received January 3, 1010.

Thb micro-balance of Salvioni and Nemst permits of following small changes in weight with considerable accaracy, provided the body nnder investigation has a mass not greater than a few milligrams. This bal- ance consists merely of a fibre of quartz or glass, firmly held in a nearly horizontal position by being secured at one end, and provided at the other end with some means of attaching the object to be weighed. The weight is then, within quite wide limits of deflection, proportional to the deflection, and the balance is easily calibrated by means of small riders of known weight Deflections are followed by means of a cathe- tometer or a microscope with micrometer eyepiece. Differences of 0.01 millimeter or even less are easily determined, and if the fibre be so chosen that a weight of 1 milligram gives a deflection of about a centi- meter, there is no difficulty in detecting and measuring changes of weight of 0.001 milligram or less.

With such a balance the change of weight of small spheres of iodine has been followed at approximately constant temperature. Evapora- tion was allowed to go on in a large box with glass sides, and the two side doors of the case were left open before each series of readings to allow free circulation of air. It may therefore be assumed that the partial vapor pressure of iodine in the atmosphere about the evaporat- ing spheres was constant The temperature was constant within about 0.3<> during each run.

After many attempts to obtain definite geometrical form by casting, &irly accurate spheres were made by pouring molten iodine into water. There is no difficulty in obtaining in this way approximately spherical pieces with radii varying fix)m 1 millimeter down to 0.2 millimeter.

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364 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

It was thought possible that there might be a change in the character of the surface as evaporation proceeded. The spheres were hard on the snrface, and quite smooth as they came from the water, but they undoubtedly consist of a mass of very small irregular crystals and any roughening that might appear during the course of the experiment would lead to a considerable increase in suriace. That such changes do not occur in disturbing amount is shown by the feet that the deter- minations made with small spheres fresh from formation fall accurately on the curve of me&surements on spheres which have been evaporating ^ for some hours. Microscopic examination corroborates this and shows also that the spherical shape is maintained practically unchanged until the sphere finally disappears completely.

In these experiments the spheres were supported on a nearly flat scale-pan of thin glass. This may introduce a variation in the surface exposed to the-air, due to difference in the surface of contact between sphere and glass, fi|.nd especially to be expected if the particles are not closely spherical. This £M3tor is also shown to be negligible by the closeness with which the spherical form is kept during evaporation and also by the £^t that turning the particle over has no measurable effect on the rate of evaporation.

Measurements on three spheres of different radii are given below.

These observations are plotted in the curve of Figure 1.

There is plenty of evidence that in any system made up of smaller and larger particles of the same substance, whether solid or liquid, the smaller particles are relatively unstable. So far, however, all of our knowledge about solids is of a purely qualitative nature, and no definite relation has ever been obtained based on vapor pressure or surfistce ten- sion, and expressing quantitatively the change of vapor pressure or surface tension with change of radius. It has been many times noticed that, in a sealed tube containing iodine crystals of various sizes, the larger crystals grow at the expense of the smaller ones, which gradually disappear. In a few days this can be clearly proved, and the same effect has been noticed for water drops and for camphor and other rather volatile substances.

In the case of liquids it is possible to set up a definite relation be- tween vapor pressure and curvature of drop. This has been done for water and a few other liquids, and the theory has been tested with some accuracy by experiments on the formation of fog by the expansion of saturated water vapor. For water the difference in vapor pressure be- tween a drop of radius 0.001 millimeter and a flat surface is of the order of 0.001 mm. of mercury, so that the effect becomes almost in- sensible for drops of any size.

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MORSE. — EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE.

365

It was therefore ezpeoted that any influence of the size of the particle of iodine on the rate of evaporation would only appear for very small

Sphere 1.	Sphere 2.	Sphere 3. 1
Time.	Weight.	Time.	Weight.	Time.	Weight.
min.	mgmfl.	min.	mgms.	mm.	mgms.
0	1.880
20	1.770
63	1.600
103	1.420
131	1.310
140	1.260
150	1.210
169	1.140
178	1.100
189	1.050	187	1.066
198	1.000	214	0.955
295	0.638	228	0.907
308	0.590	247	0.845
319	0.557	263	0.759
335	0.512	283	0.684	287	0.668
358	0.482	300	0.617	297	0.635
381	0.376	318	0.558	307	0.603
438	0.233	328	0.522	319	0.558
456	0.192	338	0.491	330	0.525
468	0.157	355	0.438	340	0.503
484	0.135	375	0.373
498	0.104	390 456 466 476 486 496 506 521 531 536 542 548 554 560 576	0.337 0.160 0.147 0.126 0.105 0.087 0.070 0.048 0.036 0.028 0.022 0.017 0.011 0.006 0.000

spheres indeed and that for all particles of sensible dimensions the rate would be proportional to the surfisK^e, so that

dm , or since the change in mass is being followed

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366

PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMT.

-S = *^"''-

The measurements show that this relation does not hold, even for spheres of radius 0.5 millimeter or more. The observed values do,

••

V

N

Vy

\

b

\

N

»v

N

^M.

^

^.

^

Figure 1. Evaporation from small spheres of Iodine. Small circles, observed values. Large circles, calculated values.

however, agree accurately with the assumption that the rate of evapora- tion is proportional to the surfieu^e and at the same time inversely as the radius, so that

dm J 8 dtn , , — Tr = A:- or =- = k^mK

at r at

In the figure the large circles have been placed according to the formula

tt-h

= K,

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MORSE. — EVAPORATION FROM THE SURFACE OF A SPHERE. 367

and the carve has been drawn through the points thus determined. The constant was calculated from the mean of all the observations and shows a probable error of a little less than 0.5 per cent The results of the observations are given as smaller circles. In putting in the re- sults for the smaller spheres or for those in which a full run down to zero of weight was not carried out^ the original value of the mass of the sphere was placed on the curve and the times of the other observations on the same sphere were taken from this point It is very probable that this method of choosing the highest weight has somewhat decreased the accuracy of the calculated constant, for it has been invariably ob- served that a measurable time elapses before a sphere &lls into its regular rate of evaporation. It begins slowly, sometimes at not more than half its fall rate, and several minutes elapse before it reaches its maximum valua It is probable that better agreement would have been obtained if a point &rther along in the observations had been chosen and calculations made in both directions from this.

It seems clear that for spheres of iodine of mass ranging from 2 milli- grams to very small values, the rate of evaporation is quite accurately proportional to the rcidivs.

Before taking up any theory of this surprising result it will be best to have data on evaporation from masses having other geometrical shapes, and especially for a flat sur£gM)e. It is expected that data on these points will be presented to the Academy in the near future.

Jeffebson Physical LAboratobT| Cambridge, Mass.,

December, 1909.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 16.— April, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OF ELECTROLYSIS.

Bt Harry W. Morse.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OF ELECTROLYSIS.

By Harrt W. Morse. Presented by John Trowbridge, December 8, 1909. Received January 6, 1910.

As the process of electrolysis is usually carried out there is very little opportunity to get any insight into its more minute mechanism. We are accustomed to think of each metal by having its own solution pressure, and by this we mean that it tends to go into solution under an impetus which varies with its position in the electro-motive force series. It is possible to calculate an osmotic pressure which would be just sufficient to balance this solution pressure and which would, if applied, cause equilibrium at the electrode. Under ordinary condi- tions electrochemical reactions are quite perfectly coupled. Equiva- lent amounts are dissolved at the anode and precipitated at the kathode, and it is not infrequent to state Faraday's Law in terms of the amounts thus dissolved and precipitated. But cases are well known where much more care must be taken in the statement of this law, as for example, where the air enters into reaction with one or both of the electrodes, or where the electroljrte itself attacks them. Very frequently a reaction of the form

M++ + Mmeta|l=^2M+

causes a loss or gain not proportional to the amount of current which has passed through the electrolytic cell.

In the case of silver electrodes in a solution of silver nitrate it is usual to sum up the process as follows: —

During any unit of time after the circuit is closed

(1) An equivalent amount of silver dissolves at the anode.

(2) Silver migrates (as silver ion) toward the kathode and nitrate ion migrates toward the anode, each carrying its share of the current in proportion to its migration velocity.

(3) An equivalent amount of silver separates as metal at the kathode.

I

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372 PBOCEEDINOS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

In the case of silver electrodes in pure water we might expect daring each unit of time :

(1) At the anode, the formation of oxygen, or an oxide of silver, or the solution of silver, the sum total making one equivalent.

(2) The transfer of hydrogen ion (and later of silver ion if this is formed) toward the kathode, and of either or both of the ions 0"^ and OH" toward the anode.

(3) At the kathode, evolution of hydrogen, and later precipitation of metallic silver, the two together making up one equivalent

A case has recently come to my attention in which some of the more minute phenomena which accompany electrolysis are evident and in which lack of equivalence at the electrodes is especially evident So far only qualitative observations have been made, but the data secured seem worthy of consideration.

r//////////////A

Figure 1. Electrolysis on microscopic slide between silver electrodes.

If pure water be electrolysed between small silver electrodes at vol- tages ranging from 1.40 to about 3.8 volts, and the space between and about the electrodes be observed under the microscope with powers of 50 or so, the following series of minute phenomena are visible : —

(1) A very short time after the circuit is closed a cloud of brownish particles, very small and in viplent Brownian movement, is formed in the neighborhood of the anode. If silver foil is used as anode it can be seen to dissolve rapidly and a dark film of silver oxide remains. The particles first make their appearance at a slight distance from the anode, and appear to be due to the formation of a silver compound produced firom the silver which has dissolved and one of the constitu- ents of the water.

(2) This cloud consists of approximately spherical particles of diam- eter 0.3 to 1.0 mikron. It is readily soluble in very dilute acetic acid and slightly soluble in water, forming an alkaline solution. The par- ticles appear to be silver oxide.

(3) If a cell of form similar to that shown in Figure 1 is used for the electrolysis, the particles move along the floor of the cell toward the kathoda During their migration toward the kathode they follow the current lines, and Figure 2 shows drawings made about half a minute apart) indicating the general appearance under a low magni- fying power. The masses which move in this way are not the single

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MORSE. — SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OP ELECTROLYSIS. 373

particles, which would not be visible at this magnification, but are clumps each containing a great many individual grains.

(4) While the above is occurring in the neighborhood of the anode a thin cloud of totaUy different appearance may appear about the kathoda The particles of this cloud are metallic in appearance, and they later disappear suddenly and completely when the growth of metallic silver begins at the front of the kathoda The kathode cloud seems to be effected by external conditions in greater degree than that

3.

¥.

Figure 2. Minute phenomena of electrolysis between silver electrodes.

from the anode. It is a function of the separation of the electrodes and the character of the kathode surfstce.

(5) The above described effects appear in the purest obtainable water and they are most evident in the best conductivity water, which has been recently prepared in quartz vessels and kept carefully 'from contact with air.

Electrolytes in very small concentration prevent the effect completely and cause the appearance of the usual gas bubbles at the anode and kathoda The foUowing brief table shows how a few electrolytes behave in this respect

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374 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Sodium Hydroxide 0.015 iV^ .020 N

Cloud.

very slight cloud and bubbles

above .020 N Sodinm Chloride 0.0005 N

.001 N above .001 N

at aUuUC.

Only bubbles at anoda

brown cloud, soluble in drop of

acetic acid.

brown 1 ^^Iq^ jg brown soluble

white J white insoluble

white cloud only.

(6) While the above effects are making their appearance in the electrol3rte at slight distances from the electrodes nothing whatever happens at the kathode itself. The space between the electrodes may be active for several minutes without the appearance of either a bubble of gas or a crystal of silver. If very thin silver foil is used for electrodes solvent action on the anode is very evident and it is rapidly dissolved. A thin silver foil kathode shows signs of dissolving at the edges during the first minute or so of the passage of the current, but the action ceases immediately.

(7) There seems to be a limiting voltage below which these phe- nomena do not make their appearance. This is very close to 1.41 volts for electrodes 1 mm. apart. The upper limit of voltage, above which gas appears at the electrodes, is about 3.8 volts.

(8) Even in purest distilled water the phenomena are much more complicated than those so far described. The anode and kathode clouds are quite different in their behavior. That from the kathode appears to be composed of particles shot off at random, and these particles do not take any definite path after leaving the neighborhood of their parent electrode. The anode cloud, on the contrary, sticks closely together, and if the electrodes are at the mouth of a deep test- tube filled with water the anode cloud travels to the very bottom of the tube in such close coherence that it looks like a thin brown thread.

(9) The effect of a magnetic field on the behavior of these particles has been tried without definite result They are relatively so large, and they move so slowly that an effect is hardly to be anticipated.

Attempt has been made to follow the changes in weight at each electrode during the electrolysis. The micro-balance was adapted for this purpose as shown in Figure 3. It is of course quite impossible to use any arrangement in which a fibre passes through the liquid sur- face. The effect of surface tension is far too great. But by placing both fibres and conducting wires under the sur&ce of the electrol)rte

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MORSE. — SOME MINUTE PHENOMENA OF ELECTBOLTSIS. 375

the difficulty is easily overcome. The balance loses but a small per- centage of its sensitiveness when used with a heavy metal like silver or copper. ,

The fibres used were of quartz and about 8 cm. long. The conduct- ing wires were of platinum about 0.04 mm. in diameter, and these were welded to small pieces of silver wire and held fast in hooks at the end of the fibres, so that the silver electrodes were presented to each other at a distance of about 1.5 mm. The sensitiveness was such that a 0.1 mg. rider at the end of either fibre caused a deflection of more than a centimeter. One of the Qaxge) divisions of the micrometer

Figure 3. Biicrocoulometer.

eyepiece of the observing microscope corresponds to a change in weight of about 0.0001 mg., and a fraction of a division is easily read.

With this instrument the following qualitative changes were noticed.

(1) Immediately on closing the circuit a very slight decrease in the weight of each electrode. This change was observed in four of six experiments and must therefore be classed as doubtful until further proof is obtained of its correctness.

(2) Thereafter for several minutes an increase in the weight of each electrode, the anode gaining much fetster than the kathode. This effect is quite certain and considerabla It is accompanied by a change in color at the anode, which turns dark, and probably repre- sents the formation of silver oxide or peroxide.' The increase in weight at the kathode is seen to be due to the deposition of silver.

(3) From then on decrease in weight at the anode, and increase at the kathode, finally approaching proportionality.

The most important point which has been brought out in this pre- liminary exploration seems to be that of the complete lack of equiva-

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376 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE ABiEBICAN ACADEMY.

lence at the two electrodes. As observed under a high power, the entire anode may be eaten away, and the eleotroljrte space filled with masses of silver oxide, in some cases without a visible change at the kathode. Not even a bubble of gas makes its appearanca If plati- num is used as kathode in place of silver, not the smaUest amount of current can be sent through the ceU without the appearance of streams of minute bubbles.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, CAMBRmoE, Mass., December, 1909.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 16. — May, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

AIR RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES.

Bt Edwin H. Hall.

/

^''-

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

AIR RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES.

By Edwin H. Hall.

Presented Januazy 12, 1910; Received January 12, 1910.

In 1903 ^ I published an account of experiments which I had made with &lling bronze spheres, one inch in diameter, in the tower of the JeflFerson Physical Laboratory. The especial object of these experi- ments was to look for a southerly deviation, from the plumb line vertical, of the course of the falling balls, several observers, from the time of Hooke, 1680, to Rundell, 1848, having reported finding such a deviation, though Gauss and Laplace, both of whom discussed the matter theoretically about 1803, could find no cause for the phenomenon.

The general mean of the deviations observed by myself in the north and south plane in the experiments referred to, experiments much more careful and extensive than those which any one else had made in this matter, was a southerly movement of about 0.005 cm. in a fall of about 23 m. The probable error was about 0.004 cm., and I should have regarded the case as practically closed in favor of the negative if my predecessors had not^ almost without exception, reported a considerable southerly excursion. On the whole I was disposed to try the question further, and accordingly applied in 1904 for permis- sion to make experiments for this purpose in the great monument at Washington, D. C, where a sheer fall of about 165 m. is possible. The monument is in the care of the War Department, and at first the authorities applied to acted favorably upon my petition. A few months later, and before I had made any overt preparations for the work pro- posed, some change of management or of mind occurred in the Depart- ment, and the permission previously granted me was courteously but firmly withdrawn, " for the reason that the monument was designed as a memorial to General Washington." I have long since come to

* Physical Review, 1903, 17, 179 and 245; These Proceedings, 1904, 39, 339.

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380 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

the conclusion that this action was a fortunate one for me, as the investigation would certainly have been tedious and expensive and would probably have been inconclusive.

But the easterly deviation also was, incidentally, measured in my experiments at the Jefferson Laboratory, and the general mean value found for it was 0.149 cm., whereas the value given by the theoretical formula,

y = ^gucoak X ^,

where u is the angular velocity of the earth's rotation, A. is the latitude, and t is the time of fall in seconds, is 0.177 ^ cm. for the case in hand. The probable error of the observed general mean is perhaps greater than that for the southerly deviation, but is not great enough to account for the difference between the observed and the theoretical easterly value. I did not give in any of my previous papers on this subject the formula of Gauss or that of Laplace for the easterly devia- tion of a body &lling in air, though I had given considerable attention to their treatment of the effect of air resistance, but closed my discus- sion of the matter thus : " The mean eastetly deviation actually found in these experiments, 0.149 cm., differs 0.03 om. firom this theoretical value, — a quantity too large to be accounted for by the resistance of the air. I attach but little significance to this discrepancy, as the con- ditions for determining the easterly deviation in my work were plainly not so good as those for determining the southerly deviation."

Thus the matter stood till last April, when I received from Professor Hagen of the Vaticana Specola Astronomica the suggestion that I should make some experiments to find out how much the resistance of the air really amounted to, in order to see whether it might not after all go some distance toward explaining the discrepancy between the observed and the calculated easterly deviation. Father Hagen puts the state- ment of Gauss concerning the effect of air resistance so clearly, that I shall copy his words, changing, however, the nomenclature slightly. He writes :

'' Gauss puts the height of the fall, determined by linear measure, =/ and igt^=/+ ^, determined from the observed time of the fisJL The difference S is owing to the resistance of the air. Then

Deviation y = | cos \ut (/ — ^ 8)."

It was easy to carry out the suggestion thus given, and accordingly in October I reestablished the releasing part of my apparatus at the top

* I have given this previously as 0.179, but 0.177 is more nearly correct.

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HALL. — AIB RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES. 381

of the Laboratory tower and had a new cloth tube suspended for the balls to drop througL This tube, like the old one, which had wasted away, was about 35 cm. in diameter, and the balls fell along its axis.

At the bottom of the tower the receiving apparatus was n6w a hori- zontal plate of brass, £si.stened at one end but free at the other, so as to be capable of up and down motion. Near the free end of this plate a square hole, about 5 cm. on each side, was cut Over this hole was placed in some cases a sheet of lead somewhat narrower than the hole but long enough to be clamped fAst to the brass plate at each end. Later a thin sheet of wood was placed over the hole before each &11. In either case the ball, after falling from the top of the tower, would strike the cover of the hole and break through it, the first shock of its impact pulling the brass plate down &r enough to break the contact which made part of an electrical circuit including a chronograph. At the top of the tower the release of the ball broke the same electrical circuit, which was, however, closed a fraction of a second later. It is hardly necessary to give further details of the apparatus except this, that the chronograph, which was driven by an electric motor at the rate of about 3 cm. per second, was not under the best of control, and it was accordingly necessary to make a greater number of trials than would otherwise have been required in order to determine the time of fall with sufficient accuracy. It should be added that the rate of the clock giving the second signals at the chronograph was not very accurately known, as it varied somewhat from day to day, probably because of changes of temperatura Its error may have been as much as half a minute per day, but was probably less than this. An error of this magnitude is not serious for our present purpose, and the clock was in my calculations assumed to be correct.

On the 16th of October 17 balls were dropped with such success as to give usable records. The mean time of fall was 2.176 seconds, with a probable error about 0.002 second.

On the 25th of October I made another series of trials, dispensing with the protecting cloth tube. In this series records were obtained from 15 balls, the mean time of &11 being 2.174 seconds, with a prob- able error about 0.004 second. It appears, then, that the presence of the tube has little if any influence on the time of fell.

The latitude of Cambridge being 42° 22', very nearly, and the eleva- tion above sea level very slight, we find that, according to the general formula for ^ as a fiinction of X, its value here is, to the first decimal place, 980.4. Accordingly we have as Grauss's /+ 8, the distance a body would fell in vacuum in 2.176 seconds,

/+ 8 = J X 980.4 X 2.176* = 2321 cm.

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382 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The distance/ the actual length of the fall, as measured by a steel tskpe which was tested by a Brown and Sharpe steel meter rod, was 2285 cm. Accordingly 8 = 36 cm., and the easterly deviation should be, according to Gauss,

6 28 y = |cos42° 22' X — ^ X 2.176 (2285 - 18) = 0.177 cm.,

that is, to the third place of decimals the value of the easterly deviation is not in our case aflfected by the resistance of the air, if I have cor- rectly understood and used the formulas of Gauss.

Coefficient of Air Resistance.

It is perhaps worth while, since observations on the air resistance ofiFered to the motion of spherical bodies are not over numerous, to work out irom the data here at hand the coefficient of this resistance for the spheres here used, — bronze spheres, one inch in diameter, ground to a smooth surface, but left in a slightly greasy condition by their experience of being dropped into beds of tallow in their use six years ago.

The mere buoyant efifect of air on bronze may properly be neglected in this discussion, as it is very small.

If we assume that the resistance of the air is proportional to the square of the velocity of the fistUing sphere, within the moderate range of velocity here considered, we have, as the net accelerating force on a ball of m grams, (mg — kv^) dynes, where k is the constant coefficient of resistance. Accordingly, writing c tor m-r- k, we find as the incre- ment of velocity

dv whence

= (^-?)*. (1)

= dt. (2)

£_' {gc - v")

This equation, integrated for v between the limits 0 and t?, and for t between the limits 0 and 2.176 (the observed value), gives

r^ [log ^^] = i |/i log ^^ = 2.176. (3)

2 Vgc L vgc — tj o ^ vgc — v

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HALL. — AIR RESISTANCE TO FALLING INCH SPHERES. 383

We have farther, if « is the distance &lleD, from (2)

ds = vdt==-^- (4)

Integrating this equation for 8 between the limits 0 and 2285 (the ob- served value) and for v between 0 and v, we get

, = 2285 = -|[log(.«-^c)];=-^2log(l-^J

(5)

Writing now (3) in the form

^ =€ ' (6)

Vgc — v

and (5) in the form

// 4570 \

and substituting for v in (6), we get or

(7)

1 + y 1 - € c 4.;

/ " _4570

1- V i-€ ^r

,362 V ^

or

/ 1984.726

1 -f r 1 - 10 ^ ^ ^^1.89006V^

/ 1984.726 ' ^ ^

i-ri-io

The value of c which satisfies this equation I find to be about 48000. The value of *, the coefficient in question, is m, the mass of the ball, which is about 73.8 gm., divided by c.

k = 73.8 -f- 48000 = 0.00154.

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384 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

In Alger's " Exterior Ballistics '' I find the following passage :

" Expressing the retardation caused by the resistance of the air in

the form A—'t^/m which d is the diameter of the projectile in inches,

w its weight in pounds and v its velocity in £ s., Mayevski's equations are as follows : "

"v between 790 f. s. and 0 f. s.,

"^ = - ^7 -^ log^T = 5.669 . . . (- 10).

"The coefficient A depends on the shape of the projectile. Id Mayevski's calculations the ' ogival ' form [the shape of an ordinary artillery ' shell '] is assumed, the ' ogival ' heads having two calibers radius. A would be greater with hemispherical heads."

Mayevdld's formula is equivalent to

Resistance (poundals) = "" ^ jT = ^^ ^ ^*

Taking this formula for the case in which d is one inch, the diameter of the bronze balls, and the velocity is 1 cm. per second, we get for the " ogival " form,

Besistance (poundals) ^ A -^ 30.5 ,

(dynes) =A^ 305^' X (453 X 30.5) = 0.00069.

This is about 45 per cent of the value, 0.00154, found above for k in the case of spherical one inch balls.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, Mass., January, 1910.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 17. — Mat, 1910.

ISSUED.

MAY 20 1910

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GRAY HERBARIUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

New Semes.— No. XXXVIIL

I. A preliminary Synopsis of the Genus Echeandia, By G. A. Weathebby.

II. Spermatophjrtes, new or reclassified, chiefly Rubiaceae and Gentianaceae. By B. L. Robinson.

III. American Forms of Lycopodium compUinatum, By G. A.

Weathebby.

IV. New and little known Mexican Plants, chiefly Labtatae, By

M. L. Fernald.

V. Mexican Phanerogams — Notes and new Species. By G. A. Weathebby.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE GRAY HERBARIUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY. — NEW SERIES, NO. XXXVIII.

i'resented by B. L. Robinson. January 12, 1910. Received February 15. 1010.

I. A PRELIMINARY SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ECHEANDIA

By C. a. Weatherby.

The genus Echeancliay fouDded on Anthericum rejlexum Cav., was proposed by Ortega in his Novarum Plantarum Decades in 1798, and has been generally maintained by botanists since. Eunth, in 1843, recognized three species under it Baker, monographing th6 Anther- iceae in 1877, could find no clear lines of demarcation between these species and referred all the material known to him to the original species. Hemsley, though suspecting that more than one species was concerned, retained Baker's treatment because of insufficient material for a satisfactory revision. Since the date of his work, the increasingly thorough floristio exploration of Mexico has revealed a number of obviously distinct forms, several of which have been singly described by various botanists. The genus can hardly yet be considered as thoroughly understood ; but a brief synopsis, which shall contrast the characters of the different species and bring together the existing information concerning them, may be of service, even though it can lay no claim to finality. The following is an attempt at such a synopsis.

Echeandia is, so far as known, a strictly American genus and chiefly confined to Mexico and Central America. The material at hand shows one species collected in Venezuela. The genus is very closely related to Anthericum L., irom which, indeed, it is separated by only one constant character — its connate anthers. Although the American species of Anthericum are more numerous than those of Echeandia^ the two groups show a distinctly parallel development, both con- taining species with smooth and with roughened filaments, smooth and scabrous stems and ovoid and oblong capsules. In particular, E. macrocarpa and A. stenocarpum, and E. Pringlei and A, tenue are nearly indistinguishable except by the characters of their anthers.

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388 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

I have preferred, at least for the present^ to regard plants which differ only in comparatively superficial foliar and habital characters as varieties of a single species, rather than specifically distinct I have, however, made an exception in the group of forms closely related to E, reflexa. Here, because of imperfect material of E, rejiexa and E, paniculata and of certain puzzling specimens from Yucatan, I have not been able to arrive at a wholly clear conception of the relationships of the different forms ; and I have allowed described species to stand as such, rather than make new combinations which later might have to be withdrawn.

For the loan of specimens, and for other kindly assistance in the preparation of this paper, I am indebted to Captain John Donnell Smith, to Mr. Brandegee of the University of California, Dr. Rose of the National Herbarium, and Dr. Greenman of the Field Museum. All specimens cited are in the Gray Herbarium, unless otherwise specified.

ECHEANDIA Ort Perianth rotate, spreading or reflexed in flower, after anthesis the withered segments cohering above the ovary and persistent until pushed off by the expanding capsule; segments 6, distinct, three-nerved, about equal in length, the inner often broader. Stamens 6, hypogynous, shorter than the perianth ; filaments filiform or clavate, smooth or more or less papillose- or crispate-roughened ; anthers linear, hastate at base, the filament attached in the sinus, usually equalling or longer than the filaments, connate in a cylindrical tube which surrounds the style, introrse. Ovary sessile, three-lobed ; style filiform, a little longer than the tube of anthers ; stigma small, capitate. Capsule ovoid or oblong, triangular, loculicidal. Seeds numerous, angulate-compressed, black, minutely papillose. — Roots fibrous, clustered, often thickened or fusiform. * Leaves basal or rarely the lower part of the stem leafy. Stem scapiform, bracted, simple or branched above, the branches virgate. Flowers yellow or white, on usually slender jointed pedicels in clusters of 1-4 on the stem and its branches, in the axils of chartaceous bracts, each pedicel subtended by a similar smaller bractlet ; the clusters in virgate racemes.

a. Filaments smooth; leaves strictly basal, not sheathing the stem, h.

b. Stem scabrous, 1-4-bracted 1. ^. parviflora,

b. Stem smooth, 6-9-bracted, c. c. Leaves spreading, falcate, 15 cm. or less long . . 2. E. brevifolia, c. Leaves erect, narrowed at base, more than 15 cm. long, d.

d. Leaves broad, 2 cm. or more 3. ^. nodosa.

d. Leaves narrow, not over 1 cm. wide . 3. E. nodosa t var. lanceolata.

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WEATHERBY. — SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ECHEANDIA. 389

a. Filaments more or less crispate- or papillose-roughened, e.

c. Leaves broad, O.S-3.5 cm. wide, membranous in drying, soft, the prin- cipal nerves usually connected by conspicuous cross- veinlets, /. /. Stem smooth ; flowers chiefly yellow, as far as known, g,

g. Capsule ovoid or short-oblong, 6-9 mm. long, 5-7 mm. broad ; inner perianth-segments oblong-lanceolate, little broader than the outer, h. h. Leaves lanceolate or even ovate-lanceolate, 20-25 cm. long, 2.8-5 cm. wide, not more than 8 times as long as wide.

4. E. macrophylla. h. Leaves linear or narrowly lanceolate, 24-42 cm. long, 1.2-2.3 cm. wide, at least 1^ times as long as wide.

4. E. macrophyUaf var. longifolia. g. Capsule oblong, 1-1.8 cm. long, 4-6 mm. wide; inner perianth- segments ovate or ovate-lanceolate, often much broader than the outer, i. i. Leaves for the most part sheathing the stem but confined to its base; stem about 2-bracted, /. /. Leaves narrow, 8-13 mm. wide, k.

k. Leaves usually several (6-10), suberect . 6. E, macrocarpa^ k. Leaves few (2-4), spreading, short in proportion to the stem.

5. E. macrocarpaf var.formosa,

;. Leaves broader, 1.5-2 cm. wide 6. ^. reflexa.

i. Stem leafy for about a third of its height, the leaves passing grad- ually into 3-6 reduced bracts 1, E. paniculata,

/. Stem scabrous, at least below; flowers white. . . . 8. ^. aUn flora, e. Leaves narrow, 2-5 mm. wide or less, firm, closely and prominently veined, mostly without visible cross- veinlets, I. I, Leaves 2-5 mm. wide, minutely scabrous beneath; stem 2-bracted;

inflorescence mostly branched 9. ^. flexuosa,

I, Leaves 2 (-2.5) mm. wide or less, scabrous-ciliate on the margins, else- where smooth; stem 3-6-bracted; inflorescence mostly simple.

10. E, Pringlei.

1. R PARVIFLORA BakoT. Leaves membranous, linear, not very prominently nerved, 4-8 mm. wide, 6-22 cm. long, suberect or some- what spreading and fgJcate ; stem scabrous or hirtellous^at least below, simple or sometimes with as many as 5 branches ; pedicels rather short and stout, in fruit 6-8 mm. long, jointed below the middle or toward the base; filaments smooth; capsule (seen on the Pringle specimen only) broadly oblong, 3.5-5 mm. wide, 6-9 mm. long. — Engl. Bot. Jahrb. viii. 209 (1887). — Guatemala : Santa Rosa, alt. 900 m.. May, 1892, John DonneU Smith, PL Guat, no. 3528. Mexico : Mt Orizaba, Cordoba, 830 m., Aug. 20, 1891, Henry E, Seaton, no. 485, in part. State of Guerrero, dry hillsides, near Iguala, alt 915 m., July 29, 1907, Pringh, no. 10,388.

2. R BREviFOLiA Watsou. Leaves membranous, with cross-veinlets,

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390 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

short, 12-15 cm. long, 6 mm. wide, acuminate, spreading and some- what falcate, not sheathing the stem ; stem about 6 dm. tall, smooth, 6-bracted, with few (3-4) branches; pedicels slender, in fruit 11-14 mm. long, jointed below the middle ; filaments smooth ; capsule short- oblong, 4-4.5 mm. wide, 7-8 mm. long. — Proc. Am. Acad. xxi. 441 (1886). — Mexico: State of Chihuahua, Hacienda San Miguel near Batopilas, Sept., 1885, Palmer^ no. 229.

3. E. NODOSA Watson. Leaves membranous, with cross-veinlets, linear-lanceolate, narrowed at base, not sheathing the stem, 18-40 cul long, 2-2.7 cm. wide ; stem smooth, 6-9-bracted, with 6-7 branches, which rarely branch again ; pedicels slender, jointed below the middle, in fruit 11-14 mm. long; filaments smooth, shorter than the anthers ; capsule oblong, 3.5-4 mm. wide, 8-9 mm. long. — Proc. Am. Acad, xxvi. 156 (1891). 1 Phalangium ramosissimum Presl, Rel. Haenk. i. 127 (1825). lAnthericum ramosissimum R. & S. Syst vii. 469 (1829). lEcheandia Haenkeana Kunth, Enum. iv. 629 (1843). — Mexico; State of Jalisco, near Guadalajara, 12 Nov., 1888, Pringle, no. 2151. Dry rocky blufifs of barranca near Guadalajara, 23 Sept., 1891, Pringle, no. 3870. — Flowers apparently small as in E, macrophylla, the peri- anth-segments narrow, whitish in drying. From Presl's description it seems highly probable that this plant is the same as his Phalangium ramosissimum. In the absence of authentic material, however, I hesi- tate to make the new combination required by the transfer of Presl's species to Echeandia.

Var. lanceolat€^ n. var., a forma typica recedit habitu graciliore, foliis angustioribus 6-10 mm. latis, pedicellis 1 cm. longis, capsulis min- oribus 3.5 mm. latis 5-6 mm. longis. — Mexico: State of SinaJoa, Copradia, Oct. 20, 1904, Brandegee, type (in Herb. Univ. Cal., sheet no. 119,863). Ymala, Sept. 28 to Oct. 8, 1891, Palmer, no. 1677. Culiacan, Sept. 17, 1904, Brandegee (in Herb. Univ. Cal., sheet no. 119,856). — The name lanceolata was applied to this plant, on her- barium labels, ,by Mr. Brandegee, who at that time was inclined to regard it as a good species. It seems, however, hardly specifically distinct from E. nodosa. The specimen on sheet no. 119,856 of the University of California Herbarium has broader leaves than the other two plants cited and may be regarded as a transitional form between the extreme development of the variety and typical E. nodosa.

4. E. macrophylla Rose, in hb., foliis omnino radicalibus caulis basin vaginantibus lanceolatis 20-25 cm. longis 2.8-5 cm. latis in apicem acuminatum angustatis, caule 7 dm. alto glabro 2-bracteato, ramis 5-6 saepe 2 ex axilla unica, pedicellis infra medium vel prope basin articulatis, floribus parvis, perianthii segmentis 1-1.3 cm. longis

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WEATHERBY. — SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ECHEANDIA. 391

lineari- vel oblongo-lanceolatis latitndine snbaequalibus, interioribus paulum latioribus acutis, exterioribus obtusiusoulis, filamentis clavatis modice crispatis in floribus (novellis) visis qaam antherae duplo brevi- oribus, capsulis ovoideis 7 mm. longia 5 mm. latis. — Mexico: State of San Luis Potosi, grassy slopes, Las Canoas, 16 June, 1890, Pringle, no. 3183.

Var. longifolia, n. var., foliis late linearibus 24-42 cm. longis 1.2-2.3 cm. latis saepias solum radicalibus, caule 6.2-9 cm. alto, ramis paucis (1-3), pedicellis 1-2 cm. longis, filamentis antheras aequantibus vel eis brevioribus, capsulis ovoideis vel breviter oblongis 7-9 mm. longis 5-6 mm. latis, ceteris praecedentis. — ^E. temiflora Lindley, Bot. Reg. XXV. Misc. no. 144 (1839), not Ort E. temiflora Baker, Journ. Linn. Soc. xv. 288 (1877), in part, not Ort. ; Hemsl. Biol. Cent -Am. Bot. iiL 376, in part, not Ort — Mexico: State of Oaxaca, vicinity of Choapam, alt. 1150-1400 m., July 28 & 29, 1894, Nelson^ no. 910, type (in U. S. Nat Herb.). State of Vera Cruz, Zacuapan, dry sunny fields, Nov., 1908, Purpus, no. 3761. Orizaba, Botteri, no. 1185. Ibid., Cordoba, 830 m., Aug. 20, 1891, iT. JK Seaton, no. 485, in part Valine de Cordova, 23 Avril, 1865-66, Bmrgeau, no. 2307. Vene- zuela: prope coloniam Tovar, 1854-55, Fendler, no. 1549. The Bour- geau plant has entirely the habit and the fruit of tliis species, but the filaments are nearly smooth. It seems somewhat transitional between this and the preceding group. — Flowers yellow according to Lindley's description ; white with yellow anthers accoiding to a note on Fendler's label The plant seen by Lindley was possibly E. reflsxa, but from his description, seems rather to belong here.

5. K MACROCARPA Qrecuman. Leaves chiefly basal, suberect, rather narrowly linear, (6) 8-15 mm. broad, membranous, the cross-veinlets usually prominent, long in proportion to the stem, usually 6-10 in number ; stem 1-2-bracted, glabrous, simple or few-branched ; pedicels jointed below the middle, rather stout, in fruit 1-1.7 cm. long ; flowers apparently rather large, the perianth-segments 1.5-1.7 cm. long, the inner ovate-lanceolate ; filaments moderately roughened, equalling or slightly longer than the anthers ; capsules oblong, 1-1.8 cm. long, 4-6 mm. wide. — Proc. Am. Acad, xxxix. 73 (1903). E. temiflora Hemsl. Biol. Cent. -Am. Bot iii. 376, in part, not Ort — Mexico: State of San Luis Potosi, near Tancanhuitz, May 2, 1898, Nelson^ no. 4393, type ; region of San Luis Potosi, alt 1850-2450 m.. Parry <t Palmer, no. 890. "Mexico," no locality, Ehrenberg, no. 31. "Chiapas, etc.," Ghiesbreghtj no. 875. Valine de Mexico, Santa Fd, 6 Juillet, 1865-66, Boiirgeau, no. 413. Guanajato, 1880,-4. Dugh. State of Oaxaca, vicinity of Cerro San Felipe, alt 3000-3400 m., 1894, I^ekan, no. 1056

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392 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEEICAN ACADEMY.

(in U. S. Nat. Herb.). — A specimen fix)m Mt Orizaba, 3000 m., Aug. 5, 1891, H. E, SeatoUf no. 180, is probably a reduced form of this species. — Flowers yellow according to Ghiesbreght's label. Difficult to separate from E. reflewa, except by purely habital characters.

Var. formosa, n. var., foliis paucis (circa 4) caulis basin extremam vaginantibus patulis caule duplo brevioribus late linearibus circa 1 cm. latis summum 2 dm. longis, caule simplice, pedicellis gracilibus, flori- bus magnis aureis, ceteris formae typicae. — Mexico : State of Chiapas, near San Christobal, alt 2100-2500 m., Sept. 18, 1895, Nelson, no. 3143 (in U. S. Nat. Herb. Sheet no. 233,087). — Flowers " rich yellow " according to Nelson's note.

6. K REFLEXA (Cav.) Rose. Leaves rather closely sheathing the base of the stem, broadly linear, 27-40 cm. long, 1.5-2.2 cm. wide, acuminate, membranous, the cross-veinlets prominent ; stem about 7 dm. tall, smooth, rather slender, bearing 2-3 foliaceous bracts, in the single specimen seen with two branches ; pedicels jointed below the middle, in fruit 1.4-1.7 cm. long; perianth-segments broad, 1.5 cm. in length ; filaments strongly roughened, at least in the young flower shorter than the anthers ; capsule (immature) oblong, 1 cm. long, 4 mm. wide.

— Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. x. 93 (1906). Anthericum reflexum Cav. Ic. PL iii. 21, t 241 (1795) ; Willd. Sp. PL iL 140 (1799). Echeandia tefmijhra Ort. Nov. PL Dec. 90, 135, & 136, t. 18 (1798) ; Redouts, LiL vi, t 313 (1812); Kunth, Enum. iv. 627 (1843); Baker, Joum. Linn. Soc. xv. 288 (1877), tin part; HemsL BioL Cent -Am. Bot iiL 376 (1885), in part. Phalangium reflexum Poir. EncycL Meth. Bot. v. 249 (1804). Conanthera Echeandia Pers. Syn. L 370 (1805) ; Link & Otto, Ic. PL Ear. 5, t. 3 (1828). — Mexico : State of Morelos, ledges. Sierra de Tepoxtlan, near Cuemavaca, alt 2300 m., August 22, 1906, Prlngky no. 10,289. — Although the form represented by Mr. Pringle's plant here cited was the first of the genus to be collected, it seems not to be common. His specimen is the only one I have seen which, in its combination of broad leaves, few-branched stem, yellow, rather broad perianth-segments, strongly roughened filaments and oblong capsules, agrees well with Cavanilles's and Ortega's plates.

7. R PANicuLATA Rosc. Stem tall, with 6-7 panicled branches, leafy above the base for about a third of its height, the leaves passing gradually into 3-6 reduced bracts ; leaves membranous, with cross- veiulets, linear, long-attenuate at apex, up to 5 dm. long, 1.5-3 cm. wide; flowers rather large, yellow; perianth-segments 1.5 cm. long, the outer oblong-linear, the inner ovate, 6 mm. wide; filaments cla- vate, strongly roughened, about equalling the anthers ; capsule not seen.

— Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. x. 93 (1906). — Mexico : State of Morelos,

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WEATHERBY. — SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS ECHEANDIA. 393

near El Parque, Sept 21, 1903, Rose A Painter, no. 844 (in IT. S. Nat Herb., sheets nos. 454,954 & 454,955). — No fruit of this species has been preserved, but its floral characters place it clearly very near E. reft^xa. So £Bir as the material at hand shows, it differs from that species only in its more leafy stem and more branched inflorescence and may very probably prove to be no more than a variety of it — Here are doubtfully placed the specimens from two collections of C, F, Gaumer namely from Yucatan, Izamal, Sept, 1895, na 843 and Ghicankanab, no. 1995 (the latter in Herb. Field Mus. Nat Hist, sheet no. 58,793). These specimens have neither fruit nor good flowers and in their absence can hardly be placed definitely. They have mostly a much-branched inflorescence, several(7-8)-bracted stem and the leaves pass abruptly into the much reduced bracts. In this respect they differ from E, panicuiata; and the branches of the inflorescence are more slender and the flower-buds smaller than in either that species or E. refiexa^ although the plants are quite as robust

8. R ALBiFLORA (Schlccht & Cham.) Mart & Gal. Leaves basal, several, lanceolate-linear, narrowed to an acute apex, the principal nerves united by transverse veinlets, membranous, glabrous, about 36 cm. long, 1.8-2 cm. wide ; stem scabrous or hirtellous below ; inflor- escence paniculate ; pedicels slender, 10 mm. long, jointed below the middle ; flowers white ; perianth-segments lanceolate ; filaments re- trorsely papillose-crispate, equalling the anthers; capsule? — Bull. Acad. Brux. ix. 386 (1842) ; Kunth, Enum. iv. 628 (1843). Conan- thera aUnflora Schlecht & Cham. Linnaea, vi. 50 (1831). Echeandia leucantha B^otzsch, fide Kunth, 1. c. — I have seen no material refera- ble to this species. The above description is taken chiefly from that of Kunth.

9. K FLEXUOSA Greenman. Leaves firm, closely and prominently veined, suberect, minutely scabrous beneath, 2-5 mm. wide, variable in length (reaching 8 dm.), long-acuminate ; stem 9 dm. high or less, smooth, 2-3-bracted, the lower bract sometimes elongated and seta- ceous, reaching 15 cm. in length ; pedicels jointed near or below the middle, rather stout, in fruit 12-16 mm. long; flowers rather large with lanceolate perianth-segments ; filaments moderately roughened, shorter than or nearly equalling the anthers ; capsule oblong, 6-9 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide. — Proc Am. Acad, xxxix. 73 (1903). — Mexico : State of Oaxaca, Mts. of Jayacatlan, alt 1400 m., 10 Sept, 1894, Lucius C. Smith, no. 188. State of Jalisco, Rio Blanco, July, 1886, Palmer, no. 185 ; bluffs of the barranca of Guadalajara, 1400 m., 19 July, 1902, Pringle, no. 11,197.

10. K Pringlei Qreenman. Leaves firm, closely and prominently

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394 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

veined, scabrous-ciliate on the margins, elsewhere smooth, 1.5-2 (2.5) mm. wide, 1-3 dm. long; stem 2.7-6 dm. high, slender, glabrous, simple, bearing 3-6 bracts ; pedicels jointed near the base, in fruit 10-14 mm. long ; filaments moderately roughened, shorter than the anthers; capsule oblong, 3-3.5 mm. wide, 7 mm. long — Proc. Am. Acad. xl. 28 (1904). — Mexico : State of Jalisco, dry calcareous hills above Etzatlan, 2000 m., 24 Oct., 1904, Pringle, no. 8812 ; grassy plains near Guadalajara, 1500 m., 4 Oct., 1903, Pringle, no. 11,715 ; hillsides of Zapotlan, alt. about 1500 m., Aug, 8, 1905, P. GoldsmitA, no. 122 ; near Etzatlan, Oct 2, 1903, Hose & Painter, no. 7544 Tin U. S. Nat. Herb.).

Excluded Species.

E, elmiherandra K. Koch, Ind. Sem. Hort. BeroL App. 4 (1861) = Anthericum echeandioidesy ace. to Baker.

E. graminea Mart. & GaL Bull Acad. Brux. ix. 387 (1842) = Anthericum leptophyllum,

E, kptophylla BentL PL Hartw. 25 {l%4SS)-= Anthericum leptophyl- lum.

E, scahreUa Walp. Ann. iii. 1010 (y^h^^ Anthericum scabrellum.

E, pusilla Brandegee, Univ. CaL Pub. Bot iii. 377 (1909) =form of Anthericum leptophyllum.

II. SPERMATOPHTTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED, CHIEFLY RUBIACEAE AND GENTIANACEAR

By B. L. Robinson.

Ranunculus trieeotuB Eastwood, n. sp.,^ glaber vel paulo pilosus 1-2 dm. altus simplex vel 2-3-ramosus, ramis ascendentibus ; foliis radicalibus orbicularibus trisectis, diametro 2-3 cm., basi reniformi- bus cum sinu saepissime angusto ; segmentis approximatis, medio late cuneato, lateralibus inaequaliter bipartitis, superiore parte trilobata ma j ore ; omnibus lobulis similibus oblongis 2-3 mm. latis duplo longi- oribus, apice et basi callosis, sinubus obtusis; petiolis strmtis basi membranaceis dilatatis et persistentibus ; foliis caulinis 1-3 sessilibus vel breviter petiolatis 3-5-sectis, segmentis integris vel lobatis, ultimis lobulis oblongo-linearibus ad apicem et sinum callosis, basi petiolorum vel foliorum membranaceo amplexicauli ; pedunculis altis, fructiferis

* This species, elaborated by Miss Alice Eastwood from material in the Gray Herbarium, is here published at her request.

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ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHTTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 395

saepe 5-6 mm. longis, floriferis multo brevioribus ; sepalis purpura- scentibus orbiculatis 6-7 mm. latis et longis, concavis, cum pilis canis et sericeis parce investis ; petalis aurantiacis cuneatis 5-15 mm. latis, sepala multo superantibus, apice undulatis rotundatis, basi cum squa- mula hemicycla supra brevem unguem ; stamiuibus numerosis, loculis antherarum separatis, dorso filamentis planis ; acheniis spicatis, recep- taculo subulato albo membranaceo pilosello ; stylis purpureis vel flavis rectis vel curvatis et divaricatis, apice saepe deciduis. — Alpine Wal- lowa mountains, eastern Oregon, altitude 2745 m.. growing at base of cHflfs, William C. Cusick, 16 August, 1907, no. 3200 (type, in Gray Herb.). Under the same species are included with some doubt the fol- lowing, all collected by Mr. Cusick at the same locality : — no. 3188, strong growing plants, some with smooth, others with hairy akenes but otherwise identical ; 3325 d, with akenes all hairy ; 3326 with both hairy and smooth akenes. Among the older specimens in the Ghray Herbarium are 3219 a collected in 1907 with heads of akenes more globular and hairy, styles purplish, 1513 of 1888 and 2006 of 1898. These all show great variability in size of flowers and height of stems but the plants have an individuality which makes them appear quite distinct from B. Suksdorfii with which they have been confused. In general this species differs from B. Suksdorfii in having more orbicular leaves with more deeply cut divisions, narrower basal sinus, the ulti- mate lobules obtuse and narrowing slightly to the base thus making the dividing space rounded rather than acuta The akenes are not angled, hairy instead of smooth, and the style curves outward more noticeably and is less strongly subulate.

Tocooa Peokiana, n. sp., fruticosa 3-6 m. alta ; ramis valde com- pressis brunneis fistnlosis parce praesertim nodos versus glanduloso- hispidulis ; foliis late ovatis modice disparibus membranaceis 5-nerviis supra appresse setulosis rugosis siccitate nigrescentibus subtus tomen- tellis flavidi-viridibus margine integriusculis hispidulis apice angustis- sime caudato-attenuatis, majoribns 1.4-2.2 dm. longis 7-12 cm. latis, petiolo crasso hispidulo 2-2.5 cm. longo prope apicem vesciculifero, vescicuHs ovoideis subcoriaceis 1-1.2 cm. longis; foliis minoribus 1.2-1.5 dm. longis ab vesciculis destitutis ; panicula terminali peduncu- lata ca. 8 cm. longa, ramis patentibus dichotomo-C3nniferis ; floribus sessilibus; calycis tubo subgloboso 4-5 mm. diametro parce glandu- loso-hispidulo, limbo brevissimo membranaceo obscure 5-lobato ; petalis ovatis subcoriaceis minute papillosis. — British Honduras, in thick- ets, near Manatee Lagoon, 16 July, 1905, Prof. Morton E, Peck, no. 68 (type, in Gray Herb.). A species of the § Hypophysca and related apparently to T. guyanensis Aubl., from which, however, it may be

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396 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

readily distinguished by its less unequal, more nearly entire leaves, smaller, thicker-walled vescicles, and especially by its sessile flowers.

Cynoctonum oldenlandioides (Wall.), n. comb. Mitreola olden- landioides Wall. Cat no. 4350 (1828), without description ; 6. Don, Syst iv. 172 (1837), where distinctions are slightly indicated ; A.DC. Prod. ix. 9 (1845), where described and distinguished chiefly by the widely divergent lobes of the fruit; HooL Ic. t. 827 (1852), where admirably figured. The change from Mitreola to Cynoctonum becomes necessary under the Vienna Rules, though it is certainly to be re- gretted that the well established Mitreola was not included in the list of nomina conservanda.

Cjmootoniim pcmioulatum (Wall), n. comb. Mitreola panictdata Wall. Cat. no. 4349 (1828), without description; G. Don, Syst. iv. 171 (1837) ; A.DC. Prod. ix. 9 (1845) ; Progel in Mart R Bras. vL pt 1, 266, t 71 (1868).

Cynoctonum pedioellatum (Benth.), n. comb. Mitreola pedicel- lata BentL Jour. Linn. Soc. i. 91 (1857).

Centauriiim Besrriohii (Torr. & Gray), n. comb. Erythraea trt- chantka P angustifolia Griseb. in DC Prod. ix. 60 (1845). E, Beyrichii Torr. & Gray ex Torr. in Marcy, Expl. Red Riv. 291 (1853).

Centaurium cachanlahuen (Molina), n. comb. Gentiana Cachan- lahuen Molina, Sagg. ChiL 147 (1782); also in the German edition by Brandis, 310 (1786). G. peruviana h^m. Encycl. ii. 642 (1786). Chironia chilensis Willd. Sp. PL i. 1067 (1798). Erythraea chilensis Pers. Syn. i. 283 (1805). E. Cachanlahuan RoeuL & Schultes, Syst. iv. 167 (1819).

Centaurium calycosum (Buckl.) Femald, var nana (Gray), n. comb. Erythraea calycosa^ var. nana Gray, Syn. FL ii. pt 1, 113 (1878).

Centaurium floribunduxn (Benth.), n. comb. Erythraea florihunda Benth. PI. Hartw. 322 (1849).

Centaurium maoranthimi (Hook. & Am.), n. comb. Erythraea macrantha Hook. & Am. Bot BeecL 438 (1841). JE mexicana Griseb. ex Hook. & Am. L c. 302, 438. Gyrandra chironioides Griseb. in DC Prod. ix. 44 (1845). Erythraea chironioides Torr. Bot Mex. Bound. 156 (1859), in part

Centaurium madrense (HomsL), n. comb. Erythraea madrensis Hemsl. Biol. Cent -Am. Bot ii. 346 (1882). Gyrandra chironioides Griseb. in Seem. Bot Herald. 318 (1856), not Griseb. in DC. Prod. ix. 44 (1845).

Centaurium mioranthum (Greenm.), n. comb. Erythraea mi- crantha Greenm. Proc. Am. Acad, xxxix. 83 (1903).

Centaurium multioaule, n. sp., verisimiliter bienne multicaule

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ROBINSON. — SPERMATOPHYTES, NEW OR RECLASSIFIED. 397

caespitostun 5-10 cm. altam basi densissime foliatum ; ladice simplice 2-6 cm. longa ; caulibus 4-22 subsimplicibas 4-aDgulatis gracilibus apioe l-2(rarius 3)-flori8, ramis 1-2 erectis ; foliis radicalibus rosulatis obo- yato-spatalatis 1-2 cm. longis 4-8 mm. latis apice rotundatis basi in petiolum attennatis ; foliis caalinis 3-4jagi8 lineari-oblongis vel linearibus 8-10 mm. longis 1-2.7 mm. latis l-nerviis crassiusculis ; pedunculis 1.5-4 cm. longis erectis nadis unifloris ; floribus penta- mens ; calycis lobis linearibus attennatis 6 mm. longis margine scari- osis quam tubns corollae paulo brevioribns ; corolla 1.5 cm. longa tnbo constricto flavido, limbi lobis ellipticis 6 mm. longis 2 mm. latis apice rotundatis ; filamentis antheras subaequantibus gracilibus ; stig- mate capitato-subbilobo. — Mexico : most meadow, Hacienda of St. Diego, Chihuabua, 2 June, 1891, C, V. Hartman^ no. 717 (tjrpe, in Gray Herb.). This plant of somewhat striking tufted habit was dis- tributed as Erythraea calycosa^ but differs from that species rather markedly in its lower stature, much smaller flowers, and clustered chiefly 1 -flowered stems.

Centaurium nudicaule (Engelm.), n. comb. Erythraea nudicaulis Engelm. Proc Am. Acad. xvii. 222 (1882).

Centaurium paucifloruxn (Mart & Oal.), n. comb. Erythraea paucijiora Mart. & Gal. Bull. Acad. Brux. xi. 373 (1844).

Centaurium Pringleanimi (Wittr.), n. comb. Erythraea Pring- leana Wittr. Bot. Gaz. xvi. 85 (1891).

Centaurium quitense (HBK.), n. comb. Erythraea quitensis HBK. Nov. Gen. et Spec. iii. 178 (1818). Cicendia quitensis Griseb. Linnaea, xxii. 33 (1849). Erythraea divaricata Schaffner ex Schlecht. Bot. Zeit xiii. 920 (1855). Erythraea chilensis Benth. PI. Hartw. 89 (1842), non Pers. Centaurium divaricatum Millsp. & Greenm., Field Columb. Mus. Bot Ser. ii. 309 (1909).

Centaurium- retusum (Rob. & Greenm.), n. comb. Erythraea retusa Rob. & Greenm. Proc Am. Acad, xxxii. 38 (1896).

Centauriimi setaceimi (Benth.), n. comb. Erythraea setacea Benth. Bot Sulph. 128 (1845).

Centaurium tenuifolium (Mart & Gal.), n. comb. Erythraea macrantha fi major Hook. & Am. Bot. Beech. 438 (1841). E, tenuifolia Mart & GaL Bull Acad. Brux. xi. 372 (1844). Gyrandra speciosa Benth. Bot Sulph. 127, t 45 (1845).

Centaurium triohanthum (Griseb.), n. comb. Erythraea tri- cantha Griseb. Gen. et Spec. Gent 146 (1839).

Centaurium venustum (Gray), n. comb. Erythraea chironioides Torr. Bot Mex. Bound. 156, t 42 (1859), not Gyrandra chironioides Griseb. Erythraea venusta Gray, Bot Cali£ i. 479 (1876).

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398 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

LisiANTHUS cuspiDATUS Bertoloni, Nov. Comm. Bonon. iv. 408, 1 38 (1840). Leiantkus cuspidatus Griseb. in DC. Prod. ix. 82 (1845). This species is reduced to a synonym of Leianthus nigrescens (Cham« & Schlecht.) Griseb. by Hemsley, Biol. Cent. -Am. Bot. ii. 345 (1882) and of Lisianthtis nigrescens Cham. & Schlecht. by Miss Perkins in Engl. Jahrb. xxxi. 493 (1902). An examination of Bertoloni's excellent plate of his Lisianthtts ctispidatus leads to the belief that it represents a species markedly distinct from L. nigrescens. Conspicuous differ- ences are to be found in the following features. In L. cuspidutus the leaves are narrowed to a subcuneate base, the corolla is much more deeply lobed, the lobes distinctly surpassing the pistil, while in L. nigrescens the leaves are rounded to a sQ^lewhat amplexicaul base and the corolla-lobes are only 4-11 mm. long being somewhat over- topped by the stigma. A specimen, collected in the Sapoti Barranca near the City of Guatemala by Sutton Hayes, July, 1860, and now in the Gray Herbarium, corresponds in all respects to the plate of Berto- loni, and fully justifies the separation of the species. The lobes of its corolla are 1.7 6m. in length. Lisianthus nigrescens Hook., in Curt. Bot. Mag. t. 4043, would appear to be L. cuspidatus Bert.

Lisianthus oreopolus, n. sp., suberectus 7 dm. vel ultra altus perennis; caule tereti (juventate solum plus minusve tretragono) levissime basi lignescenti; foliis sessilibus lanceolato-oblongis acumi- natis membranaceis 8-11 cm. longis 1.5-2.4 cm. latis basi amplexicauli- bus biauriculatis subtus pallidioribus internodia multo superantibus ; panicula laxa 3 dm. longa 2 dm. diametro ; ramis ramulisque ascen- denti-patentibus saepius altemis ; pedicellis propriis (supra bracteolas) brevibus 1-2 mm. longis saepe curvatis ; calyce graciliter ovoideo acutiuscule angulato 1 cm. longo fere a basi 5-lobo, lobis tenuibus at- tenuatis corollae appressis ; corolla infundibuliformi 4 cm. longo gla- berrima flava, tubo proprio gracili, faucibus longiusculis gradatim ampliatis, lobis 1.4-1.6 cm. longis lanceolatis acutissimis late paten- tibus; et staminibus et stylo exsertis; stigmate peltate margine revoluto. — Mexico: Temperate region, mountain of Chiapas, flow- ering in June, Ghiesbreght, no. 702bi3 (type, in Gray Herb.). A species in habit similar to L, nigrescens Cham. & Schlecht., but dif- fering in its yellow corolla with considerably longer and much more widely spreading lobes.

Lisianthus visoidiflorus, n. sp., erectus 1-1.2 m. altus floribus exceptis glaberrimus ; caule subtereti levissimo angulis parvis promi- nulis 2 e costis mediis foliorum decurrentibus paululo ancipitali ; interuodiis inferioribus brevissimis 8-12 mm. longis, intermediis 2-6 cm. longis, superioribus ad 19 cm. longis; foliis lanceolato-oblongis

i

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ROBINSON. — 8PERMATOPHTTES, NEW OR RECXAS8IFIED. 399

sessilibus amplexicaulibus 7-12 cm. longis 1-2.2 dm. latis acutis crassiosculis basi biauricalatis ; panicala laxissima 3 dm. loDga 2-3 dm. diametro, ramis patenti-ascendentibus infra nudis apice saepissime tricbotomis 3-5-floris, ramulis lateialibus saepius 2-3.5 cm. longis 1-floris apicem versus saepissime arcuatis bibracteolatis ; floribus vis- cosis; calyce herbaceo breviter subcylindrico basi turbinate, lobis juventate acutis mox apice erosis maturitate obtusissimis viscidis; corolla 3-3.5 cm. longa, tubo rectiusculo verisimiliter atrornbenti, limbo ca. 1 cm. diametro viscidissimo, dentibus deltoideis 3 mm. longis viridescentibus ; staminibus inclusis ; stigmate modice exserto peltato. — Guatemala: Coban, Dept. Alta Verapaz, alt 1350 m., August, 1907, H, von Tuerckheimy no. II. 1308 (type, in Gray Herb-). Distributed as Leianthus brevidentatua Hemsl., a species described as having dense inflorescence, short pedicels, shorter corolla with lobes scarcely 2 mm. long, very acute caljrx-lobes appressed to the corolla, eta, differences which would certainly appear to be of specific valua It is, further- more, scarcely likely that the viscidity which is such a conspicuous feature of the present species could have been present in Z. breviden- tatus in like degree and have escaped mention.

Schultesia Hayeedi, n. sp., annua erecta gracilis 3-4 dm. alta gla- berrima supra ramosa ; radice fibrosa ; caule subtereti leviter 6-angu- lato foliate ; foliis linearibus, inferioribus brevibus, superioribus 4-5 cm. longis 2-3 mm. latis angustissime attenuatis basi i)aulo angustatis sessilibus 3-nerviis subtus pallidioribus ; ramis patenti-ascendentibus simplicibus saepissime altemis apice 2-bracteolati8 et 1-floris ; bracteo- lis anguste linearibus 3 cm. longis ; floribus supra bracteolas sessilibus 4-meris ; calyce anguste ovoideo 3-3.6 cm. longo, tubo castaneo levis- simo evenio ; alis semilanceolatis 3 mm. latis viridibus venosis sur- sum in dentes calycis subsetaceos gradatim attenuatis ; corolla 4 cm. longa verisimiliter purpurea, lobis late ovatis breviter acuminatis 1 cm. longis ; ovario 4 angulari 1.4 cm. longo 4 mm. lato. — Panama : Rio Grande Station, Panama railway, 13 December, 1859, Sutton Hayes, no. 160 (type, in Gray Herb.). This species is closely related to S. heterophylla Miq. but differs in several points. The stems are percep- tibly 6-angled ; the leaves are decidedly longer and relatively narrower than in S, heterophyUa and the middle ones equal or often exceed the intemodes, while in S, heterophyUa they are much exceeded by the intemodes. Finally the lobes of the corolla are only 1 cm. long, i. e. one third the length of the tube, those of S. heterophyUa on the other hand being 1.6 cm. long, i. e. more than half the length of the tube.

Sohultesia Peokiana, n. sp., decumbens, verisimiliter annua, ha- bitu S. lisianthoidi similis 6-7 dm. alta laxe ramosa glaberrima ; caule

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400 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEBIY.

tereti laevissimo ; foliis lanceolati-ovatis tenuibus sessilibus acutissimis basi rotandatis ; C3nnis laxe etiam atque etiam dicbotomis ; floribas in dicbotomis solitariis 1.5 cm. longis erectis ; pedicellis 8-30 mm. longis rectis nudis ; calycis lobis 4 anguste lanceolatis aoutissimis in media parte berbaceis margine scaiiosis viz carinatis ex alatis ; corolla rubes- centi vel purpurascenti fere ad mediam partem 4-secta ; lobis ovatis acutis ; filamentis gracilibqs, basi exappendiculatis ; antberis mucro- natis. — British Honduras : about plantations and in the openings of the forests, near Manatee Lagoon, 27 January, 1906, Prof, Morton E, Peck^ no. 318 (tjrpe, in Gray Herb.). A species considerably resem- bling S. Usianthoides (Griseb.) Benth. & Hook £, but readily distin- guished by its pedicelled flowers. *

Evolvulus serioeus Sw., var. firlaberrimus, n. var., ubique gla- berrimus gracillimus, caulibus a basi patenti-ramosis suberectis 2.5-3 dm. altis ; calyce etiam glaberrimo, alitor formae typicae simillimus. — British Honduras : low pine ridge near Manatee Lagoon, 28 March, 1906, Prqf. Morton E. Peck, no. 372 (type, in Gray Herb.). A form remarkable for the complete absence of the silky pubescence, which is to some extent present in all other specimens examined, even those of the form glabratus Ghod. &. HassL, which has decidedly silky-villous calyces.

Sohwenkia oxyoarpa, n. sp., perennis erecta sufirutescens seoparia 5-6 dm. alta; radice fibrosa; caulibus teretibus cortice fusco-griseo obtectis ; ramis gracillimis ascendentibus vel erectis viridibus teretibus ; foliis linearibus acutis sessilibus crassiusculis subglabris 5-7 mm. longis vix 1 mm. latis saepissime curvatis vel tortis l-nerviis; inflo- rescentia ca. 1 dm. longa gracillima spiciformi; floribus fiai^iculatis sessilibus parvis ; calyce turbinate ca. 1.3 mm. longo obscure strigilloso, dentibus lanceolatis acutis tubum subaequantibus ; corolla 4 mm. longa atrocyanea rectiuscula, limbi dentibus 5 clavellatis quam sinuum lobi obovati crassinsculi subbipartiti vix longioribus ; staminibus fertilibus 4 didynamis tubo corollae inclusis ; capsula lanceolato-ovoidea acuta 2 mm. longa firmiuscula minute papillosa. — British Honduras : open damp ground, near Sibune River, 4 May, 1906, Prof. Morton E, Peck^ no. 417a (type, in Gray Herb.). This noteworthy species, through some accident associated with no. 417 (an Angelonia), is clearly of § Brachy- helus and most nearly approaches the east Brazilian S, fascictUata BentL It differs, however, in its essentially glabrous stem and rha- chises, its never fascicled leaves neither perceptibly cuneate at the base nor revolute on the margin, and finally in its lance-ovoid capsule.

Angelonia ciliaris, n. sp., caulibus gracilibus inaequaliter 4-angn- latis in angulis conspicue ciliatis ; foliis sessilibus oblongo-lanceolatis

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acutis basi vix angastatis rotnndatis 2-2.5 cm. loDgis ca. 5 mm. latis serratis supra laxe villosis margine ciliatis subtus in costa media solum longiusoule ciliatis aliter glabris; foliis floralibus late ovatis acutis subcordatis conspicue loDgeqne ciliatis, inferioribus ca. 1 cm. longis pedicellum subaequantibus, superioribus ca. 3 mm. longis pedicello triplo brevioribus ; ramis inflorescentiae ca. 1. dm. longis racemiformi- bus, pedicellis oppositis ascendenti-patentibus filiformibus ca. 1 cm. longis apice nutantibas ; calycis segmentis lanceolatis acuminatis 3.5 mm. longis ; corolla ca. 1 cm. diametro, sacco lato, appendice interiori ca. 0.7 mm. longa; capsula depresse globosa 5 mm. diametro. — British Honduras : on open damp ground, near Sibune River, 4 May, 1906, Prof. Morton E, Peck, no. 417 (type, in Gray Herb.). This species differs firom A. angustifoUa Benth. ip its conspicuously ciliated stem and leaves, broader-based bracts, and smaller flowers; from A, salicarux^olia H. & B. it may be readily distinguished by its smaller flowers and much more sparing pubescence of much longer non-glandular hairs.

Isidorea pungens (Lam.),^ n. comb. Emodea pungens Lam. 111. I 276 (1791). E. pedunculata Poir. Encyc. Suppl. ii. 581 (1811). Isidorea amoena A. Rich. M^m. sur les Rubiac^es, 204, t. 15, f. 1 (1829), and M^m. Soc. Hist. Nat Par. v. 284, t. 25 (1834).

Bikkia oampanulata (Brong.), n. comb. Grisia campanulata Brong. Bull Soc. Bot. Fr. xii. 406 (1865).

Bikkia Pancheri (Brong.), n. comb. Bikkiopsis Pancheri Brong. L c. 405.

Bikkia retosiflora (Brong.), n. comb. Grisia retusiflora Brong. 1. c. 407.

Houstonia xnuoronata (Benth.), n. comb. Hedyotis mtwronata Benth. Bot. Sulph. 19 (1844). Houstonia fruticosa Rose, Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. L 132 (1890), 239 (1893); Greenman, Proa Am. Acad, xxxii. 292 (1897).

Houstonia umbratilis, n. sp., herbacea repens multicaulis ramosa obscure strigillosa ; caulibus gracillimis interplexis subquadrangularibus foliosis, nodis radicantibus, intemodiis 2-8 mm. longis ; foliis parvis ovatis membranaceis acutiusculis brevissime petiolatis utrinque strigil- losis subtus paululo pallidioribus uninerviis obscure reticulato-venosis 2.5-4 mm. longis 1.8-3 mm. latis, stipulis brevissimis; pedunculis filiformibus 1.5 cm. longis terminalibus 1-floris; calyce basi turbinate, tubo lobos ovato-lanceolatos acutiusculos anthesi aequante; corolla infundibuliformi in siccitate nigrescenti, tubo 5 mm. longo, lobis ovatis patentibus; staminibus 4 (eis speciminis observati exsertis, antheris lineari-oblongis filamenta aequantibus) ; fructu seminibusque ignotis.

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— Mexico : shaded cliffs of mountains, near Monterey, Nuevo Leon, 25 April, 1906, C. G. Pringle, no. 13,877 (type, in Gray Herb.). An attractive little matted plant with the habit of H, serpyllifolia Michx. and H. serpyUacea (Schlecht.) C. L. Sm. but differing from the former in its more shortly petioled, more acute leaves, and much smaller flowers, and from the latter in its membranaceous strigillose but unciliated leaves, more filiform stems, etc. The absence of fruit and seeds naturally throws a slight doubt upon the generic position, but the general habit, as well as such technical traits as are manifest, aie those of Houstonia,

Neuroocdyx calyoimis (R. Br.), n. comb. Argostemma calycinum R. Br. in Bennett, PL Jav. Rar. 97 (1838). Nmrocalyx Wightii Am. Ann. Nat. Hist iii. 22 (;839). N. Hookeriana Wightj Ic. i. t 52 (1840).

Bondeletia leptodictya, n. sp., fruticosa 2 m. alta ; ramis gra- cilibus rubro-brunneis flexuosis teretibus mox glabratis ; foliis oppositis obovato-oblongis acuminatis basi modice angustatis tenuibus supra viridibus tenuiter (sub lente) reticulatis glabris vel subglabris subtus juventate griseo-tomentosis 6-11 cm. longis 2.5-5 cm. latis; petiolis gracilibus 5-12 mm. longis pubescentibus ; stipulis ovato-lanceolatis acutis brunneis 4 mm. longis erectis ; pedunculis terminalibus 4-5.5 cm. longis gracilibus arachnoideis ; floribus sessilibus dense capitatis; calycis tubo albo-lanato subgloboso 1.8 mm. diametro, lobis limbi 4 vix inaequalibus oblanceolatis viridibus vix 2 mm. longis; corolla sanguinea, tubo gracili sursum vix ampliato 1.4 cm. longo griseo- arachnoideo, lobis limbi 4 patentibus 2-3 mm. longis, ore nudo ; stylo exserto. — Mexico : banks of the Rio Petatlan near the boundary between Michoacan and Guerrero, alt. 500 m., 24 November, 1898, E, Langlass^^ no. 666 (t)rpe, in Gray Herb.). Near R. eUmgata BartL, but with calyx-lobes much shorter (scarcely a fifth the length of the corolla-tube), the limb of the corolla smaller, and the stipules much shorter than the petioles.

Bondeletia rufescens, n. sp., fruticosa; ramis teretibus tarde glabratis cortice griseo tectis, ramulis et pedunculis et petiolis dense rufo-tomentosis ; foliis lanceolato-oblongis 9-15 cm. longis 3.2-5 cm. latis apice basique acuminatis tenuibus supra obscure reticulatis et moUiter puberulis subtus albido-tomentosis, nerviis lateralibus ca. lO-jugis ; inflorescentiis terminalibus thyrsoideis flexuosis ca. 1.5 dm. longis rufo-tomentosis ; cymulis superioribus subsessilibus inferioribus 2-12 mm. longe pedicellatis bracteis lineari-subulatis ca. 3 mm. longis suffultis multifloris; floribus brevissime pedicellatis aut sessilibus; calycis tubo subgloboso minute hirsute, lobis 4 linearibus inaequalibus

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intus glabris ; corollae tube gracillimo in &Qces distincte ampliato appresse griseo-puberalo vel arachnoideo 1 cm. longo ; limbi lobis 4 suborbicularibus 1 mm. longis extus rufo-hispidulis intus et ore nudis ; stylo i)aulo exserto, apice bifido nigro. — Bonddetia J. D. Sm. Enum. PL Guat L 16 (1889). R, villosa J. D. Sm. 1. c. ii. 94 (1891), not HemsL — Guatemala : Coban, Depart. Alta Verapaz, alt 1475 m., March, 1881, H, von Tuerckheim, no. 582 of Mr. J. Donnell Smith's dis- tribution (type, in Gray Herb.). This plant is clearly distinct from B. villosa HemsL, which has considerably broader (ovate) stipules and a very different closely matted white pubescence on the lower sur&ce of the leaves, a more slender and denser inflorescence, etc.

Var. ovata., n. var., minus rufescens ; foliis ovatis brevioribus 7-9 cm. longis basi rotundatis, aliter formae t3rpicae similis. — B. villosa^ forma strigosissima J. D. Sm. Enum. PL Guat. vii. 15 (1905), nomen. — Guatemala : Tactic, Depart Alta Verapaz, alt 550 m., March, 1903, If, von Tuerckheim, no. 8401 of Mr. J. Donnell Smith's distribution.

Rondeletia seoundiflora, n. sp., arborescens ; ramulis gracilibus teretibus dense griseo-strigillosis ; foliis ovato-lanceolatis apice basique acuminatis tenuissimis 7-9 cm. longis 2-3.5 cm. latis utrinque appresse pilosiusculis subtus paulo pallidioribus, nerviis ca. 8-jugis; petiolo gracili 4-6 mm. longo griseo-piloso ; stipulis a basi deltoidea subulatis 2 mm. longis ; inflorescentiis 6-8 cm. longis spiciformibus plus minusve recurvis valde secundis, rhachi hirsutulo, C3rmulis parvis subsessilibus paucifloris numerosis ; floribus deflexis ; cidycis tubo subgloboso dense patentimque sordido-hirsuto, lobis 4 modice inaequalibus minus dense indutis 1.4-2 mm. longis erectis spatulato-linearibus vel anguste lanceolatis ; corolla 9 mm. longa extus strigillosa, tubo gracili cylin- drica, limbo 4-lobo, lobis suborbicularibus patulis 1.3 mm. diametro, ore nudo. — Guatemala: in woods, cJong the road ftom Patin to Esquintla, 21 July, 1860, Dr, Sutton Hayes (t3T)e, in Gray Herb.). This species is obviously related to B capitellata HemsL but may be readily distinguished by the shaggy-hirsute tube and lance-linear or spatulate lobes of the calyx.

Rondeletia septioidalis, n. sp., fruticosa; ramis teretibus plus minusve flexuosis griseo-brunneis ; foliis oppositis ovatis vel lan- ceolato-ovatis apice basique acuminatis firmiusculis 11-16 cm. longis 2-7 cm. latis utrinque viridibus subtus pallidioribus supra glaberrimis subtus basin versus obscure pilosulis, nerviis lateralibus ca. 8-jugi8, petiolo 1-2.3 cm. longo glabro vel glabriusculo; stipulis anguste lanceolatis glabris 5 mm. longis acutis; inflorescentiis in axillis superioribus spiciformibus 1-1.5 dm. longis, pedunculo 1.5- 3.5 cm. longo gracili tereti, rhachi simillimo obscure arachnoideo;

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404 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

cymuHs vulgatim 2-3-floris breviter pedicellatis bracteoHs linearibas suffultis; calyce angnste campanulato basi turbinate, tube griseo arachnoideo, lobis 4 lanceolato-linearibus deflexis modice iDaeqaalibus tubum subaequantibus glabriusculis ; corolla coccinea, tubo gracili suboylindrico sarsum paulo ampliato basin versus glabriusculo supra cum limbo patente plus i](iinusve arachnoideo ca. 17 cm. longo, lobis 4 orbicularibus ca. 3 mm. diametro tenuiter margine crispulis; ore nudo ; staminibus 4 in ore affixis paulo exsertis, antheris lineari- oblongis; capsula subglobosa ca. 4 mm. diametro septicidali, valvis bifidis. — Mexico : Chicharras, Chiapas, alt. 920-1840 m., E. W. Nel- 8on^ no. 3Y55 (tjrpe material in U. S. Nat Mus. and Gray Herb.). This plant possesses so precisely the habit and most of the technical features of a Ronddetia that it seems best to refer* it to this genus, though it will form an exception among the known species in the fstct that its fruit is septicidaL

Hymenodiotyon floribundum (Hochst. & Steud.), n. comb. Kurria floribunda Hochst & Steud. Flora, xxiv. pt 1, Intell. 28 (1841), name only ; ibid. xxv. 234 (1842), with description. Uymeno- dictyon Kurria Hochst Flora, xxvi. 71 (1843).

Bouvardia gracilipes, n. sp., fruticosa ; ramis gracilibus teretibus cortice griseo tectis glabris, ramulis valde compressis, intemodiis lon- giusculis glabris, nodis stipulisque puberulis ; foliis oppositis breviter petiolatis tenuibus ovatis acuminatis basi rotundatis 5-7 cm. longis 2-3.5 cm. latis supra laete viridibus glabris subtus pallidioribus in oosta venisque obscure puberulis ; petiole 2 mm. longo sordide tomen- tello; ocreis pallidis ca. 1 mm. longis marginem versus tomentellis cum appendicibus filiformibus breviter pubescentibus ca. 2 mm. longis munitis ; inflorescentiis terminalibus laxis 8-12-floris glabris ; pedun- culis 2-4 cm. longis trichotomis, bracteis linearibus 1-3 mm. longis, ramulis lateralibus 3-4 cm. longis vicissim trichotomis ; pedicellis fili- formibus 1.5-2 cm. longis apice denique uncinatis ; calycis dentibus 4 linearibus 1 mm. longis erectis in fiructu inflexis persistentibus ; corolla non visa ; fructu 6 mm. lato 4.5 mm. alto pallide viridi sub lente albido-lineato quasi strigilloso. — Mexico : Tepic, 5 January to 6 February, 1892, Dr. E. Palmer, no. 1971 (type, in Gray Herb.). Although this species is described from fruiting material and without knowledge of the corolla, it is believed that the unusually loose inflor- escence with filiform at length hooked pedicels yields characters suffi- ciently distinctive for ready recognition.

Bouvardia longiflora (Cav.) HBK., var. indutci, n. var., foliis ovato-rhomboideis acutis supra scabriusculo-puberulis subtus tomen- tosis ; corolla extus tomentella. — Mexico : " Chiapas, etc." Dr.

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Ghiesbreghty the specimen associated la the Gray Herbariam with Ghiesbreght's nos. 108 and 692 which, however, represent the more t3rpical form of the species, being nearly glabrous. Forms to some ex- tent intermediate in their pubescence and somewhat peculiar in their thinnish mostly obtusish leaves are shown by Langlass^'s no. 1049 from near the boundary of Michoacan and Guerrero, as well as by Purpus's no. 1249 from Tehuacan, Puebla.

BouvARDiA TERNiFOLiA (Cav.) Schlecht., var. angustifolia (HBK.), n. comb. B. aiigustifolia HBK. Nov. Gen. et Spec. iii. 384 (1818). B. tripkylla, var. angustifolia Gray, Syn. FL i. pt 2, 24 (1884). Al- though B. angustifolia HBK. has been treated as an independent species in various works of recent date, an increasingly complete series of in- tergrading specimens leaves no doubt that Dr. Gray was right in re- garding this plant as merely a variety. Priority of the specific name of Cavanilles requires the new combination.

Lygistum ignitum (Veil.) Ktze., var. micans (K. Schum.), n. comb. Manettia ignita^ var. micans K. Schum. in Mart. FL Bras. vi. pt 6, 171 (1889).

Lygistiim Bojasianum (Ghod. & Hass.), n. comb. Manettia Bcjasiana Chod. & Hass. Bull. Herb. Boiss. ser. 2, iv. 91 (1904).

Lygistum Smithii (Sprague), n. comb. Manettia Smithii Sprague, Bull. Herb. Boiss. ser. 2, v. 267 (1905).

Qonzalagxinia bracteosa (J. D. Sm.), n. comb. Gonzalea brae- teosa J. D. Sm. Bot Gaz. xxxiii. 252 (1902).

Qonzalagxinia leptantha (A. Rich.), n. comb. Gonzalea leptan- tha A. Rich. FL Cub. Fanerog. ii. 16 (1853).

Qonzalagiinia ovatifolia (J. D. Sm.), n. comb. Gonzalea ovatifo- Ua J. D. Sm. Bot. Gaz. xxvii. 336 (1899).

Qonzalagunia Petesia (Griseb.), n. comb. Gonzalea Petesia Griseb. Mem. Amer. Acad, new ser. viii. 504 (1863). Gonzalagunia hirsuta y Petesia Ktze. Rev. Gen. i. 284 (1891).

QoDzalagunia thyrsoidea (J. D. Sm.), n. comb. Gonzalea thyrsoi- dea J. D. Sm. Bot Gaz. xiii. 188 (1888).

Tarenna mollis (Wall.), n. comb. Rondeletia 1 mollis Wall. Cat. no. 8454 (1847). Webera mollis Hook, f., FL Brit. Ind. iii. 104 (1882).

Tarenna mollissima (Hook. & Arn.), n. comb. Cupia mollissima Hook. & Am. Bot. Beech. 192 '(1833). Stylocorine mollissima Walp. Rep. ii. 517 (1843). Webera mollissima Benth. ex Hance, Jour. Linn. Soc. xiii. 105 (1873).

Tarenna odorata (Roxb.), n. comb. Webera odorata Roxb. Hort Bengal. 15 (1814), and FL Ind. L 699 (1832). Cupia odorata DC.

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Prod. IV. 394 (1830). Webera macropkj/lla Roxb. Hort Bengal 85 (1814), and R Ind. i. 697 (1832). Cupia macrophylla DC, L a

Casasia nigrescens Wright in herb. Randia nigrescens Griseb. Cat PL Cub. 123 (1866), where the combination Casasia nigrescens Wright is implied though not definitely made. Randia nigrescens Wright & Sauvalle, PL Cub. 60 (1873). Randia nigricans K. Schum. in Engl. & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenf. iv. Abt. 4, 77 (1891), by obvious clerical error.

Hamelia hsrpomala^a, n. sp., fruticosa ramosa ; ramis curvatis teretibus cortice brunneo-griseo lenticellifero tectis; ramulis dense tomentellis; foliis temis ovalibus obtuse acuminatis basi brevissime acuminatis saepe inaequilateralibus 6.5-9 cm. longis 4-5.5 cm. latis membranaceis supra laete viridibus obscure puberulis subtus multo pallidioribus molliter griseo-tomentellis vel denique glabrescentibus ; petiole gracili ca. 2 cm. longo tomentello ; cymis terminalibus ca. 9-floris modice laxis tomentellis, ramis recurvis, pedicellis 2-9 mm. longis ; floribus pro genere majusculis ; calyce tomentello, dentibus brevibus subulatis ; corolla flava 4 cm. longa, tubo proprio brevi, faucibus longis ampliatis, limbi lobis 5 late ovatis acuminati-mucronatis ; iructu im- mature ca. 8 mm. longo. — Mexico : State of Durango, 15 August, 1897, Dr. J, N. Rose, no. 2304 (type, in U. S. Nat. Mus. and Gray Herb.). Closely related to H. ventricosa Sw., but readily distinguished by its tomentulose leaves, loose inflorescence, and somewhat smaller flowers.

Hoffinannia Conzattii» n. sp., fruticosa glabra ; ramis subteretibus obsolete solum et obtuse subtetragonis apicem versus foliatis deorsum longe floriferis ; foliis obovato- vel oblanceolato-oblongis breviter cau- dato-acuminatis basi longe attenuatis tenuiter membranaceis utrinque glaberrimis supra in siccitate nigrescentibus subtus pallidioribus viri- dibus 11-16 cm. longis 3.5-6 cm. latis; costa media supra impressa, nerviis lateralibus ca. 8-jugis oppositis vel alternis ; petiole 1.8-2.5 cm. longo glabro ; stipulis ovatis caducis ; cymis subsessilibus oppositis lateralibus numerosis subapproximatis ca. 6*floris ; pedicellis calycem subaequantibus ; tubo calycis subgloboso 2.5 mm. longo, limbo brevi- ter patentimque 4-dentato ; corolla ca. 6 mm. longa ad mediam partem 4-fida, lobis anguste oblongis saepissime patentibus ; antheris anguste oblongis exsertis ; fiructu ignoto. — Mexico : Colonia Melchor Ocampo, Canton de C6rdoba, Vera Cruz, alt 120^ m., Prof. C. Conzatti, 19 June, 1896, no. 168 (typey in Gray Herb.). This species in foliage closely resembles II. calycosa J. D. Sm., but is readily distinguished by its ex- ceedingly short caljrx-lobes. Prom H. Ghiesbreghtii (Lem.) HemsL it difiers in its subterete wingless branches. H, longepetiolata Polak.

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appears by its description to have longer petioles and considerably larger flowers.

Hoffmannia cuneatissima, n. sp., fraticosa ; ramis teretibus gri- seis etiam in lignescentia cum pilis brevibus crispis rufescentibus deni- que sparsis inconspicuisque tectis ; foliis oppositis vel temis deflexis tenuibus acuminatis oblanceolatis 1-1.6 dm. longis 3-4.5 cm. latis basi longissime coneatis supra glabriusculis subtus paulo pallidioribus praesertim in nerviis venisque crispe puberulis; cymis axillaribus pedunculatis 4-8-floris ; pedunculis ad ca. 1 cm. longis ascendentibus gracilibus rufo-pubescentibus ; pedicellis 1-2 mm. longis ; calyce turbi- nato-subtereti 2 mm. longo crispe pubescenti, limbi dentibus 4 lanceo- lati-deltoideis primo suberectis denique patentibus ca. 1.2 mm. longis cum denticulis 4 minimis glandulosis altemantibus ; corolla flavida extus puberula ca. 1 cm. longa ad mediam partem 4-fida; lobis oblongis obtusiusculis in media parte crassiusculis dorso carinatis carina crispe puberula ; bacca nigrescenti 5 mm. diametro ; seminibns numerosis brunneis compressiusculis fovcolatis. — Mexico : mountain cafion near Cuemavaca, alt. 200 m., 29 May, 1898, C. G, Pringle, no. 7662 (type, in Gray Herb.); and previously in the same locality, 20 Nov., 1895, a G, Pringle, no. 7075 (Gray Herb.) and 31 July, 1896, C. G. Pringle, no. 7248 (Gray Herb.). This species belongs clearly to the same group as H, affinis Hemsl. and H, lenticellata HemsL, but with its thin, thoroughly membranaceous leaves and rufous-pubescent branches can- not well be placed in either of these species.

Hoffinannia Bosei, n. sp., fruticosa 3 m. alta ; ramis flexuosis dense pulverulo-puberulis et obscure strigillosis, intemodiis brevibus 5-12 mm. solum longis ; foliis oppositis oblanceolatis membranaceis acumi- natis basi longe attenuatis 6-12 cm. longis 3.4-5 cm. latis utrinque obscure strigilloso-puberulis vel supra glabriusculis subtus in costa et nerviis lateralibus dense minuteque pulverulo-puberulis ; cymis axil- laribus oppositis graciliter pedunculatis 5-9-floris subcircinatis; pedun- culis 1-1.3 cm. longis pulverulis rubescentibus ; pedicellis similibus ca. 2 mm. longis ; calyce ovoideo strigilloso, dentibus 4 brevibus anguste deltoideis cum glandulis 4 parvis altemantibus ; corolla alba 7 mm. longa pulverula ad partem paulo infra mediam 4-fida, lobis limbi oblongis acutis tenuibus nee carinatis nee pubescentibus. — Mexico : along a brook near Pedro Paulo, Topic, 3 August, 1897, Dr, J. N, Rose^ no. 1968 (t3rpe, in U. S. Nat Mus. and Gray Herb.). Very near H. cuneatissima, described above, but with opposite leaves, mere puberulence instead of pubescence, and unkeeled corolla-lobes.

Antirrhoea chinenBis (Champ.), n. comb. Gtiettardella chinensis Champ, in Hook. Kew. Joum. Bot. iv. 197 (1852).

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Timonius polygamus (Forst), n. comb. Erithalis polygama Forst. Prod. 17 (1786). E. obouata Forst. L c. 98, mere mention in index. Timonius Forsteri DC. Prod. iv. 461 (1830) ; Drake del Castillo, IlL FL Ins. Pacifl 193 (1890), which see for further synonymy.

Stylooorine alpestris (Wight), n. comb. Pavetta 1 lucem R. Br. in Wall Cat no. 6168 (1828), name only. Coffea alpestris Wight, Ic. t 1040 (1848-1856). Webera lucens Hook. f. FL Brit. Ind. iil 106 (1882)', as to var. 1. Stylocorine breviflora Schlecht. ex Hook. £, 1. c. — Foliis oblanceolatis. Var. grumelioides (Wight), n. comb. Coffea grumelioides Wight^ Ic. t. 1041 (1848-1856). Webera lucens Hook, f., L c. as to var. 2. — Foliis obovatis.

Stylooorine longifolia (G. Don), n. comb. Ixora macrophyUa R. Br. in Wall. Cat no. 6165 (1828), name only, not BartL Ixora longi- folia G. Don Syst iii 573 (1834). Pavetta longifolia Miq. R Ind. Bot iii. 275 (1856-1859). Webera longifolia Hook. f. FL Brit Ind. iil 105(1882).

Rudgea crassiloba (Benth.), n. comb. Coffea crassiloba BentL in Hook. Jour. Bot iii. 233 (1841). Budgea Schomburgkiana Benth. Linnaea, xxiii. 459 (1850).

Cephaelis elata Sw. Prod. 45 (1 788). Here apparently belongs Ceph- afc^ j[?Mn«cfti VahI.,EcIog.i. 19 (1796)and consequently Uragoga punicea K. Schum. in Engl. & Prantl, Nat Pflanzenf. iv. Abt 4, 120 (1891), a name which, through apparent clerical error, has been cited by Durand & Jackson, Ind. Kew. Suppl. 1, 445 (1906), as " Uragoga phoenicea K. Schum," a combination said by them to equal ^^Palicourea punicea R. & P." However, Ruiz & Pavon do not appear to have created any 8uch binomial, though DeCandoUe's Palicourea punicea (Prod. iv. 526, 1830) was based upon Psychotria punicea R. & P. Fl. Per. ii. 62, t 212 fig. a (1799), a species obviously not of Cephaelis, Schumann's " Uragoga phoenicea,'' which seems never to have been published by its supposed author, appears to have given rise to Cephaelis phoenicea J. D. Sm. PI. Guat v. 39 (1899), which as to plants cited is clearly C elata Sw.

Cephaelis sphaerooephala (Muell. Arg.), n. comb. Psychotria sphaerocepkala Muell. Arg. Flora, lix. 550, 553 (1876).

Nertera Amottianisjia (Walp.), n. comb. Leptostigma Amottia- num Walp. Rep. ii. 463 (1843). Hedyotis repens Clos'in Gay, FL Chil. iii. 208 (1847). Coprosma calycina Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. iv. 306 (1860).

Coprosma australis (A. Rich.), n. comb. Ronabea ? australis A. Rich. Voy. Astrolabe Bot i. 265 (1832). Coprosma grandifolia Hook.

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f. Fl N. Z. L 104 (1853). Pelaphia grandifolia Banks & Soland. ex HooL f., 1. c.

Coprosma quadriflda (Labill.), n. comb. Ganthium quadrifidum Labill. Nov. HolL PL i. 69, t. 94 (1804). Marquisia Billardierii A. RicL Mdm. 8ur les Rubiac^es, 112 (1829), & M^m. Soc. Hist. Nat Par. V. 192 (1829). Coprosma Billardieri HooL f. in Hook. Lond. Jour. Bot. vi. 465 [bis] (1847). Coprosma microphylla A. Cunn. ex Hook f., 1. c.

Bichardia muricata (Griseb.), n. comb. Richardsonia muricata Ghriseb. Cat. PL Cub. 143 (1866). Spermacoce (Borreria) richardsoni- oides Wright in Sanv. FL Cub. 73 (1873).

Crusea hispida (Mill.), n. comb. Crucianella hispida MilL Diet ed. 8, no. 4 (1768). Spermacoce rubra Jacq. Hort Schonb. iii. 3, t 256 (1798). Crusea rubra Schlecht & Cham. Linnaea, v. 165 (1830).

Borreria asperifolia (Mart. & Gral.), u. comb. Diphragmus scaber Presl, Bot Bemerk. 81 (1844), not Borreria scabra (Schum. & Thonn.) K. Schum. Spermacoce asperifolia Mart. & Gral. BulL Acad. Brux. xi. pt 1, 132 (1844).

Borreria nesiotica n. sp., suffrutescens glaberrima 4 dm. vel ultra alta ramosa; ramis ascendentibus subteretibns parte superiori 4-angu- latis basim versus foliosissimis saepe purpurascentibus ; foliis oppositis anguste lanceolatis basi apiceque attenuatis laevissimis etiam ad mar- ginem paulo revolutum 2-4.5 cm. longis 3-12 mm. latis modice venosis subtus paululo pallidioribus axillis saepe proliferis ; verticillis plerisque 4 distantibus 9-12 mm. diametro hemisphaericis a bracteis 2 majoribus oppositis 1-2 cm. longis ovato-lanceolatis obtusiusculis basi ampliato setoso-dentatis et ca. 4 minoribus ovatis obtusis 5 mm. longis suffultis ; calyce glabro breviter et subaequaliter 4-lobato cum dentibus interme- diis brevissimis; corolla glabra; staminibus exsertis; stigmate bre- vissime bilobato ; seminibus papillosis nigris non transverse sulcatis. — Spermacoce (Boneria), sp. Vasey & Rose, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. xiii. 148 (1890). Spermacoce sp. Brandegee, Zoe, v. 27 (1900). —Socorro Island (of the Revillagigedo Group), A, W, Anthony^ 1897 (type, in Gray Herb.) ; previously collected by C, H, Townsend, March, 1889 ; and later by F. E. Barkelew, 27 May to 3 July, 1903, no. 208. In habit somewhat resembling B, verticillata (L.) G. F. W. Mey., but readily distinguished by its 4-lobed calyx. Also soiuewhat like forms of the highly variable B. tenella (HBK.) Cham. & Schlecht, but hav- ing much shorter cal3rx-lobes (about one third the length of the tube), glabrous foliage, etc.

Borreria rhadinophylla, n. sp., gracillima ramosa prostrata, cauH- bus elongatis valde flexuosis obsolete quadrangularibus foliosis tenuiter

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410 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

patenteque pabescentibus plus minusve rabescentibus fere filiformibas sed basim versus induratis et lignescentibus, nodis hirsutulis; foliis anguste linearibus subfiliformibus l-nerviis glabris margine revolutis apice acutissimis 1-2 cm. longis ; vaginis brevissimis pauci- (saepias 2-) setis; verticillis remotis plerumque 2 subglobosis ca. 1 cm. dia- metro; calyce longe 2-Iobato, lobis lanceolato-linearibus acutissimis herbaceis sursum fimbriato-ciliatis, dentibus intermediis multo brevi- oribus scariosis ) corolla alba h3rpocraterimorpha 4-loba 2.5 mm. loDga, lobis ovato-oblongis apicem versus hispidis, tubo intus basim versus pubescente ; staminibus 4 in summa parte tubi affixis, leviter exsertis ; fructu et seminibus non visis. — British Honduras, on dry sandy pine ridges, 23 October, 1905, Frqf. Morton E. Peck, no. 180 (type, in Gray Herb.). From its 2-lobed calyx this species would seem to stand near the polymorphous B. verticillata (HBK.) Cham. & Schlecht. but with all due recognition of the extraordinary variability of that species, it does not seem possible that this delicate filiform plant should be included among its forms. Among the distinctions noted is the form of the stigma, which in B. verticillata is barely lobed, but in B, Peckiana distinctly bifid with short but actually filiform lobes.

BoRRERiA VERTICILLATA (L.) G. F. W. Mcy., var. thsnaxiformis, n. var., pumila 6-8 cm. alta subglabra; caulibus multis gracilibus laxis flexuosis a caudice crassa nigrescente oriuntibus ; foliis ovato-ellipticis 7-11 mm. longis 2-5 mm. latis; capitibus parvis ca. 8 mm. diametro terminalibus. — Mexico : about 29 km. southwest of the city of Oaxaca, alt. 2300-2900 m., 10-20 September, 1894, E, W. Nelson, no. 1410 (typ^ in Gray Herb, and Herb. U. S. Nat Mus.). This plant, although maintaining all the floral traits of the species, is so strikingly different firom the usual forms as to be well worthy of varietal distinction. Were it not connected with the more typical forms by such intermediates as L. C. Smith's no. 40 firom the Cuilapan Moun- tains, it could certainly pass as a distinct species.

Erigreron Deamii, n. sp., suifruticulus gracillimus pumilus 1 dm. altus irregulariter a basi ramosus, ramis teretibus strigosis foliosissimis ascendentibus saepius 1-capitatis; foliis linearibus (infimis anguste oblanceolatis) ca. 1 cm. longis ca. 1 mm. latis utrinque strigilloso- hispidulis l-nerviis saepe in axillis proliferis ; pedunculis filiformibus ca. 3 cm. longis rectis vel apicem versus plus minusve nutantibus 1-capitatis subappresse pubescentibus ; capitibus hemisphaericis ca. 8 mm. diametro ; involucri squamis argute linearibus attenuatis sub- aequalibus media parte viridibus hirsutulis margine pallidis scariosis ca. 4 mm. longis; flosculis disci numerosis, corollis 2.3 mm. longis apicem versus flavidulis, achaeniis compressis sparse hirsutulis 1.3 mm.

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loDgis, pappi setis ca. 12 tenuibus albis 2.4 mm. longis; flosculis liguliferis ca. 40, ligulis angastis albis vel parpureo-tinctis tube sub- aequilongis apice saepissime bidentatis, acbaeniis et pappi setis eis flosculorum disci similibus. — Guatemala : growing on rocks in bottom of canon, Fiscal, Guatemala, alt 1130 m., 3 June, 1909, Charles C, Deam, no. 6159 (type, in Gray Herb.). Tbis species is obviously of the affinity of -fi*. mucranatus DC, E, exilis Gray, and E. Karwinskianus DC. From the first of these it differs in having narrower (linear rather than lanceolate) leaves, smaller heads, and relatively as well as absolutely shorter rays (exceeding the disk scarcely by one third). E, exilis Gray has the involucral bracts and peduncles very much more closely and finely puberulent, and E, Karwinskianus DC. is described as having the leaves glabrous on both surfia^ces.

Veibesina medullosa, n. sp., firutescens 1.2-1.8 m. alta; cauli- bus crassiusculis teretibus foliosis meduUosis omnino exalatis juventate tomentellis serius subglabratis ; foliis altemis ovatis majusculis 1.2-1.5 dm. longis 4-6 cm. latis crenato-serratis penninerviis supra scabris puber- ulis viridibus subtus griseo-tomentellis apice attenuatis caudato-acumi- natis basi in petiolum alatum biauriculatum sensim angustatis, alis petioli transverse valde rugosis margine integriuscula revoluta ; capi- tulis numerosis parvis 9 mm. altis in corymbis compositis planiusculis bracteatis dispositis ; involucri subturbinati squamis villoso-tomen- teUis pallide viridibus apicem versus purpurascentibus ; flosculis disci ca. 20, coroUis albidis 4 mm. longis tubo extus puberulo dentibus limbi suberectis brevibus deltoideis, flosculis liguliferis ca. 3 fertili- bus, ligulis ovalibus parvis albis tubo vix longioribus ; acbaeniis valde immaturis obovatis valde compressis margine sursum ciliolatis apice biaristatis. — Guatemala : along railway, Fiscal, alt 1130 m., 9 June, 1909, Charles C. Deam^ no. 6250 (type, in Gray Herb.). This species differs in its wingless stem and branches from such forms of V. turha- censis HBK. as have unlobed leaves. From V, sublobata Benth., it may be distinguished by its more bluntly toothed (crenate-serrate) unlobed leaves which are more gradually narrowed to the winged petiole.

Trixis Deamii, n. sp., fruticosa 1.5 m. alta laxe ramosa ; ramis exalatis teretibus gracilibus griseis glabratis ; ramulis striatulis viridi- bus tomentellis foliosis ; foliis rhomboideo-obovatis acute acuminatis basi subabrupte angustatis subintegris tenuibus supra atroviridibus pilo- siusculis planis subtus griseo-sericeis 3.5-7 cm. longis 1.5-3 cm. latis nullo modo decurrentibus ; petiolo ca. 4 mm. longo gracili villosulo sub- tus carinato ; capitulis prope apicem ramulorum aggregatis ca. 2 cm. longis 12-floris a foliis longioribus plus minusve excessis et obscuratis ;

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412 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

bracteis involucri exterioris ca. 4 elliptico-lanceolatis alternis acaml- natis ca. 12 mm. longis tenuibus foliis similibus; squamis involucri proprii 8 lanceolati-linearibus attenaatis ca. 14 mm. longis dorse glan- daloso-paberulis medio herbaceis margine subscareosis demam stellate- patentibus divaricatis apice falcatis ; corollis ca. 1 cm. longis laete flavis ; achaeniis 5 mm. longis columnaribus papilloso-setulosis ; pappi setis albo-fulvesoentibus ca. 9 mm. longis. — Guatemala : along river, alt. 230 m., Zacapa, 19 June, 1909, Charles C, Deam^ no. 6359 (type, in Gray Herb.). This shrub diflFers from such related species as T, megalophyUa Greenman, T. silvatica Robinson & Greenman, T. Nd- sonii Greenman, and T. rugulosa Robinson & Greenman, in its much thinner, flatter, softer, and essentially entire leaves of rhombic-obovate form. From T. frutescens P. Browne and its relatives the present plant is readily distinguished by its larger outer involucre, the silky under surface of its leaves, etc.

Chaptalia semifloscularis (Walt), n. comb. Perdicium semiflos- culare Walt., Fl. Car. 204 (1788). Chaptalia tamentosa Vent. Desc. Jard. Gels, t 61 (1800). Tussilago integrifolia Willd. Sp. PL iii 1964 (1804). Gerbera Walteri, Sch. Bip. in Seem. Voy. Herald. 313 (1856). Thyrsanthema semiflosculare (Walt) Etze. Rev. Gen. L 369 (1891).

III. AMERICAN FORMS OF LYCOPODIUM COMPLANATUM.

By C. a. Weathebby.

Lycopodium complanatum L. occurs in the western hemisphere in two distinct and geographically isolated areas. In the norti), it ranges from Newfoundland to Alaska, and southward to northern Idaho and (in its Y&riety Jlabellifonne) to the mountains of North Carolina. It is apparently entirely absent from the United States south of these points ; but it reappears in south-central Mexico and extends thence through Central America to Bolivia and southern Brazil. It has also been reported from the West Indies. Specimens from these areas show, on examination, four more or less well-marked variant tendencies — two (one with a subsidiary variation) in the north, and in the south, two others, separable from each other and from both of the northern forms.

The northern forms have been clearly distinguished by Prof. Fer- nald.^ The two southern (one chiefly Mexican, the other chiefly

* Rhodora, iii. 280 (1901).

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WEATHERBY. — AMERICAN FORMS OF LYCOPODIUM COMPLANATUM. 413

South American) are connected by various intermediates, but, in their extreme development, are sufficiently diverse to warrant varie- tal distinction. Indeed, since Humboldt and Bonpland described their Lycopodium thyoides in 1810, it has been recognized by most botanists that some, at least, of the tropical material differed from typical L. complanatum of northern Europe and North America ; and L. thy- oides has been rather generally maintained as a variety, differently defined by different authors. Neither its relation to the northern forms, however, nor its exact identity in regard to the other tropi- cal form seems to have worked out with entire clearness. Lloyd and Underwood, in their Review of the North American Species of Lyco- podium,* called attention to the habital difference between Mexican and Central American, and northern specimens ; but, partly owing, no doubt, to their reluctance to describe varieties, carried their studies no further. Dr. Christ,* in a brief but clear note, has pointed out the distinctions between the two southern forms ; but he seems to be in error in referring the prevailing South American form to typical L, com- planatum. The plant of northern Europe and America which, as Prof Femald has shown, should be regarded as the type of the Linnaean species, is low, and habitally as well as in the characters of its branchleta and their leaves, quite different from the taller South American plant Dr. Christ seems also to have been in error in identifying the other tropi- cal extreme, which has broad branchlets and long leaves with con- spicuously spreading tips, with L. thyoides H. & B. The original description of this species in Willd. Sp. PL v. 18, emphasizes rather strongly the appressed leaves.* In view of the facts that the type specimens were from Venezuela, and that the appressed-leaved form is apparently much the more common throughout South America, it seems best to follow the first diagnosis, and to restrict L. thyoides to that form.

In spite of their complete geographic separation, there is nothing to warrant the segregation of the tropical forms as separate species. The characters which distinguish them are of too little importance in them- selves and too inconstant They are rather to be considered as ex- treme developments of tendencies which are traceable also in occasional specimens of the northern plant, but are there not so strongly developed. The earliest varietal designation of the South American plant and that which, under the Vienna Rules, it should bear, is L, complanatum, P tropicum Spring, based on L. thyoides H. & B. The other, prevail- ingly Mexican, extreme seems to be without an available name.

« Bull. Torr. Bot. Qub, xxvii. 165 (1900).

» Bull. Herb. Boiss., ser. 2, u. 707 (1902). * " foliis semper adpreasis."

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414 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The following synopsis will serve to define these American tenden- cies of L, complanatumy as understood by the writer. The specimens cited are all in the Gray Herbarium.

♦ Branchlets ascending, or, if spreading, lax and irregular; ultimate branch- lets often more or less elongated.

•^Ultimate branchlets comparatively broad, 2-5 mm. wide, conspicuously flattened, usually ascending and only moderately elongated; their leaves 3-5 mm. long.

Lycopodium complanatum L. Branches mostly not over 3 dn>. long; peduncles bearing 1-2 (~4) spikes; tips of the lateral leaves usually appressed or incurved. — Sp. PL 1104 (1753), excl. citation of DilL Muse t 59 f. a — North America : Newfoundland to Alaska, south to Maine and northern Idaho. Also in Eurasia.

Var. validum, nom. nov. More robust ; branches usually 3-4.5 dm. long ; peduncles bearing 4-6(-9) spikes ; tips of the lateral leaves conspicuously spreading. — L, complanatum Foum. Enum. PI. Mex. i. 146, at least in part, not L ; Hemsl. Biol. Cent. -Am. Bot iii. 701, at least in part, not L. L. complanatum^ var. thujoides Christ, BulL Herb. Boiss. s^r. 2, ii. 707 (1902), not i. thyoides H. & B. — Mexico : Chia- pas; Bergwald zwischen San Cristobal Las Casas und Huitztan, C. Jb E. Seler, no. 2273; Chiapas "etc.," Ghiesbreght, no. 600; Oaxaca, Cerro San Felipe, alt 2000 m., Gonzalez & Conzatti, no. 889 ; region d'Ori- zaba, BourgeaUy no. 3159, in part; Hidalgo, Trinidad, C, G, Pringle^ no. 11,856 (a form with the ultimate branchlets lax, elongated, and somewhat attenuate at tip). No. 3196 in John Donnell Smith's Plants of Guatemala shows a form intermediate between this and the following variety.

••- •«- Ultimate branchlets narrow, not more than 2 mm. wide, less conspicu- ously flattened, somewhat convex above, sometimes much elongated (to 12 cm.) and loosely spreading; their leaves 2-3 mm. long, the tips usually closely appressed.

Var. TROPicuM Spring in Mart: Fl. Bras. i. pt. 2, 1 16 (1840). i. thyoi- des H. & B. in Willd. Sp. PI. v. 18 (1810) ; ? HBK. Nov. Gen. et Sp. i. 38 (1815); Presl, Bel. Haenk. 77 (1825) ; Raddi, Fil. Bras. 80 (1825), at least in part. L, complanatum P adpressifolium Spring, Monog. Lycopod. i. 102 (1842), excl. s)m. L, anceps Wallr. L. complanatum^ "var. i. thuyoides HBK." Baker, Handb. of the Fern Allies, 28 (1887). L, complanatum, var. thyoidss Hieron. Engl. Bot. Jahrb. xxxiv. 576 (1905). — Colombia: Motntz; Santa Marta, Purdie. Ecuador: in Andibus quitensibus, Jameson ; Andibas, Spruce^ no. 5412 (a doubtful plant which seems to have suffered some injary to its leaves). Peru :

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Andes, Jameson, Bolivia : Yungas, Bang, no. 395. Brazil : RieM ; Ciaussen ; Herb. U. S. So. Pac. Expl. Exp., no. 27 ; Prov. Minas Ge- raes, Widgren^ no, 984 i. Burchell's no. 2223, from Brazil, of which the specimen in the Gray Herb, shows only the tip of a stem, is per- haps referable to var, validum,

** Branchlets spreading or recurved, forming a regular flabelliform spray; ultimate branchlets usually short, 0.5 to 4 cm. long^ broad as in L. conv- planalum but with shorter leaves.

Var. flabelliforme Fernald. Peduncles usually bearing 4 spikes. — Rhodora, iii. 280 (1901). Z. complanatum Amer. auth. in part. — North America : Nova Scotia to the mountains of North Carolina, Kentucky, Iowa, and Minnesota.

Var WiBBEi Haberer. Peduncles 1 -spiked. — Rhodora, vi. 102 (1 904). North America : northern Vermont and central New York.

IV. NEW AND LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS, CHIEFLY LABIATAE.

Ey M, L. Fernald.

Juneus albicans, n. sp., caespitosus ; caulibus 5-7 dm. altis tenu- ibus striatis albido-viridibus ; vaginis basilaribus laxis albican tibus demum fuscis, auriculis cartilagineis, laminis subteretibus angnste canaliculatis ; inflorescentiis decompositis 2-6 cm. longis, ramis sub- erectis, floribus subremotis vel aggregatis ; brae tea infima frondosa inflorescentiam plerumque superante ; floribus 4-5 mm. longis albido- stramineis ; bracteolis tenuibus albicantibus ; sepalis petalisque subae- quilongis patentibus lanceolatis apice subulatis anguste membranaceo- marginatis; staminibus 6 sepalis circa dimidio brevioribus, antheris filamentisque aequantibus ; fructibus trigono-ellipsoideis truncatis breve mucronatis 3-4 mm. longis pallide stramineis nitidis ; seminibus 0.5 mm, longis oblique ellipsoideis brevissime albo-caudatis. — Chi- huahua : vicinity of Chihuahua, altitude about 1300 m., May 1-21, 1908, Edward Palmer^ no. 161 (type, in Gray Herb.). [It should be noted that two plants have been distributed under no, 161, but, as the other belongs in the Cmciferae, little confusion is likely to result] Nearly related to J, dkhotomus Ell. of the southern and eastern United States. Differing in its very pale color, the softer texture of the pro- phylla, perianth, and capsule, and the distinctly white-caudate longer seeds.

Palmer^s no. 253, collected May 28-31, 1906, at Tobar, Durango, is provisionally placed with J uncus albicans^ though it may eventually

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416 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

prove to be distinct It has less cartilaginous auricles, smaller fioweni, and more ascending sepals, but the material at hand is over-mature and has lost all its seeds.

Juncus Pringlei, n. sp., dense caespitosus ; caulibus erectis graci- libus rigidis 1.5-2.5 dm. altis sulcatis ; cataphyllis basilaribus mucro- niferis stramineis, supremis laminigeris lamina 4-10 cm. longa ; inflore- scentia densa 3-7-flora a bractea infima vix superata; floribus 4.5-5 mm. longis ; sepalis lanceolatis petala subaequantibus apice subulatis dorso crassis viridibus lateribus castaneis marginibus membranaceis pallidis; staminibus 6, antheris linearibus flavidis quam filamentum longioribus; fructibus trigono-ellipsoideis mucronatis nitidis pallida castaneis vel olivaceis 5-6 mm. longis ; seminibus 0.4 mm. longis elli- psoideis mucronatis. — Oaxaca : Cuesta de San Juan del Estado, alti- tude 2125 meters, August 31, 1894, C. G. Pringle, no. 5818 (type, in Gray Herb.). An interesting addition to the little group of species, J, Drummondii K Meyer, J, Parryi Engelm., and J, HaUii Engelm., all of which are confined to the cordillera of western North America. J, Pringlei closely simulates J. HaUii of Colorado and Utah, but differs in its blunt-pointed, not retuse, capsule ; and, unlike any of its three allies, it has mucronate instead of caudate-appendaged seeds.

Scutellaria spinesoens, n. sp., fruticosa 1-2 dm. alta ; caule crasso tortuoso cortice cinereo, ramis implicatis rigidis spinescentibus cinereo- hirtellis, pilis minutis; foliis ellipticis vel oblongis integris breve petiolatis rugosis cinereo-hispidulis, majoribus 1 cm. longis; floribus axillaribus; pedicellis 5 mm. longis; calyce 2.5-3 mm. longo glanduloso- hispido; corolla curvata pilosa 2 cm. longa flava vel rubella, tube anguste cylbdrico. — Coahuila : by a brook in San Lorenzo Cafion, near SaltiUo, September 21-23, 1904, Edward Palmer^ nos. 392 (type, in Gray Herb.) and 394. A characteristic dwarf shrub closely simulating S, suffrutescens Watson, which, however, has very minutely pulverulent glandless branches, leaves, and caljrx. The corolla of S, spinescens, as shown by Dr. Palmer's material, is very variable in color (as is that of S. mffrutescens) ; the material under no. 392 having the corolla canary- yellow passing to salmon, with the galea reddish ; while no. 394 has the corolla of various shades of red, with yellow only on the sides of the galea.

Salvia Sanctae-Luciae Seem. Bot. Herald, 327 (1856). In the writer's synopsis of Mexican Salvias (Proc. Am. Acad. xxxv. 514), this plant was placed in the Vulgares and was taken to be the same as a plant of that section collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in Tepia Sub- sequently the writer has studied Seemann's original material at Kew and it proves to be, not a plant of the Vulgares as stated by Seemann in the .

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FERNALD. — LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS. 417

original description, but a characteristic member of the Memhranaceae. It is identical with the Tepic plant which the writer has described as 8. chdixies (Proc. Am. Acad. xxxv. 497).

Salvia (Membranaceae) Langlassei, n. sp., suffruticosa ; caule gracile duro Hexiioso obtuse quadrangulato, ramis sordido-villosis ; foliis ramorum membranaceis lanceolatis vel anguste ovatis basi rotun- datis apice acuminatis 3-4.7 cm. longis 1.3-1.8 cm. latis acute serratis supra strigosis venis subtus pilosis, petiolis 5-10 mm. longis ; racemo elongato; verticillis 9-14-floris demum 2-2.5 cm. distantibus; bracteis renifbrmibus acuminatis 6-9 mm, longis glabris lucidis purpurascenti- bus ; pedicellis 4 mm. longis glanduloso-hispidis ; calyce campanulato purpurascente glanduloso-hispido fructifero 8 mm. longo, labiis subae- qualibus, superiore late ovato 1.5 mm. longo, inferiore cum lobis ovatis mucronatis ; corolla violacea. — Michoacan or Guerrero : in argilla- ceous soil of the Sierra Madre at 1700 meters altitude, January 27, 1899, Langlasse, no. 805 {ty^e, in Gray Herb.). Closely related to 8, Sanctae-Liiciae Seem., but with slender stems said by M. Langlass^ to be "volubile," thinner leaves with very different pubescence, and with shorter, broader calyx-lobes.

Salvia { Angustifoliae) iirolepis, n. sp., herbacea circa 1 m. alta ; caulibus gracilibus retrorse pubescentibus, pilis brevibus cinereis ; foliis late lanceolatis vel anguste ovatis basi subcuneatis apice acutis 3.5-5 (-9) cm. longis crenato- serratis supra viridibus puberulis subtus albo- pannosis, petiolis gracilibus 1-2 cm. longis pilosis; racem is gracilibus, primariis 1.2 demum 3 dm. longis; bracteis lanceolato-attenuatis 9-13 mm. longis deciduis ; verticillis 12-floris demum 3-3.5 cm. distantibus ; calyce tubuloso-campanulato fructifero 6-7 mm. longo caerulescente albido-piloso, labiis subaequalibus, superiore late ovato mucronato, inferiore cum lobis del toideo- ovatis subaristatis ; corolla azurea 12-16 mm. longa, tubo exserto, galea oblonga 4-6 mm. longa pilosa^ labio in- feriore 6-9 mm. longo cum lobo medio valde majore ; stylo piloso. — NuEvo Leon, by brooks of the Sierra Madre above Monterey, August 25, 1903, September 4, 1904, and September 19, 1907, C. G. Pringle, nos. 11,906, 13,281, and 13,978 — all collected from the same colony (type, in Gray Herb.). Apparently most nearly related to ^S'. oblongi- folia Mart. & Gal, which differs in its narrower glabrous leaves, shorter and broader bracts, and the greener somewhat viscid puberu- lence of the calyx.

Salvia lavanduloides HBK., var. latifolia Benth. PI. Hartw. 21

(1839), and in DC. Prodr. xii. 303 (1848) as mmen nudum; Fernald,

Proc. Am. Acad. xxxv. 506 (1900). A fine collection of this plant,

made by Mr. E. W. Nelson at an altitude of 2125-3040 m. on Mt.

VOL. xlv. — 27

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418 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Patamban, Michoacan, January 28-31, 1903 (no. 6575), exactly matches Hartweg's no. 171 which is the type of the variety. In study- ing the variety in the light of this more adequate material an impor- tant character is noted in the glabrous or glabrate lower sur£%ce of the leaves, those of typical S, lavanduhides being canescent-tomentose beneath.

Salvia (Angustif olia«) moniliformis, n. sp., caulibus altis minute pilosis ; ramis elongatis valde ascendentibns ; foliis ramorum lanceo- latis utrinque acutis 3-4 cm. longis crenato-serratis supra viridibus tri- gosis subtus pallidis pilosis; racemis spiciformibus demum 3-4 dm. longis; verticillis 10-40-floris demum 8-9 cm. distantibus; bracteis lanceolato-ovatis attenuatis caeruleis albido-pilosis deciduis ; pedicellis 1-2 mm. longis; calyce cylindrico albido-caeruleo piloso costatofiructi- fero 8 mm. longo, labiis subaequalibus lanceolato-attenuatis 3 mm. longis ; corolla caerulea circa 8 mm. longa, tube paulo exserto, galea puberula, labio inferiore multo longiore. — Mexico : open woods on hillside at 2735 meters altitude, Iztaccihuatl, January, 1906, C. A. Pwrpu9y no. 1720 (t3rpe, in Gray Herb.). Distributed as /SI lavandu- hides HBK., but more nearly related to *Si. remota Benth., which, how- ever, has much smaller calyces (in maturity 4 nmi. long) which are less prominently bilabiate.

Salvia (Vulgares) lilacinct, n. sp., herbacea 1-1.5 m. alta ; cauli- bus minute puberulis valde sulcatis purpurascentibus ; foliis ovatis acuminatis basi rotundatis 4-6 cm. longis serratis supra minute stri- gosis venis subtus strigosis, petiolis 5-10 mm. longis ; racemis gracilibus permultis 6.5-12.5 cm. longis; verticillis 10-20-flori8 approximatis demum 1 cm. distantibus ; bracteis lanceolato-aristatis 1.5 mm. longis caducis ; pedicellis 2-3 mm, longis ; calyce purpurascente tubuloso-campanulato 3-3.5 mm. longo strigoso, labio superiore ovato acuminate 1 mm. longo, labio inferiore cum lobis subaristatis ; corolla lilacina 12 mm. longa pilosa, tube ventricoso exserto, galea labiam inferiorem subaequante; stylo piloso. — Michoacan: near Uruapan, October 15, 1904, C, G, Pringle, no. 13,279 (type, in Gray Herb.). Closely related S. Ghiesbreghtii Femald, which has the midrib of the leaf densely lanate beneath, the puberulence of the branches coarser, and the few racemes more elongate.

Salvia (Vulgares) uruapana, n. sp., herbacea annua, 7 dm. alta ; caule gracile minute piloso, pilis retrorsis appressis, intemodiis 3.5-10 em. longis ; foliis ovatis subcordatis acuminatis 4-5 cm. longis 2.6-3.5 cm. latis crenato-serratis supra pallide viridibus minute puberulis vel glabratis subtus cinereis minute pilosis vel glabratis, margine piloso- ciliato ; racemis elongatis, primariis 3 dm. longis ; verticillis 3-10-floris

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FERNALD. — UTTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS. 419

demum 3 cm. distantibus ; bracteis lanceolato-caudatis demum 7-10 mm. longis ; pedicellis demum 6-7 mm. longis tenuibas albido-pilosis ; calyce tubuloso-campanalato ihictifero 9 mm. longo 3 mm. diametro cinereo-piloso valde bilabiato, labio superiore obloDgo acuminato 2.5 mm. loDgo, inferiore rectiuscalo 4 mm. longo cum lobis lanceolato- aristatis ; corolla azurea 12 mm. longa, tnbo vix exserto, galea brevis- sima pilosa, labio iDferiore multo longiore ; stylo glabro. — Michoacan : lava fields, Uruapan, October 16, 1904, C. G. Pringle, no. 13,280 (type, in Gray Herb.). Strongly simulating S. leptostctchys Benth., from which it differs in its much longer, more slender, and unequally cleft greener cal3rx, the longer, more pubescent pedicels, and the more copiously pilose leaf-margin.

Salvia (Vulgares) lenta, n. sp., caulibus lentisgracilibus 5 dm. altis pilosis, pilis cinereis nodulosis; foliis ovatis acuminatis basi subcu- neatis 6.5-9 cm. longis 3.5-4 cm. latis argute serratis utrinque pilo- sis ; petiolis 1-1.5 cm. longis ; racemo elongato 2 dm. longo ; verticillis 8-12-floris demum 1.5-2 cm. distantibus; bracteis lanceolato-ovatis acuminatis pilosis deciduis ; pedicellis demum 2-3 mm. longis pilosis ; calyce tubuloso-campanulato circa 4 mm. longo dense piloso, pilis albidis nodulosis, labio superiore ovato obtuso 1 mm. longo, inferiore breviore cum lobis deltoideis acutis ; corolla caerulea minute pilosa 1 cm. longa, tubo exserto, labiis subaequalibus ; stylo piloso. — Mi- choacan or Guerrero: in granitic soil, at 1100 meters altitude, Real de Gnadelupe, September 10, 1898, Langlassiy no. 343 (type, in Gray Herb.). Nearly related, apparently, to /S. IVarszetvicziana Kegel, which has broad cordate acuminate bracts, a secund inBorescence, and the lips of the corolla very unequal, the upper glandular.

Salvia (Vulgares) fallax, n. sp., fruticosa ; ramis gracilibus elon- gatis lignosis brunnescentibus juventate dense sordido-villosis, pilis nodulosis; foliis ovatis acuminatis basi subcuneatis 6-11 cm. longis 3.5-6 cm. latis argute serratis utrinque pilosis, pilis albidis nodulosis ; petiolis gracilibus villosis 2-5 cm. longis ; racemis gracilibus 1-1.5 dm. longis ; verticillis 3-6-floris demum 1 cm. distantibus ; bracteis atro- purpureis anguste ovato-caudatis deciduis ; pedicellis demum 2 mm. longis; calyce atro-purpureo tubuloso-campanulato hirsute iructifero 5-6 mm. longo, labio superiore ascendente ovato acuminato, labio inferiore rectiusculo 1.5 mm. longo cum lobis deltoideo-aristatis ; corolla azurea 9 mm. longa, tubo vix exserto, galea villosa, labio inferiore paulo breviore; stylo piloso. — /S Sanctae-Luciae Femald, Proc \k :; V v. ')14 Cl^'*<0» not S(N 7 tar

the town of Tepic> January and February, 1892, Edward Palmer^ no. 1964 (type, in Gray Herb.)- Closely related to S. Imta Fernald

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420 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

and apparently also to 8, Warczewictiana RegeL In the writer's synopsis of Salvia published in 1900 he mistook this plants from the description alone, for S, Sanctae-Luciae Seem.; but he has since exam- ined Seemann's t3rpe and finds that it is not this plant but a species of the Membranaceae (see above).

Salvia (Scorodoniae) rupioola, n. sp., fruticosa; ramis gracilibus subteretibus lignosis albescentibus cortice fibrilloso, juventate brunne- scentibus glanduloso-pilosis ; foliis oblongis vel anguste ovatis crenatis utrinque obtusis 1-2 cm. longis supra rugosissimis viridibus hispidis glandulosisque subtus pallidis glanduloso-pilosis, petiolo 2-3 mm. longo ; racemis gracilibus 4.5-9 cm. longis ; rhachi purpurascente glanduloso-hispidulo ; verticillis circa 8-floris remotis demum 1.5-2 cm. distantibus ; bracteis ovatis 2 mm. longis ; pedicellis 2 mm. longis ; calyce tubuloso-campanulato livido fructifero 6 mm. longo glanduloso- hispido, labio superiore obtuso 1.5 mm. longo, labio inferiore obtuso vix 1 mm. longo ; corolla circa 1 cm. longa, tubo ventricoso exserto ; galea pilosa, labio inferiore paulo breviore; stylo piloso. — Hidalgo: on rocks, Ixmiquilpan, 1903, C. A. Purptis, no. 431 (tyx)e, in Gray Herb.). In habit similar to S. fruticulosa Benth., which has the branch- lets, lower leaf-surfeces, calyces, etc., stellate-pamiose ; nearer related, apparently, to 8. Gonzahzii Femald, which is less fruticose, with darker branches, glandless softer pubescence, broad-ovate leaves, and larger calyx.

Salvia (Soorodoniae) tepicensis, n. sp., caulibus gracilibus obtuse angulatis dense piloso-hispidis, pilis viscidis ; foliis oblongo-ovatis ob- tusis supra viridibus rugosis setosis subtus albo-villosis 3-3.5 cm. longis basi subcordatis, petiolo brevi gracili viscido-hispido ; racemis simplicis elongatis 1.5 dm. longis ; verticillis G-lO-floris remotis demum 2.5-3 cm. distantibus ; bracteis lanceolato-ovatis acuminatis dentatis 4 mm. longis ; calyce azureo anguste campanulato fructifero 7-8 mm. longo valde costato, costis glanduloso-setulosis, labio superi- ore obtuso 3 mm. longo, inferiore obtuso 2 mm. longo ; corolla azurea 1.5 cm. longa, tubo paulo ventricoso exserto, galea pilosa, labio inferiore multo longiore ; stylo villosissimo. — Tepic : near the town of Tepic, January 5-February 6, 1892, Edward Palmer, no. 1984 (type, in Gray Herb.). Related to 8. Gonzalezn Femald and 8. rupicola Femald. From the former distinguished by its characteristic glandu- lar spreading pubescence, the long lip of the corolla, and the villous style ; from the latter by its more herbaceous character, its much longer pubescence (of branches, leaves, and cal3rx), its larger promi- nently costate calyx, and the longer corolla with a comparatively long

lip.

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FERNALD. — LITTLE KNOWN MEXICAN PLANTS. 421

Salvia (Scorodoniae) dasyoalyx, n. sp., fruticosa 1.5 m. alta ; ramis gracUibus valde quadrangulatis superne decussatim bifariam pi- losis ; foliis ramorom lanceolatis acuminatis basi sabcuneatis 3.5-5.5 cm. longis pauIo ragosis utrinque glabris vel venis supra pilosis venis subtus albidis, petiolis 2-5 mm. longis pilosis ; paniculis densis thyr- soideis, secundariis 3.5-5 cm. longis; bracteis lanceolato-attenuatis 3-4 mm. longis ; calyce tarbinato circa 3 mm. longo purpurascente dense villoso, pilis albidis planis, lobis brevissimis latis ; corolla vio- lacea 7-8 mm. longa, tubo inclaso, galea pilosa labiam inferiorem sub- aequante. — Michoacan or Guerrebo : in argillaceous soil at 1800 meters altitude, Sierra Madre, January 23, 1899, LanglassS, no. 779 (type, in Gray Herb.). Closely simulating S* thyrsifiora Benth., from which it differs in its glabrous leaves and smaller shaggy-villous calyces.

Salvia (Cyaneae) .umbratilis, n. sp., fruticosa 1 m. alta ; ramis gracilibus puberulis; foliis membranaceis glabris rhomboideo-ovatis acuminatis basi cuneatis 8 cm. longis crenato-serratis, dentibus mucro- natis ; petiolis gracilibus 1.5-3^5 cm. longis ; racemo 1.5 dm. longo ; verticilKs 2-6-floris demum 2 cm. distantibus ; bracteis ovato-acuminatis 2 mm. longis subpersistentibus ; pedicellis filiformibus 5-6 mm. longis divergentibus minute hispidis; calyce campanulato demum 11 mm. longo valde 9-costato costis setulosis, labio superiore ascendente late deltoideo mucronato, labio inferiore 4 mm. longo cum lobis porrectis anguste deltoideis aristatis ; corolla cyanea 2.5-3 cm. longa pilosa rec- tiuscula, tubo paulo ventricoso, galea 7 mm. longa, labio inferiore paulo breviore ; stylo glabro. — Michoacan or Guerrero : in argil- laceous soil of damp forests, at 1200 meters altitude, Sierra Madre, February 19, 1899, Langlasse, no. 904 (type, in Gray Herb.). Nearest related to S, phaenostemma Donnell Smith, which has the leaves more rounded at base, the calyx longer and purberulent (with subequal lobes), and the pedicels ascending.

Salvia (Tubiflorae) arbuscula, n. sp., arborea vel fruticosa circa 2.5 m. alta ; ramis lanatis, pilis brunneis ; foliis ovatis oblique subcor- datis acuminatis circa 1 dm. longis crenato-serratis supra yiridescenti- bus tomentosis cum pilis stellatis subtus albido-pannosis cum pilis stellatis ; petiolis 1-1.5 cm. longis stellato-tomentosis ; racemis densis primario 2.5 dm. longo ; verticillis 20-30-floris demum 3 cm. distanti- bus ; bracteis minutis deciduis ; calyce tubuloso-campanulato valde costato 5 mm. longo albido-lanato, labio superiore late deltoideo cuspi- date 1 mm. longo, inferiore cum lobis anguste deltoideis mucronatis ; corolla purpurea curvata 2.5-3 cm. longa vix ventricosa villosa, galea rectiuscula 7 mm. longa, labio inferiore 4 mm. longo ; stylo glabro. —

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422 PBOCEEDINQS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEUT.

MiGHOACAN or Guerrero : at 1500 metres altitude in the Sierra Madre, January 20, 1899, Langlasse^ no. 767 (t3rpe, in Gray Herb.). A handsome species nearest related to 8, Eosei Femald, but abun- dantly distinct in the pubescence of its branches, calyx and corolla, as well as the small calyx and the glabrous style.

Hyptis (Hypema, § Longiflorae) Langlassei, n. sp., fruticosa circa 2 m. alta ; ramis glabris rufescentibus ; foliis crassis coriaceis glabris lanceolatis acuminatis basi subcuneatis, superioribus 1-1.7 dm. longis 2-3.5 cm. latis acute dentatis ; panicula trichotoma ramis 1.5-2.7 dm. longis cymulas item semel vel bis trichotomas 2-7 cm. longas laxe patentes gerentibus, rhachi glanduloso-puberulo ; bracteis ovato-lanceo- latis acuminatis integris puberulis, inferioribus 2.5 cm. longis, supe- rioribus 1 cm. longis; pedicellis demum 4-11 mm. longis; calyoe campanulato anthesi 4-5 mm. fiructifero 8-9 mm. longo glanduloso- puberulo et glanduloso-hispido, pilis brevibus albidis squamosis ; labiis patentibus lanceolato-aristatis ; corolla sanguinea puberula 2 cm. longa, tubo infundibuliforme, galea 2-3 mm. longa lobis rotundis labiam inferi- orem subaequante; staminibus stiloque exsertis glabris. — Michoacan or Guerrero : in granitic soil at 1800 m. altitude, Sierra Madre, Feb- ruary 10, 1899, Langlasse^ no. 854 (type, in Gray Herb.). Closely re- lated to H. Nelsoni Fernald, of the mountains of Jalisco, which has the leaves broad and clasping at base, the pubescence much finer (that of the caljTx merely a fine puberulence), and the hardly aristate caljrx-lobes much shorter.

V. MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS — NOTES AND NEW SPECIES.

By C. A. Weatherby.

Anthericmn tenue, n. sp., gracillimum scaposum, radicibus fasci- culatis nonnuUis apice nonnullis basin versus tuberoso-incrassatis, foliis marcidis in coUo laxe fibrose 3 cm. longo supra radicem persistentibus foliis suberectis pluribus radicalibus subulatis duris glabris marginibus minute ciliolatis exceptis 1.5-2.8 dm. longis circa 1 mm. latis caule paulum brevioribus in apicem longum acicularem prodactis, caulibus gracilibus glabris 6-9-bracteatis ex speciminibus visis simplicibus 2.8- 3.6 dm. altis, floribus in bractearum axillis 2-3-fasciculatis, pedicellis 7-10 mm. longis infra medium articulatis, perianthii segmentis 1 cm. longis albis (fide Nelsonii), staminibus quam perianthium tertiam partem brevioribus, antheris 3 mm. longis liberis, filamentis 4 mm. longis muricatis, capsulis immaturis ovoideis quam perianthiam mar-

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WEATHERBY. — MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS. 423

cescens daplo brevioribus. — Guerrero : betwecD AyoeiDara atd Petatlan altitude 1500-2000 m., Dec. 14, 1894, Nelson, no. 2120 (in hb. U. S. Nat Mus.). Near A. leptophyUum Baker, from which it differs in its even more slender habit, narrower and longer leaves, and several-bracted stem. Very similar also to Echeandia Pringlei Greenman, but with free anthers.

Anthericum uncinatuxn, n. sp., scaposum, radicibus medio in- crassatis, collo radicis dense fibrose, foliis (6-7) 8-12 cm. longis 6-10 mm. latis pallide viridibus saepius patentibus valdeque fal> catis in siccis conduplicatis membranaceis marginibas manifestis albis cartilagineis ciliolatis lente nervatis, caalibus circa 3 dm. altis simplici- bus scabris vel hirtellis 1-2-bracteatis bracteis setaceo-acuminatis chartaceis, pedicellis floriferis 5-7 mm. longis infra, medium articu- latis, perianthii flavi (?) segmentis 8-12 mm. longis, filamentis papil- loso-crispatis circa 5 mm. longis antheris longioribus, capsulis immatu- ris brevibus ovoideis. — Durango : Otinapa, July 25-Aug. 5, 1906, Palmer, no. 437. Near A, scabrellum Baker, from which it differs in its cartilaginous-margined and strongly falcate leaves, similar to those of A. drepanoides Greenman. From the latter species it differs in its scabrous stem, smaller size, and fewer, chartaceous bracts. In A. drepanoides the bracts are about 5, and the lower are foliaceous and falcate, like the root-leaves.

Nemeistylis (§ Chlcmiydostylus) latifolic^ n. sp., bulbo ovoideo tunicis brunneis friabilibus, caule simplici subflexuoso in speciminibus visis circa 4.5 dm. alto folium unicum erectum bracteamque vaginan- tem gerente, folio radical! uno lineari-lanceolato longe acuminato apice setaceo 3 dm. longo 1-1.5 cm. lato plicato valde nervato, folio caulino simili inflorescentia breviore vel earn aequante ejus vagina 3-3.5 cm. longa scariosi-marginata, bractea acuminata scariosi-marginata 7.5-8.5 cm. longa, spatha 5.3 cm. longa valvis acuminatis aequilongis vel ex- teriore paulum longiore, floribus in spatha 4, pedicellis filiformibus spatham aequantibus vel exsertis, perianthiis albis marcescentibus paulum caerulescentibus 3 cm. (?) latis, filamentis brevissimis minus quam 1 mm. longis, antheris 1 cm. longis connectivis angustis, styli ramis filiformibus antheras subaequantibus parte indivisa circa 1 mm. longa, fructu non viso. — Guerrero: hills, near Iguala, alt. 915 m., July 29, 1907, PringUy no. 10,391. Distinguished from all the other Mexican species hitherto described by its very short, almost obsolete filaments. In this respect it resembles some of the South American species, but is not satisfactorily referable to any of them.

Querous (§ Brythrobalanus) ^ysophyll6^ n. sp., arborea magna, cortice nigricante aspera vel profunde sulcata, foliis integris ovato-

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424 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

lanceolatis 14-21 cm. longis 4.5-8 cm. latis basi cordatis vel rarias truncatis in apicem acotum sensim angustatis apice (in foliis imma- taris) arista gracili 3-4 mm. longa munitis coriaceis glabris vel subtus in axillis nervorum barbatis pallide viridibus subnitidis valde reticu- lato-rugosis nervis supra impressis subtus prominentibus marginibus leviter incrassatis durisque sicut nervis marginalibus, petiolis 5-7 mm. longis crassis supra planis tomentosis vel glabratis, stipulis persistenti- bus linearibus 1.2-1.5 cm. longis, floribus femineis 2-4 folii in axiUa singula sessilibus, cupulae immaturae squamis late ovatis obtusis glabris vel minute furfuraceis, glandibus non visis. — Nuevo Leon : Sierra Madre, Monterey, Pringle, nos. 10,225, 10,226, 10,379. A well- marked species, nearest Q. nectandrae/olia Liebmann.

Mirabilis Prpglei, n. sp., caulibus herbaceis circa 1 m. altis ramosis, ramis dense glanduloso-puberulentibus, foliis late ovatis vel suborbi- culatis 7-10 cm. longis 5-9 cm. latis integris cordatis acutis vel breviter acuminatis ciliolatis praeter nervos glanduloso-puberulentibus subtus sparse et minute pubescentibus pilis brevibus adpressis, in- florescentiae foliis parvis subsessilibus, inflorescentia divaricato-cymosa non congesta, cymis breviter pedunculatis, involucris unifloris campan- ulatis glandulosis ejus laciniis ovatis obtusis in anthesi tubam subae- quantibus, perianthiis pallide roseis 2.5-3 cm. longis cylindraceis basi paulum dilatatis et quam ovarium latioribus limbo angusto, stam- inibus 5 longe exsertis perianthii tubo duplo longioribus, anthocarpiis glabris tuberculatis circa 7 mm. altis 5 mm. latis pentagonis in angulis costatis basi late truncatis. — Guerrero: under limestone cliffs, Iguala Cafion, alt 915 m., July 23, 1907, Pringle, no. 10,384. Near M. exserta Brandegee, from which it differs in its tuberculate, five-ribbed antho- carp and in the shape of its perianth which, at base, is broader than the ovary. From M, Jalapa and its immediate allies it differs, as does M. exsertUy in its long-exserted stamens and style and in its more open inflorescence.

OxYBAPUUS GLABER Watson. The type material of this species con- sisted only of a portion of the panicle. The following amplified descrip- tion, drawn up largely from the specimen of Mr. Pringle's cited below, may, therefore, be of service.

Perennial ; stem stout, glabrous, 8 dm. high, simple below, branch- ing above, the lower intemodes numerous and short (2 cm. long) ; leaves linear, 4-8 cm. long, 3-6 mm. wide, thick, glabrous ; panicle large and open, its branches opposite and strictly glabrous ; involucres somewhat campanulate, 4-8 mm. high, about 1 cm. across when mature, glabrous or minutely strigiUose with short yellow hairs, on slender glabrous pedicels 4-8 mm. long; flowers cleistogamous (?),

^

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WEATHERBY. — MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS. 425

the perianth inconspicaous, equalling or shorter than the involucre ; fruit lance-ovate in outline, acute at the apex, narrowed at the base, with five narrow but prominent smooth ribs, the space between more or less strongly tuberculate, glabrous or minutely strigillose between the ribs.— Am. Nat vil 302 (1873). — Kanab, South Utah, Mrs. A. P, Thompson. Chihuahua: sand hills near Paso del Norte, Sept. 20, 1886, Pringle^ no. 1126. A specimen from Kansas, sand hills, Eeamy Co., Aug. 29, 1897, A. S. Hitchcock^ no. 421b perhaps belongs here also.

There is in the Gray Herbarium a plant clearly referable to this species, but differing from the typical form in its pubescent pedicels and involucres. It seems worthy of recognition as : var. recedeno, n. var., a forma typica differt pedicellis involucrisque pubescentibus. — Chihuahua : between Casas Grandee and Sabinal, altitude 1550- 1700 m., Sept 4-5, 1899, Nelsoriy no. 6351.

In the course of a recent attempt to rearrange, with the aid of Mr. Standley's excellent monograph, the Mexican specimens of Nyctaginaceae in the Gray Herbarium, it became apparent that, under the Vienna Rules,^ several new combinations in the genus Oxyhaphus were required. They are accordingly proposed here, as follows :

Ozybaphus texensis (Coult.), n. comb. AUionia corymbosa, var. teocemis Coult Contr. U. S. Nat Herb. ii. 351 (1894). AUionia texensis Small, Fl. Southeast U. S. 406 {1^02^). — Coulter's no. 912, from Mexico, but without more definite locality, should apparently be referred here.

Oxybaphus ooahuilensis (Standley), n. comb. AUionia coahuilen- sis Standley, Contr. U. S. Nat Herb. xii. 347 (1909).

Oxybaphus melanotriohus (Standley), n. comb. AUionia melano- tricha Standley, 1. c. 351. The following, not cited by Mr. Standley, belongs here : Chihuahua : mountains near Pilares, 23 Sept, 1891, C. V. Hartman, no. 743.

Oxybaphus pseudaggregatus (Heimerl), n. comb. Mirabilis pseudaggregata Heimerl, Ann. Cons, et Jard. Gen6v. v. 183 (1901). AUionia pseudaggregata Standley, 1. c. 356. — The following specimens belong here : San Luis Potosi : alt 1850-2500 m., 1878, Pan-y <b Palmer^ no. 768 ; in montibus San Miguelito, 1876, Schaffner^ no. 177. Valine de Mexico, Guadelupe, ler Aodt, 1865, Bourgeau, no. 651.

Urvillea bitemata, n. sp., fruticosa 1-2 m. alta glabra vel ramulis minute pulverulentibus, ramis 3-5-co8tatis costis obtusis interdum rubris inter costas planiusculis vel leviter sulcatis, foliis bitematis, foliolis membranaceis glabris vel subtus praeter nervos sparse pubes- centibus punctis lineisque pellucidis minute punctatis ovatis subtus

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426 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

pallidioribas, terminalibus 11-15 cm. longis 4.5-5.5 cm. latis obtuse acuminatis macronulatis supra medium paucis dentibus crenatds basi abrupte angustatis sicut in petiolulam alatam 1-2 cm. longam, laterali- bus similibus minoribus interdum obliquis acumine breviore, inflores- centiae paniculis angnstid axillaribus longe (ad 8 cm.) pedunculatds 2-cirrhosis, sepalis 5, 3 mm. longis concavis obtusis late ovatis minute pubescentibus duobus ezterioribus paulum minoribus, petalis 4, 3 mm. longis obovatis vel suborbiculatis unguiculatis rotundatis, duobus supe- rioribus squamas gereutibus latas cucullatas apice in appendicem longam deflexam productas appendice et marginibus barbatas summo dorso crista dilatata subflabelliforme instructas, duoram inferiorum squamis minoribus margine barbatis summo dorso cuspidatis, disci glandis duobus oblongis basi latioribus et callosis inter callos concavis, staminibus 8, filamentis crassis extra sparse villosis, antheris introrsis, fiructu trialato subobovato 1.8 cm. longo 1.3 cm. lato apice leviter emarginato vel rotundato basi subacute. — Ouerrebo : Iguala Gaiion, alt. 915 m., July 24, 1907, Pringle, no. 10,380. An anomalous species, distinguished from all the other species of Urvillea by its bitemate leaves. In habit it resembles some species of Serjania^ but has the fruit of Urvillea,

Euphorbia (§ Anisophyllum) ohedicophila., n. sp., erecta annua (?) basi ramosa, caulibus teretibus gracilibus 3.5-4 dm. altis dichotome ramosis pilis albis crispatis dense vestitis, foliis oppositis lanceolatis basi valde obliquis subcordatis fftlcatis acutis vel obtusiusculis brevissime petiolatis ab apice fere ad basin serrulatis pilosis, caulinis 15-19 mm. longis 3-5 mm. latis, involucris brevissime pedicellatis in cymosulaa paucifloras bracteatas ad apices ramulorum congestis turbinatis 0.6 mm. altis extus glabris intus hirtellis non fissis, lobis ovato- lanceolatis pectinatis, glandulis transverse ellipticis 0.5 mm. longis sub- concavis appendice rubra vel rubella 0.5 mm. lata integra vel emar- ginata, capsulis 1.5 mm. altis brevipedunculatis glabris vel sparse pilosis, seminibus laevibus griseis ovatis baud angulatis 1 mm. longis. — Jalisco : gravelly banks of gullies near Guadalajara, alt. 1525 m., October 12, 1903, Pringle^ no. 11,846. In habit and in the characters of the involucre very like narrow-leaved forms oi E, brasiltensis Lam., but differing in being pilose throughout and in its smooth seeds.

Euphorbia (§ Anisophylluxxi) chamaecaulai, n. sp., perennis rube- scens, caulibus ex apice radicis pluribus prostratis ramosis compressis infra nodes paulum dilatatis glabris, foliis oppositis brevissime petio- latis late ovatis basi subcordatis obliquis apice obtusis integris glabris vel &cie superiore sparse pilosis, caulinis 6-8 mm. longis 4.5-6 mm. latis, ramulinis minoribus, involucris in axillis foliorum solitariis vel apicibus ramulorum in cymosulas paucifloras aggregatis pedicellatis

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WEATHERBY. — MEXICAN PHANEROGAMS. 427

campanulatis extus intusque glabris, lobis parvis ovatis fimbriatis, glandulis ellipticis 0.6 mm. longis, appendice conspicua alba flabelli- forme integra vel crenalata 0.5 mm. lata, pedicellis 2.5 mm. longis vel brevioribus, capsulis 2 mm. longis 1.5 mm. latis subacute carinatis omnino glabris, seminibus pallidis oblongis apice apiculatis quadraogu- laribus inter angulos subtransverse vel irregalariter rngosis. — Jalisco : gravelly plain near Guadalajara, Oct 14, 1903, Pringle^ no. 11,848. Near K prostrata, from which it differs as follows : E. prostrata, plant green, leaves strictly oblong, abruptly rounded at apex, capsules hairy on the angles, glands with very short or no appendages. E. chamae- cauUiy leaves mostly ovate, tapering somewhat to the obtuse apex, plant reddish, capsule entirely glabrous, glands with conspicuous white &n-shaped appendages.

Manihot intermedia, n. sp., fruticosa erecta 1-2 m. alta omnino glabra, foliis orbiculatis palmatis non peltatis fere ad petiolam pro- funde 7-8-lobatis, supra viridibus subtus pallidis venis albis reticula- rs, lobis medianis foliorum inferiorum lanceolatis sinuata-lobatis infra apicem late et abrupte rhombeo-dilatatis apice setaceo-mucronatis, dnobus lobis lateralibus parvis lanceolatis integris, lobis medianis foli- orum superiorum leviter sinuatis nee lobatis nee rhombeo-dilatatis,' petiolis limbo brevioribus vel eum subaequantibus glaucis, racemis brevibus 3-4 cm. longis 3-4 ad apicem ramulorum fasciculatis patulis, ' bracteis pedicellas aequantibus vel paulum superantibus lineari-seta- ceis, pedicellis 5-10 mm. longis saepe bracteas duas oppositas parvas infra medium gerentibus, florum masculorum perianthiis gamophyllis 5-lobatis campanulatis circa 15 mm. altis basi.rotundatis extus glauco- oaerulescentibus intus flavescentibus venosis extus intusque glabris, laciniis deltoideis tube triple brevioribus, staminibus longioribus peri- anthium aequantibus, capsulis glabris globosis in siccitate rugosis, semi- nibus laevibus ellipticis latere interiore planis vel obtusissime angulatis exteriore convexis. — Guerrero ; limestone cliffs of Iguala Cafion, alt. 915 m., July 29, 1907, Pringle, no. 13,938. Intermediate between M. carthaginensis and M. acutiloba^ having nearly the foliage of the former but the flowers of the latter ; and apparently differing from both in its bracted pedicels.

Ipomoea (§ Pharbitis) igucdensis, n. sp., volubilis tota papilloso- hirsuta pilis plus minusve flavescentibus 2-3 mm. longis vel caulibus glabrescentibus, marginibus foliorum bractearnm sepalorumque pilis similibus dense papilloso-ciliatis, foliis longe petiolatis (ad 2 dm.) ovato- orbiculatis cordatis breviter acuminatis 7.5-12 cm. longis 7-13 cm. latis, pedunculis petioles subaequantibus vel superantibus 3-flori8, inflore- scentia capitata congesta, ejus bracteis duabus late ovatis cuspidatis

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428 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

venosis membranaceis 17 mm. longis pedicellas brevissimas floriferas sicut involucrum includentibus et occultantibus, sepalis circa 13 mm. longis acutis, duobus exterioribus latioribus ovatis 5 mm. latis intns circa 10-nervatis, tribus interioribus lanceolatis 2-2.5 mm. latis, corolla 5 cm. longa pallide purpurea tube angusto infundibuliforme, tubo et plicis dense pilosis, limbo glabro, capsulis non visis. — Guerrero ; Iguala Canon, alt 760 m., September 21, 1905, Pringle, no. 10,054. Apparently near /. hirtijlora Mart. & (Sal., from which it diflFers in its almost setose pubescence.

JusTiciA PAcmcA (Oerst) Hemsl. Mr. Pringle's no. 10,145, from Balsas in the state of Guerrero, agrees excellently with Oersted's de- scription. The original specimens were in fruit only and the species was doubtfully referred to Justicia by Hemsley. Mr. Pringle's plant shows a glabrous corolla 2.5 cm. long with the short tube and broad limb characteristic of Justicia, The species would seem, then, to be certainly a Justicia and allied to J, furcata, but differing from all forms of that species in its grayish-puberulent stem, spicate inflores- cence, ciliate bracts and in the very broad white margins of its calyx- lobes.

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Proceedings of fhe Amencan Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. XLV. No. 18. — May, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ROGERS LABORATORY

OF PHYSICS, B1ASSACHU8ETTS INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY.

LIIL — OiST THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM CONSISTING OF LIME, CARBON, CALCIUM CAR-^ BIDE AND CARBON MONOXIDE.

By M. DeKay Thompson.

IimrrioATioini on Lnnr avd Hsat madb ahd fvblibrbd, wbollt ob ni past, with ApnonoATKur raoM TBB RuMfosD Fuiro.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ROGERS LABORATORY

OF PHYSICS, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY.

LIIL — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM CONSISTING

OF LIME, CARBON, CALCIUM CARBIDE AND

CARBON MONOXIDE.

By M-. deKat Thompson. Presented by H. M. Goodwin. February 0. 1010. Received February 20. 1010.

1. Introduction.

Whilb the author of the following paper was working on the subject indicated in the title above, an article dealing with the same matter appeared in the Electrochemical and Metallurgical Industry.^ The present writer's results did not agree with those in the article referred to, and it was therefore thought best to publish a preliminary paper on the subject^ which was accordingly presented at the October meeting of the American Electrochemical Society in New York As the work has now been brought to a close, the following article will be made complete, including all of the preliminary publication that is necessary for clearness.

According to the Phase Rule * the substances taking part in the re* action CaO + 30 ;=± CaC, + CO form a monovariant sjrstem, that is to say, for any given temperature there is a definite pressure of carbon monoxide which will preserve equilibrium. In order that equilibrium can exist the reaction must be reversible. The fi^^t that this reaction is reversible has been shown by Rothmund ^ and others.* Rothmund also attempted to measure the temperature of formation of carbide by heating to different temperatures lime and carbon, and testing the charge immediately afterwards to see if it reacted with water, giving off acetylene. The furnace used consisted of a carbon tube through

* C. A. Hansen, Electrochem. Met. Ind. 1909, 7, 427. « See Findlay, "The Phase Rule," p. 16.

» Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem. 1902, 31, 136.

* A. Frank, Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem. 1905, 44, 1733.

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432 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEBdY.

which an electrical current was passed. The assamption that must be made with regard to the partial pressure of the carbon monoxide is that it is constant and is due to oxygen of the air acting on the carbon tube, giving one-third of an atmosphere.* Unless the temperature is raised above that corresponding to one-third of an atmosphere, no car- bide would be found. By repeated trials this temperature could be located within certain limits, if the above assumption is trua In this way Rothmund found 1620° G. as the temperature of formation. Sim- ilar experiments were repeated later by Rudolphi,® who found the tem- perature of formation to lie between 1800 and 1819*^ C, that is, about 200^ higher than Rothmund's value. The temperature measurements were made by an optical method, as were also Rothmund's. Finally, Lampen,^ by a method similar to the above, using a Wanner pyrometer for temperature measurements, found 1725° C. for the temperature of formation. It seemed evident, from the poor agreement of these results, all obtained by the same method, that some other method would have to be used in which the pressure of the carbon monoxide could also be measured, as these differences might be due simply to different values of this quantity. It was the object of the following investigation to make these measurements.

2. Method and Results.

The method decided on was to heat the charge in a vacuum furnace connected with a mercury manometer and to measure the temperature of the charge and pressure of the carbon monoxide when equilibrium is reached. A small Arsem ^ vacuum furnace, made by the General Elec- tric Company, was the apparatus used. It consists of a cylindrical bronze casting 24 centimeters in inside diameter and 39 centimeters in length. Parallel to the axis in the center of the casting and Sskstened to the lid, is a graphite helix, 27 centimeters in length, 5.1 in outside diameter and 0.5 in thickness of wall. The helix is clamped at each end by water-cooled electrodes. The lid is fastened to the casting with a number of cap-screws and a leaSi washer. The whole furnace is im- mersed in water with the exception of a tower projecting from the center

• Rothmund erroneously assumes the pressure of the carbon monoxide to be 1/5 atmosphere, probably because this is the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. Taking into consideration that every mole of oxygen pro- duces two of carbon monoxide, 1 /3 atmosphere is the result obtained.

« Zeitschr. f. anorg. Cliem. 1907, 64, 170.

f Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 1906, 28, 864.

8 Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 1906, 9, 163.

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I'HOMPSON. — ON THE EQUIUBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM.

433

of the lid containing a mica window, making it possible to see the hot material held in the center of the spiral The support for the crucible is a graphite rod held by the lower^ electrode, but insulated by lava rings. The lid also contains a pipe by which the furnace may be ex- hausted. A Oeryk oil pump was used for obtaining the vacuum. The pressure could be read by a wooden scale divided in millimeters on a mercury gauge completely evacuated and sealed off at one end, thus

laAn

•

/

1600

/

r

/

r

1400

/

o VXO

/

|iooo

S

/

1

800

/

.

/

Ann

/

oOO

/

400

/

400

600

800 1000 1200

Temperature Indicated

1400

1600

Figure 1. Calibration of Thermoelectric Junction.

making a siphon barometer. The temperature of the gas contained in the furnace is not constant, but all that determines the equilibrium besides the pressure is the temperature of the solid substances and of the gas in contact with it Of course the pressure must be constant throughout the furnace.

In the first experiments the temperature was measured by a Wanner pyrometer^ which rendered it necessary to replace the mica window by one of glass clamped between rubber and sealed up with paruflin. In calibrating the p3nx>meter a similar piece of glass was placed between the amylacetate standard and the instrument. The Wanner was found

VOL. XLV. — 28

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434

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

TABLE I. Calibration of Thermoelectric Junction.

Temperature read directly from scale.

1065° C.	1075° C.
655° C.	650° C.
445° C.	440° C.

True Temperature.

Melting point of (Jold . . Melting point of Alaminnm Boiling Sulphur ....

to be unreliable, however, apparently due to inconstibncy in the amyl- acetate standard.^ The furnace was therefore calibrated by means of a platinum platinum-rhodium junction, that is, the temperature of the crucible was measured while the power was held constant The tem-

TABLE II. Calibration of Furnace.

Kilowatto.	lemperature oy inermo- electric junction.	Remarka.
3.60	968°
7.03 8.98	1185° 1325°	1st spiral
9.71	1368°
3.12	925°
4.99	1062°
7.10 8.03	1180° 1225°	2d spiral
9.00	1262°
9.81 7.68 6.15	1325° 1180° 1100°	2d spiral repeated on following day

perature was then subsequently determined by measuring the power applied. Heating was furnished by an alternating current with a fre- quency of sixty cycles per second. This was taken from a transformer- switchboard so arranged that the voltage could be varied in steps of about twelve volts. For the finer regulation a carbon plate rheostat, in which current regulation could be obtained by varying the compres-

• The temperatures measured in the former article on this subject are ac- cordingly from 100® to 150° too low, but the general conclusions there reached are not affected.

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUIUBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM.

435

sion on the plates was found satisfactory. The tenninals were copper boxes filled with water. Figure 1 gives the calibration of the junction. The galvanometer

										/
1500									>	'A
								A	/ / /
1il/Vl				•				A	V
1400							A
						>	//	f
1900						^	'/ f
lonA					/^	;;''		•
1290U				/	\^A
			4	f
1100			/
inno		>>>	y
	/	V
900	/

84667S9 10 1112 Kilowatts

Figure 2. Calibration of Furnace.

was a Siemens and Halske instrument made for this special purpose, but which did not read as high as the melting point of platinum.

In Table II and Figure 2 the calibration of the furnace is given. The power was obtained from voltmeter and ammeter readings. The am- meter scale read to five amperes and was connected to a current trans- former with a ratio of 60 to 1. This instrument was not calibrated.

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436 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Two voltmeters with scales from 0-65 and 40 to 160 were used. These were calibrated so as to make them comparable with each other. The alternating current instruments were of the Thomson type made by the (General Electric Company.

In calibrating the furnace the wires of the pyrometer were protected by fused silica tubes which extended up into the tower in the lid of die fumaoa The tubes were covered at the junction by a short graphite tube. This projected through a hole in the cap of the crucible con- taining the charge and rested in the charge. The bare wires were brought out of the furnace at the top of the tower between rubber washers ; the furnace was then evacuated and the calibration taken.

TABLE III. Variation of Temperature in Crucible.

JBtance of junction from	Temperature.
bottom of crucible.
0.0 cm.	1220°
0.6	1220°
1.8	1225°
3.3	1225°
4.0	1220°
4.4	1215°
4.8	1205°

The power was 8.36 kilowatts.

The carbon shield surrounding the spiral was not used in these ex- periments on account of the fact that carbon absorbs a large amount of gas which is not easily removed. It will be evident from the method of experimenting described below that its use would not be permissible.

In the figure a circle is put around those points taken with the first spiral. It is evident from this figure that this method of obtaining the temperature is not as accurate as the Wanner pyrometer would be were it in good condition.

It will be seen that there is no regular diflferenoe in th^ calibration of the two spirals, except that all the points of the first coil lie on the upper dotted line, while some of the points for the second coil lie on the upper as well as the lower. This is probably due to the fiM^t that the second spiral was calibrated more than once. It was thought best under the circumstances to draw the solid line midway between the two extremes and take this for estimating the temperature.

A further test was made to see how constant the temperature was throughout the length of the crucible. For this purpose the junction,

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 437

protected by silica tubes, was lowered through the window in the tower into the crucible and the furnace heated without pumping out the air. There was ho lid on the crucible in this experiment. The results are given in Table III.

It is seen tiiat without the lid and with no charge in the crucible the temperature is quite constant, which would be improved, if any- thing, when the charge is in the crucible and the lid in position.

The carbide used in the following experiments was made from Merk's lime and Acheson graphite powder in the form of turnings from graphite electrodes. Carbide was made by heating a mixture of the two in an arc furnace consisting of a graphite electrode and graphite crucible. By the loss in weight method ^^ it analyzed 78 per cent pure. The impurities must have been carbon and lime which were not harmfril for these experiments.

The first experiments were carried out at from 1700® to 2000**, but no consistent results could be obtained. After a run at these temper- atures it was found that the walls of the furnace were alwa3rs lined with a white powder, whether lime and carbon were heated alone or when carbide was in an atmosphere of carbon monoxida It was found when carbide was heated in carbon monoxide to about 1800® only graphite was left in the crucible and the white powder was formed on the walls. When carbide was heated alone in a vacuum the walls of the furnace were lined with a thin sheet of calcium, which easily peeled o£f and took fire when brought in contact with moisture. Graphite was left behind in the crucible. These two &cts taken together show that calcium reduces carbon monoxide according to the equation :

Ca + CO = CaO + C.

Therefore, if carbide is to be produced, it must either be below the temperature where it breaks up into its elements, or the velocity of the reaction

CaO + 3 C = CaC, + CO

must be greater than the velocity of the preceding reaction. The latter is evidently the state of affairs in the manufacture of carbide, but equilibrium measurements could hardly be made under this condition.

^* Lunge, Chemische-tcchnische Untersuchungs Methoden, 5te Auflage, Band II, 711. The drying tube contained a layer of PjOs besides one of Ca Clj, which the escaping gas had to pass first.

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438 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

From a number of eicperiments, which it is not necessary to repro- duce here, it seemed that IdOO"" G. was about the highest temperature at which equilibrium could be measured. This conclusion was based on the quantity of white powder found on the walls of the furnace after runs at different temperatures. Some further experiments at about this temperature showed that it would be impossible to differentiate between the pressure of carbon monoxide and occluded gases that came out of the carbon spiral and the charge on heating in a vacaum. It was therefore decided to heat the charge in some indifferent gas, which could be drawn off and analyzed for the amount of carbon mo- noxide present. Hydrogen was of course the only gas available. Ni- trogen could not be used on account of the fact that it is absorbed by calcium carbide forming calcium-cyanamide. Hydrogen would have no action on carbide,^^ but it does enter into an equilibrium with carbon monoxide according to the reaction

HaO + C ^ Ha + CO

which is the reaction of water-gas formation. If an appreciable quan- tity of water were produced from hydrogen and carbon monoxide this would react with the carbide and form acetylene and in analyzing for carbon monoxide by absorption in cuprous chloride solution, acetylene would be mistaken for the former. It can be shown, however, that the quantity of water vapor formed is too small to have any effect The free energy of this reaction is given by the equation ^^

Ai^= - 27950 + 31.76 T -{- 4.58 T log -^«5_

where T is the absolute temperature and the /?'s are partial pressures. At equilibrium ^F = 0, therefore placing the right-hand side of the equation equal to zero, and substituting for Tits value 1773^ absolute, we find that for 1500° C.

^^'^ = 0.000324. PcoPh,

lipm equals about 90 centimeters of mercury as it does in the follow- ing experiments,

^^ = 0.0029 ^co

" Moisson, **The Electric Furnace," p. 211.

" Hodlander, Zeitschr. f. Elektrochem. 1902, 8, 833.

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 439

or pu^o = 0.003 pco, which is a negligible quantity. The tempera- ture of the gas, however, is not all at 1500°, but falls off to the tem- perature of the water cooled walls of the furnace. At 1000° C. pn%o = .063 pco which is still a relatively small amount. What actually happens is that at the higher temperatures where the velocity of the reaction is great, the equilibrium varies uniformly with the tempera- ture, but as the gas reaches the cooler portions of the furnace, due to convection currents, it suddenly becomes chilled to a point where the reaction practically stops, leaving the concentrations at values corre- sponding to the higher temperatures.

Experiment 1.

The charge consisted of lime, carbon, and calcium carbide mixed to- gether. A loosely fitting lid with a quarter-inch hole in the center covered the crucible. The mixture was placed in the furnace, the furnace was evacuated, and the charge heated to 1000° for an hour to drive off gases that invariably come off on the first heating, and par- ticularly to get rid of any water contained as hydrate of calcium. If this were not done water would come off during the run and react with the carbide present. The furnace was then evacuated to a pressure of 0.05 centimeters of mercury and carbon monoxide let in to 1.25 centi- meters. This was generated from strong sulphuric acid and potassium ferrocyanide and was washed with two drjdng towers of soda lime and a phosphorous pentoxide tube. Hydrogen was then admitted to a final pressure of 63.6 centimeters. This was generated from hydro- chloric acid and zinc and was purified by two bottles of permanganate, a hot copper gauze, two towers of soda lime, and a phosphorus pen- toxide tube. The furnace was fiUed with hydrogen in three quarters of an hour. The volume of the furnace, after allowing for the solids present during a run was 19.9 liters. The run began at 9.45 a. m. and lasted till 4.00 p. m. The power was held constant at 12.0 kilowatts corresponding to 1485° C. The following table gives the analysis for carbon monoxide, made by drawing off 100 cubic centimeters into a Hempel burette and absorbing with acid cuprous chloride solution.

Time. Per cent Carbon Monoxide.

9.45 A. M. Sample taken as furnace 1.05

warmed up. 1.42 p. M. Less than 0.1

It was evident fi-om this result that the quantity of gas corresponding to equilibrium at this temperature could not be analyzed by a Hempel

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440 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEBIY.

apparatus. The experiment was continued till 4.00 p. li. to make sure equilibrium had been reached. The method used to determine the smaU quantity of carbon monoxide present in this and all the following experiments was to draw about half the gas in the furnace through two Liebig bulbs sealed together and filled with cuprous chloride solu- tion. These were tilted at an angle so the gas bubbled through the liquid on leaving each of the five spheres of which a Liebig bulb is composed. The gas then passed a column seven centimeters long of soda lime and another similar one of phosphorous pentoxide. This whole apparatus was made entirely of glass closed by two glass stop- cocks. The bulbs, in which the air was displaced by hydrogen, were hung in the balance case by a platinum wire the day before the final weight was taken. The air in the balance case was dried by two beakers of sulphuric acid and the temperature was read firom a ther- mometer in the case. The volume of the bulbs was determined by the bottle method for specific gravity, in which a large desiccator took the place of the bottle. This was necessary in order to be able to reduce the weighings to vacuo. From the total weight in grams of carbon monoxide absorbed the number of moles is formed by dividing by 28, the molecular weight of the gas. This, however, gives only a fhbction of the total amount in the furnace. The total amount is cal- culated as follows. If Ui s the total number of moles in the furnace before any gas is, removed, nt the number after a certain amount had been drawn ofiF through the absorption bulbs, /?i = the pressure in the furnace when the absorption began and pt tiie pressure at the end,

piv = fiiRTi p%v = n%RT%

where v equals the volume of the furnace. The temperatures were equal to those of the water surrounding the furnace and were made equal to each other at the start and finish.

Therefore ^ = ^

1H Pt also m — Wa = fTl

if ^ = the number of moles absorbed.

m

Solving fix =

i-pi

pi

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUIUBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 441

If p^ = the total pressure during the run, which is greater than p on account of the higher tcimperature, the pressure in millimeters of carbon monoxide is computed by the formula

_mX .0821 X y X 760 X jp, ^ "" 19.9 X pi

in which T is the absolute temperature of the gas in the furnace at the beginning and at the end of the absorption.

At the end of the absorption the pressure of hydrogen in the absorp- tion bulbs was only about half an atmosphere, consequently enough hydrogen had to be let in to bring the pressure to one atmosphere, after which the bulbs were again hung in the balance case and weighed the following day. The variation due to temperature and pressure change in the weight of hydrogen filling the bulbs was negligible. All weighings given in the following are reduced to vacuo. The data thus obtained after the above run were the following :

Initial weight bulbs 175.3392 grams

Final " " 175.3482 "

Gain in weight 0.0090 "

The time taken for absorbing the gas was 6 hrs.

jth = 68.5 cm. of mercury j»j = 38.6 " ". " /?8 = 89.0 " "

, .00074 X .0821 X 285 X 760 X 89 ^^^"^ ^co = 19.9 X 68.5 ^

= 0.86 mm. of mercury. On opening the furnace white powder was found on the lid.

Experiment 2.

The same charge as used in Experiment 1 was ground up and re- placed in the crucible. Part was tested with water and gave off acet- ylene vigorously. It was heated for an hour to 1000° and evacuated to a pressure of 0.05 centimeter of mercury. No carbon monoxide was admitted. Hydrogen was let in to 6.72 centimeters in 1 hr. 40 min.

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442 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMT.

Duration of run : 6 hrs. Power: 11.7 K. W. Temperature : 1465*^ C.

Initial weight bulbs 182.5989 grams

Final " " 182.6061 "

Gain 0.0072 "

Time taken for absorption 4^ hours.

pi = 67.2 cm. of mercury P2 =38.1 " "

jE>8 = 91.8 " "

.000589 X .0821 X 288 X 760 X 91.8 ^ „ •'*^CO = 19.9 X 67.2 = ^-^^ °^°"-

On opening the furnace somewhat more white powder found on the walls than in Experiment 1.

This experiment was carried out with the idea of approaching the equilibrium from the side which generates carbon monoxide. To decide whether this had been done in the above experiment it was necessary to see whether the bulbs would gain no weight if the furnace were filled with hydrogen and part then drawn through the bulbs. The following blank experiment was therefore carried out. The furnace was evacu- ated to a pressure of 0.15 centimeter of mercury, hydrogen was let in to 1 centimeter and again evacuated to 0.15. This operation was re- peated and hydrogen then let in to 67.6 centimeters. The final filling took 1 hr. 40 min.

The gas then drawn through the weighed bulbs for 3 hrs. 45 min.

Pi = 67.1 cm. of mercury /?2 = 38.1 " "

Initial weight reduced 182.606 grams

Final " " 182.627 "

Gain 0.021 "

If the whole amount of gas could have been drawn through the gain in weight would have been 0.049 gram. This gain in weight must have been due to oxygen, which might not have been removed or which might have gotten in while filling the furnace. This would have been converted to carbon monoxide by the hot carbon spiral giving too high a pressure for equilibrium. Equilibrium in Experiment 2 was therefore

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM. 443

approached from the same side as in Experiment 1. This remark holds good for all the following experiments.

Experiment 3.

As the previous experiments agreed fairly well, it was thought desir- able to try a lower temperature, to make sure that the gain in weight of the absorption bulbs was really due to carbon monoxide and not to some impurity in the hydrogen.

The charge consisted of fresh carbide, lime and carbon. The furnace was evacuated to 0.15 centimeter and was heated to 1000° till the occluded gases coming off gave a pressure of 6 centimeters, which re- quired about ten minutes. It was then evacuated to 0.15 centimeter with the furnace still at 1000°. Hydrogen was let in to 2.4 centimeters and evacuated to 0.15. The furnace was then cooled and filled with hydrogen to a pressure of 67.0 in 1 hr. 40 min.

Power : 8.24 K. W. Temperature : 1250° Duration of run : 6 hrs.

The solution of cuprous chloride had been used in a previous ex- periment

Initial weight of absorption bulbs 183.6340 grams Final " " " " 183.6372 "

Gain 0.0032 "

px = 67.2 cm. of mercury

;?2 = 34.8 " "

j^3 = 90.4 " " "

0.000248 X .0821 X 286 X 760 X 90.4 ^ „^ •••^CO = 19.9->r67.2 = ^-^^ °^°"-

Experiment 4.

The charge was the same material as in the previous experiment with some lime and carbon added and mixed up with the rest.

The furnace was evacuated to a pressure of 0.2 centimeter and heated to 900° for two hours. It was then evacuated to 0.15 centimeter, hy- drogen was admitted to 2.4 and again evacuated to 0.15. It was finally filled with hydrogen to 67.3 centimeters in 1 hr. 40 min.

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444 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

Power : 8.8 K. W. Temperature: 1270° Duration of run : 7 hrs. 10 min.

The absorption bulbs were refilled.

Initial weight 182.9303 grams

Final " 182.9316 "

Gain 0.0013 "

Pi = 66.8 cm. of mercury /?, = 37.2 " " /?, = 90.3 « "

0.000103 X .0821 X 285 X 760 X 90.3 ^ ,^ "Pco- 19.9^66:8 = ^'^^ °^

Experiment 5.

The object of the following experiment was to see if measurements might not be carried out at a somewhat higher temperature where the pressure would be greater and the determination therefore more accurate.

The charge was the same carbide used in experiment 4 to which about one half as much lime and carbon, previously heated to redness, was added. The furnace was then evacuated to 0.2 centimeter and heated to 900"" for 1^ hours. It was then evacuated to 0.2 centimeter and hydrogen let in to 2.3 ; again evacuated to 0.12 centimeter and filled with hydrogen to 67.7.

The charge was then heated 7 hours with 10.0 kilowatts, correspond- ing to 1370°. This must have established equilibrium at this tem- perature. The power was then raised to 12.6 kilowatts corresponding to 1525° for 4J hours.

The cuprous chloride was the same used in Experiment 4.

Initial weight 182.9243 grams

Final ** 182.9277 "

Gain 0.0034 "

Time taken for absorption 3 hrs.

^1 = 66.3 cm. of mercury jt>2=37.7 " " j3, = 90.0 " "

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUIUBRIUM OP THE SYSTEM. 445

.000280 X .0821 X 285 X 760 X 90.0 ^ „, •'•^co = 19.9 X 663 = ^-^^ °"°^-

On opening the furnace a larger amount of powder than any other experiments here given was found on the walls. This, taken in con- nection with the small pressure found and the experiments referred to in the Introduction seem to indici^te that at this temperature the car- bon monoxide was removed by calcium coming from the decomposition of carbide.

It is true that this equilibrium was really approached from the side of too little carbon monoxide, but as the velocity of the reaction is the same in both directions at equilibrium, this cannot account for the low pressure of carbon monoxida

Experiment 6.

The hydrogen used in the following experiments was generated electroljrtically on platinum electrodes dipping into sulphuric acid of 1.2 specific gravity. The cathodes were contained in a porous cup closed at the top by a cork stopper covered with paraffin, through which projected glass tubes, into which the electrodes were sealed. There was also a tube through which hydrogen could escapa The porous cup stood in a small battery jar. The hydrogen tube was con- nected to a mercury manometer so that the pressure in the cathode compartment could be kept from 0.1 to 1.0 centimeter above the atmosphere, thereby preventing air from leaking in. In Experiment 6 only (me such electroljrtic cell was used, but for the last two experi- ments another cell was connected in series with the first, thus requir- ing only half the time for filling the furnace. The hydrogen first passed through a soda lime tube, then the hot copper gauze used in the previous experiments, then two soda lime towers and phosphorous pentoxide tube. Hydrogen was passed over the hot copper for at least half an hour before any was let into the frimace, in order to sweep out the air in the tube. The object in using electrolytic hydro- gen was to show that the above gains in weight were not due to im- purities in the hydrogen generated from zinc and hydrochloric acid.

The carbon monoxide used in the following experiments was gen- erated by allowing formic acid to drop from a separatory funnel into concentrated sulphuric acid.

In order to see if all the carbon monoxide was absorbed by the two Liebig bulbs containing cuprous chloride in the following experiments a second absorbing apparatus similar to the above was used with one Liebig bulb in place of two. This was filled with a 3 per cent solution

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446 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICJiN ACADEMY.

of neutral gold chlorida This has been found to oxidize carbon monoxide to dioxide without aflfecting hydrogen.^^ Gold chloride in an excess of potassium hydrate is even more sensitive to carbon mo- noxide, but it was found that hydrogen reduced the gold in the alkaline solution to a black powder if left in contact with the solution over night.

The charge consisted of about equal portions of powdered carbide and a mixture of lime and carbon. It had been used in a previous rqn.

The cuprous chloride in the Liebig bulbs had been used in the three previous experiments, but as a little was tested with water and gave a heavy white precipitate it was not thought necessary to change the solution.

The furnace was evacuated to a pressure of 0.28 centimeter and hydrogen was let in to 1.0 centimeter; then evacuated to 0.1 and carbon monoxide let in to 0.3 centimeter. Hydrogen was then ad- mitted to 67.3 centimeters requiring three hours with a current of about 14 amperes.

Duration of run: 6^ hours. Power: 11.8 K. W. Temperature: 1475°

Initial weight cuprous chloride bulbs 173.1312 grams Final " " " " 173.1383 "

Gain 0.0073 "

Initial weight gold chloride bulb 116.8119 grams

Final " " " " 116.8158

Gain 0.0036 "

Total gain 0.0110 **

The gain in the gold chloride bulbs was relatively large, probably on account of the cuprous chloride having taken so much carbon monoxide into solution that it was not so good an absorber as when fresh.

p^ = 65.7 cm. of mercury

/?a = 92.0 "

0.000703 X 0.0821 X 287 X 760 X 92 ^ _^ ...;,co = f9.9X65.7" = 0.88 mm.

" Phillips, Am. Chem. Joum. 1894. 16, 273.

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUIUBRIUM OF THE stSTEM. 447

Experiment 7.

The charge consisted of powdered carbide with some coarser pieces OD top. It was heated in the furnace at 1050° for an hour and a quarter and evacuated to 0.1 centimeter. Hydrogen was then let in to a pressure of 1.6 centimeters, the furnace was evacuated to 0.10 and carbon monoxide let in to 0.25 oentimeterr FinaUy hydrogen was let in to 68.3 centimeters requiring one hour and a half with 14 amperes.

Duration of run: 6 honrs Power: 11.8 K. W. Temperature: 1475**

The cuprous chloride bulbs were refilled, but not the gold chlorida

Initial weight cuprous chloride bulbs 173.7646 grams

Final " ** " " 173.7695 "

Gain 0.0049 "

Initial weight gold chloride bulb 116.8121 grams

Final " " " " 116.8126 "

Gain 0.0005 "

Total gain 0.0054 " Time required for absorption, 3 hours.

0.00065 X 0.0821 X 291 X 760 X 95 ^ „,

.*• vcci = = 0.81 mm.

^^ 19.9 X 69.3

Experiment 8.

The charge was the same material as used in Experiment 7.

The furnace was evacuated and heated for an hour and fifty minutes at 1050°. It was then evacuated to a pressure of 0.12 centimeter and hydrogen let in to 2.0, again evacuated to 0.15 and carbon monoxide let in to 0.28 centimeter. Hydrogen was then admitted to 77.6 centi- meters requiring an hour and a quarter.

Duration of run : 6 hours, 10 minutes* Power: 11.4 K. W. Temperature: 1445° C. The cuprous chloride bulbs were refilled. Initial weight of cuprous chloride bulbs 167.4274 grams Final " " " " " 167.4312 "

0.0038 "

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448

PtoCEEDINOS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

The tube previonsly used for gold chloride was filled with caproos chloride.

Initial weight of second cnprous chloride tube 119.3358 grams Final " " " " '* " 119.3363 "

Gain 0.0005 "

Total gain 0.0043

Pi = 67.1 cm of mercury j»a = 37.7 ** />a = 92.7 " The time taken for absorption was 3 J hours.

.000350 X 0.0821 X 287 X 760 X 92.7 ^ , , ••^ = 19.9 X 67.1 =0.44 mm.

3. Discussion of Results.

For convenience the results obtained above are collected in the following table.

				TABLE	IV.
No. of Exp.	Dura- tion in Houre.	KUo- watta.	Temp. Centi- grade.	Gain in Weight of IstBulb.	Gain in Weight of 2dBulb.	Time taken for Absoip- tion m Houra.	Initial Pressure coin mm. Hg.	Final Premure coin mm. Hg.
1	6J	12.0	1485	0.0090		6	12.5	0.86
2	6	11.7	1465	0.0072		4i.	0.0	0.73
3	6	8.2	1250	0.0032		3i	0.0	0.30
4	7	8.8	1270	0.0013		2\|	0.0 .	0.13
5	4J	12.6	1525	0.0034		3	0.0	0.34
6	6i	11.8	1475	0.0073	0.0036	4	2.0	0.88
7	6	11.8	1475	0.0049	0.0005	3	1.5	0.81
8	6	11.4	1445	0.0038	0.0005	3i	1.3	0.44

In all of these experiments, even at 1250^, there was some white powder on the walls of the furnace. Whether a slight decomposition of carbide into its elements takes place at this temperature could not be decided by this means, as the white powder may have been due to

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE STSTEM. 449

two causes, both the decomposition of carbide and to volatilization of some imparity in the lime or carbon. The best evidence .that the car- bide does not break up at 1475'^ and does break up at 1525° is that equilibrium could be measured at the former but not at the latter temperature. Attention was called to the possibility of lime itself being somewhat volatile at 1500°, since a piece of Merk's lime heated at the melting point of platinum for an hour also produced a layer of white powder on the walls of the furnace.

As Experiments 1 and 2 were carried out at temperatures equally above and below the temperature in experiments 6 and 7, the average of these four may be taken, with the result

p^ at 1475°C. = 0.82 ± .02 mm.

Through these results were obtained from the same side of the equilib- rium, different amounts of carbon monoxide were present at the beginning in each case, which makes the evidence that equilibrium had been reached conclusive.

From this result, the pressure obtained in Experiment 8 at a tem- perature 30° lower may be checked by the integrated van't Hoff equation :

4.i

where pt and pi and the pressures of carbon monoxide corresponding to the absolute temperatures 7i and Tt and Q is the heat absorbed by the reaction, when it proceeds from left to right. Q has been calcu- lated 1* to be 121000 calories at room temperature, with a negative temperature coefficient of 3.3 calories per degree. Therefore Q = 121000 — 3.3 t,

where t equals centigrade degrees above room temperature, which for high temperatures may be considered as degrees above zero. For 1460° C. Q therefore equals 116000 calories. Substituting in the above equation the absolute temperatures corresponding to 1475°

and 1445°, the value of — comes out 1.79. The ratio between the

pressures found by experiment is 1.86, which is very satis&ctory agreement

If the pressure at 1270° is calculated from that at 1475°, using the value of Q corresponding to the mean temperature 1370°, the result is

" Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc., 1909, 16, 197. VOL. XLV. — 29

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450

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

0.0093 millimeter, that is, it is below a measurable quantity. The fact that in one case 0.13 and in another 0.3 millimeters were found ' is due to the insufficient time allowed to absorb this very small amount of carbon monoxide.

From the value of the equilibrium pressure obtained at 1475° it is possible by the above formula to calculate the pressure at higher tem- peratures and see approximately what is the shape of the pressure tem- perature curve. The value of Q corresponding to the mean of each set of temperatures is used. 1475"^ is always taken as thb lower temper- ature. The results of this computation are given in Table IV and Figure 3.

TABLE V.

Pressures of Carbon Monoxide Computed from the Value Determined at 1475°.

Temperature Degrees Centigrade.

Equilibrium Pressure of Carbon Monoxide in Centimeters.

I Lower Limit.

II Mean.

III Upper Limit.

1475 1575 1675 1775 1875 1975

0.05 0.31 1.54 6.6

25.0

81.

0.08 0.50 2.53 10.7 40.5 133.0

0.13 0.79 4.00 17. 64. 210.

It is evident that the error in this curve is due practically entirely to the error in the temperature measurements, for while the value of Pi is accurate to 2.5 per cent, the temperature is uncertain by 25**, and the value 0.82 millimeters might correspond to 1500° or 1450° as the two extremes. This would mean the true value at 1475° might be 1.3 or 0.5 millimeters as the two extremes. If now the curve be com- puted first with the value 1.3 in place of 0.82, and again with 0.5, the values under I and III in Table V are obtained. The values are plotted in Figure 3 in broken curves. From these curves it is seen the tem- perature corresponding to 1/3 of an atmosphere lies between 1800° and

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THOMPSON. — ON THE EQUIIJBRIUM OF THE SYSTEM.

451

1875°, with which Rudolphi's values agrees the best of all the three referred to in the Introduction.

140

t

/

120-

/

i

100

/

•!•.

80

/

1

+ /

/

60

//

/

/ /

40

t

1

/,

/ 1

/

'a

/

20

y

^y.

9

^

y^

:>-

1400

1500

1600

1700 1800 Temperature

1900

2000

Figure 3. Pressure of Carbon Monoxide Computed from the Value Deter- mined at 1475° C.

The free energy increase of the reaction taken from left to right at 1475^ C. is

'^= *'■'<« s

= 4.57 X 1748 logio 927 = + 23700 calories

As the temperature rises A i^ decreases till at 1920°, where the equi- librium pressure equals an atmosphere, A i^= 0. Above 1920° A F becomes negative.

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452 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Summary of RESULTa

1. The equilibrium pressure of carbon monoxide in the reaction

CaO H- 3 C rt CaC, X CO

was measured at 1475^ and 1445^. The results were in good thermo- dynamic agreement

2. A little below 1445° C. the pressure hecomes too small to meas- ure; a little above 1475'^ decomposition of calcium carbide into its elements prevents measurement of equilibrium.

3. With the aid of the heat of the reaction the vapor pressure curve at higher temperatures was computed which cannot be realized experi- mentally on account of the decomposition of calcium carbida

4. The free energy increases- of the reaction

CaO + 3C = CaC2 + CO^

at 1475° is +23700 calories.

Electrochemical Laboratory, Rogers Laboratory op Physics, Massachusetts Institute op Technoloqy, - .

Boston, Mass.

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Proceedings of fhe ^mfp^^^ Academy of Arti and Sdencea. Vol. XLV. No. 19. — May, 1910.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH HYDROGEN.

Bt John Trowbridge.

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CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE JEFFERSON PHYSICAL LABORATORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY THROUGH HYDROGEN.

Bt John Trowbridge.

Presented December 8, 1909. Received Febmaiy 24, 1910.

1. Reflection of cathode rays 466

2. Striae 456

3. The Doppler effect 462

4. Conclusions 462

1. Reflection op Cathode Rays.

In the course of this paper I shall refer to certain hydrodjmamical analogies which the discharges of electricity through gases present ; not with the conviction that in these discharges we have to deal with questions of flow alone. The complicated phenomena give large scope both to theories of flow and molecular theories: the hydrodjmami- cal analogies are more striking in discharges through gases at com- paratively high pressures; while molecular theories apply best in highly rare- fied gases. There seems .to be a certain continuity here similar* to that be- tween motions of matter in the liquid state and in Figure 1.

the gaseous state, when

such matter is subjected to forces which ca^ produce movement or flow of the particles.

The conditions of electrical discharges in a tube represented in Fig- ure 1 remind one of the flow of a fluid interrupted by a plane lamina. A is a cathode, K an anode, D a diaphragm, P a plsine lamina which can be moved about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the paper; Figure 1 being a plan of the discharge tube. P can also serve as an anode.

At the stri8B stage the electrical conditions in the tube are very little modified by turning the lamina tlirough small inclinations to the

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

line of discharge. The striae remain practically unaffected in shape and position until the angle between the normal to the lamina and the axis of flow reaches 50^. This phenomenon is analogous to the case of a lamina subjected tp the flow of a liquid (Lamb's Hydrodjmamics, pages 94 and 111). It is also analogous to the conditions presented by the impact of wind on vanes.

By means of a side adjunct a thermo pile, T, was introduced in order to measure the heat excited by the reflection of the cathode rays passing through the diaphragm D and reflected from the lamina,

Figure 2.

when the latter was inclined to the axis of the cathode rays at yar3nng angles. Here also there was an action similar to the reflection of a stream of liquid from the lamina, proceeding in the direction of the cath- ode rays. The angle between the normal to the lamina and the axis of flow or discharge could vary largely without affecting the amount of heat from the reflected cathode beam shown by the thermopile.

2. Stbi^

The striae, or stratifications, in Geissler tubes constitute a very beau- tiful and mysterious phenomenon of the discharge of electricity through gases, and if one could follow the mechanism involvbd per- fectly one could feel sure of having penetrated far into questions of the method of propagation of electricity. There seems no reason to doubt that the strise are phenomena of ionization ; but the regularity

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TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY.

457

c

3

of the striae leads one to ask if this regularity coold arise from some pul- sation or rhythmical action, — the ionization being, so to speak, on top of such a rhythmical action. When the strise are excited by a storage battery, they are perfectly steady, and when one is sure that there are no breaks in the circuity a telephone introduced into the circuit is silent ; moreover, self-induction included in the circuit does not affect the stnsB.

Under certain conditions the current from a storage battery oscillates or pul- sates, but such oscillations or pulsations do not seem to modify the appearance of the stratifications. If, on the other hand, there is a flow from the cathode which pulsates at a different rate from a supposititious flow from the anode, one might expect striae, or accumulation of ionic disturbances at regular intervals. An hydrodjmamical analogy is afforded by the motion of two pistons moving against each other at different rates in a channel filled with water.

Figure 2 represents an apparatus by means of which two pistons driven in opposite directions by a motor cause waves in a trough filled with water.

Figure 3.

9sm

Figure 4.

Figure 3 shows the arrangement, in plan, by means of which the ripples are studied. M is a mercury lamp of the Cooper Hewitt form. This is placed directly behind the ^ugh containing the pistons. The sur&ce of the water, totally reflecting the light, forms a dark line which under the motion of the pistons undulates in waves, which can be stud- ied by instantaneous photography. P and V are the pistons, and D is a diaphragm with a rectangular orifice. Figure 4 represents a case in which P moves twice as fast as V. The waves are formed nearer the slower-moving piston.

All who have worked in the field of discharge of electricity through gases must recognize the suggestiveness of the theory of ionization by collision, especially in reference to strise ; but one who was ignorant of this theory, in seeing the action of the cathode rays in apparently

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458

PBOCEEDINOS OF THE AHEBICAN ACADEMY.

rt^

A'

driviDg ihe striaB into the anode, might attribute this action to an actual repelling force arising from the cathoda When this suppositi- tioos force is diverted by a magnet, the strisB reappear and more current flows. One ignorant, too, of the many fiEusts of ionization by collision might fiirther suppose that heavier ' particles of slower motion might be held back by swiffcer particles issuing iroip the cathoda These views of a mind not biased by ionization theories would appear to be sup- ported by the phenomena presented by the tube represented in Figure 5.

One branch of this tube is at right angles to the other brancL There are two anodes, A and A', and two perforated cathodes, K and E^ When a multiple circuit is formed by leading in the current to the two anodes and out by one cathode, K, strise form in the the branch AE; and they

-6

FiGUHE 5.

branch A'E' after they disappear in persist in the branch A'E' when the branch AE appears to be nearly at the X-Ray staga One looking at the branch A'E' would suppose that the rarefication of the entire tube was low, and gazing at the branch AE would think it very high. The bend in the tube acts like a magnet in allowing the strise to emerge from the anode A' ; and it does this by enfeebling by reflection the efiect of the cathode rays in the branch A'E'.

The function of the cathode beam seems to be twofold : it forces back the striae, and at higher exhaustions it ionizes the gas ; for the current ceases to flow at high exhaustions when the cathode beam is \r^ T""^ strongly diverted by a magnet These

^**T-^^^ fiinctions are illustrated by the phenom-

ena in a tube represented in Figure 6. Between the anode A and a cathode D the glass tube is constricted. The cathode D is a circular disc with an orifice a little larger than the glass orifice. The cathode rests upon the ground walls of this orifice, presenting no metallic surface toward the anode A. The cathode beam produces an orange fluorescence toward

Figure 6.

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TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OP ELECTRICITY.

459

D', and is marked in the direction toward A by a white beam which produces hardly a perceptible fluorescence. The latter beam does not come from the metallic sur&ce of the cathode, but seems to come from the gas in the region DD'. At comparatively high exhaustions this latter portion of the cathode beam ceases to ionize the gas and the current ceases ; the potential between A and D rises to the full potential of the battery — indicating an open circuit When, how- ever, jy is made the cathode, the current is immediately re-estab- lished and the cathode beam from JY ionizes the gas between D' and A. The tube acts as a rectifier ; for when D is made the anode and A the cathode, a current passes; on reversal of the current, when at the same exhaustion, no cur; rent passes in the op- posite direction.

It is interesting to observe the effect of a transverse magnetic field on the discharge in this tube when A is made a cathode and J) an anode, and strisa ap- pear in the portion DD'. The magnetic field placed near A diverts the cathode beam and striae advance in the portion DD^ While this field is still on, another transverse mag- netic field placed near D' diverts the strise independently of the action of the field at A. This indicates the well known fall of potential firom strisB to striae.

The rectification observed under proper conditions in the tube ( Fig- ure 6 ) suggests other forms of tubes by which rectification can be pro- duced. • Even with a straight cylindrical tube the current can be stopped at high exhaustions by touching the outside of the tube with the fin- ger, thus diverting the cathode beam by electrostatic action ; while it readily passes when the current is reversed. The phenomenon of rec- tification is shown in a practical way in the U-shaped tube represented in Figure 7. It is provided with two anodes, A and A', and two cath- odes, D and D.^ The cathodes have orifices at. their centres, l^e two anodes are connected together, and the two cathodes — the tube forming a multiple circuit A transverse magnetic field can be so placed near one cathode that no current will pass in the branch of the

FlQUKE 7.

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460

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

tube of which it is a part, while the current passes freely in the other branch of the U tuba This form of tube rectifies an alternating current

The apparent repelling or driving back action of the cathode beam on BtriaB is shown in a suggestive manner in a straight cylindrical tube when a diaphragm is inserted between the anode and the cathoda We will take for illustration one branch of the U-shaped tube (Figure

Figure 8.

7), and suppose that the current is led into the tube at A and out at D. A metallic diaphragm with a small hole at its centre is inserted in the tube about one third of the distance beween A and D, measured from the anode A — the latter also having an orifice at its centre. The striae are slowly driven back by the cathode rays as the exhaustion proceeds. At a definite stage of this exhaustion a stria takes refrige behind the diaphragm nearer the anode, where it is protected from the driving back action of the cathode rays ; finally at higher exhaus- tions this stria is driven through the orifice in the anode and shelters itself behind the anoda

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TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OF ELECTMCITY. 461

At a still higher state of larefisM^ion a stria issues from the orifioe in the anode, and this also shelters itself behind the diaphragm on the side toward the anode. There are, thus, three definite stages of strati- fication in this form of tuba At a pressure of four centimetres fine strise appear on the side of the orifice in the diaphragm opposite to the anode. These soon disappear with increasing rare&ction. At a pres- sure of approximately 3 mm. a large stria shelters itself behind the diaphragm. This &des into the orifice in the anode with diminishing pressure ; and at a pressure of approximately .15 mm. a large stria weUs up out of the orifice in the anode and taJces a similiar place near the diaphragm. When the state of canalstrahlen is reached, all striae have been driven into the anoda Can we regard these strahlen as a stratification which cannot be driven back by the cathode rays ? In this form of tube we find evidence of successive states of stratification which may depend upon positive rays of difierent velocity.

When we turn from our observation of stratification in the neighbor- hood of the cathode instead of in the neighborhood of the anode, we find that a stratification always takes place on the glass wall close to the entrance of the cathode, or to its sealing in placa It can be pro* duced equally well by causing the cathode to approach the wall of the tube opposite to this sealing in place. Figure 8 represents the phenomenon in a tube with a dome-shaped chamber near the electroda We seem to have two dissected strise : one on the wall of the tube nearest to the cathode, which provides a beautiful light blue cathode beam thrown into the dome ; and another stria on the opposite wall of the dome. The original cathode beam excites both positive and nega- tive rays in these striae* In considering these detached strise it seems that the cathode rajrs in striking the glass walls can excite both posi- tive and cathode rays.

When a spark gap is inserted in a circuit containing a discharge tube which is properly exhausted to the strise stage, the latter appar- ently disappear — the light of the tube becomes more brilliant and fluorescence is generally manifested. This is also the case when a con- denser is discharged through the tuba The eye cannot perceive any evidence of stratifications ; for the brightness of the pilot spark, to- gether with the fluorescence both of the gas and of the glass walls effect- ually shield any strise of lesser radiance which might be present It is not possible to employ a revolving mirror. The only method which seemed to promise any results in detection of possible stratifications was the emplo3rment of a portrait lens of large aperture — four inches — in photographing single discharges. Accordingly a discharge tube was filled with hydrogen and exhausted to the strise ^t^a A .con-

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462 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEBfT.

denser of .02 m f capacity was charged to a difference of potential of 100.000 volts and discharged through the rarefied tuhe by flat oopper bands of inappreciable self-induction. The photographs showed un- mistakable striae, superposed upon the general illumination of the tube. It is difficult to reproduce the photographs by half tones.

With an anode consisting of a ring of wire placed in a cylindrical tube .5 mm. internal diameter, a striation is formed at a short distance from the anode by condenser discharges, and there are traces of similar striations at greater distances along the tuba If these stria- tions are formed by ionization by collision, the time of ionization is that of the duration of the pilot spark, a time which at present is beyond our power of measurement.

3. DoppLER Effect.

When two anodes and two cathodes are employed in the form of tube represented in Figure 7, there are two canalstrahlen which ema- nate from orifices in the cathodes in opposite directions. One might suppose that the Doppler effect would be modified by collision of the particles in these rays and that the effect would certainly be less than when only one anode and one cathode were employed — the cut- rent thus passing through but one branch of the U tuba It is true that the difference of potential is less between A and D when the tube is coupled in multiple circuit than when only one branch of the tube is connected to the battery; but this difference in the case I studied was comparatively small. With both branches of the tube constituting a multiple circuit there were two strong canalstrahlen passing through the orifices in D which were undistorted and which gave the same Doppler effect which was obtained when only one branch of tube was excited ; it seems difficult to reconcile this result with any theory of collision.

4. Conclusions.

1. The striae in Geissler tubes are analogous to waves set up in narrow channels by opposing pulsations of different periods.

2. Striae are greatly influenced by the direction of cathode rays. Certain forms of tubes, described in this article, can imitate the action of a transverse magnetic field in apparently increasing the conducti- bility of the rarefied gas and restoring the condition of stratification.

3. Strise can be formed by condenser discharges; and such striae l§|a4 one to suppose a time of ionization beyond our power of measure-

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TROWBRIDGE. — DISCHARGES OF ELECTRICITY. 463

ment By means of a suitably placed diaphragm suooessive stages in stratification can be produced.

4. By modification of the form of discharge tubes rectification of alternating discharges is possible

5. The Doppler effect in hydrogen is not modified by causing two canalstrahlen to oppose each other.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Harvard

University, Cambridge, Mass.,

December, 1909.

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Proeeedingi of the Ameriean Academy of Arts and Sdenoes. Vol. XLV. No. 20. — Jijnb. 1910.

BUDDHAGHOSA'S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY,

and the Titles of iU three hundred and ten Stories, together with an Index thereto and an Analysis of Vaggas I- IV.

Bt Eugene Watson Bubunoame, HARBisoif Fbllow, Unitsbbitt or Pbmnbtlvamia.

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BUDDHAGHOSA'S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. By Eugene Watson Buhlingame.

Presented by Charles R. Lanman, December 8, 1909. Received February 5, 1910.

Prefatory Remarks. — My interest in Hindu Folk-tales was first aroused by Professor Morris Jastrow, Jr., of the University of Pennsyl- vania, who introduced me to the famous Arabian classic Kali la wa Dimna, giving me generously of his time, and granted me the privilege of collaborating in the preparation of an English translation of the recently published Cheikho recension of the text. Professor Morton W. Easton, of the same University, to whom I am no less indebted for valuable assistance in my work, then induced me to make a serious study of the corresponding Sanskrit collections, Paficatantra and Hitopade9a, and encouraged me to prosecute researches in the closely related Pali collections. When, therefore, Provost Harrison of the University of Pennsylvania, the giver of the Harrison Foundation, granted me leave of absence from the University for this purpose, I placed myself under the direction of Professor Charles R. Lanman, of Harvard University. It was at his suggestion that I undertook the task upon which, under his most wise and kindly guidance, I am at present engaged, that of translating into English the important Bud- dhist work entitled Buddhaghosa*s Commentary on the Dhammapada.*

Diviaiona of the Buddhist Texts. — In order to give the reader a clear idea of the relation in which Buddhaghosa's Dhammapada Commentary stands to the Buddhist Canon, it will be necessary to describe briefly the principal divisions of the Buddhist Scriptures, They fall into three principal divisions called Pitakas (Baskets) ; first, the Sutta Pitaka; secondly, the Vinaya Pitaka; thirdly, the Abhi-

* Several years ago my attention was first attracted to this fascinating collection of stories by reading a brief description of it in Professor Rhys Davids's American Lectures on Buddhism. The passage that caught my eye occurs on page 69, and closes as follows : " Cannot some one undertake a translation for us into English of these strange and interesting old-world stories about a collection of verses so widely popular among Buddhists, and now attracting so much attention in the West?" Nevertheless, it is due wholly and entirely to Professor Lanman that I am able to answer *' Ye.s."

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468 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

dhamma Pitaka. Speaking broadly, the first relates to Doctrine ; the second, to Discipline; the third, to what we may call Psychology. The first two Pitakas alone cpncem us. Each of the Pitakas £bJ1s into several sobdivisions. The Satta Pitaka consists of five groups, called Nik&yas; namely. Four Nik&yas the Greater, and One Nikaya the Less. The first four Nikayas are called the Agamas, and are as follows : (1) Digha ; (2) Majjhima ; (3) Saqyntta ; (4) Anguttara. The Digha and Majjhima consist of Dialogues of die Buddha, arranged somewhat after the manner of the Dialogues of Plato ; the Saqyutta and Anguttara contain sayings of the Buddhc^ arranged according to subject and length respectively. These four Nikayas are the oldest parts of the Canon, and are the source of most of our knowledge of the tenets and history of primitive Buddhism. The Lesser Nik&ya, called the Ehuddaka, consists of fifteen books, grouped in three pentads. Of these fifteen books, perhaps the most &mous are the Thera- and Then- gatha (or Hymns of the Monks and Nuns), the Sutta Nip&ta (a very old collection of poetical dialogues and epic pieces), the Udsna (or Solemn Utterances of the Buddha), the Jatakas, and the Dhammapada. As the above-given titles indicate, the Lesser Nikaya is a miscella- neous, but none the less exceedingly important, collection. It is not relevant to our purpose to consider the subdivisions of the Vinaya. Suffice it to say that it contains a number of highly interesting stories, designed to explain the circumstances under which various rules and ceremonies were established.

The Dhammapada and its Commentary. — The Dhammapada, then, is one of fifteen books belonging to the Ehuddaka Nik&ya, which latter is the fifth division of the Sutta Pitaka ; and the Sutta Pitaka is one of the three major divisions of the Sacred Scriptures of the Buddhists. The Dhammapada is an anthology of about 423 stanzas uttered by the Buddha on a great variety of religious subjects. Many such anthol- ogies were current in the early ages of Buddhism, and so great was the popularity they acquired that in addition to the anthology included in the Buddhist Canon other similar collections have come down to us. For example, in 1878, Samuel Beal published a translation of a Chinese Dhammapada ; in 1898, £mile Senart deciphered and published part of a Eharosthi Ms. of the Dhammapada, the fruit of the mission of Dutreuil de Rhins ; and Richard Pischel, shortly before his death, brought out specimens of a Central Asiatic Dhammapada. The precise relation between the Dhammapada of the Buddhist Canon and the other collections has not yet been determined ; nor is it important for our immediate purpose. It is sufficient to say that by a fortunate circumstance one of these anthologies was included in the Buddhist

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BUKLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA CX)MBiENTARY. 469

Canon. This Anthology consists of twenty-six parts, or books (vaggas), the arrangement of the stanzas being by subjects, such as Heedfubess, The Fool, The Wise Man, The Baddha, Pleasure, Anger, and so on. The relation between the Anthology and its Commentary will at once become clear from an example. Suppose we had a collection of detached sajdngs of Christ ; such as, for example, " Labor not for the meat which perisheth ;" or, " He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her." The Commentary bears much the same relation to the Sacred Stanzas as the Gk>spel narrative to the Sacred Sentences. The parallel is not a perfect one, for the Commentary does not rank as canonical ; besides which, there are certain other important differences. The Commentary consists of upwards of three hundred stories (vat- thus), distributed in twenty-six books (vaggas), corresponding to the parts of the Dhammapada described above. Ordinarily each story consists of eight subdivisions, as follows : (1) quotation of the stanza (gath&) to illustrate which the Buddha told the story; (2) a brief statement of the occasion and the person or persons about whom the story was told ; (3) the story proper ; or, more strictly, the Story of the Present (paccnppanna-vatthu), closing with the utterance of (4) the stanza or stanzas ; (5) word-for-word commentary or gloss on the stanza ; (6) a brief statement of the spiritual benefits which accrued to the hearer or hearers ; (7) the Story of the Past ; or, more accu- rately, the Story of Previous Existences (atlta-vatthu); (8) identification of the personages of the Story of the Past with those of the Story of the Present Sometimes the Story of the Past is omitted, together with the accompanying Identification ; but it is so much expected as a matter of course, that at the end of the story of Nanda the Herdsman (iii. 8), whei'e none occurs, the author is at some pains to say that, as no one asked the Teacher about Nanda's deed in a previous existence, the Teacher said nothing about it It will readily be seen that the Dham- mapada Commentary closely resembles, both in form and content^ the commentary on the fiimous J&taka collection ; indeed, so close is the connection between the two that it would not be inappropriate to call the Commentary a supplement to the J&taka. The Commentary constantly refers to the J&taka, every now and then borrows a story from it^ sometimes showing interesting variants, and as often gives a different version of some fiimiliar J&taka story. The stories of the Dhammapada Commentary stand in precisely the same relation to the stanzas of the Dhammapada as the J&taka stories do to the J&taka stanzas. The Dhammapada Commentary has sometimes been referred to as a sort of Buddhist Acta Sanctorum ; it would perhaps be more appropriate to speak of it as a Collection of Stories about Buddhist

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470 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Saints and Sinners, designed to illastiate the maxim, '' Whatsoeyer a man soweth, that shall he also reap."

Bditioiis of the Dhammapada Commentary. — In 1855, extracts from the Commentary were published by FaasboU in his edition of the Dhammapada. The seoond edition of this work, published in 1900, con- tains only the text and translation of the Dhammapada. In 1906-9 appeared the first two instahnents of the F&li Text Society edition of the Commentary, edited by Professor H. C Norman of Benares. These two parts together make up Volume I, and contain the first four vaggas. Since the publication of FausboU's first edition of the Dhammapada, editions of the Commentary, in whole or in part» printed in Burmese or Cingalese letters, have appeared; and at present H. R. H. Frince Vajira-fi&na is engaged in publishing an editioh of the work at Bangkok. The editions which form the basis of my work are as follows : (1) Fali Text Society, Vol. I, Farte 1-2, London, 1906-9 ; (2) Burmese, edited by IT Yan, Rangoon, 1903 ; (3) Cingalese, edited by W. Dhammdnanda Mah& Thera and M. Ndnissara Thens Colombo, 1898-1908.

Translations of parts of the Commentary. — Only a few of the stories have ever been translated into any European language. Such of the Jfttaka stories as are identical with stories contained in the Commentary, or similar to them, will be found in the Cambridge trans- lation of the Jfttaka. An English version of three of the stories will be found in Warren's Buddhism in Translations: Fatipujikft (iv. 4), pp. 264-7 ; Visakha (iv. 8), pp. 451-481 ; Godhika (iv. 11), pp. 380-3. Four more stories were translated into French by Godefroy de Blonay and Louis de la Vall^ Foussin under the title Contes Bond- dhiques, and were published in the Revue de Y Histoire des Religions* Volume xxvi (1892) contains two of these stories : Cakkhupala (i. 1), pp. 180-193 ; and Matthakundall (i. 2), pp. 193-200 ; Volume xxix (1894), the two others : Kosambika bhikkhu (i. 5), pp. 329-337 ; Vidudabha (iv. 3), pp. 195-211. In 1870, Captain T. Rogers pub- lished, under the title Buddhaghosha's Farables, an English translation of a late Burmese version of a few of the stories. References to the Jatakas and to Rogers's Farables are given in the Analysis.

Purpose of thia paper. — The purpose of this paper is two-fold First, it b hoped, by means of a Table giving the titles of the stories, and by an Alphabetic Index to those titles, to render the work in its entirety more accessible to scholars. In particular, it is hoped that the proper names of eminent Buddhists and the information about them may prove of special value as material for the Buddhist onomasticon of Frofessor Rhys Davids. That the contents of the last

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BUKUNGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHABfMAPADA COMMENTARY. 471

two thirds of the Commentary are virtoally almost ioacoessible to Oocidental students is a &ct that deserves especial emphasis as an ample jastification of the present paper. Norman's edition of the first third is of coarse easily had ; bat it may well be doobted whether there are more than two or three copies of the Cingalese edition in the western hemisphere, or more than one copy of the Burmese. And there is probably not one bookseller in the United States who would even attempt to procure directly such rare exotics. And even if a considerable number of copies were to be found in the great libraries of America, it is still true that the Burmese and Cingalese letters are so troublesome that very few Occidentals, even among the students of Fftli, have learned to read these native editions with facility. Secondly, it is hoped, by means of an Analysis of the first third of the work, to afford some idea of its structure, contents, and style, not only to professed students of Sanskrit and Fftli, but also to students of Comparative Literature, and to tiie general reader as well

In case the paper shall subserve, to however small a degree, the purpose for which it is intended, a large share of the credit belongs, not to me, but to my firiend and teacher. Professor Lanman, who, in the midst of pressing duties, has given me unreservedly of his time and labor, and has assisted me in countless wajrs. I wish to thank him most heartily for his many kindnesses to me during the progress of my work.

Note on the Table of Contents and Alphabetical Index. — Unfor- tunately, FausboU has numbered the stanzas of the Dhammapada from the beginning continuously ; and this bad example has been followed by the Burmese edition; and, to make a bad matter worse, its numeration (firom 163 to 208, and from 416 to 424) disagrees with that of FausbolL The Cingalese edition does not number the gd^th^s. In the following table, the numbers of the gftth&s are given in heavy type and in square brackets immediately after the title of the story : firsts the number of the gftthft as counted from the beginning of its vagga^; second, the number as counted continuously from the beginning. If, for the latter numeration, on account of the disagree- ment just mentioned, more than one number has to be given, or if, on account of variation in the titles, more than one title has to be given, they are distinguished by a prefixed F (meaning FausboU), or B (meaning Burmese), or C (meaning Cingalese). The stories are numbered from the beginning of each book. The number as counted

■ This is the only proper method. To ignore such important and histori- cally significant native divisions is extremely reprehensible and unpractical.

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472 PROC£:£DINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

oontinuously from the beginning to the end of the work is ignored of a purpose and apon principla In the columns at the right are given the numbers of the pages on which the stories begin (not end). PTS means P&li Text Society, B Burmese, G Cingalese. In the Alphabetical Index, the stories are cited by book (vagga : in Roman numerals) and story (vatthu : in Arabic). Thus, xiv. 3 means the third story of the fourteenth book. Exponential numbers indicate imbedded storiea Thus, in ii. 1 are imbedded il 1% 1^ 1®, !<*, 1«, 1'.

TITLES OF STORIES OF THE DHAMMAPADA CX)MMENTARY.

Tamaka-vagga — Book I.

Btorj

1. Cakkhupala thera [1 - 1]

2. MaUhakundali [2 » 2]

3. Tissa thera (B) - Thulla Tissa thera (PTS and C)

[3^-3-4]

4. Kali yakkhini [5 - 5] 6. Kosambika bhikkhu [6 - 6]

6. Cula Kala and Maha Kala [7-8 - 7-8]

7. Devadatta [9-10 - 9-10]

8. Aggaiavaka (PTS and C) - SSriputta thera (B)

[11-12-11-12] 0. Nanda thera [13-14 - 13-14]

10. Conda sukarika [15 - 15]

11. Dhammika upaiaka [16 - 16]

12. Devadatta [17 - 17] 18. Sumana devi [18 » 18] 14. Dye sahayaka bhikkhu [19-20 - 19-20]

Appamftda-vagga - Book n.

Story

k Udena (PTS and C) Samarati (B) [1-3-21-23]

1* Udena-uppatti

1*" Ghosaka-eefthi-uppatti

1* Samavati-uppatti

1** Vasuladatta

1* MSgandiya

1' Marana-paridipaka 2. Kumbhaghosaka setthi [4 — 24] 8. Cula Panthaka thera [5 - 25] 4. Bala-nakkhatta-ghuttha [6-7 » 26-27] 6. Maha Kassapa thera [8 - 28]

6. Dve sahSyakS bhikkhu (PTS) - Pamatt-appamattft dve

sahayaka bhikkhu (B and C) [9 - 29]

7. Mahali-pafiha (PTS and C) -> Magha (B) [10 - 30]

8. AfifiaUra bhikkhu [11 « 31]

9. Nigamayasi Tissa thera [12 » 32]

PTS	B 0
8	44 1
26	68 12
] 87	67 18
45	72 22
68	77 26
66	84 33
77	91 38
83	95 41
115	116 58
125	123 64
129	125 e»
188	128 68
151	189 77
154	141 78
PT8	B C
161	145 81
161	145 81
169	150 85
187	162 95
191	166 97
199	170 101
203	178 108
281	190 116
289	195 120
256	206 128
258	207 180
260	208 181
268	210 182
281	221 140
288	222 141

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BURUNGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 473 Citta-vagga - Book in.

8tOT7

1. Meghiyathera [1-2 -33-34]

2. AfillAtara bhikkhu [3 - 35]

3. Ukkan|hit«fiiiatara-bhikkhu(PT8andC)-Anfiatara

ukkanthita bhikkha (B) [4 - 36]

4. BhSginej7a-€afigharakkhita thera (PTS and C) -> Sangha-

rakkhita-bhaginejya thera (B) [5 — 37] 6. Clttahattha thera [6-7 - 38-39]

6. Palicasata yipassaki bhikkhu (FTS and C) - Paficaiata

bhikkhu (B) [8 -40]

7. PQtigatta Tissa thera [9 - 41]

8. Nanda gopSU [10 - 42]

9. Soreyya thera [11-43]

Puppha-vagga - Book IV.

Story

1. PathaW-kathS-pasutS palicasata bhikkhii [1-2 - 44-5]

2. Marici-kammatthSnika thera [3 - 46]

8. Vidudabha (PTS and C) - Vimfibha (B) [4 - 47] 4. PatipujikS (PTS and C) - PSUpujiki kumSriki (B)

[5-48] 6. Maccharija Kosiya setthi [6 - 49]

6. Pi^hikSjlTaka (PTS and C) - PSreyyakSjiTaka (B)

[7-50]

7. Chattapani upSsaka [8-9 - 51-^52] a Vi»akha[i0-53]

9. 2nanda-thera-paliha [11-12 -54-55]

10. Maha-Kassapa-thera-pindapSta-dinna [13 - 56]

11. Godhika-thera-parinibbSna [14-57]

12. Garahadinna [15-16 - 58-59]

Bfila-TTagga - Book V.

Btory

1. Kumuduppal&tita-duggata-«eyaka (C) — Afifiatara

puri8a(B)[l-60]

2. MahS-Kasiapa-thera^addhiTihirika [2 - 61]

8. Ananda se^hi [3 - 62] 4. Ganthi-bhedaka cora [4 - 63] 6. Udkyi thera [5 - 64]

6. Bhadda-yaggiyS(C) - Tugsa-matta-pSreyyaki bhikkhii (B)

[6-

7. Suppabuddha kutthi [7 - 66]

8. Kassaka [8-67]

9. Sumana mala-kSra [9 - 68]

10. UppalavannS ther! [10-69]

11. Jambukajivaka (C) - Jambuka thera (B) [U - 70]

12. Ahipeta [12-71]

13. Sa|0iikuta peta [13 - 72]

14. Sudhamma thera (C) - Citta gahapaU (B) [14-15 - 73-4] 16. Vanayisi TUsa thera (C) V. T. iSmanera (B) [16 - 75]

* The Colombo edition has no page 153.

PTB	B	0
287	224	143
290	226	145
297	282	149
800	243 151 »
805	236	154
818	241	158
819	245	160
822	248	162
825	249	164
PTB	B	0
888	254	167
835	256	168
887	257	169
862	272	181
866	274	183
376	280	187
880	288	189
884	286	191
420	308	209
423	810	210
431	815	214
434	317	216
	B	0
60]	324	221
	335	230
	389	233
	342	235
	843	285
65]	344	236
	345	237
	847	288
	849	240
	353	243
	855	245
	863	251
	366	258
	869	256
	376	261

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B	0
889	271
802	273
893	274
894	276
408	281
416	291
416	292
418	294
420	296
422	296

474 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

Pan<Uta-Tragga - Book VI.

story

1. RSdha thera [1 - 76] •

2. Assaji-panabbasuka [2 - 77] 8. Channa thera [3 » 78] 4. Mah& Kappina thera [4 -* 79] 6. Pandita samanera [5 *» 80]

6. Lakuntaka-bhaddiya thera [6 -* 81]

7. Kana-'matS [7 -> 82]

8. Vighasada dosa-yutta pafScasata bhikkhu (C) ^ Paffcasata

bhikkhu(B) [8-83]

9. Dhammika thera [9 - 84]

10. Dhamma-eavana [10-11 <-* 85-86]

11. Agantoka paficasata bhikkha (C) -* PaBcasata SgantukS

bhikkhu (B) [12-14 « 87-^89] 423 297

Arahanta-vagga - Book VII.

story

1. JIvaka-pafiha [1 - 90]

2. Maha Kassapa thera [2 - 91] a BeUt^ha^isa thera [3 - 92] 4. Anuruddha thera [4 » '93] 6. MahS Eaccajana thera [5 — 94]

6. Sariputta thera [6 » 95]

7. Kosambivasi-Tissa-thera-sSmanera [7 » 96]

8. Sariputta-thera-paffha-vissajjana [8 - 97]

9. Khadiraraniya Rerata thera [9 » 98] 10. A&Satara itthi [10 - 99]

SahaBsa-vagga - Book Vm.

Stoiy

1. Tamba-d&thika-cora-ghStaka [l-lOO]

2. Daru-ciriya thera (C) — Bahiya^Sru-ciriya thera (B) [2—101]

3. Kundala-kesUheri [3-4 - 102-3]

4. * Anattha-pucchaka brShmana [5-6 — 104-5] 6. Sariputta-therassa matula-brShmana [7 — 106]

6. Sariputta-therassa bhagineyya [8 — 107]

7. Sariputta-therassa sahayaka brahmana [9 — 108]

8. DIghayu kumara (C) - Ayuvaddhana kumSra (B) [10 —109]

9. Sankicca-samanera [U - 110]

10. Khanu-kondafifia thera [12 - lU]

11. Sappa-dasa thera [13 - 112]

12. PatScara then [14 » 113]

13. KisSGotaini [15-114]

14. Bahu-puttika then [16 - 115]

Pftpa-TTagga - Book IZ.

Stocy

1. Giileka^Itaka brahmana [1 - 116]

2. Seyyasaka thera [2 - il7]

3. LSjS deyadhitS [3 - 118]

B	0
424	298
426	299
428	801
429	802
431	808
432	804
436	306
437	308
438	309
446	314
B	0
446	316
460	318
464	322
469	320
461	827
462	328
463	328
464	329
466	331
474	337
476	338
478	840
484	844
487	847
B	0
488	348
491	360
492	361

Digitized by

Google

BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 475

Btory B 0

4. Anftthapindika setthi [4-5 - U»-120] 404 353

6. Asallfiata-parikkhara bhikkhu [6 - 121] 497 365

6. BilSla-padaka se^bi [7 - 122] 498 356

7. Mah&dhana vSnija [8 - 123] 501 358

8. Kukkuta-mitta-nesada [9 - 124] 502 359

9. Koka-sonakha-luddaka [10 - 125] . 507 362

10. ManikSra kulupaga Tissa thera [11 - 126] 509 364

11. Tayo bhikkhu (C) - Tajo janS (B) [12 - 127] 511 366

12. Su-ppabuddhaSakja [13-128] 515 360

Dan^a-vagga » Book Z.

8tOT7 B 0

1. Chab-baggijS [1 - 129] 517 370

2. Chab-baggija [2 - 130] 518 371

3. Sambahula kumaraka [3-4 - 131-2] 510 371

4. Kundadhana thera [5-6 - 133-^] 519 372

5. VisakhSdinaq upisikSnai] aposatha-kamma [7-135] 523 375

6. A jagara peta [8 - 136] 524 376

7. MahS Moggallana thera [9-12, 137-140] 527 378

8. Bahubhandika thera (C) - B. bhikkhu (B) [13 - 141] 531 381

0. Santati ma'hamatU [14 - 142] 535 384

10. Pilotika-thera (C) - -Tissa-thera (B) [15-16 - 143-4] 538 387

11. Sukha samanera [17 - 145] 540 388

Jarft-vagga - Book XL

Btoxy B 0

1. Visakhaya sahajrikS [1 - 146] 548 304

2. SiriroS [2 - 147] 550 396

3. UtUrS therl [3 - 148] 554 398

4. Adhimanika bhikkhu (C) — SambahuUL adhim&nika

bhikkhu (B) [4 - 149] 555 399

5. Janapada-kalyanl-rupa-nanda theri [5 - 150] 556 400

6. Mallika devi [6- 151] 550 403

7. Laludayi thera [7 - 152] 561 404

8. Ananda-therassa udSna-gath& [8-9 - 153^] 564 406

0. Mahadhanasetthi-putta [10-11 -155-6] 565 407

Atta-vagga - Book XIL

Btoij B 0

1. Bodhi rajakumSra [1 - 157] 568 400

2. Upananda Sakyaputta [2 - 158] 571 412

3. Padhanika Tissa thera [3 - 159] 573 414

4. Kumara Kassapa thera (C) — KumSra-Kasiapa-matu-

then (B) [4 - 160] 574 415

5. Mah& KSla up&saka [5 - 161] 578 417

6. Deradatta [6 - 162] 570 419

7. Sangha-bheda-parisakkana « [F7, BC7-8 - F163, B163^] 580 410

* This story is told in connection with the stanzas beginning *' Sukaraij sfldhuna s&dhuij " and "SukarSni as&dhQni/' B and C give both stanzas, but Fausbail omita the first. Cp. Dh. (1900), p. 38.

Digitized h »'

gle

B	C
681	420
683	421
684	422
B	C
685	423
687	424
688	425
689	426
600	427
691	428
692	428
696	431
696	432
600	434

476 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

Story

a KaUthera[F8,BC9»F164,B165] 9. Cola Kala up&saka [F9, BCIO - n65, B166] 10. Atta^^ttha thera [FID, BCU - F166, Bie?]

Zioka-TTagga -* Book Xlll

Btory

1. AnSatara dahara bhikkhu [1 - F167, B168]

2. Suddhodana-raja (B) - Suddhodana (C) [2-3 - n6a-9,

B169-170]

3. Paficasata yipasiakS bhikkhu [4 - F170, B171]

4. Abhaja rajakamara [5 - F171, B172]

5. Sammufijani thera(C) - Sammajjana thera (B) [6 -^ F172,

B173]

6. AnguUmala thera [7 - P173, B174]

7. Pesakara^lhlta [8 - n74, B175]

8. Tigsa bhikkhu [9 - n75, B176]

9. CiBca manavika [10 - P176, B177]

10. A-sadisardana [11 - F177, BITS]

11. Kala nama AnSthapindika-putta (C) - An&thapindika-

putta K&la (B) [12 - PITS. B179] 603 437

Buddha-vagga - Book XIV.

Story B G

1. M5ra-dhItaro (C) - MSgandiyS (B) [1-2 - n79-lS0,

BlSO-181] 606 439

2. Yamaka-patiharija (C) - Dey-orohana (B) [3 » FlSl, B1S2] 609 442 8. Erakapatta nagarSja [4 -* F1S2, BiS3] 628 466

4. Ananda-thera-uposatha-paSha [P5-7, C5-6 > -^ F183-5,

B1S4-6] 632 459

5. ADabhiratibhikkhu[FS-9,C7-S-FlS6-7,B187-S] 688 460

6. Kosala-rafiBo purohita Aggidatta-brihmana (C) » Aggidatta-

brahmana(B)[F10-14,C^13-FlSS-192,B189-193] 686 462

7. Ananda-thera-pucchita-pa&ha [F15, C14 - F193. B194] 639 465

8. Sambahula bhikkhu [F16, C15- F194, B195] 640 466

9. Eassapa-dasabalassa suTanna-cetija \T17~1B, C16-17 -

F195-6] ♦ 466

Sukha-vagga -* Book ZV. 8*<wy

1. Nati-kalaha-Tupasamana [1-3 - F197-9, B196-S]

2. Mara [4 - F200, B199)

3. Kosala-rafifio parajaya [5 - F201, B200]

4. AfiEtatara kuladarika [6 -[F202, B201] 6. Gonattha upasaka (B) -^ AfifiaUra upSsaka (C) [7«F203,

B202] 646 472

" C omits the stanza beginning '* KhantI paramai] tapo titikkhA " (F184). * B omits the stanzas beginning ** Poj&rahe pOjayato " and *J Te t&dise pQja- yato," and the story connected tberewi^.

B	0
641	468
648	470
644	470
645	471

Digitized by LjOOQIC

BURUNGAME. — BXTDDHAOHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 477

Story B

6. Pasenadi-KosaU rSjS [8 - F204, B203] 648

7. TUsa thera (B) - AiUlatara bhikkhu (C) [9 - F205, B204] QtO

8. Sakka deyaraji (C) - SakknpanhSna (B) [10-12, BlO-13 »

F206-a06, 3205-206 •] 651

Piya-vagga - Book ZVI.

Story

1. Tajo janS pabbajiti (B) - Tayo bhikkhu (C) [1-3 - 209-211]

2. Afiiiatara kutnmbika [4 - 212] 8. VisSkhS [5 - 213]

4. Licchavi [6 - 214]

5. Anitthigandha-kumara [7-* 215]

6. Afiftatara brShmana [8 » 216]

7. PaQcasata diraki'[9 - 217]

8. AnagSmi thera [10 - 218] 0. Nandiya [11-12 - 219-220]

Kodha-vagga - Book XVIL

Btoiy 1. 2.

Rohin! khattiya-kafins [1 - 221] ABIiatara bhikkhu [2 - 222]

3. Uttara upasikS [3 - 223]

4. Mahfi-MoggallSna-thera-paRha-pucchita [4 - 224]

5. SSketalui-brShmana (C) » Buddha-pitu-brihmana (6) [5 >

6. PunnS nSma RSjagaha-setlhi-disi [6 » 226]

7. Atul'a upSsaka [7-10 - 227-230]

8. Chab-baggiya-bhikkbu [11-14 - 231-234]

225]

0

473 474

476

BCala-vagga » Book XVUL

Story

1. Go-gh5taka-putU (1-4 - 235-8]

2. ASnatara brShmana [5 » 239]

3. Tissa thera [6 - 240] ' 4. LaludSyi thera [7 - 241]

6. AnSatara kulaputta [8-9 » 242-3]

6. Sariputta-therassa saddhi-yihSrika (C) - Cu\a SSri (B)

[lO-U - 244-5]

7. PaficasaU upisakS [12-14 - 246-8]

8. Tissa dahara [15-16 - 249-250] 0. Pafica upSsakS [17 - 251]

10. Mendaka setthi [18 - 252]

11. Ujjb&Da-sailBi thera [19 - 253]

12. Subhadda paribbSjaka [20-21-254-5]

• B divides F207-8 into three stanzas, thus:

B206 B&lasaijgatac&rl hi digham addhftna socati

Dukkho bidehi saijvftso amitteneva sabbadft B207 Dhiro ca 8ukhasai]vft8o fifttlnai] va samfigamo

Tasmft hi: Dhlrai] pafifiafi ca bahussutaA ca dhorayha B208 Silai) vatavantam ftriyan tag t&disai) sappurisai)

Sumedhaq bhajetha nakkhattapathaii va candimft. ^ Pages 522-529 of the Ck)lombo edition are numbered (by a printer's error) 122-129.

B	0
668	477
655	479
656	480
657	480
658	481
660	482
662	484
663	485
664	486
B	0
666	488
669	489
670	491
677	496
678	497
681	498
683	500
685	502
B	C
686	503
690	506
691	507
693	508
695	510
697	511
699	512
700	518
702	515
704	516
711*522'
712	522

Digitized by VjOOQIC

B	0
713	62S
714	624
716	625
716	626
717	626
718	627
719	628
720	629
722	630

478 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEBfT.

Dhamma^tfia-vasga — Book ZZZ.

BUrrj

1. Vinicchaya-mahimacci [1-2 « 256-7]

2. Chab-baggija-bhikkhu [3 - 258] 8. Ekudana-thera-khinSsaya (B) - EkaddSna-khi^SsaTa-thera (C)

[4 - 259] 4. Laknnlaka-bhaddijarthera [5-6 » 260-261] 6. SambahulS bhikkhu [7-6 - 262-3]

6. Hatthaka [9-10 - 264-5]

7. AMatara brShmana [11-12 - 266-7]

8. Titthija [13-14 - 268-9]

0. BSlUika (C) - Arija-bSHBika (B) [15 - 270] 10. Sambahula bhikkhu (C) — Sambahuli sIladi-MmpannS

bhikkhu (B) [16-17 » 271-2] 722 630

Magga-vagga - Book XJL,

Story

1. PaScasata bhikkhu [1-4 - 273-6]

2. Paficasata bhikkhu (C) - Anicca^lakkhana (B) [5-277] 8. PaScasata bhikkhu (C) - Dukkha-lakkhana (B) [B6,

[C6-7S-B278]

B4. Anatta-Ukkhana [B7 - B279]

B6 C4. PadhSna-kammika Tissa thera [8 « 280]

B6 C6. Sukara-peta [9 - 281]

B7 C6. PotthiU thera [10 - 282]

B8 07. PaBca mahaUaka therS [U -12 - 283-4]

BO C8. SuvannakSra thera [13 » 285]

BIO CO. Mahadhana ySnija [14 - 286]

Bll CIO. Kisa Gotam! [15 - 287]

B12 Cll. PatacarS [16-17 - 288-9]

Paki^naka-vagga ' Book XXT.

Story

1. GaSgSrohana (C) -* Attano pubba-kamma (B) \X - 290]

2. Eukkutanda-khSdikS [2 - 291]

8. Bhaddiya bhikkhu [3-4 « 292-3] 4. Lakuntaka-bhaddija thera [5-6 - 294-5] 6. DSru-flkkatika-putta [7-12 - 296-301]

6. Vaj ji-puttaka bhikkhu (13 « 302]

7. CitU gahapati [14 - 303] Cf. Cula Subhadda [15 - 304]

9. £ka-yihSri thera [16 - 305]

Niraya-vagga * Book XXTT.

Story

1. Sundari paribbSjikS [1 - 306]

2. Duccarita-phalSnubhavana-satta [2 - 307]

8. Vaggu-muda-tiri7a4)hikkhu [3 - 308]

* In the Colombo edition the story entitled '' Dukkha-lakkhana" is told in connection with stansas 6-7, and the story entitled 1* Anatta-lakkhana ** is omitted.

B	0
724	631
726	633
726	683
726	•
727	634
728	635
732	638
734	639
736	641
738	643
740	644
741	646
B	C
742	646
749	661
761	658
752	663
763	665
766	667
768	658
769	659
762	562
B	0
763	663
766	665
767	666

Digitized by

Google

BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 479

Story

4. AnSthapindikarbhSginejya-EhemakA-setthi-patta (B) »

Khema (C) [4-5 - 309-310]

5. Dubbacabhikkhn [6-8-311-313]

6. iMS-pakaU itthi [9 -> 314]

7. Sambahuli Sgantukft bhikkhu [10 - 315]

8. Nigantha [11-12 - 316-317]

9. Titthiji sSyaka [13-14 - 318-319]

Story 1. 2. 3.

4. 6. 6. 7.

8.

Story 1. 2.

a

4. 5.

6. 7.

8.

0. 10. 11. 12.

Nftga-vagga -> Book Xiiiii.

Atanaq Srabbha kathita [1-3 - 320-322] HatthScarija-pubbaka bhikkhu [4 - 323] Parijinnarbrahmana-putta (B) — A&fiatararbrlhmana-

putta (C) [5 - 324] Pasenadi-Kosala [6 - 325] Sana samanera [7 -> 326]

Psirejyaka'hatthi (B) - Baddheraka hatthi (C) [8-327] Sambahula bhikkhu (B) - Paficasata disS-ySsi bhikkhii (C)

[9-11 - 328-330] MSra [12-14 - 331-333]

TanhA-vagga - Book XZIV.

Kapila-maccha [1-4 - 334-7]

Sukara-potiki [5-10 - 338-343]

Vibbhanta bhikkhu [U - 344]

Bandhaoagara [12-13 - 345-6]

KhemS then [14 - 347]

Uggasena^tt^ii-putta [15 - 348]

Cula Dhanuggaha pandita (B) — Daharaka bhikkhu (C)

[16-17 - 349-350] MSra [18-19 - 351-2] Upakajivaka [20 - 353]

Sakka-pamia (B) - SakkadeyarSjS (C) [21 - 354] Aputtaka setthi [22 -> 355] Ankura [23^26 - 356-9]

Bhikkhu-vagga - Book ZZV.

Story

1. PaSca bhikkha [1-2 - 360-361]

2. Ha2)8a-ghataka bhikkhu [3 - 362] 8. KokSlika [4 - 363]

4. Dhammarama thera [5 - 364]

6. Yipakkha^evaka bhikkhu [6-7 - 365-6]

6. PaSc-aggadayaka brahmana [8 - 367]

7. Sambahula bhikkhu [9-17 - 368-376]

8. Paficasata bhikkhu [18-377]

9. SantakSya thera [19 - 378]

10. Nangala-kula thera [20-21 - 379-380]

11. VakkaU thera [22 - 381]

12. 3umaDa sSmanera [23 — 382]

767	666
769	667
770	668
771	669
772	670
773	671
B	0
776	672
777	673
777	674
782	677
788	678
786	681
787	681
790	683
B	0
792	686
797	689
800	692
802	693
804	694
806	696
809	699
812	601
814	602
814	603
817	606
819	606
B	0
821	607
823	609
826	611
827	613
828	613
830	616
832	616
838	621
839	622
840	623
842	624
843	626

Digitized by VjOOQIC

480 PB0CEEDING8 OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Brfihma^a-vagga -* Book ZZVL

Btoiy

1. PasSda-bahola-brShmana [1 - 383]

2. 8ambahul& bhikkhu [2 - 384] 8. Mara [3 - 385] 4. Af&fiatara brShmana [4 » 386] 6. Ananda thera [5 - 387]

6. ASnatara brahmana pabbajita [S -> 388]

7. Sariputta thera [7^ - 389-390]

8. Mah& Pajapati Gotami [9 - 391]

9. S&riputta thera [10 - 392]

10. Jatila brShmana [U *- 393]

11. Kuhaka brahmana [12 - 394]

12. Kisa Gotam! [13 - 395] 18. Eka brShmana [14 -* 396]

14. Uggasena-eetthi-pntta [15 -* 397]

15. Dre brShmanS [16 - 398]

16. Akkosalabbaradyaja [17 » 399]

17. Sariputta thera [18 - 400]

18. Uppalavanna theri [19 - 401]

19. Afifiatara brShmana [20 - 402]

20. KhemS bhikkhuni [21 - 403]

21. PabbharavSsi Tissa thera [22 - 404]

22. AiinaUra bhikkhu [23 - 405] 28. SSmanerS (B) - Cattaro samanerS (C) [24 - 406]

24. MahS Panthaka thera [25 - 407]

25. Pilindavaccha thera [26 » 408]

26. Afinatara thera [27 - 409]

27. SSriputta thera [28 - 410]

28. Maha MoggaUSna thera [29 - 411]

29. ReraU thera [30-412]

80. CandSbha thera [31 - 413]

81. Sivali thera [32 - 414]

82. Sundara-eamudda-thera [33 -> 415] 88. Jatila thera [34 - 416]

88*. Jotikassa uppatti 88\ Jatila thera

84. Jotika thera [34 - F416, B417^

85. Nata-puttaka thera (B)-Nata-pubbaka (C) [35-F417,B418]

86. Nata-puttaka thera [36 - F418, B419]

87. Vangisa thera [37-38 - F419^20, B420-421]

88. DhammadinnS ther! [39 -> F421, B422]

39. AngulimSU thera [40 - F422, B423]

40. Deyahita brShmana (B) *» Deva&gika brShmana (C)

[41 - F423, B424] 911 676

* Pages 642-677 of the Colombo edition are numbered (by a printer's error) 624-659. ^® Story 34 repeats the stansa of Story 33.

B	C
854	633
855	683
855	634
856	634
857	635
858	686
858	636
860	638
861	688
862	639
863	689
865	641
865	641
86S642*
867	iH2
867	643
869	644
870	645
871	645
871	646
872	646
874	648
876	649
878	651
879	651
880	652
881	658
881	658
882	654
888	654
885	656
887	657
890	660
890	660
899	667
905	671
906	672
907	672
907	678
909	674
911	675

Digitized by VjOOQIC

BURUNGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COBiMENTART. 481

ALPHABETIC INDEX TO THE TITLES OF THE STORIES OF THE DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY.

AkkosalabharadrSja, xxvi. 16. Aggadayaka brShmana, see PaSc a. b. Aggasaraka (PTS and C) — Sariputta

thera (B) i. 8. Aggidatta brahmana (B) — KosalaraBiio

purohita Aggidatta brShmana (C),

xiv. 6. Ankura, xxiy. 12.

ASgulimSla thera, xiii. 6 ; xxvi. 39. Ajagara peta, x. 6. Annatara ukkanthita bhikkhu (B) »

Lltkanthita aS&atara bhikkhu (PTS

and C), ili. 3. A&natara upasaka (C) *» Gonat^ha upS-

saka (B), xy. 5. «

Afinatara kafumbika, xri. 2. Afinatara kulaputta, xviii. 5. Aiiuatara thera, xxvi. 26. ARBatara dahara bhikkhn, xiii. 1. Anfiatara purisa (B) - KnmuduppalS-

tit« duggata sevaka (C), y. 1. AnSatara brahmana, xvi. 6; xriiL 2;

xix. 7 ; xxvL 4 ; xxvi. 19. Aiiiiatara brahmana pabbajita, xxvi. 6. Annatara brahmana-putta (C) » Pari-

jinna brahmana-putta (B), xxiii. 3. Anuatara bhikkhu, ii. 8; iii. 2 ; xvii. 2;

xxvi. 22 ; (C) - Tissa thera (B), xv. 7. ABiiatara itthi, vii. 10. AHiiatarS kuladarika, xv. 4. Atula upSsaka, xvii. 7. Attadattha thera, xiL 10. Attano pubbakamma (B) «- GangSro-

hana (C), xxi. 1. Attanai) firabbha kathita, xxiii. 1. Anatta lakkhana (lacking in C), xx. B4. Anattha-pucchaka brahmana, viii. 4. Anabhiratibhikkhu, xiv. 5. AnagamI thera, xvi. 8. Anathapindika-putta Kala (B) »- Kala

nama A.-p. (C), xiii. 11. Anathapindika - bhagineyya-Khemaka-

set^hi-putta (B) - Khema (C),xxii.4. Anathapindika setthi, ix. 4. Anicca-lakkhana (B) -* PaScasata bhik- khu (C), xx. '2. Anitthigandha^kumara, xvi. 6. Anuruddha thera, vii. 4. VOL. XLV. — 31

Apnttaka setthi, xxiv. 11.

Abhaya rajakumSra, xiii. 4.

Asafifiata-parikkhara bhikkhu, ix. 6.

Asadisadana, xiii. 10.

Assaji-punabbaauka, vi. 2.

Ahipeta, v. 12.

Agantuka paBcasata bhikkhu (C) -* P.

a. bh.(B), vi. 11. ^nanda thera, xxvi. 5. Xnanda-thera-udSna-gatha, xi. 8. Jnanda-thera-paBha, iv. 9; ^iv. 4; xiv. 7. Luanda setthi, v. 3. ^yuvaddhana kumara (B) »■ DIghayu

k. (C),*viii.8. Itthi, see ASnatarS itthi. Issa-pakata-itthi, xxii. 6. Ukkan|hit-aBiiatara^bhikkhu (PTS and

C) - A. u. bh. (B), m. 8. Uggasena-eetthi-putta, xxiv. 6; xxvi.

14. UjjhSna^aSSI thera, xviii. 11. UttarS upSsika, xvii. 3. UttarS theri, xL 8. Udiyi thera, v. 6. Udena, ii. 1 Udenaruppatti, ii. 1». Upakajivaka, xxiv. 9. Upananda Sakyaputta thera, xii. 2. Upasaka, see AfiSatara-, Pafica-, and

Pancasata-u. Uppalavanna theri, v. 10; xxvi. 18. EkS kukkutanda-khadika, xxi. 2. Eka brShmana, xxvi. 13. EkavihSri thera, xxi. 9. EkuddSna-khinSsava-thera (C) «* Eku-

dSna-th.-kh. (B), xix. 3. Erakapatta nSgarajS, xiv. 3.

KaccSyana, see MahS K.

Kapila maccha, xxiv. 1.

Kappina, see Maha K. '

Kassaka, v. 8.

Kassapa, see Kumara K. and MahS K.

Kassapa- dasabalassa siivanna cetiya

(lacking in B), xiv. 9. KSna-mStS, vi. 7. KSla, see Cilia K. and MahS K. Kala thera, xii. 8.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Eala nSma Anathapindika-putta (C) —

A..p..K. (B), xiii. ll! * KSli jakkliinl, i. 4.

Kisa Gotami," viiL 13; xx. 11 ; xxri. 12. Kukkutanda-khadika, see £kS k.-kh. Kukkuta-mitta-nesada, ix. 8. Kutumbika, see ASilatara k. Kundadhana thera, x. 4. Kondala-kesi-theri, yiii. 8. Kumara Kassapa thera (C) « K.-K.-

matu-theri (B), xii. 4. Kurauduppalatita-duggata-seyaka (C)

-> A&Satara purisa (B), v. 1. Kumbhaghosaka setthi, ii. 2. Kuladarika, Itulaputta, see ASSatarS,-a. Kuhaka brahmana, xxvi. 11. Ku^ peta, see Satthi-k. p. Koka-sunakha^luddaka, ix. 0. Kokalika, xxy. 3. KoDdadhana thera, see KundadhSna

thera. KosambikS bhikkhu, i. 5. Kosambiyasi-Tissarthera-samanera, yii. • 7.

Kosala-ra&So parajaja, xy. 3. Kosala-rafiBo purohita Aggidatta-brah-

mana (C) - A.-b. (B), xiy. 6. Ehadirayanija Reyata thera, yii. 9. Khanu-kondafi8a thera, yiii. 10. Ehema (C) — Anathapindika-bhagi-

neyya-Ehemaka-setthi-putta (B)f xxii.

4. Kheroa then, xxiy. 6. Khema bhikkhunl, xxyi. 20. Gangarohana (C) - Attano pubba-

kamma (B), xxi. 1. Ganthi-bhedaka corS, y. 4. Garahadinna, iy. 12. Goghataka putta, xyiii. 1. Gotaroi, see KisS G. and Maha Paja-

pati G. Godhika-thera^parinibbina, iy. 11. Gonattha apasaka (B) «- AfiBatara upi-

saka (C), xy. 5.

Ghosaka-setthi-uppatti, ii. P.

Cakkhupala thera, i. 1.

Cattaro samanera (C) - Samanera (B),

xxyi. 23. Candfibha thera, xxyi. 30. CiSca manayika, xiii. 9. Citta gahapati (B) - Sudhamma therm

(C), y. 14. Citta gahapati, xxi. 7. Cittahattha thera, iii. 6. Cunda siikarika, i. 10. Cilia Kala upasaka, xii. 9. Cula Kala and Maha Kala, i. 6. Cula Dhanuggaha pandita (B) ^ Daha-

raka bhikkhu (C), xxiy. 7. Cilia Panthaka thera, ii. 3. Cola Sari (B) - SSriputta-therassa sa-

ddhiyihSrika (C), xyiiL 6. Cola Subhadda, xxi. 8. Ciilaka-sStAka-brahmana, ix. 1. Chab-baggiya, x. 1; x. 2; xyii.8; xix.2. Chattapani upasaka, iy. 7. Channa thera, yi. 3.

Janapada-kalyani-riipa-nanda theri,xi.5. Jatila thera, xxyi. 38 and 83^. Jatila brahroana, xxyi. 10. Jana, see Tajo jana. Jambuka thera (B) — JambukSjiyaka

(C), y. 11. Jfyaka-pailha, vii. 1. Jotika thera, xxyi. 34. Jotika-uppatti, xxyi. S3*. NSti-kalaha-yiipasamana, xv. 1. Tamba-da|hika-cora-ghStaka, yiii. 1. Tayo jana (B) -Tayo bhikkhu (C), ix.

11. Tayo janS pabbajitS (B) - Tayo bhi- kkhu (C), xvi. 1. Tayo bhikkhii, ix. 11; (C) - Tayo jana

pabbajiti (B), xyi. 1. TiQsa bhikkhu, xiii. 8. Tiqsa-matta-payeyyaka bhikkhu, t. 6. Titthiya, xix. 8. TitthiyS sSyaka, xxii. 9.

" Mailer, in his Glossary of P&li Proper Names (JPTS. 1888), gives only one Kis& GotamI, as does also Kem in his Manual of Indian Buddhism (page 16, note 3). But are not the virgin of the Warrior caste who greeted the Buddha from the roof of her palace (J&. i. OC'-OP^), and the frail widow, daughter of a poverty-stricken house, described in these passages as sorrowing over the loss of her first-bom son, two entirely different persons?

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BURUNQAME. — BUDDHAGHOSa's DHAMMAPADA COMMENT ABY. 483

Tissa thera, i. 3; xv. 7; xviii. 3; see also

Kosambivisi Tissa, vii. 7 ;

Nigamayisi T., ii. 9 ;

Fadhana-kammika T., xx. B5, C4;

FadhanikaT., xii. 3;

FabbharaySsi T., xxvi. 21 ;

Manikara kulupaga T., ix. 10 ;

Vanavasi T., v. 16. Tissa dahara, xyiii. 8. TImlla Tissa, see Tissa thera. Thera, passim ; see ASBatara thera. Dakaraka bhikkhu (C) » Cula Dbano.

ggaha pandita (B), xxiy. 7. DarakS, see PaScasata d. Baru-cirija thera (C) — BShiyard.-c.-th.

(B) yiii. 2. DSru-saka^ika-putta, xxi. 5. Bisa-yasi-bhikkhu, see Paficasata d.-y.-

bh. DigkSyu kumira (C) — ^jayaddhana

kumara (B), yjii. 8. Bukkha lakkhana (B) -FaBcasata bhi- kkhu (C), xx. a Duccarita-phalanubhayana-satta, xxii. 2. Dubbaca bhikkhu, xxii. 6. Deyangika-brShmana (C) -* Deyahita

brahmana (B), xxyi. 40. Devadatta, i. 7 ; 1. 12; xii. 6. Deyahita brShmana (B) — Deyafigika

brahmana (C), xxyi. 40. Dev-orohaua (B) » YamakarpStiharija

(C), xiy. 2. Dye brahmanS, xxyi. 15. Dye sahayaka-bhikkhB, i. 14; Pamatt-

appamattS d. s.-bh. (B and C), ii. 6. Dhana-, see Maha-dhana- and Ciila-

dhana-. Dhammadinn& then, xxyi. 38. Dhamma-sayana, yi. 10. Dhammarama thera, xxy. 4. Dhammika upasaka, i. 11. Dhammika thera, yi. 9. Nangalakula thera, xxy. 10. Nanda gopila, iii. 8. Nanda thera, i. 9. Nandija, xyi. 9. Na|a-puttaka thera (B) -^ Na^>pubbaka

(C), xxyi. 86. Na^-puttaka thera, xxyi. 86. KiganthS, xxii. 8. Nigamay&si Tissa thera, ii. 9.

FaSca upSsakS, xyiii. 9. PaBc-aggadajakS brahman&, xxy. 6. PaBca bhikkhii, xxy. 1. PaBca mahallaka thera, xx. 8. PaBcasata Sgantuka bhikkhu (B) - A.

p. bh. (C), yi. 11. PaBcasata up&saka, xyiii. 7. PaBcasata dSrakS, xyi. 7. FaBcatfata disiSySsi-bhikkhu (C) Sam-

bahulS bhikkhii (B), xxiii. 7. PaBcasata bhikkhii, xx. 1, 2,3; xxy. 8. PaBcasata bhikkhii (B) « PaBcasata

yipassaka-bhikkhii (C), iii. 6. PaBcasata bhikkhu (B) - VighSsSda

dosa-yutti p. bh. (C), yi. 8. PaBcasata yipassaka-bhikkhii (C) » P.

bh. (B), iii. 6. PaBcasata yipassaka-bhikkhn, xiii. 3. Pajapati Gotami, see Maha P. G. PatipujikS kumarika (B) =« PatipujikS

(PTS and C), iy. 4. Pathayi-katha-pasuta paBcasata bhik- khu, iy. 1. Padhana-kammika Tissa thera, xx. B5,

C4. Padhanika Tissa thera, xii. 3. Panthaka, see Cula Panthaka and MahS

Panthaka. Pa^acira theri, yiii. 12 ; xx. 12. Pandita-saraanera, yi. 6. Pabbharayasi Tissa thera, xxyi. 21. Famatt-appamatta dye sahayakS-bhik-

khu (B and C) - Dye s.bh. (PTS),

ii. 6. Parijinna brShmana-putta (B) -> ABBa-

tara brahmana-putta (C), xxiii. 3. Pasada-bahula-brabmana, xxvi. 1. Pasenadi Kosala, xxiii. 4. Pathikajiyaka (PTS and C) - Payey-

yakSjfyaka (B), iy. 6. PayeyyakSjIyaka (B) - Pathikajiyaka

(PTS and C). iy. 6. Payeyyaka hatthi (B) -* Baddheraka

hatthi (C), xxiii. 6. Pilindayaccha thera, xxyi. 26. Filotika thera (C) - Pilotika Tissa thera

(B). X. 10. PunnS nama Rajagaha-setthi-d&sl, xyii

6. Piitigatta Tissa thera, iii. 7. Pesakara-dbltS, xiii. 7.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Potthila thera, xx. B7, C6. Baddheraka hattlii (C) -* PSyejyaka

hatthi (B), xxiii. 6. Bandhanfigara, xxiv. 4. Bahuputtika theri, Tiii. 14. Bahu-bkandika bhikkhu (B) - B.-bh.

thera (C), x. 8. Bala-nakkhatta-ghu||ha, ii. 4. BSlisika, xix. 0. Bahiya-daru-cirija thera (B) — D^. th.

(C), viii. 2. Bilala-padaka setthi, ix. 6. Buddha-pi tu-brahmana (B) * Saketaka

brahmana (C), xrii. 5. Behi|tha-8isa thera, vii. 3. Bodhi rajakumara, xii. 1. Brahmana, paftsim; see AfiSlatara and

Eka brahmana and Dve brahmana. Bhadda-vaggiya (C) » TiQsa-matta-pS-

yeyyaka-bhikkhu (B), v. 6. Bhaddiya bhikkhu, xxi. 3. Bhagineyya-flangharakkhita thera (PTS

and C) - S.-bh. th. (B), iii. 4. Bhikkhu, passim ; see Afinatara-, Tayo-,

Tiigsar, FaBca-, and Paiicasata-bh.

Magha (B) - MahSli-paSha (PTS and

C), ii. 7. Macchariya Kosiya setthi. It. 6. Ma|thakundali, i. 2. ManikSra-kuliipaga Tissa thera, ix. 10. Matta-paveyyaka bhikkhii, see Tigsa

matta-pSveyyakS bh. Marana-paridlpaka, ii. 1'. Marici-kammaf ^hanika thera, iv. 2. Mahallaka thera, see PaBca m. th. Mallika devi, xi. 6. Maha KaccSyana thera, rii. 6. Maha Kappina thera, ri. 4. Maha Kassapa thera, ii. 5 ; vii. 2. Maha- Kassapa • thera • pindapata -dinna,

iv. 10. MaharKa88apa-thera-0addhiviharika,y.2. Maha Kala, see Cula Kala. Mahi K&la upSsaka, xii. 5. Mahadhana vSnija, ix. 7 ; xx. 10. MahSdhana se^thi-putta, xi. 9. MahS Panthaka thera, xxvi. 24. MahS Pajapati Gotami, xxvi. 8. MahS Moggallfina thera, x. 7 ; xxvi. 28. Maha-Moggall&na*thera-paiiha, xvii. 4.

Mahali-paSha (PTS and C) « Magha

(B), il 7. MagandiyS. ii. 1* ; - MSnKihitaro (C),

xiv. 1. Mara, xv. 2: xxiii. 8; xxiv. 8; xxvi. 3. Mara-dhitaro (C) - Magandiya (B), xiv.

1. Meghiya thera, iii. 1. Mendaka se^thi, xviiL 10. Moggallana, see MahS MoggallSna.

RajS Pasenad! Kosala, xv. 0.

Radha thera, vi. 1.

Revata thera, xxvi. 20; see also Kha-

diravaniya R. th., viL 0. Rohini khattiya- kaSSS, xvii. 1. Lakuntaka-bhaddiya thera, vi 6; xix.

4 ; xxi. 4. Lakkhana, see xx. 2. 3. 4. LajS devadhtta, ix. 3. La}udayi thera, xi. 7 ; xviii. 4. Licchavi, xvi. 4. Vakkali thera, xxv. 11. Vaggiya, see Chab-baggiyS and Bhadda-

vaggiya. VaggumudStiriyS bhikkhu, xxii. 3. Vangisa thera, xxvi. 87. Vajji-puttaka bhikkhu, xxi. 6. Vanavasi Tissa thera (C) - V.-v. T.

samanera (B), v. 15. VSsuladattS, ii. 1*.

VighasSdS dosa-vuttS paBcasata bhik- khu (C)-P. bh. (B), vi.8. Vitatiibha (B) = Vidiidabha (PTS and

C), see next. Vidudabha, iv. 3. Vinicchaya-mahamaccS, xix. 1. Vipakkha-sevaka bhikkhu, xxv. 6. VipassakS bhikkhu, see PaBcasata v. bh. Vibbhanta bhikkhu, xxiv. 3. VisakhS, iv. 8; xvi. 3. VisSkhadinaQ upSsikanaq uposathji-

kamma, x. 5. VisKkha-sahSyikS, xi. 1. VihSri-thera, see EkavihSri thera.

Sakka deva-rSjS (C) -Sakka^pafiha (B),

xxiv. 10. Sakka deva-rSjS (C) - Sakk-upa((hSna

(B), XV. 8. Sankicca samanera, viii 9.

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Sangha-bheda-parisakkana, xii. 7. Saogharakkhita-bhaginejja thera (B)

- Bh.-e. th. (PTS and C), iii 4. Santakaya thera, xxv. 9. Santati mahamatta, x. 9. Satthiku^ peta, t. la SappadSsa thera, viii. 11. Sambahula adhimanika bhikkhu (B) —

Adhimanika bh. (C), xi. 4. Sambahula agantuka bhikkhu, xxii. 7. Sambahula kumaraka, x. 3. Sambahula bhikkhu, xi. 4 ; xlv. 8 ; xix.

5 ; xix. 10 ; xxii. 7 ; xtiiL 7 ; xxv. 7 ;

xxvi. 2. Sambahifla siladi-saropanna bhikkhu

(B) -Sambahula bh. (C), xix. 10. Sammajjana thera (B) » Sammufijani

th. (C), xiiL 5. SahSyaka bhikkhu, see Dve s. bh. Sataka brahmana, see Cula s. b. Sanu sSmanera, xxiii. 5. SSmanerS ('B)-Cattaro s. (C), xxvi. 23 Samavati (B) - Udena (PTS and C),

ii. 1. SSmavati-uppatti, ii. 1*. Sari, see Ciila Sari. SSriputta thera (B) » AggasSvaka (PTS

and C), i. 8. Sariputta thera, i. 8 ; vii. 6.8 ; viii 6. 6. 7 ;

xviiL6; xxvi. 7. 9. 17.27.

SSriputta-thera-pafiha-visBajjana, vii. 8. Sariputta-thera-bbagineyya, viii. 6. SSriputta-thera-matula brahmana, viiL

6. Sariputta-thera-saddhiviharika, xviii. 0. Sariputta - thera - sahayaka brahmaj^

viii 7. Sirima, xi. 2. Sivali thera, xxvi. 31. Sukha samanera, x. 11. Suddhodana raja, xiii. 2. Sudhamma thera, v. 14. Sundara-samudda thera, xxvi. 82. Sundari paribbajika, xxii. 1. Su-ppabuddha kutthi, v. 7. Su-ppabuddha Sakja, ix. 12. Subhadda paribbajaka, xviii. 12. Subhadda, see Ciila S. Sumana malakara, v. 9. Suifiana samanera, xxv. 12. Sumana devi, i. 13. Suvannakara thera, xx. B9, C8. Siikara peta, xx. B6, C6. Siikara-potikft, xxiv. 2. Sejjasaka thera, ix. 2. Soreyya thera, iii. 9. Haqsa-ghataka bhikkhu, xxv. 2. Hatthaka, xix. 6. Hatthacarija-pubbaka bhikkhu, xxiii. 2.

ANALYSIS OF THE STORIES OF THE DHAMMAPADA COMMEN- TARY, BOOKS I-IV. Ayai} pan' ettha saSkhepo. Book I. Story 1. Cakkhupftla, Xader. ^

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 1-1.

Mah&snvanna, a rich householder of Savatthi, made a vow to a tree- spirit, whereby be became the &ther of two sons. Since the tree had been protected (palitai)) by him,* he named them Maha Pftla^^ and Culla P&la. When they reached manhood, their parents set them up in households of their own. i* (3-4)

" Of. Rogers, pp. 1-11.

" Call^ Cakkhupala after he wins Arahatship by sacrificing his eyes. Cakkhu is the Pali word for " eye."

** The numbers printed in heavy type and in parentheses at the end of each paragraph indicate the pages of Norman's text which are summarized in the paragraph concerned.

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486 PBOCEEDINOS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

At this time the Teacher was in residence at Jetavana monastery. (He spent one rainy season at Banyan-tree monastery, erected by his relatives ; nineteen at Jetavana, erected by An&thapindika ; six at Eastern-grove, erected by Visakha.) An&thapindika and Visakha went to the monastery twice each day with the usual o£ferings. One day the former refrained from asking questions for fear of wearying the Teacher. Knowing this, Buddha preached with such vehemence that fifty of the seventy million inhabitants of Savatthi became noble dis- ciples. The noble disciples performed two duties daily: before break- fast, they dispensed alms ; after break&st, bearing the usual o£ferings, they went to hear the Law. (^5)

Mahapala followed them one day and was so afibcted by the dis- course that he asked Buddha to mcJce him a monk. Taking leave of his brother, who did his utmost to dissaade him, he was admitted and professed. After five years had passed, he came to Buddha and asked him how many were the Burdens of the Religious Life. On being told that there were two, namely, the Burden of memorizing and preaching the Scriptures, and the Burden of the development of Spiritual Insight by ascetic practices and meditation, he chose the latter as being better suited to his advanced years. The Teacher instructed him in the ascetic practices leading to Arahatship, and he set out with sixty dis- ciples. (5-8)

The inhabitants of a village 120 leagues distant received them hos- pitably, obtained the privilege of entertaining them during the rainy season, and built them a monastery. A physician also o£fered his services. Mahapala, on learning that the monks purposed to avail themselves of the four postures (walking, standing, sitting, and reclin- ing), announced that he should content himself with the first three, and vowed not to stretch his back in repose. After encouraging each other to be vigilant, they entered upon the observance of the rainy season. (^^)

At the end of the first month Mah&pala's eyes began to trouble him. The physician treated him, but as he never lay down to rest, the treat- ment did him no good. However, he resolutely kept his vow, until finally, one night at the end of the middle watch, he lost simultane- ously his eyesight and the Depravities, and became an Arahat The monks and villagers, learning that he had lost his eyesight, expressed their sjrmpathy, and assured him that they would take care of him. At the end of the rainy season, the monks also attained Arahatship. (d-13)

When the monks expressed a desire to see the Teacher, Mahapala, knowing that there was a forest on the way haunted by evil spirits, and

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fearing that he would be a hindranoe to the monks, sent them on ahead, directing them to ask his brother to send some one to lead him, and to greet Buddha and the eighty abbots in his name. After taking leave of the villagers, who were reluctant to part with them, they went and did their master's bidding. Gullap&la sent his nephew Pftlita, first admitting him as a monk, that he might escape the dangers of the journey. (13-15)

Palita, after waiting upon Mah&p&la for a fortnight, led him to the village. In spite of the protests of the inhabitants, they continued on their journey until they reached the forest, where the youth, hearing the voice of a woman, left his uncle and broke the vow of chastity. Returning, he confessed his sin, removed his yellow robes, and assumed the garb of a householder. But Mah&pala would have nothing more to do with him, and he departed in tears. (15-17)

So intense was Mahftpftla's morality that Sakka's throne showed signs of heat Looking about, he beheld the Elder. Fearing that if he &iled to go to his assistance, his head would split into seven pieces, he disguised himself as a wayiOsirer, went to him, and ofiered to lead him to Savatthi. Shortening the distance by his magic power, Sakka brought him to his destination that very evening. Cullapala cared for him tenderly and gave him two novices to wait on him. (17-19)

One night after a heavy rain Gakkhupala took a walk in the cloister and trampled many insects to death. Some visiting monks reported the matter to the Teacher, who replied that as Gakkhupala did not see the insects, he was innocent of offense. The monks ^en asked how it was that the Elder, though destined to attain Arahatship, became blind. Buddha replied that it was because of a sin he committed in a previous existence. The monks asked the Teacher to tell them about it, and he did so. (19-20)

Story of Gakkhupala's sin in a previous existence. A woman of Benares promised a physician that she and her children would become his slaves in case he succeeded in curing her of an affection of the eyes. He did so ; biit she, repenting of her bargain, attempted to deceive him by telling him that her eyes were worse than ever. He discovered that she was deceiving him, and got revenge by giving her an ointment that made her blind. That physician was Gakkhupftla. (20-21)

The Teacher, warning his hearers to take the lesson to heart, pro- nounced Stanza 1, at the conclusion of which, thirty thousand monks attained Arahatship. (21-4)

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PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMT. Book L Story 2. Matfhakan<Uai ^^

ILLUSTRATINO STANZA 2-2.

At S&vatthi lived a Brahman of a disposition so niggardly that peo- ple called him Adinnapubbaka (Never-gave-a-ferthing). He had an only son, whom he dearly loved. Desiring to give the boy a pair of earrings, but at the same time to avoid unnecessary expense, he beat out the gold himself, made him a pair, and gave them to him ; where- fore people called the boy Matthakundall (The-boy-with-the-burnished- ear-rings). When the boy was sixteen years old he had an attack of jaundice. The mother wished to have a physician called, bat the father demurred at the thought of paying him his fee, inquired of various physicians what remedies they were accustomed to prescribe for such and such an Ailment, and treated him himself The boy grew steadily worse and was soon at the point of death. Realizing this, and fearing that those who came to see his son would also see the wealth the house contained, the Brahman carried his son outside and laid him down on the terrace. (25-6)

That very morning the Exalted One, arising from a Trance of Oreat Compassion, and surveying the world with the eye of a Buddha, beheld Matthakundall lying on the terrace at the point of death. Foreseeing that Matthakundall, and through him many others, would attain the Fruit of Conversion, Buddha visited him on the following day. The youth made an Act of Faith in Buddha, died, and was reborn in the world of the Thirty-three. (26-8)

Adinnapubbaka, after having the body of his son cremated, went daily to the cemetery and bewailed his loss. Matthakundall, desiring to convert his father, assumed the form he had borne upon earth, and went and wept also. The Brahman asked the youth why he was weep- ing. The latter replied ; " I need a pair of wheels for my chariot The sun and moon are just what I want, and I weep because I cannot get them.'* The Brahman told him he was a fooL " But which of as is the bigger fool," said the youth, "I, who weep for what exists, or you, who weep for what does not exist ? " The youth then told him that he was his son, and that he had attained his present glory by making an Act of Faith in the Buddha. Thereupon the &ther sought refuge in the Buddha, the Law, and the Order, and took upon himself the Five Precepts. The son, after urging his father to visit the Buddha, disappeared. (28-33)

The Brahman invited Buddha and his monks to dine with him.

» a, Rogers, pp. 12-17.

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Buddha accepted the invitatioD. The Brahman asked him whether it was possible to attain rebirth in heaven by a simple Act of Faith. Buddha instanced the case of Matthaknndali, and then said : " It is not one hundred, or two hundred, — there is no counting the number of those who have attained rebirth in heaven by making an Act of Faith in me." To convince the bystanders, he summoned Mattha- kundall, who appeared in all his glory and confirmed the Buddha's words. Buddha then dwelt upon the importance of a right attitude of the thoughts and of a believing heart, and pronounced Stanza 2. (33-5)

At the conclusion of the stanza eighty-four thousand persons obtained Comprehension of the Law. The god Matthakundall was established in the Fruit of Conversion ; likewise Adinnapubbaka, who devoted his great wealth to the religion of Buddha. (37)

Book I. Story 3. Tiasa the Fat, Xnder.^®

ILLUSTBATING STANZAS 3-4-3-4.

Tissa, a son of the sister of Buddha's father, became a monk late in life. He lived well on the Buddha's alms, and spent most of his time sitting in smoothed garments in the Buddha's own room. He grew to be &t and well-liking. One day:-he so far presumed on his kinship with the Buddha as to snub some monks who came to pay their re- jects. The monks resented this; whereupon the Elder, informing them who he was, threatened to extirpate their whole race, and went and complained to the Buddha. The latter, after asking him a few questions about his behavior, told him that he was in the wrong, and directed him to apologize to the monks. This he refused to do. The monks remarked that he was strangely obstinate and intractable; whereupon the Buddha, informing them that it was not the first time he had so conducted himself related the following story of the past: (37-9)

Devala and N&rada. Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta reigned at Benares, two ascetics, Devala and Narada, obtained lodging for the night in Potter's HalL After N&rada had lain down, Devala, in order to start a quarrel, lay down in the door- way. N&rada, having occasion to go out during the night, trod on Devala's matted locks. Devala then changed his posture, putting his head where his feet had been. When N&rada returned, he trod on his neck. In spite of Nftrada's protests that it was all an accident, Devala cursed him, saying, " When

»• a. Rogers, pp. 18-24.

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the sun rises to-morrow may your head split into seyen pieces.'' N&rada then pronounced the curse, " When the sun rises to-morrow may the head of the guilty person split into seven pieces ; " but fore- seeing that the curse would ML upon Devala, he took pity on him and by his supernatural power prevented the sun fix>m rising. (39-41)

The people, who were unable, by reason of the darkness, to pursue their wonted occupations, went to the king and begged him to make the sun rise for them. The king, after surveying his own actions and perceiving that he had been guilty of no sin, concluded that the dark- ness must have been caused by a quarrel of the monks. He learned the circumstances of the quarrel from Nftrada, who told him that Devala might escape the consequences of the curse by begging his pardon. The king pleaded with Devala to do this; but the latter obstinately refused until finally the king, losing his patience, forcibly compelled him to do sa Narada forgave him, but said to the king, ''Since this man did not beg my pardon of his own free will, take him to the pond near the city, place a lump of clay on his head, and make him stand in the water up to his neck. He then said to Devala, " I will send forth my magical power and cause the sun to rise ; at that moment duck in the water, rise, and go your way." As soon as the sun's rays touched Devala, the lump of clay split into seven pieces ; whereupon he ducked in the water, rose, and made his escapa (41-3)

"At that time," said the Teacher, " Ananda was the king, Tissa was Devala, and I was N&rada. At that time too he was just as obsti- nate." And admonishing Tissa, he spoke Stanzas 3-4. At the con- clusion of the discourse, a hundred thousand monks obtained the Fruits. The multitude derived profit from the instruction given, and the obstinate Elder became amenable to discipline. (43-^)

Book I. Story 4. Ka)l, the Ogress.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 6-5.

The only son of a widow did all the &rm and household work, and cared for bis mother to boot. One day the mother proposed to pro- cure him a wife. The son protested that he was able to care for his mother himself, but finally told her of a young woman that suited him and allowed her to bring her home and install her in the house. She turned out to be barren. Thereupon the mother proposed to procure him another wife. The son objected. The barren wife overheard the discussion, and fearing that she might be supplanted by a wife of their selection, procured him another wife herself (**-^)

It then occurred to the barren wife that if her rival bore a child she

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would become sole mistrees of the household. Accordingly she said to the new wife, "As soon as you 've conceived, let me know." To this the other agreed, and when she conceived, told the barren wife. The latter mixed a drug in her rival's food, and caused an abortion. After this had happened twice, the new wife, on the advice of the women of the neighborhood, held no further communication with her fellow. The latter, suddenly discovering that her rival was great with child, employed the same tactics as before, with the result that she killed both child and mother. (4S-7)

Just before the mother died, she uttered the prayer that she might be reborn as an Ogress, able to devour the children of her persecutor. Thereafter, in three successive existences, the fruitful and the barren wife returned hatred for hatred. (47)

The Fruitful Wife was first reborn as a Gat. The Barren Wife was reborn as a Hen. The Gat ate the eggs of the Hen, who prayed that in her next existence she might be able to devour the o£fspring of her enemy. (48)

The Bsurren Wife, at the end of her existence as a Hen, was reborn as a Leopardess. The Fruitful Wife, at the end of her existence as a Cat, was reborn as a Doe. Thrice the Doe brought forth young, and thrice the Leopardess went and devoured the Doe's offspring. The Doe prayed that in her next existence she might be able to devour the offspring of her enemy. (48)

The Fruitful Wife, at the end of her existence as a Doe, was reborn as an Ogress. The Barren Wife, at the end of her existence as a Leopardess, was reborn at Savatthi as an Heiress. The Ogress de- voured the first and the second child of the Heiress ; but when the latter was about to be delivered of her third child, she eluded her enemy by retiring to the house of her &ther. Here she was safely delivered of a son. A few da3rs later, while the mother was sitting in the grounds of the Monastery, suckling the child, she saw the Ogress approaching. The terrified mother, seizing the child in her arms, fled, closely pursued hyi the Ogress, into the very presence of the Teacher. (48-50)

When the Teacher learned the circumstances of the quarrel, he said to the Ogress : " Why do you return hatred for hatred ? Love your enemies ; ** and he pronounced Stanza 5, at the conclusion of which the Ogress was established in the Fruit of Conversion. (50-51)

The Teacher said to the mother, " Give your child to this Ogress." " I am afiraid to. Venerable sir." " Be not afi^id ; you have nothing to fear firom her." The mother obeyed. The Ogress kissed the child, caressed him, returned him to the arms of his mother, and began to weep. The Teacher, learning that she had suffered greatly in the

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past, comforted her, and directed the Heiress to take her home with her and care for her tenderly. Thenceforth tiiey befriended each other in every possible way. It was Kali who established the Eight Ticket- Foods, which are kept up even to this day. (51-3)

Book L Story 5. The Monks of Kosambi. 17

ILLUSTRATINO STANZA 6=6.

Two monks with a retinae of five hundred monks each resided at Eosambi ; one a stadent of the Vinaya, the other, of the Suttas. One day the latter committed the sin of leaving water standing in the bath- room, for which he was reproved by his brother, who, however, on being informed that the offense was unintentional, assured him that he was guiltless. The Vinaya scholar then proceeded to tell his pupils that the Sutta scholar had committed sin and had no conscience about it. The latter, hearing of this, declared the former to be a liar, and was shortly thereafter excommunicated. Then ensued a quarrel in which monks, nuns, unconverted persons, and deities from Uie lowest heaven to the highest were involved. (53-4)

The circumstances of the quarrel among the monks were reported to Buddha, who sent word to them to patch up their differences. Twice he did this, and twice the answer came back that they would not. Then he went in person, pointed out to both fiwjtions the wrong in- volved in their actions, and laid down rules of conduct for their observance. Hearing that they were quarrelling again, he went to them the second time, urged them to be united, and spoke to them long and earnestly on the unprofitableness of discord, illustrating his remarks by telling the Latukika Jataka, the Sammodamana Jataka,^® and the story of Brahmadatta, Dighati, and Dlghavu.^® But in spite of his best efforts, he was unable to restore harmony. (^*-€)

Disheartened by his &ilare to reconcile their differences, he left them, went quite alone to the village of Balaka the salt-maker, where he discoursed to the Elder Bhagu on the solitary life ; thence to Ea^ em Bamboo Deer-park where he discoursed to the three noble youths on the bliss to be found in the sweets of concord ; and from there to Protected Forest, where he spent the rainy season pleasantly, attended by the elephant Parile3ryaka. (56-7)

*» Cf. Ja. iii. 486-490.

w The text says simply " Vattaka-jataka, " i. e., "Quail Jataka," of which there are several.

" Vmaya i. 342-349 (translated SBE. xvii, 293-305).

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The lay brethren of Eosambi, learning the reason of the Teacher's departure, snubbed the monks until they came around to a proper view of things and asked to be pardoned This the laymen declined to do until the monks apologized to the Teacher. But as the rainy season was then at its height, they were unable to go to the Teacher, and had a very unpleasant time as a result The Teacher, however, spent the time pleasantly, attended by an elephant, (fil)

Buddha, the Elephant, and the Monkey. A noble elephant named P&rilejryaka, who had left his herd on account of the excessive annoy- ances to which he had been subjected, came to Protected Forest, paid obeisance to the Teacher, swept the ground with the branch of a tree, gave the Teacher water to drink, heated water for his bath, and brought him wild fruits. When the Teacher went to the village to collect alms, the elephant took his bowl and robe, put them on the top of his head, and accompanied him as &r as the village. Then he gave him his bowl and robe, and waited right there until he returned ; whereupon he advanced to meet him, took his bowl and robe as before, deposited them in his place of abode, performed the usual courtesies, and &nned him with the branch of a tree. During the night he paced back and forth in the interstices of the forest with a big club in his trunk, protecting the Teacher from attacks of beasts of prey. (Thus the forest came to be called Protected Forest.) At sunrise he gave him water to rinse his mouth with, and in the same manner performed all the other duties. (57-9)

The elephant's courteous attentions to the Teacher excited in a monkey the desire to do likewise. One day he found some honey and presented it to the Teacher. The latter accepted it, but refrained from eating it It turned out that there were some insects' eggs in it These the monkey carefully removed ; the Teacher then ate the honey. The monkey was so delighted that he leaped from one branch to another and danced about in great glee. A branch broke, down he fell on the stump of a tree, and a splinter pierced his body. So he died. But because of his faith in the Teacher he was reborn in the world of the Thirty-three. (59-60)

When it became known thatjbhe Teacher was living there, Anfttha- pindika and others requested Ananda to procure for them the privi- lege of hearing the Teacher. Ananda, accompanied by five hundred monks, went to the forest Not knowing how Buddha would feel about receiving so many visitors, he left the monks outside, and approached the Teacher alone. P&rileyyaka assumed a threatening attitude, but abandoned it at the command of his master. Learning that Ananda had come with five hundred monks, Buddha instructed

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him to ask them to come in. He tiien spoke to them in praise of the solitary life, pronouncing Stanzas 328-330, at the conclusion of which all were established in Arahatship. Ananda announced the request of Anathapindika and the others, and Buddha bade the monks take bowl and robe and set out. (60-e2)

Parileyyaka went and stood cross- wise on the road. The Teacher, knowing that he wished to give alms to the monks, ordered them to wait. The elephant went into the forest, gathered a great quantity of fruit, and presented it to the monks. When they had finished eating, Buddha took bowl and robe and set out The elephant again went and stood cross- wise on the road. Buddha, knowing that he wished to hinder his departure, reproved him. The elephant thrust his trunk in his mouth and retreated weeping. When Uiey reached the village, Buddha ordered the elephant to go no further. As Buddha passed out of sight the elephant's heart broke, and he died ; but because of his faith in the Teacher he was reborn in the world of the Thirty-three.

(62-3)

When the Teacher arrived at S&vatthi, the monks of Kosambi went thither to beg his pardon. The king of Eosala and An&thapindika threatened to keep them out, but were dissuaded from so doing. Bud- dha humiliated the quarrelsome monks by assigning them places sepa- rate from the others ; and when they threw themselves at his feet and begged for pardon, he reproved them for their sinful conduct, related the story of Brahmadatta, Dighati, and Digh&vu ^ once more, and pronounced Stanza 6, at the conclusion of which the assembled monks were established in Uie Fruits. (63-5)

Book I. Story 6. ClUa Kft}a and MaU Kft}a.21

ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 7-8 « 7-8.

Gula Kftla, Majjhima Eala, and Maha Eala, were three brothers who lived in Setavya. Gula Eala and Maha EsJai the youngest and oldest respectively, drove a caravan, and Majjhima Eala sold the wares. One day the caravan halted between Savatthi and Jetavana, and Maha Eala, leaving the wagons in charge of Gtila Ea}a, went and listened to the Teacher. He was so affected by the discourse that he resolved to become a monk, turned over his property to GtOa Eala, and in spite of the latter's protests carried out his resolution. Gtda

*• See note 19, p. 492. The text calls this story " Devakoeambika-jataka;" another instance of the loose use of titles. «* a. Rogers, pp. 25-31.

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Eala also became a monk, but with the intention of leaving the Order and taking his brother with him. (66-6)

After Mah& K&la had been professed, he inquired of the Teacher how many were the Burdens of tiie Religious Life, and upon being told that there were two : namely, the Burden of Study and the Burden ot Insight, he chose the latter as being better suited to his advanced years. He had the Teacher instruct him in the ascetic practices that one performs in a cemetery, and at the end of the first watch, while the others were asleep, he went to the cemetery and spent the night in meditation, returning to the monastery before the others had risen. (68)

For some time Mahft Eftla followed the routine laid down for him by the cemetery-attendant without success. Meanwhile Gula E&la won- dered at his brother's perseverance and pined for son and wifa Finally Maha Kala attained Arahatship by contemplating the destruc- tion by fire of the corpse of a beautiful girl. (68-71)

At this time the Teacher, accompanied by the Congregation of Monks, visited Setavya. Maha K&la sent Ctda E&la to attend to the seating arrangements. Gtlla E&la's wives subjected him to such ridicule that he then and there left the Order. Maha E&la's wives then laid plans to recover their husband. Now Gula E&la had only two wives, while Mah& E&la had eight The monks therefore openly expressed the opinion that Mah& Eftla would succumb to their wiles. The Teacher, however, told them that they were wrong ; and compar- ing Gula E&la to a feeble tree standing on the edge of a precipice, and Mahft Eftla to a rocky mountain, pronounced Stanzas 7-8. Mahft Eftla escaped fix)m the clutches of his wives by soaring through the air. At the conclusion of the stanzas, the assembled monks were established in the Fruits. (71-7)

Book L Story 7. Devadatta.

ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 9-10 — 9-10.

One day the Venerable Sftriputta preached a sermon on the two-fold duty of giving alms and urging others to do likewise. Thereupon a lay brother invited him to bring his retinue of a thousand monks and take a meal with him. Sftriputta accepted the invitation ; and the lay brother, with the assistance of the inhabitants of Rftjagaha, each of whom responded to his request to give alms according to his ability, entertained the monks handsomely. Now a certain householder had given the lay brother a costly robe, with the understanding that if the supply of food proved insufficient, he was to sell it and buy more food

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with the proceeds; otherwise he might give it to whomsoever he wished It tamed out that there was an ample supply of food, and the question arose what to do with the robe. The lay brother sub- mitted the question to popular vote, with the result that as between Sariputta and Devadatta there was a majority of four in &vor of the latter. But as soon as Devadatta put on the robe everybody remarked that it was not at all becoming to him, and would have suited Sari- putta much better. This incident was reported to the Teacher, who replied that it was not the first time Devadatta had worn unbecoming robes, and then told the following story of the past : (77-80)

The Elephant Hunter and the Noble Elephant. Once npon a time, when Brahmadatta reigned at Benares, there lived an elephant hunter who made his living by killing elephants and selling their tusks. One day he saw thousands of elephants go into a forest and £all on their knees before some Private Buddhas. Gonduding that it was the yellow robe that inspired their reverence, he went to a pond where a Private Buddha was bathing, stole his robes, and went and sat down on the elephant path with spear in hand and upper robe drawn over the head. The elephants, supposing that he was a Private Buddha, made obeisance to him and went on their way. The last elephant to come he killed with a thrust of his sx>ear ; then, removing the tusks, he buried the rest of the carcass, and departed. (80-81)

A little while later, the Future Buddha was born as a young ele- phant, and in the course of time he became the leader of the herd. The hunter was still engaged in his nefarious business. The noble creature, observing the diminution of his herd, and suspecting who was at the bottom of it, sent the other elephants on ahead and brought up the rear himself, walking with a long, slow strida The hunter threw his spear at him and darted behind a trea The elephant re- sisted the temptation to encircle man and tree with his trunk and crush the offender, and contented himself with oapng, " Why did you commit so grievous a sin ? You have put on robes suited to those that are free fix>m the Depravities^ but unbecoming to you.'' (81-2)

"At that time," said the Teacher, "Devadatta was the elephant hunter, and I was the noble elephant This is not the first time he has worn unbecoming robes." Then he pronounced Stanzas 9-10, at the conclusion of which many of his hearers were established in the Fruits. (82-3)

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Book I. Story 8. The Chief Disciples.

I LLUSTRATING STAK ZAS 11-12=11-12.

The Future Buddha, after receiving recognition at the hands of twenty-four Buddhas beginning with Dipankara, and after fulfiliitigtbe Perfections, was reborn in the Tusita heaven. Urged by the deities to save the world, he made the Five Great Observations, was born of Queen Maya, passed his youth in the enjoyment of great magnificence in three mansions suited to the three seasons, beheld the Four Omin- ous Sights, resolved to become a monk, renounced son and wife, was greeted by Kisa Gotami, made the Great Retirement and the Great Struggle, defeated the hosts of Mara, and attained omniscience under the Bo-tree. At the request of Brahma he proclaimed the Law and converted the Five Monks, Yasa and Fifty-four Companions, the Thirty Young Nobles, and the Three Brothers ; after which he visited King Bimbisara and accepted from him the grant of Bamboo Grove monas- tery, where he took up his abode and Sariputta and Moggallana came to him. (83^)

Upatissa (Sariputta) and Kolita (Moggallana) were born on the same day and brought up in great luxury. They acquired a sense of the impermanence of things while witnessing Mountain-top festivities, and were for a time disciples of Safijaya. Desiring something more than he could give them, they travelled about India listening to vari- ous teachers, and were converted to the religion of Buddha by Assaji. After making an unsuccessful attempt to persuade Safijaya to accom- pany them, they went to the feet of Buddha, who admitted and pro- fessed them as members of the Order and made them his chief disciples. (88-96)

The other disciples accuse Buddha of showing favoritism in bestow- ing the highest dignity on new-comers and passing over what they allege to be the prior claims of the Five Monks, Yasa and his Fifty- fuar Companions, the Thirty Young Nobles, and the Three Brothers. Buddha denies the charge and declares that it is his wont to bestow on every man that for which he has made his wish. By way of illustra- tion he relates the following stories of the past : (96-7)

Maha Kala and Cula Kala. Anuakondafina in his existence as Cfda Kala bestowed the gift of first-fruits nine times on the Buddha Vipassi and for seven days bestowed great largess on the Buddha Fadumuttara, making the wish that he might be the first to compre- hend the Law. The fact of his attaining this distinction was no proof of favoritism, but rather the fruit of that earnest wish. (97-9)

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Tasa and his Fifty-foar Companions perfonned many meritorioQS deeds in the dispensation of a previous Buddha, making the wish that they might thereby attain Aiahatship. In a later dispensation they banded themselves together for the performance of good works, and went about caring for the dead bodies of paupers. One day they came upon the dead body of a pregnant woman. They carried the body to the cemetery, Yasa and four others undertook the duty of cremating it, and the rest returned to the village. While Yasa was engaged in turning the body over and over, he acquired a sense of the impurity of the body. This he communicated to the four others, who in turn communicated it to the rest. Yasa also went and communicated it to his mother, his &ther, and his wife. It was due entirely to this that Yasa obtained in the women's apartments, the disposition of mind re- quisite to Conversion and that he and the others developed Specific Attainment. (99-100)

The Thirty Toung Nobles made their wish to attain Arahatship under previous Buddhas and performed works of merit In a later dis- pensation they gave themselves up to the pleasures of sense, but on hearing the admonition addressed to Tundila they kept the Five Precepts for seventy thousand years. (100)

The Three Brothers, Uruvela Kassapa, Nadi Eassapa, and Oaya Kassapa, entertained the Buddha Phussa, their oldest brother, and made the wish to attain Arahatship thereby. After undergoing rebirth as gods during ninety-two cycles of time, they obtained the fulfilment of their wish. (At that time Bimbisftra was their superintendent, the lay brother Vis&kha their steward, and the three ascetics with matted locks were the three royal princes.) Their serving men had a very different experience. The latter diverted to their own use the food they had been ordered to bestow in alms. After undergoing rebirth as ghosts during four Buddha-intervals, they came and begged food and drink of the Buddha Kakusandha, who referred them to the Buddha Konagamana, who referred them to the Buddha Kassapa, who com- forted them with the assurance that, in the dispensation of his suc- cessor Gotama, their kinsman Bimbis&ra would be king, and would obtain relief for them by transferring to them the merit he would earn by giving alms to the Teacher. Thus at last they obtained celestial food, drink, and robes, and became gods. (100-104)

Sarada and Sirivaddha. S&riputta and Moggall&na were bom as Sarada and Sirivaddha respectively at the time when the Buddha AnomadassI appear^ in the world. Sarada retired fix>m the world with seventy-four thousand followers, entertained AnomadassI, and held the flower parasol over him for seven days, making the wish that

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he might thereby become the chief disciple of a Buddha. Upon receiv- ing assarance that his wish would bd fulfilled, he sent word to Siri- vaddha to make his wish for the place of second disciple. Thereupon Sirivaddha entertained Anomadassi and made his wish. So what Sariputta an^ Moggallana obtained was only that for which they had made their wish under Anomadassi. (10^112)

Sariputta and Moggallana then related their experiences from the Mountain-top festivities to their final interview with Safijaya. Buddha then contrasted the attitude of Sanjaya with that of his own faithful followers, and pronounced Stanzas 11-12, at the conclusion of which many of his hearers were established in the Fruits. (113-114)

Book I. Story 9. Nanda, Elder. 28

ILLUSTRATINO STANZAS 13-14 - 13-14.

After the events related in the last story, Buddha visited his father Suddhodana and established him in the Fruits of the First Two Paths by pronouncing Stanzas 168-169. On the following day, while the fes- tivities connected with Nanda's marriage were going on, Buddha went into the house to collect alms, placed his bowl in Nanda's hands, wished him happiness, and then went out without taking the bowl. So profound was Nanda's reverence for the Teacher that he did not dare ask him to take the bowl ; but, expecting that the Teacher would ask for it sooner or later, he followed him first to the head of the stairs, then to the foot of the stairs, then to the court-yard. Here Nanda wished to turn back. But the Teacher went straight ahead, and Nanda, much against his will, followed. When Nanda's bride, Country Beauty, learned what had happened, she ran after him as fast as she could, with tears streaming down her face and hair half combed, and begged him to return. This caused a quaver in Nanda's heart, but the Teacher still gave no indication that he wished to have the bowl returned, and Nanda kept right on. When they reached the Monas- tery, the Teacher said : " Nanda, would you like to become a monk ? " That was the last thing in the world Nanda wanted to do just then ; but his reverence for the Teacher was so profound that he promptly said "Yes." Thereupon the Teacher admitted him to the Order. (115-116)

After receiving his son Rahula into the Order, and establishing his father in the Fruit of the Third Path, the Teacher, accompanied by the Congregation of Monks, went into residence at Jetavana. By this time

» Of. Ja. ii. 92-4.

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Nanda had become thoroughly dissatisfied with the Religions Life^ and one day he told his brethren that he was going to return to the World. When this was reported to the Teacher, he asked Nanda what was the matter. Nanda told him that he was so deeply in love with Country Beauty that he could not keep his mind on his re- ligious duties. The Teacher, taking him by the arm, led him to a burnt field, and showed him a singed monkey that had lost ears, nose, and tail, sitting on a charred stump ; then, by his supernatural power, conducting him to the world of the Thirty-three, he showed him five hundred pink-footed celestial ^nymphs. Then said the Teacher: " Nanda, which do you regard as being the more beautiful. Country Beauty or these five hundred pink-footed celestial nymphs ? " Nanda replied : " Venerable sir. Country Beauty is as far inferior to these n3rmphs as she is superior to that singed monkey." " Cheer up, Nanda ; I guarantee that you will win these n)rmphs if you only persevere in the Religious Life." The Teacher allowed it to become generally known that he had made this promise to Nanda ; whereupon the latter was subjected to such intense ridicule by his brethren that he returned to his religious duties with redoubled energy. In a short time he at- tained Arahatship; whereupon he went to the Teacher and said, " Venerable sir, I release the Exalted One from his promise." " But," said the Teacher, " when you attained Arahatship, at that moment I was released from my promise." (116-121)

One day Nanda told the other monks that he no longer had any desire to go back to the life of a householder. The monks reported this statement to the Teacher, who compared Nanda's former state to that of an ill-thatched house, and his latter state to that of a well- thatched house, and pronounced Stanzas 13-14, at the conclusion of which many of his hearers were established in Fruits. (121-2)

The monks were amazed at the Teacher's complete success in win- ning Nanda's obedience by employing the nymphs as a lure. But the Teacher said : " This is not the first time Nanda has been won to obedience by the lure of the opposite sex. The same thing happened once before." And he told the following tale of the pcist : (122-3)

Kappata and the Donkey. Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta reigned at Benares, there lived in that city a merchant named Kap- pata; and he had a donkey. Every day the merchant loaded the donkey down with pottery and made him go at least seven leagues. One day he made a trip to Takkasilft ; and while he was engaged in disposing of his wares, he let the donkey run loose. The donkey, see- ing a female of his species, went up to her. She greeted him in a friendly way and said, " Where have you come from ? " " From Ben-

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ares." " On what errand 1 " " On business." " How big a load do you carry 1 " "A big load of pottery." " How many leagues do you go, cixrr)aMg a big load like that ? " " Seven leagues." " In the vari- ous places you go to, do you have anybody to rub your feet and back 1 " "No." "If that's the case, you must have a mighty hard time." (Of course animals don't have anybody to rub their feet and back ; she talked the way she did simply to strengthen the bonds of love between them.) As the result of her talk, he became dissatisfied with his job. After the merchant had disposed of his wares, he returned to the donkey, and said, " Come, Jack, let 's be off." " You go yourself ; I 'm not going." The merchant tried without success to persuade him, and then said, " I will beat you till I break every bone in your body ; think that over." Said the donkey, " If you beat me, I will plant my fore feet, and let fly with my hind feet, and knock out your teeth ; think that over." The merchant was at a loss to account for the donkey's conduct, until he saw the female. Then he changed his tactics and said, " If you will go with me, I will bring you home a mate like that." ** In that case," said the donkey, ** I '11 go home with you and travel fourteen leagues a day hereafter." And off he went. (123-5)

"At that time," said the Teacher, " Country Beauty was the female donkey, Nanda was the donkey, and I was the merchant. In former times, too, Nanda was won to obedience by the lure of the female sex." (125)

Book I. Story 10. Cunda, the Pork-butcher.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 15 = 15.

Cunda, the pork-butcher, was a selfish, brutal, irreligious man. After a course of evil conduct lasting fifty-five yeiirs, he was attacked by a frightful disease, and while he yet lived, the Avici hell yawned before him. He went stark mad, and began to crawl about the house on his hands and knees, squealing and grunting like a pig. His kins- men ran out of the house, barricaded the doors, and mounted guard. After he had raved for seven days he died, and was reborn in the Avici hell. (125-7)

Some monks who passed the house during his madness thought that preparations for a big entertainment were in progress, and so reported the matter to the Teacher. The latter told them the real facts of the case, remarked that the irreligious man sorrows both here and here- after, and pronounced Stanza 15, at the end of which many were established in the Fruits. (127-9)

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Book I. Story U. The Faithful Lay Brother.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 16 - 16.

A certain lay brother distinguished for his benefiftctions and religions zeal, was attacked by mortal illness, and desiring to hear the Law, re- quested the Teacher to send him some monks. Just as the monks were beginning the recitation, a host of deities drove up in their chari- ots and said, " We would take you with us." The layman, wishing to hear the Law, said to the deities " Hold ; '' whereupon the monks, mis- taking his meaning, arose and departed. The layman's children, to whom the deities were invisible, began to weep ; whereupon the lay- man, to confirm their faith, performed a miracle, urged them to follow the example he had set in performing good works, and then, stepping into a celestial chariot, was reborn as a deity. (129-131)

When the monks told the Teacher that Uie layman had refused to hear the Law, he informed them of the real fiicts of the case, assured them that the religious man rejoices both here and hereafter, and pro- nounced Stanza 16, establishing many in the Fruits. (131-2)

Book I. Story 12. Devadatta.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 17 - 17.

The story of Devadatta from the time he retired from the world to the time he was swallowed up by the earth is related in detail in the Jatakas ; ^ the following is an abridgment of it : (133)

When the Future Buddha lived at Anupiya Mango-grove, eighty thousand kinsmen observed on his person the marks and characteristics of a Tathagata, and each dedicated a son to his service. In the course of time, all of these young men became monks, with the exception of Bhaddiya, Anuruddha, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Devadatta. One day Anuruddha's brother Mahftnama went to Anuruddha and said, ** There is n't one of our &mily that has become a monk ; you beoome a monk, and I 'U follow your example." (133)

(Now Anuruddha had been brought up in softness and luxury, and had never heard the word isn't Once the six princes engaged in a game of ball, wagering a cake on the result Anuruddha lost and sent word to his mother to send him a cake, which she did. This happened three times. The fourth time his mother sent word : "There isn't cake to send." The son replied, "Send me some isn't cake." The mother, in order to teach her son a lesson, sent him an empty bowl

M Ja. vi. 129-131; v. 333-7; iv. 158-9.

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covered with another empty bowl. The tutelary deities of the city filled the bowl with celestial cakes. The mother found out what had happened, and thereafter, whenever her son sent for cakes, sent him an empty bowl, which the deities filled with celestial cakes. How could a youth who was ignorant of the meaning of the word is nt^ be expected to know the meaning of monk 1 ) (133-5)

Anuruddha replied to Mahanama : " What does this word monk mean ? " Mahanama told him. Anuruddha replied that he was too delicate to become a monk. "Well then," said Mahanama, "learn farming, and adopt the life of a householder." Anuruddha replied, " What does this word farming mean ? " (135-6)

(How could you expect a youth to know the meaning o^ farming who did n't know where rice comes from ? Once a discussion arose among the three princes Kimbila, Bhaddiya, and Anuruddha, as to where rice comes from. Kimbila thought it came from the granary ; Bhaddiya, from the kettle ; Anuruddha, from the golden bowl.) (i36)

Mahanama explained to Anuruddha what was implied by the term farming; whereupon Anuruddha, aghast at the endless routine of manual labor, said, "Well then, live the householder's life yourself; I have no use for it" He went to his mother and said, " Mother, give me your permission to become a monk." "All right, if your friend King Bhaddiya will do the same." Anuruddha had no little difficulty in persuading Bhaddiya to do this ; but finally the latter agreed to retire from the world in seven days. Then Bhaddiya, Anuruddha, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila, and Devadatta, together with the barber Upali, set out with four-fold array, and crossed over into foreign terri- tory. Here the six princes sent back the army, took off their orna- ments, made a bundle of them, gave them to Upali, and ordered him to return. When Upali had gone a little way, he was overcome with fear that the fierce Sakyans, thinking that he had put their princes to death, would retaliate by killing him; accordingly he untied the bundle, hung the ornaments up on a tree, and returned to his masters. Then the six princes, taking Upali with them, went to the Teacher, and said : " We, Venerable sir, are proud Sakyans ; this man has been a servitor of ours for a long time ; admit him to the Order first ; to him first we will ofi*er respectful salutations ; so will our pride be humbled." Thereupon the Teacher first admitted Upali to the Order, and after him the others. Bhaddiya attained Threefold^nowledge, Anuruddha Sui>eniatural Vision, afterwards Arahatship, Ananda was established in the Fruit of Conversion, and Bhagu and Kimbila by the develop- ment of Insight attained Arahatship. Devadatta attained the lower grade of Magic Power. (136-8) . ^

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When the Teacher and the monks went into residence at Kosambi great numbers of people flocked thither and said, '^ Where is the Teacher? Where is Sd,riputta? MoggallOna? Kassapa? Bhaddijat Anuruddha ? Ananda 1 Bhagu ? Kimbila 1 " But nobody said, " Where is Devadattal" Thereupon Devadatta said to himself "I retired from the world with these monks ; I, like them, belong to the Warrior caste ; but unlike them, I am the object of nobody's solicitude. With whom can I make common cause, that I may obtain gain and honor for myself? BimbisSra? He will have nothing to do with me. The king of Kosala? Neither will he. What about BimbisSra's son Ajfitasattu ? He does n't know anybody's virtues or vices. He 's the very man ! " (138-9)

Accordingly Devadatta assumed the form of a child girded about with snakes, and descending from the sky, sat in Ajfttasattu's lap. Perceiving that he was frightened, Devadatta told him who he was, and resumed his proper form. Ajfitasattu bestowed all manner of attentions upon Devadatta, until there arose in the latter's mind, over- mastered by gain and honor, the evil thought, " It is I who ought to run the Congregation of Monks." Thereupon he went to the Teacher and said : " Venerable sir, the Exalted One is stricken in years ; let him live a life of ease in this world ; I will run the Congregation of Monks ; make over the Order to me." But the Teacher repulsed De- vadatta, called him a "lick-spittle," and caused proclamation to be made concerning him at Rajagaha.2* Thereupon Devadatta cherished resentment against the Teacher, and resolved to make trouble for him. (139-140)

So Devadatta went to Ajatasattu and said : "Youth, aforetime men were long-lived, but nowadays they don't live long; this makes it probable that you won't live long. You kill your fether and become king, and I '11 kill the Buddha and become Buddha." When Aja- tasattu was established in the kingdom,^^ Devadatta made three attempts on the life of the Buddha. First he hired some men to kill him, but they deserted their posts and obtained the Fruit of Conver-

** Oldenberg, relyinn; on Fausbdll's faulty text, says regarding this procla- mation (SBE. XX. p. 239, note 2) : " It is not referred to by the Dhammapada commentator." Norman, however, gives the same reading as the Vinaya.

*• It is interesting to note that this account does not say that Ajfttasattu killed his father. The Vinaya says (ii. 190-191) that Ajatasattu's designs were discovered and that Bimbisfira abdicated in favor of his son. The J&taka (vi. 129, lines 20-22) refers to the section of the Vinaya quoted above, and then goes on to say that Ajatasattu killed his father ! In the Digha (i. 85 »»-*«) Ajatasattu confesses to the Buddha that he killed his father.

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sion. Then he climbed to the top of Vulture Peak and hurled down a rock, but succeeded only in wounding the Teacher. Lastof all he des- patched the elephant Nd.lligiri against the Teacher, but Ananda stood in the breach and the Teacher subdued the elephant Buddha in- formed the monks that this was not the first time Ananda had risked his life for him, and related the Gulahagsa, Mahahagsa, and Eakkata Jatakas. (140-141)

After that neither the people nor the king would have anything more to do with Devadatta. Then the latter went to Buddha and made the Five Demands, but was again repulsed. Finally Devadatta caused a schism in the Order by persuading five hundred monks to make common cause with him, but Sftriputtaand Moggall&na convinced them of the error of their ways by preaching and performing miracles before them, and returned with them throu^ the air. When the Teacher saw Sariputta returning with this splendid retinue, he re- marked that this was not the first time he had done so, and related the Lakkhana Jataka.ae (141-4)

During the Teacher's residence at Rajagaha, he related many Jftta- kas about Devadatta's evil deeds in previous existences. For example when the monks told him that Devadatta was imitating him, he related the Vlraka^ KaiTdaga1aka> and Virocana Jatakas ; with reference to his ungratefulness, he related the Javasakuna Jataka ; commenting on his wickedness, he told the Eurunga J&taka; hearing the remark that Devadatta had renounced the joys of the householder's life only to fall away from the estate of a monk, he told the Ubhatobhattha J&taka. The Teacher then retired firom lUjagaha to Sftvatthi and took up his residence at Jetavana Monastery. (144-6)

Devadatta suffered fix)m sickness for nine months, at the end of which, realizing that his end was near, he was overwhelmed with re- morse, and resolved to make his peace with the Teacher. So he caused himself to be carried on a litter to Jetavana. The Teacher refused to see him. When Devadatta raised himself from the litter and assumed a sitting posture with both feet resting on the ground, the earth gave way under his feet, and slowly swallowed him up. As his jaws touched the earth, he cried out^ " I seek refuge in Buddha ; " whereupon the Teacher made him a monk, prophesjdng that at the end of a hundred thousand cycles of time he would be reborn as a Private Buddha named Atthissara. After the earth had swallowed up Devadatta, he was re-

•• Jft. 1. 142. Chalmers remarks: "Unlike this J&taka, the Vinajra . . . gives a share of the credit to Moggall&na." But elsewhere (J&. iv. 158, lines 3-4) the J&taka distinctly says that it was S&riputta and Moggall&na.

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boFD in the Avici hell, where he suffered excmoiating tortares, being encased in an iron shell and impaled on iron stakes. (146-6)

When the monks commented on what had happened to Devadatta, the Teacher told them that Devadatta had suffered similar experiences in previous existences, and related the Sllavan&ga, Ehantivddi, and Gulla Dhammapftla J&takas. When the multitude rejoiced at his death, the Teacher told them that the same thing had happened before, and related the Mah&pingala Jataka. Finally the monks inquired where he had been reborn. The Teacher replied, " In the Avici hell ;" and reminding them that irreligious men suffer both here and hereafter, he pronounced Stanza 17, at the end of which many were established in the Fruits. (148-150)

Book I. Story 13. Snmanft.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 18 — 18.

And^thapindika and VisftkhS were so intimately acquainted vnih the needs of the monks that they were much sought after to accompany those who desired to carry alms to the monks. When VisSkhS left her house, she appointed a granddaughter to dispense alms in her place, Anathapindika assigned a similar duty to his oldest "daughter. The latter attained the Fruit of Conversion, married, and was succeeded by a younger sister. She also attained the Fruit of Conversion, married, and was succeeded by the youngest daughter Sumand% (1^1)

Suman^ attained the Fruit of the Second Path, but remained un«> married. Thereat she sickened, would eat nothing, and sent for her fatlier. When the latter asked her what was the matter, she addressed him as " youngest brother," and died. An&thapindika, unable to quiet his grief, went to the Teacher and told him what had happened. " Why do you grieve ? " said the Teacher. " Know you not that death is certain for all ? " "I know that, Venerable sir ; but my daughter talked incoherently when she died, addressing me as 'youngest brother.' " " She spoke quite correctly," replied the Teacher, " for she had attained the Fruit of the Second Path, while you have attained only the Fruit of Conversion." ^ Thereupon the Teacher informed Anathapiiidika that Suman& had been reborn in the Tusita heaven, and pronounced Stanza 18, at the conclusion of which many were established in the Fruits. (151-4)

*v Compare the story of Eavi in Manu, ii. 150 (Lanman's Reader, 61 ^.

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ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 19-20 = 19-20.

Two noble youths who had been friends retired from the world to- gether. The older of these assumed the Burden of Insight and attained Arahatship ; the younger assumed the Burden of Study, acquired the Tipitaka, and became renowned as a master of the Law. One day the younger monk learned from some pupils of his older brother that the latter knew only one Nikaya and one Pitaka, and that of the four- lined Stanzas he knew none at all. Becoming greatly puffed up at the thought of his own superior learning, he resolved to seize the first opportunity to ask his older brother some embarrassing questions, (154-5)

Somewhat later the older monk came to pay his respects to the Teacher. The latter, knowing what was in the mind of the younger monk, anticipated his designs, and asked both monks several questions. The younger monk answered all the questions about the Trances and the Eight Attainments, but failed to answer a single question the Teacher asked him about the Paths. The older monk, however, answered all the the questions correctly. The Teacher praised the older monk highly, and pronounced Stanzas 19-20, at the end of which many were established in the Fruits. (155-9)

Book n. Story 1. Udena.28

ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 1-3 = 2 1-23,

la. RiBe and Career of Udena.

Once upon a time two kings named Allakappa and Vethadipaka, who had been friends since boyhood, retired from the world and be- came forest hermits. One day Vethadipaka died and was reborn as a powerful spirit. Desiring to see his brother, he disguised himself as a wayfarer and paid him a visit. Allakappa told him that the elephants were giving him a lot of trouble ; whereupon Vethadipaka gave him a lute to charm elephants with, and taught him the proper spells. " Twang this string and utter this spell," said he, "and the elephants will run away without so much as taking a look behind them ; twang this string and utter this spell, and they will retreat, eyeing you as they go ; twang this string and utter this spell and the leader of the herd will come up and offer you his back." Vethadipaka then departed,

" Cf. Rogers, pp. 32-00.

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and after that Allakappa got along fiunoosly with the big beasts. (161^)

At this time Parantapa was king at Eosambi. One day the king and the queen were sitting out in the open air sonning themselTes. The qneen, who was great with child, was wearing the king's scarlet blanket ; and as they chatted together the queen removed the king's signet ring from his finger and slipped it on her own. Jost then a monster vulture, mistaking the queen for a piece of meat^ swooped down, caught up the queen in his talons, carried her off to the forest, and deposited her in the fork of a banyan tree. The following morn- ing she gave birth to a son, whom she called Udena. (164-5)

Now the banyan tree was not &r from the hermitage of Allakappa. The latter, discovering mother and child, escorted them to the hermit- age and cared for them tenderly. After a time, the mother, fearing that if the hermit went away she and her child would be left alone in the forest to die, tempted the hermit to break his vow of chastity. The latter yielded to the temptation, and thereafter the two lived together as man and wife. (165-^)

One day Allakappa read it in the stars that the king of Eosambi was dead. He told the queen, and the latter burst into tears. Then said the hermit, " Why do you weep 1 " " Because he was my hus- band." " Weep not ; death is certain for all." " I know, sir." " But why do you continue to weep 1 " " Because of my son ; if he could only be there, he would be crowned king." "Cease weeping; I will arrange all that" Thereupon the hermit gave the boy the lute to charm elephants with and taught him the proper spells. The her- mit then said to the mother, " Give your son the necessary instruc- tions, that he may go hence and become king." The mother told the boy that he was the son of Parantapa, king of Eosambi ; that a monster bird had carried her off just before he was bom ; that he was to go forth and claim his kingdom ; and that in case the ministers refused to believe him, he was to show them his fistther's scarlet mantle and signet ring. Then the prince bade farewell to his fie^ther and mother, mounted the back of the oldest elephant of the herd, and whispered in his ear, " My lord, I am the son of Parantapa, king of Eosambi ; obtain for me the kingdom of my &ther." The elephant trumpeted, saying, " Let all the hosts of the elephants assemble ; ** and immediately all tJbe hosts of the elephants assembled. Then the elephant trumpeted again, sajring, "Let the old elephants retire, and the young elephants withdraw;" and immediately the old elephants retired, and the young elephants withdrew. So Udena set out with a prodigious host of warrior ele- phants, and going to the gates of Eosambi, cried out with a loud voices

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''Oive me battle or my kingdom.'' Then he cried ont again, ''I am the king's son ; " and held up the mantle and the ring, that all might see them ; whereupcJn the citizens opened the gates, and hailed him as their king. (166-9)

lb. •Rise and Career of the Treasurer Qhosaka.

Once upon a time there was a &mine in the kingdom of Ajita, and a certain man named Kotuhalaka took his wife and in£Gmt son and set out for Kosambi in search of food. When the provisions for the jonr- ndy &iled, the bithev proposed to the mother to cast the child away, but the mother protested vigoronsly, and suggested that they carry the child by turns. While the fie^ther was carrying the child in his arms, the child fell asleep ; whereupon the &ther, allowing the mother to precede him, laid the child on a couch of leaves under a bush, and went on his way. When the mother discovered what had happened, she begged her husband to restore the child to her, and he did so. (In consequence of having cast his child away on this occasion, Kotuhalaka was himself cast away seven times in a later existence. Let no one regard a sinful deed as a small matter.) (169-170)

Continuing on their journey, they arrived at the house of a herds- man. One of the herdsman's cows had just calved, and a festival was being held in honor of the event The herdsman received the visitors hospitably, set abundant food before them, and then sat down to eat his own meaL Kotuhalaka watched the herdsman feed a bitch that lay under his stool, and thought to himself : " How fortunate is that bitch to get food like that to eat ! " During the night Kotohalaka died of indigestion, and was conceived in the womb of the bitch whose lot he envied. (170-171)

Now a Private Buddha was accustomed to take his meals in the house of the herdsman ; and Kottihalaka's widow, realizing what an opportunity she had to store up merit for the fdture, bestowed alms on him &ithfully every day. By and by the bitch gave birth to a single pup. The herdsman reserved the milk of one cow for the pup, and in a short time the latter grew to be a fine big dog. The Private Bud- dha fed him every day with his own hand, and the dog became so fond of the Private Baddha that he performed all manner of services for him. Some time later the Private Buddha took leave of the herdsman, and setting his fiskce towards (JandhamSdana, soared into the air. Thereupon the dog set up a howl of grie( and when the Private Bud- dha passed out of sight, his heart broke, and he died. (Dogs, they say, are straightforwa^ ; men think one thing with their heart, but say

k.

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another with their lips.) The dog was reborn in the world of the Thirty-three with a retinae of a thousand celestial njonpha (If yon ask, " Of what was this the conseqaence 1 " it wa6 becanse he barked so affectionately at the Private Buddha.) (171-3)

In consequence of having devoted himself to sensual pleasures, he fell from the world of the Thirty-three, and was conceived in the womb of a harlot of Kosambi. When the child was bom, and the harlot learned that it was a boy, she had him oast away on a dust-hec^). A man who happened to pass by took a &ncy to the child, and saying to himself, ** I have gained a son," took him home with him. (173-4)

That day there was a conjunction of the moon with a certain luifar mansion ; and a treasurer of Kosambi, meeting an astrologer, asked him what the sign betokened. The astrologer said, " This day is bom in Kosambi a child who will become the principal treasurer of the city/' It so happened that the treasurer's wife was at that very time great with child ; and he immediately sent word to find out whether she had been delivered or no. When the messenger brought back word that she had not, the treasurer summoned a female slave and said to her, " Here are a thousand pieces of money ; scour the city and find a boy that was bom to<day and bring him hither to ma" The slave retumed with the foundling. The treasurer thought to himself : " If a daughter is bom to me I will marry her to this boy and m^ke him treasurer ; but if a son is bom to me, I will kill this boy." A few days later his wife gave birth to a son. The treasurer then set i^at to carry out his plan. (174-5)

[The reader will bear in mind that the adopted son of the treasurer was none other than the harlot's son who had been cast away on the dast-heap, and that he must needs be cast away six times more in consequence of the evil deed he committed when, in his exi/itence as Eotuhalaka, he cast away his own son ; that he must needs be rescued through the effect of the merit he eamed in his existence as a dog by barking so affectionately at the Private Buddha ; and that, inasmuch as all the hosts of heaven and earth cannot interfere with the operation of the law of cause and effect* the astrologer's prophecy concerning him was at last to be fulfilled. The boy's name was Ohosaka.]

First the treasurer had Ohosaka laid at the door of the cattle-pen, hoping that he would be trampled to death. But the bull stood over him, allowing the cows to pass out on either side of him, and the herds- man took him homa (l75)

The treasurer recovered Ghosaka, and then had him placed on the caravan trail, expecting that he would either be trampled by the oxen, or crushed by the wheels of the carts. But when tiie oxen saw the

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boy, they stopped with one accord, and the whole caravan stood stock still until its leader discovered what was the matter and rescued the boy. (176)

Ghosaka was recovered by the treasurer, who then had him cast away under a bush in the cemetery. Along came a goatherd with his goats. The goatherd's suspicions were aroused by the peculiar actions of a she-goat; whereupon he made an investigation, 'discovered the boy, and rescued him. (176-7)

Ghosaka was again recovered by the treasurer and thrown down a precipica He fell into a clump of bamboo, and a basket-maker rescued him. (177)

In spite of the treasurer's attempts on his life, Ghosaka lived and thrived and grew to manhood. ^ He was a thorn in the flesh of the treasurer, who could not look him straight in the &ce. Finally the treasurer resorted to desperate measures. He went to a potter, gave him a thousand pieces of money, and said to him, " I have a job for you." "What is it?" "I have a base-bom son; I'll send him to you to-morrow ; get him into a room, take a sharp razor, cut him into bits, and throw them into the chatty." '"All right" The next day the treasurer said to Ghosaka, " Go and tell the potter to finish up the job I gave him yesterday." "Very well," said Ghosaka ; and started out When he had gone a little way, the treasurer's own son, who was playing ball with some other boys, stopped him and said to him, " Where are you going 1 " Ghosaka told him. " Let 's change places," said the treasurer's son ; "these boys have won a lot of money from me, and you 're such a good ball-player that you can easily win it back for me." So Ghosaka took his foster-brother's place in the game, and the treasurer's own son carried his fie^ther's message to the potter. That night the despised Ghosaka returned home ; the treasurer's son did not The treasurer cried out, " Woe is me ! " and rushed to the potter, who said to him, "Master, make no noise; I have done the job." The wicked treasurer was overwhelmed with sorrow and grief at the thought that he had shed innocent blood, even as Buddha says in Stanzas 137-140. (177-9)

The treasurer made one more attempt on Ghosaka's life. He wrote a letter to the superintendent of his estate, saying, " This is my base- born son ; kill him, and I will do what is right for you ; " pinned it to the hem of Ghosaka's clothing, and ordered Ghosaka to carry it to the superintendent (The treasurer had never taught Ghosaka to read, for he expected sooner or later to kill him.) When Ghosaka remarked that he needed provisions for the journey, the treasurer said, " Not at all; in such and such a village livesafriend of mine who is a treasurer;

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he will give you something to eat" When Ghosaka stopped at the village treasurer's hoase, the treasurer's wife took a &ncy to him, and the daughter of the household fell madly in love with him. (It was she that had been his wife in his former existence as Eottihalaka, and it was through the merit she acquired by bestowing alms on the Private Buddha that she was reborn as the treasurer's dau)^hter. No wonder that her old passion for him returned !) When the treasurer's daugh- ter discovered that Ghosaka was carrying his death-warranty she secretly removed it and substituted another letter of her own compo- sition, which read as follows : " This is my son Ghosaka. Bestow treasure upon him ; prepare for the festival of his marriage to the daughter of the village treasurer ; build him a splendid palace ; and provide him with a strong guard of soldiers. When you have so done, send me word, saying, * I have done this and that.' " When the superintendent read Uie letter he immediately did as he was told.

(180-182)

When the treasurer learned how miserably his last attempt had fisdled, he cried out, " What I would do, that I do not ; what I would not do, that I do," sickened, and was soon at the point of deatit Ghosaka and his bride visited him in his last moments. Just as the treasurer was about to die, he lifted up his voice, intending to say, " These my treasures shall never be Ghosaka's ; " but by a slip of the tongue said instead, " These my treasures shall ever be Ghosaka's." King Udena confirmed Ghosaka in his. inheritance and made him the principal treasurer of the city. When the treasurer Ghosaka learned from his wife how narrow had been his escape from death, he resolved to forsake the life of Heedlessness, and to live the life of Heedfulness, and thereafter he dispensed a thousand pieces of money daily in alms to the poor. (182-7)

lo. Rise and Career of SftmSlvatl.

At this time the treasurer Ghosaka learned from some merchants who had lately returned from BhaddavatI that there lived in that city a merchant of great wealth and high standing, named Bhaddavatiya ; and desiring to be friends with him, Ghosaka sent him a present. Bhaddavatiya returned the compliment ; and thus, though they had never seen each other, they became fast friends. A little later a pesti- lence broke out in Bhaddavatiya's city ; and the treasurer, taking his wife and daughter, set out for Eosambi, intending to ask Ghosaka to help them. After a hard journey they reached Eosambi, and secured lodgings in a hall near the city gate. Bhaddavatiya told his wife that Ghosaka was accustomed to dispense a thousand pieces of money daily

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iu alms to the poor, and suggested that they send their daughter to him to procure food until they reoovered sufficient stiength to pay him a visit (lp7-8)

So it happened that the daughter of a wealthy house accompanied poor folk to Ohosaka's hall for alms. " How many portions will you have ? " " Three." That night her fether died. " How many portions will you have?" "Two." That night her mother died. "How many portions will you have?" "One." A householder named Mitta, who remembered that she had taken more on the two previous days, said to her, " I suppose that is all you can hold to-day." This cruel remark cut her to ihe quick, and she said, "Sir, don't think I took more for myself; before we were three, yesterday two, to-day I am left alona" She then told him the whole story, whereupon he took pity on her and adopted her as his oldest daughter. She rendered such valuable assistance in the administration of the hall where Gho- saka's alms were distributed as to attract the attention of Ghosaka himself, who, upon learning that she was the daughter of Bhadda- vatiya, gave her a retinue of five hundred women and made her as his own oldest daughter. One day King Udena saw her, fell in love with her, and married her. She became one of his queen-conscHrts, and the women of her retinue ladies-in-waiting. (188-191)

Id. Vftsoladattft.

Another of Udena's queen-consorts was VSsuladattS^ daughter of Candapajjota, king of Ujjeni. Udena gained possession of her in the following way : (191-2)

One day King Candapajjota said to his ministers, "Is there any other monarch so powerful as I am?" "Of course not," said they; " but yet King Udena of Kosambi is pretty powerful." " Well then, let 's take him prisoner." " It can't be done ; he understands how to charm elephants, and has more elephants at his disposal than any other king." " I suppose it can't be done." " Well, if your heart is set on doing it, you might try this stratagem : Have a wooden elephant made, and send it out somewhere near him ; he will go a long way after a good mount, and you can take him prisoner as he approaches." " That is a stratagem ! " (192)

Thereupon Candapajjota had a mechanical elephant made of wood, and turned it loose where Udena would be sure to see it It looked exactly like a real elephant ; moreover, it was fitted with mechanical appliances worked from the inside, so that it moved hither and thither just like a real elephant; its belly held sixty men, who worked the mechanism, and every now and then dumped out a quantity of ele-

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phant dung. Udena immediately mounted his elephant and started oat in pursuit jCandapajjbta posted an ambuscade. Udena tried to charm the wooden elephant by twanging his lute and uttering spells, but the wooden elephant paid no attention to him, and only made off faster than ever. Udena, unable to keep up with the wooden elephant, mounted his horse, left his army behind, and started out alone. Thereupon he was drawn into the ambuscade and captured. (192-3)

Gandapajjota kept Udena in prison for three days, and then offered to release him if Udena would divulge the charm. " I will do so," said Udena, "provided you will pay me homage." "That I will not do," replied Gandapajjota ; " but will you divulge it to another, if the other will pay you homage ? " " Yes." " Well then, there is a hunch- backed woman in this house ; I will have her sit inside a curtain ; you remain outside and teach her the charm." "Very welL" Ganda- pajjota then went to his daughter, the beautiful Princess Vdsuladatt^ and said to her, " There is a leper who knows a priceless charm ; you sit inside a curtain ; he will remain outside, and teach you the charm ; then tell me what it is." (Gandapajjota employed this stratagem to protect his daughter's chastity.) (193-4)

One day Udena repeated the charm over and over again to Vasula- datta, but the latter was unable to reproduce it correctly. Thereupon Udena lost his patience, and cried out, " What 's the matter with you, you thick-lipped hunchback 1 " VSsuladatta retorted angrily, " How dare you speak thusi do I look like a hunchback?" Udena raised the curtain, and immediately they both knew why Gandapajjota had deceived them. VSsuladattd. jrielded her chastity to Udena ; and after that there were no more lessons. The king frequently asked his daughter, " How are you getting along with your lessons 1 " and always received the answer, "Very well." (194-5)

One day Udena said to Vasuladatta, " If you will save my life, I will make you queen-consort and provide you with five hundred ladies-in- waiting." " Very well," replied Vasuladatta ; and she went and said to her father, " Father, in order that I may perfect myself in this charm, it will be necessary for me to dig a certain medicinal root in the dead of night at a time indicated by the stars ; therefore please have one door left open, and put an elephant at my disposal." (195-6)

(Now King Gandapajjota, in consequence of having bestowed alms on a Private Buddha in a previous existence as a slave, was possessed of the five conveyances : a female elephant, which could travel 50 leagues a day ; a slave, who could travel 60 leagues ; two horses, 100 leagues ; and an elephant named NalSgiri, 120 leagues.) (196-6)

One day, when Gandapajjota was absent, Udena filled several big

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leather sacks with gold and silver, put them on the back of the female elephant, assisted VOsuladattft to mount, and away they went As soon as Candapajjota learned what had happened, he sent out a force in pursuit. Udena opened the sacks and scattered coins along the route ; Candapajjota's men delayed pursuit to pick them up ; so Udena easily escaped. It was thus that VOsuladattft came to be one of King Udena's queen-consorts. (198-9)

le. MAgandiya.

Magandiyft was another of Udena's queen-consorts. She was the daughter of a Brahman named MAgandiya, who lived in the Eiiru country. Mfigandiyft was the name of her mother, and she had an uncle named MSgandiya. She was as beautiful as a celestial nymph. One after another the sons of the most prominent &milies presented themselves as suitors for her hand ; but the Brahman refused them all^ telling them that they were not worthy of her. (199)

One day the Teacher, knowing that the Brahman and his wife were capable of attaining the Fruit of the Third Path, went to the place where the Brahman was tending the sacred fire. The Brahman was so impressed with the majestic appearance of his visitor that he then and there offered him his daughter in marriage. The Teacher said nothing. The Brahman went home in great haste, told his wife that he had found a husband for their daughter, caused the latter to be dressed in gala attire, and then all three went to the Teacher. (199-200)

By this time the Teacher had moved away from the place of his in- terview with the Brahman, leaving a foot-print " Where can he have gone ! " said the Brahman ; and then, seeing the foot-print, he said to his wife, "There is his foot-print." Now the Brahman's wife was well versed in the Three Vedas ; and after considering the foot-print, and turning over in her mind the texts relating to foot-prints, she said, " Husband, that is not the foot-print of one who follows the Five Lusts." ** Hush, wife, you 're always seeing alligators in the water- vessel and thieves hiding in the house." Then the Brahman saw the Teacher and said, "There is the man." The Brahman immediately went to him and said, " I bestow my daughter upon you ; cherish her tenderly." The Teacher replied, " Brahman, I have something to say to you ; " and then told him that from the time of the Great Retirement to the time of the Session under the Banyan-tree Mftra had pursued him re- lentlessly, only to be defeated at every point, that Mftra's daughters had then tempted him in various forms without exciting in him the lust of the flesh, and that nothing would induce him to touch the maiden who stood before him with so much as the sole of his foot

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Thereupon the Brahman and his wife were established in the Fmit of the Third Path. Md^^diy^ however, cherished the most bitter hatred of the Teacher ever after. (200-202)

The Brahman and his wife entrusted Md*gandiy& to ihe care of her uncle, who adorned her with all the adornments and presented her to King Udena. The king immediately fell in love with her and married her, making her queen-consort and giving her a retinue of five hundred ladies-in-wfidting. (202-203)

If. Death of SflmAvatl.

At this time there were living in Kosambi three treasurers, Qhosita, Eukkuta, and P&v&riya. At the beginning of the rainy season five hundred monks returned fix)m the Him&laya country and went about the city collecting alms. The three treasurers saw them and provided them with food during the four rainy months. When the rains were at an end the monks took leave of their hosts and retired to Him&laya, promising to return the following year. And this became an estab- lished custom. Several years later, the monks on their return from Himalaya took up their abode in the forest under a gigantic banyan tree. The oldest monk thought to himself : '* This tree must be ten- anted by a very powerful tree-spirit ; I wish he would give us some water to drink ; " and immediately the spirit gave them water to drink Then the monk thought, " I wish he would give us some water to bathe in ; " and immediately the spirit gave them water to bathe in. Then the monk thought of food, and there it was ! " Well ! " said the monk, " this spirit gives us everything we think of; let *s have a look at him.'* Immediately the tree split open, and out came the spirit Said the monks, " Spirit, you have great power ; what did you do to get it I " But it was a very modest spirit; and so said, "Don't ask me." •* Please tell.'* After considerable urging, the spirit told his story.

(203-204)

It seems that the spirit had once been a servant of An&thapindika. One fast-day An&thapindika, on learning that his servant had not been told the significance of the day, ordered a meal to be prepared for him. The servant observed that no one else was eating, learned why, and followed suit He then went out and did his day's work, was taken sick, and died that very night " My master," said the spirit, " was devoted to Buddha, the Law, and the Order ; and it was through him and in consequence of the fast I observed that I was reborn as a tree- spirit." (204-206)

Thereupon the monks sought refuge in Buddha, the Law, and the Order, and on the following day, aft;er conferring with the three treas-

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urers, visited the Teacher, attained Arahatship, and were admitted to the Order. A little later Ghosita, Kukkuta, and Pavariya came to the Teacher, bearing rich offerings, and were established in the Fruit of Conversion. For two weeks the treasurers remained with the l^eacher, giving generously of their store, and then, after obtaining the Teacher's promise to visit them, returned to Kosambi. Here they erected Ghosita, Kukkuta, and FavS-riya monasteries, and here the Teacher visited them, dividing his time equally among the three. After the treasurers had entertained the Teacher for some time, their gardener Sumana asked and received permission to entertain him for a single day. (20e-208)

Now at this time King Udena was in the habit of giving Queen Samavati eight pieces of mt)ney every day to buy flowers with. This money the queen turned over to a female slave, Khujjuttara, who went regularly to the gardener Sumana's and bought flowers. On the day appointed for the Teacher's visit Sumana said to her : " To-day I ex- pect to entertain the Teacher, and shall have use for my flowers ; wait and listen to the Law, and then, if there are any flowers left, you may have them." Khujjuttara barkened to the Law, and was established in the Fruit of Conversion. Now hitherto it had been Khujjuttarfi's practice to spend only four pieces of money on flowers, and to pocket the rest That day, however, she spent the entire amount on flowers, and returned with so many that the queen's curiosity was aroused, and the whole story came out. From that time on Khujjuttara stole no more ; but becoming as it were a mother to Sam^vatl, went regularly every day to hear the Teacher, and returned and preached the Law to the queen and her retinue exactly as she had heard it. She soon knew the Tipitaka so well as to win from the Teacher the title of " Pre-eminent." Queen Samavati and her retinue were established in the Fruit of Conversion. (208-210)

One day Samavati expressed to Khujjuttara a desire to see the Teacher. Khujjuttara said, " It 's a serious matter to live in a king's palace ; once in, you can't get out." The queen begged her to arrange . it in some way. Khujjuttara then told her to make holes in the walls of the palace and to render homage to the Teacher from within. Magandiya came to know of this. (210-211)

Now Magandiya had cherished the most bitter hatred of the Teacher and his followers ever since the Teacher refused to marry her ; and as * soon as she learned that Samavati and her attendants were making a practice of rendering homage to the Teacher through holes in the walls of the palace, she said to herself, " I know what 's to be done to him ; I know what 's to be done to them." Thereupon Magandiya went to

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King Udena and told him that S&m&vatl was plannbg to kill him, and had made holes in the walls of the palace for that purpose. The king, however, refused to believe her ; and when he learned what the real bucta were, had the holes sealed up and windows made in the upper storey. (Upper-storey windows came in at this time, we are told.)

(211)

Magandiy^ then determined to drive the Teacher out of the city, and to this end employed ruffians to follow him about and heap abuse upon him. Ananda proposed to the Teacher that they should go else- where ; but this the Teacher declined to do, and comparing himself to an elephant engaged in the fray, pronounced Stanzas 320-322. After seven days the uproar ceased; and Mftgandiyft, perceiving that she could do nothing against the Teacher, renewed her determination to destroy the women who were his supporters. (211-213)

Md*gandiy& then procured from her uncle eight live cocks and eight dead cocks, and presented the live cocks to Udena, suggesting that he ask Sd^mftvati to cook them for him. Udena did so, and S&m&vatI re- plied, " I and my followers do not take life." " Now," said Magandiya, ** see whether she will cook them for the hermit Gotama." MSgandiya then substituted the dead cocks for the live cocks, and Samftvatl imme- diately obeyed directions. "See," said Magandiya, " they won't do it for the like of you, but they '11 do it readily enough for outsiders." The king, however, still refused to believe her. (213-215)

Now the king was accustomed to divide his time equally among his three consorts, spending a week at a time in the apartment of each. MagandiyO, knowing that the king would go to Samavatl's apartment on the following day, carrying with him, as was his custom, the lute Allakappa had given him, procured a snake from her uncle and placed it in the cavity of the lute, stopping the end of the lute with a bunch of flowers. Then she said to him, " Whose apartment do you visit to- day?" The king told her. "Don't do it," said she; "last night I had a bad dream, and I fear that something will happen to you." But the king went, just the same, and Magandiya, much against his wishes, followed after. The king placed the lute beside his pillow and lay down on the bed. Magandiya secretly removed the bunch of flowers from the lute, and out came the snake. Magandiya screamed as if in terror, and after reproaching the king for disregarding her warning, turned to SamavatI and her attendants and reviled them, saying, " You wretched scoundrels, what do you hope to gam by killing your most gracious sovereign t " The kbg was consumed with anger, and now believed all that Magandiya had said. (215-216)

SamavatI urged her attendaiits to remain true to the principles of

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their religion, and to cherish no bitter feelings toward the king or M%andiyd^ The king took his bow, which required a thousand soldiers to string, and shot a poisoned arrow at S&mavatl's breast. But so great was the power of S^m&vatl's love that the arrow turned back and, as it were, penetrated the king's heart Thereupon the king threw himself at SSmavatf s feet and cried out, " Be thou my refuge." Sd.m&yatl replied, " In whom I have myself sought refuge, in him do thou also seek refuge." Then the king sought refuge in Buddha and thereafter was a most generous benefsu^tor of the Order. (216-220)

Magandiya thought to herself: "Everything I do turns out badly ; what shaU I do next ? " Finally she resorted to the desperate expedi- ent of directing her uncle to fire Samftvatf s palace. Her uncle wrapped the palace in cloths saturated with oil, barred the doors, set fire to the building in several places at once, and Sdmftvatl and her five hundred attendants perished in the flames. By devoting themselves to earnest meditation on the element of pain, some of the victims obtained the Fruit of Conversion, others the Fruit of the Second Path, still others the Fruit of the Third Path. (According to a passage in the Udana, the monks reported to the Teacher what had happened and questioned him regarding the future state of the victims. The Teacher assured them that none &iled to obtain a suitable reward, and warned them that all beings are constantly experiencing botii happiness and misery.) (220-222)

When the king learned what had happened, he was overwhelmed with grief, and at once perceived that Magandiya was at the bottom of it. But knowing that he could not intimidate the latter, he resorted to artifice and said to his ministers, " Now that Samftvatl is dead, I can sleep in peace ; whoever did this deed must have loved me greatly." Magandiya overheard this remark and said triumphantly, " It was I " " Well," said the king, " I am delighted. Send for your relatives, and I will reward you properly." The king bestowed handsome presents on Magandiya and her relatives ; whereupon many persons who were in no way related to her came forward and claimed relationship. When the king had caught them all, he had them subjected to excruciating tortures and put to death. (222-4)

One day the Teacher overheard the monks remark that the cruel death of SamavatI and her attendants was undeserved. " Quite right," said the Teacher, " if you regard only this existence ; but their sad end was the result of an evil deed committed in a previous exist- ence ; " and he went on to tell them that in a previous existence Sama- vati and her attendants had once attempted to bum a Private Buddha to death. (224-5)

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Then the monks asked the Teacher : "How did Khujjattard. oome to be a hunchback ? how did she become so wise ? how did she obtain the Fruit of Conversion ? how did she come to be an errand-girl T " The Teacher told them that she became a hunchback through mocking a Private Buddha, that she acquired wisdom by waiting on some Private Buddhas, and the Fruit of Conversion by giving them her bracelets, and that she became an errand-girl because she once asked a nun to do a menial service for her. (22S-7)

Again the monks asked the Teacher : " Skmftvati and her attendants perished by fire and Magandiya and her kinsfolk by torture ; which of these live and which of these are dead ? " The Teacher replied : " They that are heedless, though they live a hundred years, yet are they dead ; they that are heedful, be they dead or alive, yet are they alive. MSgandiya^ while she yet lived, was dead already; Simavatl and her attendants, though they be dead, yet are they alive; the heedful never die." Then he pronounced Stanzas 21-23, at theconcla- sion of which many were established in the Fruits. (227-231)

Book n. Story 2. Kumbhaghosaka.

ILLUSTRATINQ STANZA 4-24.

A pestilence once broke out in Rajagaha and a certain treasurer and his wife were attacked by the disease. Realizing that they were about to die, they bade fistrewell to their son Kumbhaghosaka, directing him to bury their treasure in the earth, flee for his life, and return later and dig it up again. Kumbhaghosaka buried the treasure, fled to a jungle, and after twelve years returned. No one recognized him ; and tins made him fear that if he dug up the treasure, he might be subjected to annoyance; therefore he decided to make his own living, and obtained a position as a cart-driver. (231-2)

One day King Bimbisara heard the sound of Kumbhaghosaka's voice, and immediately exclaimed, " That is the voice of some rich man." A female slave heard the remark, made an investigation, and reported to the king that it was only a cart-driver. The king refused to believe her ; whereupon she said, " Give me a thousand pieces of money, and I will make you master of his wealth.*' The king complied with her request (232-3)

Now the female slave had a daughter whom she resolved to employ in the accomplishment of her design. Accordingly she obtained lodg- ing for herself and her daughter in Kumbhaghosaka's house, and con- trived to seduce Kumbhaghosaka to violate her daughter. When she had so fox succeeded in her purpose, she contracted a marriage betweea

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Kumbhaghoeaka and her daaghter, and Kumbbaghosaka was obliged to dig up some of his money to defray the expenses of the wedding fes- tivities. In this way the whole story came oat ; bat the king, instead of confiscating Eambhaghoeaka's wealth, praised him for his indastry, confirmed him in his inheritance, and gave him his daughter in marriage. (233-8)

When the Teacher heard this stoiy, he commented on it and pronoanced Stanza 24, establishing many in the Fraits. (238-9)

Book n. Story 3. Little Roadling.29

ILLUSTRATINO STANZA 5 - 25.

The daaghter of a rich treasurer of Rajagaha yielded her chastity to a slave, and fearing that she woald be discovered, fled with her lover to a distant place. When the time of her delivery was near at hand she expressed a desire to return home ; but her lover, fearing to accompany her, put her ofi" from one day to another, until finally she took matters into her own hands and started out alone. The pains of travail came upon her by the way, and she was delivered of a son. Just then her lover, who had learned her destination firom the neighbors, arrived on the scene, and found her quite willing to go back with him. As the child had been bom by the road, they agreed to call him Roadling. After a time the same thing happened again, and again they called the second child Roadling, distinguishing between the two by calling the older " Big Roadling," and the younger *' Little Roadling." (239-241)

One day Big Roadling heard some other boys talking about their uncles and grandfathers, and said to his mother, " Have n't we any 1 " " Oh, yes I " said she ; ^^ you have a grandfrither who is a rich treasurer, living at R&jagaha, and many other relatives there besides." " Why don't we go and see them ! " The mother evaded the question and spoke of the matter to her husband. " Why won't you take the chil- dren to their grandfather's 1 Ton don't suppose my parents are going to eat you alive, do you ! " "I should never dare to buce them, but I am willing to take them as far as the city." '' That will do ; all I want is to have them see their grandparents." So all four started out for Rdjagaha, and when they reached the city, the mother sent word to her parents that she had returned. Her parents refrised to see her, but sent her a sufficient sum of money for her support^ and told her that she might go with her husband and Hve wherever she desired. The children, however, they consented to receive into their house ; and

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that is how Big Roadling and Little Roadling came to be brought np in their grand&ther's house. (241-2)

Big Roadling used to accompany his grandfiGither to hear the Teacher preach the Law, and one day told his grand&ther that he would like to become a monk. His grand&ther was greatly delighted, and took him to the Teacher, who received him as a monk, and somewhat later professed him. After a time Big Roadling attained Arahatship, and desiring to have his brother attain what he had attained, went to his grandfather and asked permission to receive Little Roadling into the Order. The grandfather readily gave his consent, and so Little Roadling also became a monk. (242-4)

Now in a previous existence under the Buddha Eassapa, Little Roadling had once made fun of a dullard monk ; and in consequence of this act, he was now unable to master a single stanza in the course of four whole months. Big Roadling was so disgusted that he expelled him from the monastery. Little Roadling, however, was greatly attached to the religion of Buddha, and did not give up the monastic life. (244)

One day Jivaka Eomftrabhacca went to Big Roadling and asked him, " How many monks are there under the Teacher ! " " Five hundred." " I invite them all to take a meal with me to-morrow." " The la3rman Little Roadling is a dullard ; I accept the invitation for everybody but him." When Little Roadling heard his brother speak thus, he decided to give up the monastic life on the morrow. The Teacher became aware of his intention, led him into his own perfumed chamber, gave him a piece of cloth, and said to him, '* Little Roadling, £stce towards the East, rub this cloth, and say as you do so, ' Removal of Impurity* Removal of Impurity.' " The Teacher then went, accompanied by the monks, to Jivaka's house. (244-6)

Af^r Little Roadling had rubbed the cloth for a time, he perceived that it had become soiled, and a sense of the impermanenoe of things came to him. At that moment an apparition of the Teacher appeared before him and pronounced the Stanzas beginning with the words, " Impurity is Lust . . . Impurity is Hatred . . . Impurity is Infi&tu- ation." At the conclusion of the Stanzas Little Roadling attained Arahatship, acquired Four-fold Knowledge, and became a master of the Three Fitakas. (This was because, in a former existence as a king, he gained a sense of impermanence by contemplating a cloth which had become soiled with the sweat of his brow.) (246-7)

When Jivaka offered the Water of Donation to the Teacher, the latter placed his hand over the vessel, and said, "Are there no monks in the monastery 1" Big Roadling replied, "No, indeed."

BX7RLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 523

The Teacher said, "Tes, there are." Jlvaka sent a servant to

find out. At that moment Little Roadling, aware of what his brother had said, exercised his supernatural power and filled the Mango-grove with a thousand monks. Jivaka's servant returned and said, "The whole Mango-grove is full of monks." The Teacher said to him, "Go and tell Little Roadling to come hither." The servant went to the grove and called out, "Little Roadling, come hither." Thereupon the cry went up from a thousand throats, " Here I am ! Here I am ! " The servant went back to the Teacher and said, " They all say they 're Little Roadling." " Well, then/' said the Teacher, " go back and take by the hand the first one who says he 's Little Roadling, and the rest will vanish." The servant did as he was told and soon returned with his man. (247-8)

After the meal Little Roadling returned thanks, and the Teacher, accompanied by the monks, withdrew. When the monks assembled in the evening, they discussed Little Road ling's expulsion from the mon- astery and subsequent attainment of Arahatship, and were loud in their praises of the Buddha. All of a sudden the Buddha appeared in their midst and said to them, " This is not the first time Little Roadling has shown himself a dullard ; aforetime, too, he was a dullard. Nor is it the first time I have assisted him ; aforetime, too, I assisted him, and by my assistance he attained no less success in the things of this world than he has just attained in higher things." "Tell us all about it," said the monks ; whereupon the Teacher began the following story of the past : (248-250)

The World-renowned Teacher, the Young Man, and the King of Benares. A young man of Benares once went to Takkasila and became a pupil of a World-renowned Teacher. He was most faithful in the performance of his duties as a pupil, but such a dullard was he that after a long term of residence he was unable to repeat a single Stanza, Finally he became discouraged, and went to his Teacher and told him that he was going to give it up as a bad job and go back home. The Teacher had by this time become much attached to his pupil by reason of the latter^s dutifulness to him ; so he took him to the forest and taught him a charm, telling him that it would insure him a living, and impressing it upon him that he must recite it over and over again to avoid the possibility of forgetting it. And this is the way the charm went : " You 're at it, you 're at it ; why are you at it 1 / know what you 're at." When the young man had mastered the charm he returned to Benares. (250-251)

It so happened just at this time that the King of Benares made a careful examination of his thoughts, words, and deeds, for the purpose

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of disooyering in what partioalars he might have £uled. So £sur as he ooald see, his oondact had been quite ooireot ; bat then he reflected, " A person never sees his own &ults ; it takes another person to see them." Accordingly, he decided to find oat jast what was the candid opinion of his subjects ; and after mghtfaJl he put on a disguise, and went about the streets eavesdropping. (251-2)

The first house the king came to was that of the young man who had just returned from Takkasila. The king observed that some robbers were in the act of breaking into the house ; so he took his stand in the shadow of the house and awaited developments. The robbers made such a noise effecting an entrance that they woke up the young man ; whereupon the latter began to recite his chiurm : '* Tou 're at it^ yon 're at it ; why are you at it ! / know what you 're at" The robbers ex- claimed, " We 're discovered ; run for your lives ! " dropped their spoils, and fled. The next day the king sent for the young man, got bun to teach him the spell, and presented him with a thousand pieces of money. (252-3)

That very day the Prime Minister went to the royal barber, presented him with a thousand pieces of money, and said, ** The next time you go to shave the king, cut his throat with a rasor ; then you shall be Prime Minister, aud I shall become king." "Agreed," said the barber. A day or two later the barber went in to shave the king ; and as he sharpened his razor, he said to himself, " One stroke, and it 's all dona" Just at that moment the king began to recite' the charm : " Tou 're at it, you 're at it ; why are you at it ! / know what you 're at" Beads of sweat stood out on the forehead of the barber ; he threw his razor away in terror, and flung himself at the feet of the king. Now kings know a thing or two ; and the King of Benares immediately exclaimed, " Villain, you thought I did n't know." " Sire, spare my life." " Have no fear ; only tell me the trutL" " It was the Prime Minister that put me up to this." Thereupon the king banished the Prime Minister, and appointed in his place the young man who taught him the spelL

(253-4)

"At that time," said the Teacher, "Little Roadling was the young man, and I was the World-renowned Teacher. Aforetime, too. Little Roadling was a dullard, and I helped him." The Teacher closed his discourse by telling the Gtilakasetthi J&taka and identifying the births. On a later occasion the monks commented on Little Roadling's deter- mination never to give up ; whereupon the Teacher assured theili that the highest reward^ are within reach of the persevering disciple, and pronounced Stanza 25, establishing many in the Fruits. (254-^)

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BURUNGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA^S DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 525 Book n. Story 4. When Foolish Folk BSade Holiday.

ILLUSTBATINO STANZAS fr-7 - 26-27.

On a certain oocasion the foolish, ignorant people of S&vatthi used to smear themselves with cow-dung, and give themselves up to license for a period of seven days. They went about the city insulting every- body they met, even their own kinsmen, and persons devoted to the religious life ; and would desist only on the payment of a forfeit Dur- ing this period of disorder the Teacher and the monks remained within the walls of the monastery. When the noble disciples told him of the insults to which they had been subjected, he expressed his disapproval of the misconduct of the foolish folk, and pronounced Stanzas 26-27, at the conclusion of which many were established in the Fruits.

Bookn. Story 5. KaMapa the Great, IRder.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 8-28.

On a certain occasion, during the time when the Elder Eassapa was living in Pipphali Cave, he went to R&jagaha to collect alms ; and after he had eaten his meal, he sat down and endeavored to obtain by Su- pernatural Vision a comprehension of Birth and Rebirth. The Teacher, seated at Jetavana, exercised Supernatural Vision, and at once per- ceived what E^assapa was about. '* That is beyond your range, Eas- sapa," said he ; '* only a Buddha is able to comprehend the Totality of Existences." Then the Teacher sent forth an apparition of himself, which went to Kassapa and pronounced Stanza 28. At the conclusion of the Stanza, many were established in the Fruits. (258-260)

Book n. story 6. The Two Brethren.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 9 - 29.

Two brethren obtained a subject of meditation from the Teacher, and retired to the forest. One of them was heedful and zealous, and in a short time attained Arahatship. The other was heedless and lazy. When the two brethren returned to the Teacher, and the latter learned how they had spent their time, he compared the zealous monk to a race- horse and the lazy monk to a hack, and pronounced Stanza 29, estab- lishing many in the Fruits. (260^263)

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Book n. Story 7. Mahftli'B Question.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 10 — 30.

One day a Licchavi prince named Mahali, who had heard ihe Sat- tanta entitled Sakka's Question recited by the Teacher, went to the latter and asked him, " Did you ever see Sakka 1 " " Oh, yes," replied the Teacher. " It must have been a counterfeit of Sakka," returned Mahali, " for it is a difficult matter to get a look at Sakka." " Never- theless," said the Teacher, "I am well acquainted with Sakka; and what is more, I know all about the meritorious deeds by means of which he rose to the lordship of the gods." Then the Teacher enum- erated Sakka's meritorious deeds in his human existence as Magha. " Tell me all about Magha," said MahalL " Well, then, listen," replied the Teacher, and then told the following story of the past : (263-5)

Maglia.30

Once upon a time a youth named Magha went about his native vil- lage in the kingdom of Magadha doing all manner of good works ; and in the course of time gathered others about him, until finally there were thirty-three persons in the village keeping the Five Precepts and doing works of merit The village headman observed their actions, and said to himself, " If these men would only drink strong drink u&d do as other men do, I should ght something out of it" Accordingly he said to them, " What 's this you 're doing 1 " " Treading the Heav- enly Path." " That 's no occupation for housfeholders ; why don't you eat fish and flesh, drink strong drink, and have a good time ! " Magha and his companions rejected his suggestion ; whereupon he determined to destroy them. (265-7)

The village headman went to the king and told him that there was a band of robbers in the village. The king immediately ordered them to be trampled to death by elephants. But the elephants refused to go near them. When this was reported to the king, he concluded that there must be a reason for it; accordingly he had the thirty-three youths summoned before him, told them the charge the village head- man had brought against them, and listened to their story. The result was that he begged their pardon for having so misunderstood them, made the village headman their slave, gave them an elephant to ride on, and placed the entire resources of the village at tiieir disposal (267-8)

At this the youths rejoiced greatly and resolved to abound yet more

» a. J&. i. 199-206.

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BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 527

in good works. So they summoned a carpenter, and had him erect a rest-house for the multitude at the junction of four highways. As they had lost all desire for women, ihey would not allow women to share in the work (26a-9)

Now there were four women living in Magha's house, Joy, Thought- ful, Goodness, and Wellborn. One day Goodness bribed the carpenter to give her the chief share in the erection of the hall. The carpenter made a pinnacle, cut this inscription on it, " This Hall is named for Goodness,'' wrapped the pinnacle in a cloth, and laid it aside. When the hall was nearly completed, the carpenter said to his masters, " We have forgotten something." " What is it ? " said they. "A pinnacle." " Let 's get one." " But it 's too late to season the wood." " Well, what 19 to be done?" "Perhaps we might find one ready-made." The carpenter immediately procured the pinnacle he had made for Goodn^s ; and thus (Goodness obtained the chief share in the erec- tion of the halL (269-270)

The thirty-three youths prepared thirty-three wooden seats, and entertained visitors handsomely, the elephant going out to meet each arrival and performing the usual courtesies. Magha planted an Ebony- tree near the hall, and under the tree set up a stone seat Joy provided a lotus tank, and Thoughtful a flower garden. Wellborn, thinking that it was a sufficient distinction to be a cousin of Magha, did nothing but adorn herself. Magha, having fulfilled the Seven Injunctions, was at the end of his allotted term of life reborn in the world of the Thirty-three as Sakka^ king of the gods ; Magha's com- panions were also reborn there, as was also the carpenter, who became Vissakamma. (270-272)

Now at this time there were Asuras dwelling in the world of the Thirty-three; and when they became aware that some entirely new gods had been born in their midst, they prepared strong drink to wel- come them. Sakka forbade his companions to touch it^ and they obeyed him ; but the Asuras got very drunk. Then Sakka gave the signal, and his companions picked up the Asuras by the heels, and flung them down into the abyss. Thereupon there sprang up at the foot of Mount Sineru the Palace of the Asuras and the Tree that is called Pied Trumpet-flower. And when the conflict between the Gods and the Asuras was over, and the Asuras had been defeated, there sprang into existence the City of the Thirty-three, crowned with a magnificent palace called the Palace of Victory. A Coral-tree sprang up to correspond with the Ebony-tsee Magha had planted, and at the foot thereof, to correspond with the stone seat he had set up, stood Sakka's Yellowstone Throna The elephant was reborn as the god

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Erftvana ; since there are no animals in the world of the Thirty-three, whenever Er&vana wished to go into the garden to play, he would lay aside his godhead and become an elephant for the time being. Er&vana created gigantic water-pots for each member of Sakka's retinaa Each vessel held seven tusks; each task, seven tanks; each tank, seven lotas plants; each plant, seven flowers; each flower, seven leaves; each leaf, seven celestial njrmphs, who danced unceasingly. For Sakka he created a water-pot much larger than the others. Above hang a canopy with a fringe of bells whose sound was as the masic of the celestial choir. Beneath it was a jewelled couch, where Sakka reclined in state. Such was the splendor in the enjoyment of which Sakka lived. (272-4)

When Goodness, Joy, and Thoughtfi^l died, they were reborn in the world of the Thirty-three ; and through the effect of their respective benefisu^tions there arose a mansion named Groodness, a lotus tank named Joy, and a creeper-grove named Thoughtful When Wellborn died, she was reborn as a crane in a mountain cave. (274-5)

Sakka surveyed his handmaidens, and desiring that Wellborn should be reborn as one of th^n, went to her in disguise, conducted her to the world of the Thirty-three, let her see her friends, and assured her that she could attain equal happiness by keeping the Five Precepts. This she promised to do. After a few days Sakka^ desiring to test her sincerity, lay down on the sand in the form of a fish. The crane, thinking that it was dead, seized it in her beak. Just as she was about to swallow it, it wiggled its tail, whereupon the crane dropped it. Three times Sakka tried this stratagem, and three times the crane, dis- covering that the fish was alive, refused to eat it Then Sakka re- sumed his proper form, praised the crane, and departed. (275-7)

At the end of her existence as a crane, Wellborn was reborn at Benares as the daughter of a potter. Sakka disguised himself as a peddler, filled a cart with precious jewels disguised as cucumbers, went to the city, and cried out, " Cucumbers in exchange for Five Precepts." The inhabitants of the city brought kidney-beans, and when the peddler refused them, they said, "What are these * precepts' like! are they black or brown 1 " " Neither," said the peddler. " Oh," said they, " we have heard a potter's daughter say, ' I keep the precepts ; ' you might try her." So Sakka went to the potter's daughter, revealed himself to her, gave her the jewels, praised her, and departed. (277-8)

At the end of her existence as a potter's daughter. Wellborn was reborn in the world of the Asuras as the daughter of Vepacitti, king of the Asuras, a bitter enemy of Sakka. One day Vepacitti assembled all the hosts of the Asuras, and giving hia daughter a wreath of flowers,

BURLINGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 529

directed her to choose a bnsband. At that moment Sakka, disguised as an aged Asura, sat down in the oater fringe of the assembly. The maiden immediately threw the wreath of flowers over his head and chose him for her husband. He took her by the hand, shouted out, " I am Sakka," and flew up into the air. The Asuras cried out, " We have been fooled by old Sakka," and started up in pursuit (278-9)

Sakka's charioteer, Matali, brought up the chariot Victory, and Sakka, after assisting Wellborn to mounts set out for the city of the gods. When they reached the Forest of the Silk-cotton Trees, the fledglings of the Garula birds, fearing that they were going to be crushed to death, shrieked aloud ; whereupon SaUca said to his charioteer, " Let not these creatures perish on my account; turn back the chariot.'' At this the Asuras concluded that reinforcements must have come np, and abandoned the pursuit Sakka bore Wellborn to the city of the gods and made her chief among twenty-five millions of celestial nymphs. Thereafter, when the Asuras made preparations to attack Sakka, the latter placed at the gates of his city images of Indra bear- ing the thunderbolt. When the Asuras saw the images, they invariably concluded that Sakka was no longer there, and departed. (279-280)

The Teacher extolled Magha's earnestness, and pronounced Stanza 80, at the conclusion of which Mahali was established in the Fruit of Conversion, and many others were established in the Three Fruits. (280-281)

Book n. Story 8. A Certain Monk.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 11-31.

A certain monk had the Teacher instruct him in the ascetic practices which lead to Arahatship, and retired to the forest to meditate. In spite of his best efibrts, he was unable to attain Arahatship ; therefore he decided to return to the Teacher and ask him to assign him a specific subject of meditation. On the way he caught sight of a forest fire ; whereupon he hastily climbed a bare mountain, and as he watched the fire, concentrated his mind on the following thought : " As this fire goes its way consuming all obstacles both great and small, so also ought I to go, consuming all obstacles l)oth great and small with the fire of knowledge of the Noble Path." (281-2)

As the Teacher sat in his Perfumed Chamber, he became aware of what the monk was doing, and sent forth an apparition of himself, which went to the monk and pronounced Stanza 31. At the conclu- sion of the Stanza, the monk attained Arahatship. (282-3)

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Book n. Story 9. Tissa of the Market Town, Elder.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 12=32.

A certain noble youth who was bom and brought up in a market town not &r from SS.vatthi, was received into the Order by the Teacher, and was thereafter known as Tissa of the Market Town, Elder. He wanted little, was satisfied with what he had, and lived an active, blameless life. All his life long he remained within the borders of his native village, in spite of the fact that in near-by Ss.vatthi, Pasenadi Kosala, An^thapindika, and others were bestowing alms, the like of which had never been seen before. One day the Teacher sent for him, and said to him, " Monk, it is no wonder that you, who have such a one as I am for your Master, should want littla'' When the other monks asked the Teacher to explain himself the latter told them the following story of the past : (283-4)

Sakka and the Parrot. ^^ Once upon a time a great many parrots lived in a grove of fig-trees in the Himalaya country. The king-parrot, when the fruit of the tree in which he lived had come to an end, ate whatever he could find, drank the water of the Ganges, and being very happy and contented, stayed where he was. In &ct, he was so happy and contented that the abode of Sakka began to shake. Thereupon Sakka decided to put him to the test, and by his supernatural power withered up the tree. When Sakka perceived that this made no difiierence at all to the parrot, he decided to give the parrot his choice of a boon ; whereupon, taking the form of a royal goose, and preceded by Well- bom in the form of an Asura n3rmph, he went to the parrot and asked him why his heart delighted in a tree that was withered and rotten. (This story is identical with the Mahdsuka Jataka, which will be found in the Tenth Nip^ta ; ^^ only the setting is different. The Jataka goes on to say that the parrot replied, " This tree has been good to me in the past ; why should I forsake it now ? " Thereupon Sakka caused the tree to bloom anew, and to bear ambrosial fruit.) (284-5)

" At that time," said the Teacher, " Ananda was Sakka, and I was the parrot It is no wonder that Tissa wants little, having found a Teacher like me." Then he pronounced Stanza 3^, at the end of which Tissa attained Arahatship, and many others were established in the Fruits. (285-6)

w Cf. Jft. iii. 491-4.

'* Norman calls attention to the fact that it actually occurs in the Ninth

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BURUNGAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMHIENTART. 531 Book m. story 1. Meghiya, Elder.

ILLUSTBATINO STANZAS 1-2 "- 33-34.

According to a story, the details of which will be found in the Sat- tanta entitled Meghiya, the Elder Meghiya made little progress in wrestling with the flesh until the Teacher impreased upon him the im- portance of bringing the thoughts into subjection, by pronouncing Stanzas 33-34 ; whereupon Meghiya was established in the Fruit of Conversion, and many others in the Three Fruits. (287-9)

Book in. Story 2. A Certain Monk.

ILLUSTBATINO STANZA 3 » 35.

Seventy monks once had the Teacher instruct them in the ascetic practices which led to Arahatship, and went to a certain village named M&tika in the kingdom of Kosala to collect alms. A lay sister, mother of the owner of the village, offered them hospitality, and provided them with food and lodging during the three rainy months. At her request the monks instructed her in the ascetic practices, which she performed with such diligence that in advance of her instructors she attained the Three Paths and Fruits and the Supernatural Faculties. As she was thus enabled to know the precise needs of the monks, thereafter she ministered to them so successfully that in a short time they too attained Arahatship. At the close of the rainy season they took leave of their hostess and returned to the Teacher. When the latter remarked, " You look as if you had fared well," the monks replied, ** We did, indeed ; our hostess knew the secret desires of our hearts, insomuch that no sooner did we think of our needs than she immediately supplied them." (290-293)

A certain monk heard this and was immediately seized with a desire to enjoy so pleasant an experience. Accordingly he had the Teacher instruct him in the ascetic practices, went to the house of the lay sister, and accepted her offer of food and lodging. He found every- thing exactly as the monks had represented it. But then the thought occurred to him, " If I should entertain a sinful thought, she would doubtless seize me by the top-knot, and treat me as people treat thieves; I had best get away from here." So he returned to the Teacher and told the latter what had made him change his plans. The Teacher admonished him to control his thoughts, pronounced Stanza 35, thereby establishing many in the Fruits, and sent the monk back to the house of the lay sister. The latter ministered to the needs of the monk so successfully that in a short time he attained Arahat-

532 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

ship. One day, while the moDk was experiencing the bliss of the Path and the Fruit, he was filled with gratitude towards the lay sister, ajid became curious to know whether she had befriended him in previoujs existeiioes. So he called up before his mind ninety-nine previous ex- istences, and to his horror perceived that in each of these existences she had murdered him. " Oh, what a sinner she has been I " thought he. At the same moment the lay sister, sitting in her own chamber, became aware of what was passing through his mind. " Call up one more existence," said she. By the power of Supernatural Audition the monk immediatdy heard what she said ; whereupon he called up before his mind the hundredth existence, and perceived that in that existence she had spared his life. Then he rejoiced greatly, and straightway passed into Nibbftna. (293-7)

Book in. Btory 3. A Certain Diacontented Monk.

ILLUSTRATINQ STANZA 4 = 36.

The son of a certain treasurer of S&vatthi performed the duties of a lajnnan so fiuthfully as to win the appellation " Faithful" But after he had become a monk he grew discontented over the multitudinous duties imposed upon him, and said so to the Teacher. The latter replied, " You have only one duty to perform ; and that is to guard your thoughts ; if you do that, you have done all." The Teacher then pronounced Stanza 36, at the conclusion of which the discontented monk was established in the Fruit of Conversion, and many others were established in the Three Fruits. (297-300)

Book m. Story 4. Sangharakkhita'a Nephew, Elder.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 5 -= 37.

A certain noble youth of Savatthi retired from the world, was ad- mitted to the Order, and in a short time attained Arahatship. His name was Sangharakkhita. About this time a son was born to his youngest sister and named after him. When Sangharakkhita's nephew reached the age of manhood, he followed his uncle's example and entered the Order. At the beginning of the rainy season the younger monk procured two sets of monastic robes, intending to present one of them to his uncle, and for this purpose set out for his uncle's quarters. When he arrived at his destination, he discovered that the older monk had not yet returned ; so he swept the place carefully, procured water for washing the feet, prepared a seat, and sat down, awaiting his uncle's return. When he saw his uncle coming he went out to meet him, took his bowl and robe, seated him, femned him with a palm-leaf fiui^ gave

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BURLINOAME. — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHAMMAPADA COMMENTARY. 533

him water to drink, washed his feet, brought him the set of robes he had procured for him, formally presented them to him, and then, taking the palm-leaf hn into his hands, resumed &nning him. Said the older monk, " Nephew, I have a complete set of robes ; use these yourself The younger monk pleaded with his uncle to reconsider his answer, but the older monk remained obdurate. The younger monk was so bitterly disappointed that he then and there decided to give up the monastic life and return to the life of a householder. So as he stood there beside the older monk, swinging the palm-leaf &n to and fro, he pondered in his mind ways and means of earning a living. Finally the following thought occurred to him : (300-302)

" I will sell this set of robes, and buy me a ewe ; ewes are very pro- lific ; every lambkin the ewe drops I will sell ; in this way I shall be able to accumulate a lot of money. When I have done that, I will procure me a wife. She will bear me a son, whom I will name after my uncle. I will put my son in a go-cart, and taking son and wife aloDg> go and pay my respects to my uncle. As I journey by the way I will say to my wife, * Just hand me my son ; I wish to carry him.' She will reply, * What 's the need of your canying the boy ? go ahead and push this go-cart ; ' then she will take the boy into her arms and say, 'I'll carry him myself;' whereupon, finding the child too heavy for her, she will let him fiaJl. Then I will say to her, * You would n't let me carry the child, in spite of the fact that you could n't carry him yourself;' and having thus said, I will bring down my stick on her back "... At that moment the younger monk swung his fan with great force, and brought it down on the head of his uncle. ^^ (302-303)

The older monk considered within himself " Why did my nephew strike me on the head ? " and immediately became aware of what was passing through his nephew's mind. So he said, " Nephew, you did n't succeed in hitting the woman ; but why should an aged Mder sufier for it?" The younger monk was so ashamed of himself that he immediately threw his £mi away and started to run off. But the novices and young monks ran after him, caught him, and brought him before the Teacher, who said to him, " Be not disturbed ; only guard your thoughts hereafter," and pronounced Stanza 37, establishing the young monk in the Fruit of Conversion, and many others in the Three Fruits. (303-305)

" Compare the story of the Brahman and his Jar, in the Paficatantra, Hertel's ed., v. 7.

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Bookm. Story 5. Cittahattha, Elder.^

ILLUSTRAHNQ STANEAS 6-7 - 38-39.

A noble youth of Savattbi oDce became a monk for no other reason than to obtain an easy livelitood. After a few days he tired of the monastic life and returned to the world. Six times he became a monk, and as many times returned to the life of a householder ; wherefore his brethren called him Gittahattha (Thought-controlled). In the mean- time his wife became great with child. Once more he decided to become a monk, and entered the inner chamb^ of his house to pro- cure his yellow robe. There on the bed lay his wife asleep. Her garments were in disarray, saliva was flowing from her mouth, she was snoring, her mouth was wide open. Her appearance remind^ him of a bloated corpse. At that moment he obtained a sense of impeima- nence, and taking the yellow robe, left the house and went to the monastery. A short time after this, his seventh reception into the Order, he attained Arahatship. The Teacher, contrasting Cittahattha's former and latter states, pronounced Stanzas 38-39. The monks said, " How could a youth destined to Arahatship abandon the monastic life six times ? " *' Easily enough," said the Teacher ; '' I did the same thing myself." Then he told the following story of the past : (305-311).

Kuddaia and his Spade. Once upon a time, when Brabmadatta reigned at Benares, a Pandit named Eudd&la was admitted to a cer- tain heretical Order, but after a few months renounced the monastic life, all because of his attachment for a blunt spade with which he used to till the ground. This happened six times. Finally Euddala made up his mind to put temptation out of his way ; so he took the spade to the bank of the Ganges, closed his eyes, and threw it into the water. As he did so he shouted as loud as he could, " I have conquered ! " At that moment along came the King of Benares, returning from a successful expedition. When the King heard Kuddala's exclamation of victory, he went up to him and asked him what he meant by it Kuddaia replied, "Those whom you have conquered will have to be conquered again ; but I have conquered myself for good and alL" At that moment Kudd&la attained Specific Attainment by gazing on the water ; whereupon he sat cross-legged in the air and instructed the king in the Law. The King of Benares then and there retired from the world with all his followers, and shortly afterwards his royal enemy followed his example. (311-313)

"At that time," said the Teacher, "I was the Pandit Knddftla." (313)

»* a. Jft. i. 311-313.

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BURLINQAME. — BUDDHAGHOSa's DHAfilMAPADA COMMENTARY. 535 Book m. Btory 6. How Five Hundred Monka Attained Insight

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 8 -40.

Five hundred monks once had the Teacher instruct them in the ascetic practices that lead to Arahatship, and retired to a certain forest In this forest lived a great many powerful tree-spirits, who took a dislike to the monks and determined to get rid of them. Accord- ingly the spirits caused the monks to^see bodiless heads and headless trunks, to hear the voices of demons, and to catch all manner of diseases. After a time the monks returned to the Teacher and related their experiences. "I will provide you with a weapon," said he; whereupon he rehearsed the Sutta entitled Metta, and told them to return to the forest and do the sama When they did so, the hearts of the spirits were suffused with love, and the monks quickly attained Insight. The Buddha, seated in his Perfumed Chamber, became aware of what had happened in the forest, and sent forth an apparition of himself, which went to the monks and pronounced Stanza 40. At the conclusion of the Stanza the five hundred monks attained Arahatship, and returned, praising the golden body of the Teacher. (313-318)

Book m. Story 7. Tisaa of the Diaeaaed Body, Elder.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 9»41.

A noble youth of Savatthi once became a monk and was thereafter known as Tissa. As time went on, he was attacked by boils, and his condition grew steadily worse until finally his brethren, unable to do anything for him, abandoned him and left him to his fate. Now the Buddhas are wont, twice a day, to survey the world ; at early dawn, from the Rim of the World to the Perfumed Chamber ; and in the evening, from the Perfumed Chamber to the outer world. One evening, accord- ingly, as the Tathagata surveyed the world, Tissa of the Diseased Body appeared within the net of his knowledge. He immediately went to him, and, assisted by the monks, bathed him with warm water, alleviating his sufferings. Then the Teacher pronounced Stanza 41, at the conclusion of which Tissa attained Arahatship and passed into Nibb&na, and many of the bystanders were established in the Three Fruits. When the monks expressed surprise that a noble youth destined to attain Arahatship should have been visited with such an affliction, the Teacher told them that it was no more than he deserved, and related the following story of the past: (3ld-32l)

The Cmel Fowler. In the dispensation of the Buddha Eassapa, Tissa was a fowler. In order that the birds he caught might not be

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able to escape, he was in the habit of breaking their legs and wing- bones and throwing them all together in a heap. This was the cause of his su£fering in a later existence. One day, however, he bestowed alms on a monk, saying, ''May I obtain ihe highest Fruits of the religion you profess." In consequence of this meritorious deed be was enabled to attain Arahatship in a later existence. (322)

Book m. Story 8 Nanda the HerdsmaiL

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 10-42.

Nanda was a herdsman of And.thapindika. One day he went to his master's house to listen to the Teacher and was established in the Fruit of Conversion. He entertained the Teacher for seven days, and when the latter departed, accompanied him on his way for a consider- able distance, and finally bidding him fieurewell, turned back * He had not gone far when he was shot and killed by the stray arrow of a hunter. The monks reported the incident to the Teacher, and re- marked that if the latter had not gone to visit Nanda^ Nanda would not have died. " You are greatly mistaken," said the Teacher ; " there is no such thing as escape from death." Then the Teacher solemnly warned them that ill-regulated thoughts do a man much more harm than external enemies, and pronounced Stanza 42, at the conclusion of which many were established in the Fruits. (No one asked the Teacher about Nanda's deed in a previous existence ; therefore the Teacher said nothing about it.) (322-5)

Book in. story 9. Soreyya, Elder.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 11 - 43.

When the Teacher was in residence at SS-vatthi, there was a treas- urer's son named Soreyya living in the city of Soreyya, One day, accompanied by a friend, he entered a splendid carriage, and, surrounded by a considerable retinue, drove out of the city for a dip in the swim- ming-pool. As they passed out of the city gate Soreyya caught sight of the Elder Mahd, Kacc^yana in the act of putting on his monastic robes. The golden hue of the Elder's body attract^ the attention of Soreyya, who immediately exclaimed, " Would that this Elder were my wife ; or else that the hue of my wife's body were like the hue of his body." In consequence of this wicked wish Soreyya was instantly transformed into a woman. Sore3rya, much embarrassed, immediately left the carriage, joined a caravan-train bound for TakkasiU and was eventually married to the son of a treasurer of that city, becoming tiie mother of two sons. (325-7)

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(There are no men who have not been women at some time or other ; and no women who have not, at some time or other, been men. For example, men who commit adultery endnre punishment in hell for a hundred thousand years, and on returning to human estate at the end of that period, have to spend a hundred existences as women. Even the Elder Xnanda, who fulfilled the Perfections for a space of a hun- dred thousand cycles of time, once committed adultery in an existence as a blacksmith, and as a result was obliged to spend fourteen exis- tences as a woman, and seven existences more before the effect of his evil deed was completely exhausted. Women may obtain rebirth as men by such works of merit as almsgiving, ready obedience to their husbands, and so on.) (327)

So Soreyya, who, as a treasurer of Soreyya, was already the &ther of two sons, became, as the wife of a treasurer of Takkasilft, the mother of two more, making four children in all. Now just at this time, Soreyya's carriage-companion paid a visit to Takkasila ; and Soreyya, who happened to see him from the window, invited him to the house and entertained him handsomely. " Madam," said the guest, " I never saw you before ; why is it that you have been so kind to me ? do you know me f " Soreyya then told him the whole story. " Oh," said the guest, " it is easy enough to remedy all this ; the Elder Maha Eac- cftyana lives near by; just beg his pardon, and everything will be all right again." Soreyya did so, and immediately became a man again. Maha. Kaccd.yana admitted him to the Order, and Soreyya, after committing his two youngest sons to the care of the treasurer of Takkasil&, went back to S^vatthi with Mahft Kacc&yana. (327-330)

When the natives learned what had happened, they were much ex- cited, and went to Soreyya and said, " This is a strange state of affairs ; you are the mother of two sons, and the father of two more ; which pair of children have you the stronger affection for ? " Soreyya replied, " For the pair of which I am the mother." After a time Soreyya attained Arahatship. The next time he was asked this question he replied, " My affection is set nowhere." When Soreyya's latest reply was reported to the Teacher, the latter remarked that Sore3rya, having now obtained mastery over his thoughts, was accomplishing for others what neither father nor mother had power to accomplish. The Teacher then pronounced Stanza 43, at the conclusion of which many were established in the Fruits. (330-332)

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Book rv. Story 1. The Monks who talked about tilling the Boil.

ILLU8TBATING STANZAS 1-2 - 44-45.

One evening five handred monks who had accompanied the Teacher on his rounds began to talk about the varieties of soil they had seen. The Teacher told them that they might better be occupied with tilling the soil of their hearts, and pronounced Stanzas 44-45, at the end of which all five hundred monks attained Arahatship. (333-5)

Book rv. Btory 2. The Elder who contemplated a Mirage.

ILLUSTBATINQ STANZA 3 - 46.

A certain monk who had made little progress in the practice of meditation once saw a mirage. He immediately concentrated his mind upon the following thought : "Just as this mirage appears sab- stantial to those that are &r off, but vanishes on nearer approach, so also is this existence." Then, seeing a waterM, he thought^ "Just as this spray is dissipated and no more seen, so also is this existence." The Teacher, sitting in his Perfumed Chamber, became aware of the monk's Attainment^ and pronounced Stanza 46 ; whereupon the monk attained Arahatship and returned, praising the golden body of the Teacher. (335-7)

Book rv. Btory 3. Vi^fifabha.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 4 « 47.

At S^vatthi, lived Prince Pasenadi, son of the King of the Eosalans ; at Ves^l!, a prince of the Licchavi Une, named Mahali ; at Eusin&rd^ Prince Bandhula, son of the King of the Mallas. These three princes resorted to a world-renowned teacher at Takkasila. for instruction, and, chancing to meet in a hall outside of the city, became warm friends. After acquiring the various branches of learning, they took leave of their teacher, departed together, and went to their several homes. Pasenadi's father was so pleased with his son's attainments that he made him king. Mah&li devoted himself to the task of educating the Licchavi princes, but over-exerting himself lost the sight of his eyes ; whereupon the princes erected a gate for him, and ever afterwards remained his most devoted and loyal pupils. Bandhula received a slight at the hands of the Malla princes, which made him so angry that he determined to kill them and seize the throna When he in- formed his mother and &ther of his plan, they told him that it was bound to fail, inasmuch as the kingdom of the Mallas was an heredi-

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tary kingdom. Thereapon he decided to go to Sftvatthi and live with his friend Pasenadi. King Pasenadi leceived him with distinguished honors, and made him Commander-in-chief of his army. Bandhula sent word to his mother and fiftther to come and live with him, and they did so. (337-9)

One day King Pasenadi saw from his terrace a great company of monks passing along the street *' Where are they going f " said he. One of his retinue replied, "Sire, every day two thousand monks go to the house of An&thapindika to obtain food, medicine, and the other requisites; five hundred, to Cula An&thapindika's ; a like number to Visakha's and to Suppavisa's." " I, too, will serve the Congregation of Monks," thought the king ; and immediately went to the Teacher and asked to be allowed the privilege. For seven days the king enter- tained Buddha and the monks, and when he bade fiurewell to the Teacher, he invited the latter to come regularly to his house thereafter. The Teacher declined the invitation, however, on the ground that many other persons desired his presence, and sent Ananda in his place. For seven days the king served Ananda and the monks in person ; during the three following days he was so remiss in the per- formance of his du^ to the monks that the latter dropped off, one by one, until finally Ananda was the only one left. The king was so provoked at the conduct of the monks that he went to the Teacher and complained. The Teacher exonerated the monks from blame, and told the king that the monks lacked confidence in him. (339-341)

"A family must possess nine distinctive marks," said the Teacher, " to be entitled to the privilege of entertaining monks. They must rise courteously to meet them ; greet them pleasantly ; seat them com* fortably ; conceal not what they possess ; possessing much, give much ; possessing good things, give good things ; present their offerings with deference ; sit to hear the Law ; speak in an agreeable tone of voice. It was doubtless because you frkiled in your duty to the monks that they left your house. Just so the wise men of old time went to a place where they felt secure." The Teacher then told the following story of the past: (341-2)

E^ava, Kappa, NIrada, and the King of BenareB.34 Once upon a time, when Brahmadatta reigned at Benares, a hermit named Eesava, accompanied by his following, accepted the offer of the King to enter- tain them during the rainy season. The monks were so annoyed by the cries of elephants, however, that they dropped off, one by one, un- til finally Eesava was left alone with his fidthful pupil Kappa. After

M a Ja. iu, 142-145.

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a time even Kappa was unable to stand tiie noise any longer, and left his master. Thereupon Kesavir fell sick, and begged the King to send him back to his followers. The King immediately did so, sending N&rada and three other ministers with him. As soon as Kesava was restored to his companions he recovered his health, and was soon weU and happy. When N&rada asked him how he liked a hermit's &re after enjoying the hospitality of a king, Kesaya replied that he was now completely happy since, after all, a sense of secarity and confi- dence was the main thing. (342^)

''At that time," said the Teacher, "tiie King was Moggalllna; N&rada was S&ripatta ; the pupil Kappa was Ananda ; while the hermit Kesava was I myself" (344-5)

Thereupon King Pasenadi bethought himself how he might regun the confidence of the monks, and concluded that the best way would be to take to himself as ¥rife the daughter of some kinsman of the Buddha. Accordingly he sent ambassadors to the Sakyans, request- ing one of their daughters in marriage. The King of the Sakyans, fearing that he would incur the enmity of King Pasenadi by refusing his request, put the matter before his nobles. Mah&nftma said, " I have a daughter by one of my slave-women, and she is very beauti- ful ; why not send her ? " Accordingly the King of the Sakyans sent MahSn&ma's daughter to King Pasenadi, and the latter married h^. Her name was VSaabhakhattiya. (345-6)

In due time Vftsabhakhattiyft became the mother of a son. Pasenadi sent to his grandmother, asking her to give the child a name. She selected the name Vallabha (Beloved) ; but the messenger, being a little deaf, understood her to say Vidudabha, and so reported to the King of Kosala. Accordingly the child was named Vidudabha. When Vidudabha was seven years old, he said to his mother, " Mother, the other boys get presents firom their maternal grandfathers; why is it that I don't get any ? have n't you any mother or &ther t " " Oh, yes ! " said she ; ** your grandparents are Sakyan kings ; but they live a long way off, and that 's the reason why you don't get any presents." When Vidudabha was sixteen years old, he expressed one day a desire to visit his grandparents. At first Vdsabhakhattiy^ demurred at his request ; but afterwards she consented to let him go, taking the pre- caution, however, to send the following letter ahead of him: "I am happy where I am ; for the sake of my husband, say nothing to him/' So Vidudabha took leave of his &ther and, accompanied by a large retinue, set out (346-7)

When the Sakyan princes learned of Vidtidabha's approaching visits they decided not to render homage to hiip, and therefore sent away

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all the prinoes who were younger than he. Vidudabha rendered homage to his grandfiEktheor and the other prinoes, bnt noticed that no one rendered homage to him. When he apoke of this it was explained to him that all those about him were his seniors ; and this explanation satisfied him. One day, however, a female slave, while engaged in scrubbing the seat on which Vidudabha was wont to sit, remarked, " Here 's where the son of the slave- woman Vd8abhakhattiy& sits ! " A soldier happened to overhear what she said, and in a short time the remark became common gossip. When it came to the ears of Vidu- dabha, he swore the following oath, "Just as these Sakyans now wash my bench with water, so also, when I am king; will I wash my bench with their blood." (347-8)

When Vidudabha returned to Sftvatthi, and the King of Eosala learned that V3.sabhakhattiy& was really the daughter of a slave- woman, he was filled with rage at the King of the Sakyans, and de- graded Vidudabha and his mother to the position of slaves. About that time tiie Teacher went to visit the King of Kosala ; and upon learning that the truth had leaked out, said to the king, " What does the £Bimily of the mother matter ? the fieimily of the &ther is the only thing worthy of consideration." Thereupon King Pasenadi restored Vidudabha and Vd^bhakhattiyS. to their former rank. (348-9)

Just at this time Bandhula, the Commander-in-chief of King Pase* nadi's army, dismissed his wife Mallikd. on the ground of barrenness* The Teacher bade her return to her husband, and Bandhula took her back ; whereupon she conceived a child in her womb. One day the longing of pregnancy came upon her, and she said to her husband, " I long to bathe in the lotus tank of Ves&ll, and to drink the water thereof" " Very well," said Bandhula. So he took his bow, which required a thousand men to string, ' assisted Mallik^ to mount the chariot, and drove to Vesall, entering the city by the gate erected in honor of Mah&li. Now Mah&li lived near this gate; and when he heard the rumble of Bandhula's chariot, he said to himself " There is trouble brewing for the Licchavi princes." Now the lotus tank was guarded within and without by strong guards, and fenced in with an iron grating the meshes of which were so fine that not even birds could get through. Bandhula alighted from his chariot, drove the guards away, tore down the grating, and admitted his wife to the tank. So Mallika bathed in the lotus tank of Ves&ll, and drank the water thereof. Then Bandhula assisted her to mount the chariot, and drove back by the way he came. (349-351)

The guards reported Bandhula's insolence to the Licchavi princes, who were exceedingly angry, and immediatdy mounted their chariots,

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five hundred strong, and set out to capture Bandfaula. Mahdli warned them that Bandhula would slay them all, but the princes paid no at- tention to his warning. Bandhula waited until the file of chariots was so straight that but one chariot-fit)nt appeared to view ; and then, stringing his mighty bow, he let an arrow fly. The arrow passed through the body of every one of the five hundred men. Not realizing what had happened, they continued the pursuit ; but Bandhula imme- diately stopped his chariot and cried out, " Tou are all dead men ; I will not fight with the dead," " Do we look like dead men ! " " Loosen your girdles." They did so, and the instant they did so, five hundred dead men lay on the ground. (351-3)

Bandhula returned to S&vatUii with Mallik^ Sixteen times Mallik^ bore twin sons to Bandhula, and all of them became mighty men. Bandhula by his upright conduct incurred the hostility of the unjust judges, who went to the king and fslsely accused him of designs on the throne. Thereupon the king ordered Bandhula and his sons to proceed to the firontier and put down an insurrection, and at the same time suborned men to lie in wait for them on their return, kill them, and bring back their heads. Bandhula and his sons quickly put the marauders to flight, and were murdered on their return.* News of the murder was brought to Mallikd. on the morning of the day on which she had invited the Chief Disciples to be her guests. As she was entertaining the monks, one of the servants dropped a dish and broke it S&riputta said to her, " Heed it not" Mallika drew fix)in the folds of her dress the letter she had received that morning, and replied, " If I heed not the murder of my husband and two and thirty sons, I am not likely to heed the breaking of a mere disL" After the departure of the monks Mallika addressed her sons' wives, assuring them that their husbands, having lived blameless lives, had obtained only the firuit of deeds in previous existences, and uiged them to cherish no bitter feelings against the king. The king soon learned that the charges brought against Bandhula were fiilse ; whereupon he made amends to Mallikd^ and at her request permitted her to return to her family, and to send back her sons' wives to theirs. (353-5

King Pasenadi appointed to the post of Commander-in-chief a nephew of Bandhula, Dlghak^r&yana by nama Dlghakftrftyana did not forget that Pasenadi had caused his nnde to be murdered, and waited for a chance to get even. Now at that time the Teacher was residing in a village near-by ; and Pasenadi, being greatly troubled in spirit, set out with a small body-guard to pay him a visit As Pas- enadi was about to enter the Perfumed Chamber, he handed ihe royal insignia to Dlghakarayana^ who immediately hurried back to S&vatthi

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and proclaimed Vidudabha king. That night Pasenadi died, and when the news was brought to Vidudabha, the latter ordered the funeral rites to be performed, (355-6)

Vidudabha remembered the oath he had sworn against the Sakyans, and set out with a large force, intending to kill them alL The Teacher, aware of the impending destruction of his kinsmen, seated himself under a small tree near Kapilavatthu. Vidudabha was surprised to see him there, and said to him, " Why do you sit here rather than under the great banyan tree that grows in my kingdom ? " " The shade of my kinsmen refreshes me," replied the Teacher. Then Vidudabha knew that the Teacher had gone there to protect his kinsmen, and immediately returned to Sflvatthi. The Teacher rose and returned to Jetavana. Three times this happened. Then the Teacher, realizing tliat his kinsmen must needs be slain through the effect .of the evil deed they committed in a previous existence when they threw poison into the water, went no more to the tree. So Vidudabha went forth to slay his enemies. The Sakyans, as kinsmen of the Buddha, were unwilling to kill any of their enemies, and there- fore made only a show of resistence, with the result that VidQdabha destroyed them utterly, and washed his bench with their blood. (357-9)

MahS.nS.ma, rather than eat with Vidudabha> attempted suicide; but such was the effect of the merit he had accumulated, that he was translated to the palace of the NSgas, where he remained for twelve years. Vidudabha searched for him in vain, and then set out on his return journey. At nightfisdl Vidudabha pitched his camp in the bed of the river AciravatI ; during the night a violent storm arose, the river bed was filled with a raging torrent, and Vidudabha and his retinue perished in the waters. (359-360)

When the monks referred to the destruction of the Salqrans, the Teacher told them that it was the effect of their throwing poison into the river in a previous existence. When they commented on the &ct that Vidudabha was swept away in the height of his glory the Teacher pronounced Stanza 47, establishing many in the Fruits, (360-362)

Book IV. Story 4. Patlpfljika.

ILLUSTBATINQ STANZA 5-48.

Once upon a time,, while the god Mftlabh&rl was amusing himself in the company of a thousand celestial nymphs in the Garden of the Thirty-three, one of the njrmphs fell from that existence, and was reborn in a noble £unily of S&vatthi. Remembering her former es**

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tate, she made the wish that she might be reborn as M^bhdrl's wiie^ and her life abounded in good works. When she married, her devo- tion to her husband was so conspiouoos that she became known as Patipujikft (Husband-honorer). On her death she was reborn, accord- ing to the wish she had made, as M&labhflrl's wifa It was now even- ing in the world of the Thirty-three. When she told the other nymphs that men lived only a thousand years, they were greatly surprised, but when she added that in spite of the shortness of human life,.men were heedless and sluggish, they hardly credited her words. The Teacher, drawing a lesson from Patiptijikft's history, warned the monks of the shortness of human life, and pronounced Stanza 48, at the con- clusion of which many were established in the Fruits. (382-6)

Book rv. Story 5. Koaiya, the Niggardly Treasurer.^

ILLUSTRATINa STANZA 6 « 49.

There once lived not &r from R&jagaha a treasurer named Eosiya, who was as niggardly as he was wealthy ; and that was saying a great deal So niggardly was he, in fact^ that on a certain occasion he com- pelled his wife to carry her cooking implements up to the seventh storey of the house to prepare a cake for him, for fear that otherwise he might have to share his treat with the neighbors. The Teacher, aware of what was going on, bade Moggallana transport the treasurer, his wife, and the cake to Jetavana. Suddenly the treasurer saw MoggaHSna, poised in the air, looking in through the window. Moggall&na indicated that he wished to have something to eat After a good deal of hesi- tation, the treasurer said to bis wife, " Cook him just one tiny little cake, and let 's get rid of him." One after another, the cakes they baked grew to an enormous size, until finally, out of sheer desperation, the treasurer presented them all to Moggalldna. The latter then preached the Law to the treasurer and his wife, dwelling on the importance of almsgiving, after which he transported them, together with the cakea, to Jetavana. The cakes provided an ample meal for the whole Con- regatiop of Monks. After the meal the Teacher delivered his custom- ary d'dcourse, at the end of which the treasurer and "his wife were established in the Fruit of Conversion. The treasurer then devoted his entire wealth to the religion of Buddha. The latter, referring to the subject in the course of a conversation with the monks, gave high praise to Moggallftna for his share in the conversion of the niggardly treasurer, and pronounced Stanza 49, establishing many in the Fruita.

Cf. J&. i. 345-349.

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Gontinaing his discourse, the Teacher informed the monks that this was not the first time Moggalld.na had converted the treasurer, and then related the Illlsa Jataka. (366-376)

Book rv. Story 6. Pftfhika, the Naked Ascetio.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 7 — 50.

The wife of a certain householder of S&vatthi was accustomed to give food to a naked ascetic named Pathika. One day she expressed a desire to go and hear the Teacher ; but the ascetic, desiring to retain his place, urged her not to do so. Accordingly she decided to invite the Teacher to be her guest, and sent her young son to deliver the messaga Pd,thika found out where the boy was going, and told him to give the Teacher wrong directions, saying that in case the latter &iled to come, he and the boy would have all the more to eat. The boy did as the ascetic told him ; but the Teacher, knowing the way himself came ao the appointed tima The ascetic was greatly pro- voked, reviled his bene&ctor, and left the housa The Teacher, ob- . serving that the mind of his hostess was agitated, and learning the reason why, urged her to pay no attention to the sins of others, but rather to heed her own shortcomings ; and pronounced Stanza 50, at the conclusion of which she was established in the Fruit of Conversion. (376-380)

Book rv. Story 7. ChattapSni, Lay Disciple.

ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 8-9 — 51-52.

Chattapd.ni was a lay disciple of Sd.vatthi who had entered upon the Third Path. When King Pasenadi Eosala came to pay his re- spects to the Teacher, Chattapani, out of respect for the Teacher, withheld homage. This irritated the king, but the Teacher justified Chattap^ni's conduct, and the king said no more about it. One day the king saw Chattapani pass through the courtyard with a parasol in his hand and sandals on his feet He caused ChattapSni to be sum- moned ; whereupon ChattapSni laid aside his parasol and sandals, and came into the king's presence without them. The king said, " Why did you lav aside parasol and sandals ? " ChattapSni replied, " Be- cause I was summoned into the presence of a king." " 01^" said the king, " so at last you know that I am a king." " I always did," replied ChattapSni. " Why, then, did you withhold homage fix)m me on the day I went to see the Teacher ? " ** Out of respect for the Teacher." " Very well ; we 11 let the past rest" The king then requested Chat- tapSni to preach the Law in the palace, but ChattapSni, not being a

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monk, declined Then King Pasenadi sent word to the Teacher, say- ing, " Mallikd, and Vasahhakhattiyd. of the Royal Household desire to hear the Law." The Teacher deputed Ananda to preach the Law in the palace. Somewhat later Ananda reported to the Teacher that Vd.sabhakhattiyd, unlike MallikS^ had made little progress; where- upon the Teacher, contrasting their attitudes, pronounced Stanzas 51-52, establishing many in the Fruits. (380-3M)

Book rV. Story 8. ViB&kh2L

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 10 -> 53.

Visd'khd. was the daughter of Dhanaiijaya, a treasurer of the city of Ehaddiya in the kingdom of Bengal. Dhanafijaya's father, Mendaka^ was one of five persons of limitless wealth living in Bimhis&ra's terri- tory. Now King Bimbis&ra was a connection by marriage of King Pasenadi Kosala, and one day received a request from the latter to move one of the families of limitless wealth to the kingdom of KosaLa. Since this was too great an undertaking, Bimhis&ra did the next best thing, and sent Dhanafijaya. So Dhanafijaya, accompanied hy his &m- ily and following, removed to the kingdom of Kosala, and settled in a place called Sd>keta^ seven leagues from Sd^vatthi. By this time Visdkha^ who was established in the Fruit of Conversion at the early age of seven, had grown to womanhood. (384-7)

At this time there was living in the neighboring city of S&vatthi a young man named Punnavaddhana, son of the treasurer Migdra, who had agreed to marry a girl possessed of the Five Beauties, if such could be found. Eight Brahmans devoted themselves to the task of finding him a wife, and one day noticing Vis&kh&, and discovering that she was possessed of the Five Beauties, they went to her &ther, Dhananjayai and asked him to give her in marriage to their master, Punnavaddhana. Dhanafijaya consented, and the Brahmans hastened to inform Mig^ra. Thereupon MigSra the treasurer and King Pasenadi Kosala, accompa- nied by their retinues, paid a visit to the treasurer Dhanalojaya. In the meantime Dhanafijaya caused a magnificent trousseau to be made for his daughter, and provided her with a splendid dowry. (387-397)

When it was time for VisSkha to go, her father enjoined upon her the observance of Ten Injunctions, which were as follows : The in-door fire is not to be carried outside ; the out-door fire is not to be carried inside ; give only to him that gives ; give not to him that gives not ; give both to him that gives, and to him that gives not ; sit happily ; eat happily ; sleep happily ; tend the fire ; honor the household divin- ities. MigSxa happened to be sitting in the next room, and overheard

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all that Dhanafijaya said. Dhanafijaya then appointed eight sponsors for Vis&kha> and directed them to try her in case any charges were brought against her. He then entrusted his daughter to the care of King Pasenadi and the treasurer, who returned with her to S^vatthi. So Vi8d,kha> arrayed in a magnificent parure, and accompanied by a splendid retinue, entered Sd.vatthi in the train of the King, and inmie- diately won the hearts of all the inhabitants. (397-9)

That night Visftkha's thoroughbred mare gave birth to a foal ; where- upon Visakha arose, went to the stable, and bathed the mare. When her father-in-law learned that she had left the house at night, he was much displeased, but refrained from making further inquiries. Now Mig^ra was much attached to a certain sect of naked ascetics, who, when they learned that a disciple of Gotama had become the wife of his son, urged Migd,ra to put her out of the house. Somewhat later, at the close of a day on which Migd,ra had entertained the naked as- cetics, he overheard Vis^kha remark that he was eating "stale fare." Mig^ra then and there ordered her out of the house. Visakha, how- ever, claimed the right of being tried before her eight sponsors ; accord- ingly Mig^ra had the sponsors summoned, and brought three charges against his daughter-in-law : first, that she had accused him of eating what was unclean ; secondly, that she hcbd left the house at night ; thirdly, that she performed the work of menials. Visakhd, cleared her- self of guilt on the first count by explaining that all she meant to say was that her &ther-in-law was living on stale merit instead of acquir- ing fresh merit; then she explained that she heA left the house at night for no other purpose than to care for her mare ; the third charge was withdrawn. (399-402)

MigSra then asked Visftkha to explain the hidden meaning of the Ten Injunctions. " The first," said Visakha, " means that I must not speak of the faults of my mother-in-law, or fisither-in-law, or husband, to others ; the second, that if I hear others speak of their faults, I must not tell them what I have heard ; the third, that I should give to those only who return borrowed articles ; the fourth, that I should not give to those who fisiil to return borrowed articles ; the fifth, that I should give to anyone in needy circumstances, whether or not he is able to repay me ; the next three mean that I must not sit or eat or sleep until I have first attended to the needs of my mother-in-law, father-in-law, and husband ; the ninth means that I must look upon them as upon a flame of fire ; the tenth, that I must look upon them as my divinities." (402-404)

Thereupon Migara, finding no fault in Visakha, asked her to pardon him. She did so, but told him that now she should leave the house of

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548 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

her own accord. She consented to stay, however, on the condition that she should be allowed to entertain the Buddha. On the occasion of ^e Teacher's first visit, Migara and his wife were established in the Fruit of Conversion. Visakhd,'s life abounded in good works ; and she lived to be an hundred and twenty years old. She endeavored to sell her magnificent trousseau, intending to devote the proceeds to the work of the Order ; but finding that no one else was rich enough to buy it, made up the price herself, and erected a splendid monastery. The Teacher informed the monks that Vis&khd,'s noble life was the fruit of good works performed in the dispensations of Padumuttara and Kas- sapa, and then pronounced Stanza 53, establishing many in the Fruits. (404-420)

Book IV. Story 9. The Elder Ananda's Question.

ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 11-12 » 54-55.

Once upon a time the Elder Xnanda pondered the following thought in his mind : " The Exalted One possesses three kinds of perfiimes ; but each of these goes with the wind. Is there, perhaps, a kind of per- fume that goes against the wind ? " So he went to the Teacher aud put the question to him. The Teacher replied, " Certainly there is a kind of perfume that goes against the wind." " Which kind is itt" "The perfume of good works." Then the Teacher pronounced Stan- zas 54-55, at the conclusion of which many were established in the Fruits. (420-423)

Book rv. Story 10. Sakka bestows Alms on Mahft Kassapa.

ILLUSTRATING STANZA 13 «= 56.

Sakka's five hundred wives once endeavored to obtain the privily of bestowing alms on Maha Eassapa, but the latter refused them the privilege, on the ground that he preferred to allow the poor to accumu- late merit by so doing. When Sakka learned of this, he disguised himself as an old, broken-down weaver, transformed Wellborn into an old woman, and had no difficulty at all in persuading Eassapa to accept his alms. When Eassapa discovered that it was Sakka firom whom he had accepted alms, he reproached him for deceiving him and defrauding the poor. But Sakka explained that he hoped by the per- formance of this and similar works of merit to make his own lustre equal to that of three other deities who heA hitherto outshone him. The Teacher, becoming aware of what had happened, pronounced Stanza 56, at the conclusion of which many were established in the Fruits. (423-430)

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BURUNGAME, — BUDDHAGHOSA's DHA&fMAPADA COMMENTARY. 649 Book rv. Story U. How the Elder Qodhika attained Nibbfina.

ILLUSTRATINO STANZA 14 - 67.

The Elder Godhika found hipiself so impeded in the praotice of ecstatic meditation hy a disease which had attacked him that he drew a razor and cut his throaty passing at once to Nibbana. Mara searched everywhere in hope of discovering where he had been reborn ; but the Teacher informed him that he was engaged in a futile task, and pro- nounced Stanza 57, establishing many in the Fruits. (431--4)

Book rv. Story 12. Oarahadinna.

ILLUSTRATING STANZAS 15-16 - 68-59.

At Sftvatthi once lived two friends, Sirigutta and (jarahcbdinna ; the former, a lay disciple of the Buddha ; the latter, an cbdherent of the Naked Ascetics. These heretics used to say to their disciple Oara- hadinna, " Go and ask your friend Sirigutta why he visits the hermit (jotama, and what he expects to get out of him, and see if you can't persuade him to transfer his allegiance to us." So Garahadinna used to ask his friend Sirigutta why he visited the hermit Gotama, and what he expected to get out of him, and tried with all his might to persucbde him to transfer his allegiance to the Naked Ascetics. After a time Sirigutta became very weary of hearing this sort of talk, and one day said to Garahadinna, " What do your masters know, anyway t " " Oh, sir, don't talk that way; there is nothing my masters don't know. They know all about the past, the present, and the future. They know everybody's thoughts, words, and actions. They know just what is going to happen, and just what is not going to happen." " You don't say." "Indeed J do." "Well, if that's the case, pray convey my compliments to your masters, and tell them that I should like to have the privilege of entertaining them." The heretics at once accepted. (434-6)

Sirigutta had a long ditch dug, and had it filled with dung and slima Then he hcbd cords stretched across, rugs laid on the cords, and the seats so placed with one edge resting on the ground and the other on the cords, that the instant the heretics sat down, they would be tipped over backwards and precipitated into the mass of filth at the bottom of the ditch. In order that the rugs might not be smeared with filth, Sirigutta stationed men all along the line with orders to pull the rugs out from under when the heretics sat down. He didn't take the trouble to provide any food or drink for his guests. Thought he, " If

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550 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Grarahadinna's majBters really know jast what is going to happen, they H stay away from here." (436-7)

Bat Gurahadinna's masters came, just as Sirigatta expected they would. Sirigutta told them to sit down all at once, and when they did so, they were immediately tipped over backwards, and precipitated into the mass of filth at the bottom of the ditch. As they crawled oat, Sirigutta's men belabored them with clubs until they were glad enough to escape with their lives. Garahadinna had Sirigutta haled before the king and asked the king to give him the fall extent of the aw ; but when the king investigated the matter, he decided that it was Grarahadinna, rather than Sirigutta, who deserved to be punished, and therefore had Garahadinna beaten soundly. (437-9)

Garahflbdinna cherished deep resentment against Sirigutta for a long time, and finally determined to serve Buddha and his monks somewhat as Sirigutta had served the Naked Ascetics. He employed much the same stratagem, except that instead of filling the ditch with filth, he heA it filled with glowing coals. But the Buddha caused an enormous lotus-flower to spring up from the bed of coals, whereon he sat, sur- rounded by his five hundred monks. By a second miracle he created an abundant supply of food, whereof all partook. Then he pronounced Stanzas 58-59, at the end of which the multitude obtained clear com- prehension of the law, and Garahadinna and Sirigutta attained the Fruit of Conversion. In the evening, referring to a similar experience he had in a previous existence, he related the KhadirangSia Jataka. (439-447)

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Prooeediagi of fhie Ameriean Academy of Arte and Sdenoea.

Vol. XLV. No. 21. — Sbptembeb, 1910.

RECORDS OP MEETINGS, 1909-1910.

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1910-1911.

LIST OP THE FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. ,

STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES;

RUMFORD PREMIUM.

INDEX.

(Title Paok and Table op Contents.)

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RECORDS OF MEETINGS.

Nine hundred ninety-flnt Meettnir*

October 13, 1909. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

There were thirty-four Fellows present. .

The Corresponding Secretary announced that letters had been received from F. J. Furnivall and Hermann Jacobi, accepting Foreign Honorary Membership; from F. G. Benedict, Arthur W. Ewell, J. H. Ropes, W. W, Fenn and G. M. Lane, accepting Resident Fellowship ; from W. J. Spillman, American Secretary of the Universal Scientific Association, suggesting the establish- ment of technical vocabularies in the international language, Esperanto, for the various sciences ; from Mrs. Simon Newcomb and family, announcing the death on July 11th, 1909, of Simon Newcomb; from Harvard University, requesting the presence of a delegate at the inauguration of Abbott Lawrence Lowell, as its President ; from the Nobel Prize Committees, inviting compe- tition for the Nobel prizes of 1910 ; from Dr. J. Zavodny, en- closing a pamphlet of the Export-verein fiir Bohmen, Mahren und Schlesien, in Prag, and requesting admission into the Acad- emy as Corresponding member ; from Anaboli Pavlov, a theory of numbers (in Russian); from H. G. Wadlin, E. A. Filene and C. Bertrand Thompson, suggesting an exhibit at the " 1915 " Boston Exposition to be held Nov. 1-27, 1909 ; from Carlos A. Hesse, suggesting changes in the Calendar ; from the Aero Club of America, inviting the Academy to take part in the proceedings at the presentation of medals to Messrs. Wilbur and Orville Wright, as discoverers of the art of flying ; from the American Philosophical Society, requesting the Academy to co-operate with oUier scientific societies in urging the government of the

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554 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY-

United States to send a vessel to explore and survey the coast of Wilkes Land and other parts of Antarctica.

The following deaths were announced by the Chair : —

John M. Ordway, Associate Fellow in Class I, Section 3; Simon Newcomb, Associate Fellow in Class I, Section 1.

On motion of E. L. Mark, it was

Voted^ that a committee be appointed to investigate the ques- tion of co-operation with other scientific societies in urging the Government to send a vessel to explore the coast of Wilkes Land.

The question of an exhibit at the Boston *'1915" Exposition was referred to the Librarian, with full power.

President Trowbridge gave a paper entitled "The Future of Aeroplanes."

The following papers were presented by title : —

" The Principle of Relativity and Non-Newtonian Mechanics.'* By Gilbert N. Lewis and Richard C. Tolman. Presented by C. R. Sanger.

" Friction in Gases at Low Pressures." By J. L. Hogg. Pre- sented by John Trowbridge.

" The Quantitative Determination of Antimony by the Gut- zeit Method." By Charles Robert Sanger and Emile Raymond Riegel.

" The Preparation and Properties of Pyrosulphuryl Chloride and Chlorsulphonic Acid." By Charles Robert Sanger, Emile Raymond Riegel and Lawrence Haines Whitney.

"A Revision of the Atomic Weight of Phosphorus." By Gregory P. Baxter and Grinnell Jones.

" The Equivalent Circuits of Composite Lines in the Steady State." By A. E. Kennelly.

" Tlepl ^vaeay;. A Study of the Conception of Nature among the Pre-Socratics." By William A. Heidel. Presented by Mor- ris H. Morgan.

Nine hundred ninety-ieoond Meeting*

November 10, 1909.

Tlie President in the chair.

There were thirty-seven Fellows present.

^ „..Co.,,

RECORDS OF MEETINGS.

655

The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters: an invitation from the Museum of Pine Arts, to the opening of its new building ; from the Secretary of the International Congress of Americanists, a notification of the 17th Congress.

The Committee on the proposed action regarding Antarctic exploration reported as follows : —

" We believe that it is fitting for governments to take part in ex- ploration. Our government has already done it in moderate measure ; other governments have done mora

We believe, also, that it is fitting for learned societies to take part in promoting government exploration by middng recommendations to this end.

We find that the particular plan under consideration deserves our support, because the work proposed is lyell worthy of investigation ; it touches a region in which our previous national exploration gave good results but left much to be done. There- is abundant room for co- operative exploration in the Antarctic regions by various countries.

We therefore recommend that &vorable action be taken by the Acad- emy on the communication fix)m the Anlerican Philosophical Society."

W. M. DAvia A. Lawrencb Rotch.

On motion of the Corresponding Secretary it was Voted^ That the Academy take favorable action on the com- munication from the American Philosophical Society.

The following letter from Alexander Agassiz regarding his presentation of a new building to the Academy was read by the President : —

October 16 [1909]. My dear Mr. Trowbridge,

I have at last bought the house adjoining the Academy's building on Newbury Street, — No. 26, so that on my return fix)m the West I shall be ready to make my proposition to the Academy for their con- sideration and decision. The house is let for 2 years but I fancy we could obtain possession earlier. In meanwhile the architects can per- fect the plans. It will be necessary while building, for the Academy to get shelter fix)m the Historical Society or Natural History Society and to hire a room for their office for say 18 months. As the Acad- emy will have ample room, I think we could increase the number of members by 150 or 200, which would pay for increased expense of run-

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556 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

ning the building when completed. With the great increase in nnm- ber of Professors at Tafts, Boston University, Institute of Technology, and Harvard, there ought to be no difficulty in filling our number. I leave for the West the 22d, not to return till Nov. 12th. In mean- time, you will perhaps get one of our lawyer members to look over our Statutes, By-laws and Charter, and make out a plan for us to submit to the Members at a properly called meeting to decide on my sugges- tions or such modifications of them as are advisable. I propose to deliver the building complete to the Academy and hope that increase of new members will pay running expenses. The building will have

1 large Meeting Room 4% X 46 I

1 " Reading " " " " II

Janitx)r's quarters and bed room 3. Ill

Basement Hall 1, 2 rooms for Committee meetings.

The stack or shelf room of I, II and basement will give room for 10 M. additional books without a new stack.

As I go o£f for the winter the 13th of December, I hope we can have the meeting of the Academy before that time and appoint a committee to examine the plans and report to the Academy what action they think best for the Academy.

The location is excellent — near all electric cars, near the Natural History Society, the Institute, Tufts Medical School and Boston Uni- versity, and I hope the building may become a scientific and literary club while remaining the domicile of the Academy. Yours very truly,

A Aqassiz.

After discussion, on motion of Professor Wolff, it was Voted^ That a committee of three be appointed by the Presi- dent to consider the general plan suggested by Professor Agassiz.

On motion of Professor Webster it was unanimously Fotedy That the Academy expresses its hearty thanks to Pro- fessor Agassiz for his very generous proposition.

The foUowinor communication was given by Professor Kit- trcdge, *• Moot Points about Chaucer."

V

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Nine hundred ninety-tliird Meetlnff.

December 8, 1909.

Tlie Pbesident in the chair.

There were fifty-six Fellows present

The Corresponding Secretary read the following letters : — from the President of the 8th International Zoological Congress, in- viting delegates to the congress; from the family of Henry Charles Lea, announcing his death ; from the Comity G^ologique de la Russie, announcing the death of M. Serge Nikitin ; from the Koniglich Bchmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, an- nouncing the death of Phil. Dr. Karl Domal^p.

The death of Henry Charles Lea, an Associate Fellow in Class HL, Section 3, was announced by the Chair.

On motion of E. C. Pickering the following Resolution was passed : Mesohedj That the American Academy of Arts and Sciences desires to express its entire approval of . the recom- mendations of the President of the United States, in his annual message to Congress, regarding the administration of the Naval Observatory. The Academy believes that the scientific work of the Observatory should be under the direction of a scientific man, and that in this way its efl&ciency will be greatly increased.

Resolvedj That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the President of the United States, by the Secretary.

On motion of Mr. Webster it was

Voted J To give the above Resolution to the public press.

It was suggested by tlie Corresponding Secretary, that Stand- ing Vote No. 10 precluded giving the above Resolution to the public press.

On motion of Mr. Bowditch, it was

Votedj That in the opinion of the Academy, Standing Vote No. 10 does not apply to making public the vote just passed.

The President read the names of the Committee appointed at the last meeting to consider the general plan suggested by Pro- fessor Agassiz, viz. : Dr. H. P. Walcott, Professor John C. Gray, and President A. Lawrence Lowell.

The President re-read the letter of Professor Agassiz, read at the last meeting of the Academy, and after considerable discus- sion the following votes were passed : —

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558 PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

On motion of A. G. Webster, it was

Votedy That the Academy accepts with profound gratitude the very generous gift of Professor Agassiz.

Voted^ That a committee on Policy be selected to consider all questions relating to the enlarged functions of the Academy.

On motion of C. P. Bowditch it was

Voted^ That in the opinion of the Academy an increase of membership is desirable.

Voted^ That the committee on the general plan suggested by Professor Agassiz be authorized to apply to the Legislature for an amendment to the charter which will permit such increase.

Professor Derr exhibited some lantern photographs taken in the Yellowstone National Park.

The following papers were presented by title : —

'' Buddha-ghosa's Commentary on the Dhammapada, an Analy- sis of the First Four Books of the Buddhist Acta Sanctorum in Pali, with an Index to the 304 Stories of the Burmese Edition. '* By Eugene Watson Burlingame. Presented by C. R Lanman.

''The Effect of Leakage at the Edges upon the Conduction of Heat in a Homogeneous Lamina." By B. 0. Peirce.

''The Resistance of the Air to a Swinging Magnet." By B. 0. Peirce.

"The Differentiation of Scalar Point Functions with Respect to Other Similar Functions." By B. 0. Peirce.

"The Spectrum of a Compound of Carbon in the Region of Extremely Short Wave-Lengths. " By Theodore Lyman.

"Average Chemical Compositions of Igneous-Rock Types." By Reginald A. Daly.

"Experiments on the Electrical Oscillations in a Hertz Rectilinear Oscillator. " By George W. Pierce.

"On the Applicability of the Law of Corresponding States to the Joule-Thomson Effect in HgO and COj." By Harvey N. Davis. Presented by John Trowbridge.

" Notes on Certain Thermal Properties of Steam. " By Harvey N. Davis. Presented by John Trowbridge.

"Discharge of Electricity through Gases." By John Trowbridge.

"Measurement of Pressure and Density in Gases with the Micro Balance." By H. W. Morse. Presented by John Trowbridge.

\

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RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 559

((

''Some Minute Phenomena of Electrolysis." By H. W. Morse. Presented "by John Trowbridge.

" The Reactions of Amphibians to Light." By Arthur Sperry Pearse. Presented by K L. Mark.

Mliw hnndred ninety-fourth Meetlnir*

January 12, 1910. — Stated Meeting.

The President in the chair.

There were twenty-nine Fellows present.

In the absence of the Corresponding Secretary, the President read the following : — a letter from B. Beemaert, Minister of State of Belgium, sending three hundred and seventy-five copies of a manifesto against criticism of Belgium concerning its African possessions; circulars from the committee of the Third Inter- national Congress of Botany to be held at Brussels, May 14-22, 1910; a circular from the Committee of the First International Congress of Entomology, to be held at Brussels, August 1-6, 1910; from the Museo Nacional, Mexico, sending the felicitations of the new year'; an announcement from the Soci^t^ d'Emulation d' Abbeville, of the death of M. P.-C.-R Prarond ; an announce- ment from the Soci^t^ Royale Norv^gienne des Sciences of Trondhjem of the death of M. M. H. Foslie.

The following deaths were announced: — James Barr Ames, Resident Fellow in Class III. , Section 1 ; F. W. Maitland, Foreign Honorary Member in Class III., Section 1.

The following gentlemen were elected members of the Academy : —

Arthur Fairbanks, of Boston, as Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 4.

William Arthur Heidel, of Middletown, as Associate Fellow in Class 111., Section 2.

On motion of B. L. Robinson, it was

Votedj That Professor W. G. Farlow be appointed delegate to the International Botanical Congress to be held at Brussels, May 14 to 22, 1910.

On motion of C. R. Cross, it was

Votedj To appropriate the sum of five hundred dollars (f500)

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560 PR0CEEDIN06 Or THE AMERICAN ACADEMT.

from the nnexpended balance of the income of the Ramford Fund, to be applied at the discretion of the Committee.

Tlie President announced that, in pnrsoance of tlie vote at the last meeting of the Academy, he appointed the following gentle- men a Committee on Policy, to consider all questions relating to the enlarged functions of the Academy : Messrs. Webster, Botch, Ernst, Lyman, Walcott, W. M. Davis and Trowbridge.

The following communication was given by Dr. D. 6. Lyon : " Harvard Explorations in Samaria."

The following papers were presented by title : —

"Air Resistance to Falling Inch Spheres." By Edwin H. HalL

" Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard Univer- sity. New Series No. XXXVIIL" L A preliminary synopsis of the Genus Echeandia. By C. A. Weatherby. IL Sperma- tophy tes, new or reclassified, chiefly Rubiaceae and Gentianaceae. By B. L. Robinson. III. American Forms of Lycopodium com- planatum. By C. A. Weatherby. IV. New and little known Mexican Plants, chiefly Labiatae. By M. L. Femald. V. Mex- ican Phanerogams — Notes and New Species. By C. A. Weath- erby. Presented by B. L. Robinson.

NliM handrad nlnetj-flllh M «0tlBg;

Februaby 9, 1910,

The President in the chair.

There were present thirty-four Fellows.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following: — a circular from the American Philosophical Society, with Resolutions adopted, urging upon Congress the establishment of a National Bureau of Seismology ; a letter from Arthur Fairbanks, accept- ing Resident Fellowship; a letter from William A. Heidel, ac- cepting Associate Fellowship; a circular from the Koniglich Bohmische Gesellschaft, announcing the death of Dr. Ottokar Hostinsky ; two letters from the " Boston 1916 Committee " ; a letter from A. Biddlecombe, showing " proof of the truth of his theory that electricity is material motion in a special condition, etc."; a circular from the President and Fellows of Harvard University, announcing the inauguration of Abbott Lawrence

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RECORDS OF ItfEETINGS. &61

Lowell as President ; a letter f i-om President Taft in answer to Resolutions forwarded to hi in by the Academy relative to the Naval Observatory, requesting that copies of the Resolutions be sent to the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives.

On motion of Professor Webster it was

Votedy To send copies of the Resolutions regarding the Naval Observatory to the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Votedj That the Librarian be appointed a delegate to the Boston 1915 Directorate conference to be held March 8, 1910.

Professor W. M. Davis gave a paper entitled : —

"The Italian Riviera Levante: a study in Geographical Description."

Dr. Percival Lowell exhibited and described transparencies of photographs of Mars and Saturn, taken at the Lowell Observatory.

The following papers were presented by title : —

" Evaporation from the Surface of Small Solid Spheres." By H. W. Morse. Presented by John Trowbridge.

" On the Equilibrium of the System Consisting of Lime, Car- bon, Calcium Carbide, and Carbon Monoxide." By M. de Kay Thompson. Presented by H. M. Goodwin.

" A Study of the Greek Epigram before 300 b. c." By Flor- ence Alden Gragg. Presented by H. W. Smyth.

Nine hondred ninety-tlxth Meetini;.

March 9, 1910. — Stated Meeting,

The President in the chair.

There were thirty-nine Fellows present.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following: — a letter from William H. Niles, resigning Fellowship; a letter from H. G. Chase, announcing the death of Professor A. E. Dolbear ; a letter from Dr. Edward Eohlrausch, announcing the death of W. F. Eohlrausch ; a circular from Senator Augusto Righi, Presi- dent of the Royal Academy of Science, Bologna, announcing the competition for the Elia De Cyon prize in 1911 ; a circular from G. Spiller, Secretary, announcing the Universal Race Congress

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562 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

to be held in London in July, 1911 ; a circular from Signor Vito

Volterra, announcing tlie publication of the mathematical works

of Count Julius Charles of Fagnano.

The following deaths were announced by the Chair : — William Sellers, Associate Fellow in Class I., Section 4;

Samuel W. Johnson, Associate Fellow in Class I., Section 3 ;

William Frederick Eohlrausch, Foreign Honorary Member in

Class I., Section 2,

The President announced that the Massachusetts Legislature

had complied with the request of the Academy and had passed

the following amendment to the Charter of the Academy: —

[Chapter 129.]

Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

In the year One Thousand Nine Hundred and Ten. An Act relative to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in (Sen- ' eral Court assembled and by the authority of the same, as follows : —

Section 1. Section four of chapter forty-six of the acts of the year seventeen hundred and seventy-nine, passed May fourth, seventeen hundred and eighty, which incorporated the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, is hereby amended by striking out in the proviso at the end of said section, the word " two " before the word " hun- dred," and inserting in place thereof the word : ' — three, — so as to read as follows : — Section 4. That the fellows of the said academy, may from time to time, elect such persons to be fellows thereof, as they shall judge proper ; and that they shall have full power and i^uthority from time to time to suspend, expel, or disfranchise, any fellow of the said academy, who shall by his conduct render himself unworthy of a place in that body, in the judgment of the academy ; and also to settle and establish the rules, forms, and conditions of election, suspension, ex- pulsion, and disfranchisement : provided, that the number of the said academy who are inhabitants of this state, shall not at any one time, be more than three hundred, nor less than forty.

Section 2. Said chapter forty-six is hereby further amended by striking out Section six and inserting in place thereof the following : — Section 6. That the fellows of the said academy may, and shall, forever, hereafter, be deemed capable, in the law, of having, holding, and taking, in fee simple or any less estate, by gift, grant, devise, or

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BECOBDS OF MBETINOS. &63

otherwise, any lands, tenements, or other estate, real and personal : provided, that the said real estate shall not exceed in value the sum of one hundred thousand dollars, and the said personal estate shall not exceed in value the sum of three hundred thousand dollars ; all the sums mentioned in the preceding section of this act to be valued in silver, at the rate of six shillings and eight pence by the ounce ; and the annital interest and income of the said real and personal estate, together with the fines and penalties aforesaid, shall be appropriated for premiums, to encourage improvementa and discoveries in agricul- ture, arts, and manufactures, or for other purposes consistent with the end and design of the institution of the said academy, as the fellows thereof shall determine. Sbctiok 3. This act shall take effect upon its passaga

House op Rbpresentatfvbs, February 25, 1910.

Passed to be enacted. Joseph Walker, Speaker.

In Senate, February 28, 1910. Passed to be enacted. Allen T. Tbeadway, President. February 28, 1910. Approved. Eben S. Draper,

A true copy.

Office of the Secretary,

Boston, March 1, 1910.

Witness the Great Seal of the Commonwealth. Isaac H. Edgett, [Seal] Deputy and Acting Secretary of the Commomvealth.

The following gentlemen were elected Members of the Academy : —

Clifford Herschel Moore, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 2 (Philology and Archaeology).

Charles Pomeroy Parker, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 2 (Philology and Archaeology).

Vbtedj That the sum of four hundred dollars from the unex- pended balance of the appropriation for publication from the income of the Rumford fund be transferred to the amount avail- able for use at the discretion of the Committee.

The Chair appointed the following Councillors to serve as Nominating Committee : —

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564' PBOCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

John E. Wolff, of Class II.

Henry P. Talbot, of Class I.

George L. Kittredge of Class III.

The following gentlemen were appointed a Committee to revisfe the Statutes : —

Charles R. Lanmau. •

Charles R. Cross.

Frederic J. Stimson.

The following communication was given : —

^^ Some New Factors in Determining the Location of Wineland the Good." By M. L. Fernald.

Mr. Henry H. Edes gave an account of ^< Some Lacunae in the Archives of the Academy." These Lacunae were letters written to the Academy by the following: —

George Washington, March 22, 1781 ; Count Rumford, Feb- ruary 15, 1797 ; Marquis de Chastellux, five letters in 1781 and '82; Chevalier de la Luzerne, March 20, 1781*; Peter Wargeutin, March 20, 1781 ; Marquis de Marbois, May 20, 1781 ; Richard Price, three letters in 1781 and '83 ; J. J. L. Delalande, Novem- ber 30, 1781 ; J. L. D'Alembert, December 11, 1781 ; Leonardus Euler, March 11, 1782 ; Count de Gobelin, June 24, 1782 ; R S. Jcaurat, three letters in 1782 and '83; Thomas Brand Hollis, two letters in 1783 ; Joseph Priestley, June 23, 1786 ; John C. Lcttsom, February 1, 1793; J. F. Blumenbacli, November 29, 1795; Nathaniel Bowditch, August 28, 1797, and were pro- cured from the descendants of Joseph Willard, former Secre- tary and Vice President of the Academy.

On motion of Professor Webster, it was

Vbted^ That in view of the unusual nature of the Communi- cation, the Academy depart from its usual custom of not express- ing an opinion on communications presented to it, and give a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Edes for his success in restoring to the Academy these valuable documents.

It was then

Votedy That the thanks of the Academy be given to the de- scendants of Dr. Joseph Willard, its first Corresponding Secre- tary, for restoring to its files a collection of papers, mostly letters accepting Fellowship in the Academy.

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RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 565

Vine hundred nlnety-eeventh M eetlnir.

April 13, 1910.

Vice-President Thomson in the chair.

There were thirty-six Fellows and three guests present.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following:— ^letters from Charles P. Parker and Clifford H. Moore, accepting Resi- dent Fellowship; a letter from V. M. Slipher, accepting Associate Fellowship ; a letter from John Ritchie, Jr., resigning Fellow- ship; a card from the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, re- questing the presence of the President at the opening of the New Hall of the Society ; a letter and circulars from the Argen- tine Scientific Society, concerning the International American Scientific Congress to be held in Buenos Aires in July, 1910, commemorating the Centenary of the Revolution of May, 1810 ; circulars of the World's Congress of International Associations to be held under the patronage of the Belgian government, in May, 1910 ; circulars of the eleventh International Geological Congress and the second International Agrogeological Confer- ence to be held in Stockholm in 1910 ; a circular from the Bos- ton-1915 Director, announcing the publication of *' The Chronicle of Boston-1915.'*

The Chair announced the death of Alexander Agassiz, Resi- dent Fellow in Class II., Section 3, and President of the Academy from 1895 to 1903; of Morris Hicky Morgan, of Class III., Section 2 ; and of William Graham Sumner, Associate Fellow in Class III., Section 3.

On motion of the Corresponding Secretary, it was

Votedy To refer the appointment of delegates to the three International Congresses, to tlte President.

Vice-President Thomson announced that the Rumford Prem- ium had been awarded to Professor Robert Williams Wood for his discoveries in light, and particularly for his researches on the optical properties of sodium and other metallic vapors.

The two medals were then presented to Professor Wood, who expressed his appreciation of the honor conferred upon him. He then gave an address on " Photography with Invisible Rays.*'

VOL. XLV. 35

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566 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN. ACADEMY.

Nine handrad ninety-eighth Meeting*

May 11, 1910. — Annual Meltino.

The President in the chair.

Thirty -six Fellows and one guest present.

The Corresponding Secretary read the following: — a notice of the death of Alexander Agassiz from The Faculty of the Museum of Comparative Zotilogy; a notice from the clerk of the Probate Court of the City of Newport, that tlie Academy is named as a beneficiary under the will of Alexander Agassiz ; a circular from the Association des Ing^nieurs Electriciens sortis do Plnstitut ^lectrotechnique Montefiore, giving the conditions of a triennial prize; a circular announcing papers to be given at the 17th Congress of Americanists at Buenos Aires; a circular from the Secretary of the International Hy- giene exhibition to be held in Dresden, 1911.

The following report of the Council was read : —

Since the last report of the Council the deaths of eleven mem- bers have been noted: three Resident Fellows, — James Barr Ames, Morris Hicky Morgan, Alexander Agassiz; six Associate Fellows, — John Morse Ordway, Simon Newcomb, Henry Charles Lea, William Sellars, Samuel William Johnson, William Gra- ham Sumner ; two Foreign Honorary Members, — Frederic Willimn Maitland, Wilhelm Fried rich Kohlrausch.

Tw o Resident Fellows have resigned

New members elected are: Resident Fellows, 8; Associate Fellows, 2; Foreign Honorary Members, 2.

The roll of the Academy therefore now includes 191 Resident Fellows, 8:1 Associate Fellows, and 61 Foreign Honorary Members.

The annual report of the Treasurer was read, of which the following is an abstract : —

BECORDS OF MEETINGS. «'>67

General Fund.

Beceipts.

Balance, April 30, 1909 $507.57

Investments 2,043.63

Assessments ., 1,870.00

Admission fees 80.00

Rent of offices 756.58

Sale of book plates 265.00 $5,522.98

Esependitutes.

Expense of House $1,358.10

Expense of Library 2,691.59

Expense of Meetings 141.54

Treasurer 131.75

Income transferred to principal 224.38 $4,547.35

Balance, April 80, 1910 975.83

$5,522.98

RuMFOBD Fund.

Feceipts,

Balance, April 30, 1909 $2,155.19

Investments 2,956.43

Sale of publications 19.00

Unexpended balance returned • 55.95 $5,186.57

Ea:penditure8,

Research $2,375.00

Periodicals and binding 232.75

Books and binding 50.69

Publication 388.48

Medals 350.00

Sundries 287.80

Income transferred to principal 142.54 $3,827.26

Balance April 30, 1910 1,359.31

$5,186.57

C. M. Warren Funix

Jteceipts.

Balance, April 30, 1909 . $544.95

Investments 406.41 $951.36

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568 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

Expendittires.

Research SlOO.OO

Vault rent (part) 4.00

Income transferred to principal 13.88

Chained to redaoe premium on bonds . . . 50.00 $167.88

Balance, April 30, 1910 783.48

$951^6 Publication Fund.

Beceipts.

Balance, April 30, 1909 $692.99

Appleton Fund investments 618.82

Centennial Fund investments 2,312.17

Sale of publications 402.43 $4,026.41

Eajpenditures.

Publication $2,545.02

Vault rent (part) 12.50

Income transferred to principal 146.94 $2,704.46

Balance, April 30, 1910 1,321.95

$4,026.41

The following reports were also presented : —

Report of the Librarian.

The work of cataloguing the library has progressed during the past year, and is now almost completed. Two alcoves of Society pub- lications, half the dictionaries and the bibliography, only, remain uncatalogued.

There is now no more room for books in the staok-building, and if we remain in this house, shelving must be put up in the house — which is not fire-proof — or another story must be added to the stack- building.

The number of bound volumes in the library at die last report was 29,911. 1105 volumes have been added during the past year, making the number of bound volumes now on the shelves 31.016. The num- ber of volumes added includes 990 gifts and exchanges, 70 purchased by the General Fund, and 48 by the Rumford Fund.

86 volumes have been borrowed from the library by 30 persons, including 19 Fellows.

All books borrowed during the year have been returned, except 11,

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RECORDS OF MEETINOS. 569

5 of which were borrowed within two weeks ; and of die 8 remaining oat at the last report^ all have been returned except 3-

The expenses charged to the library are as follows : Miscellaneous, 8506.70 (which includes S153.13 for cataloguing) ; Binding, $738.25 General, and $84.55 Rumford, Funds; Periodical subscriptions, $446.64 Genend, and $164.68 Rumford, Funds; making a total of $1184.89 for the General, and $249.23 for the Rumford, Funds, as the cost of subscriptions and binding.

Of the Impropriation of $50 from the Rumford Fund, plus $68.86, the unexpended balance frx)m last year, $50.69 has been paid for Books and binding.

A. Lawrence Rotch, Librarian.

May 11, 1910.

Report of the Rumford Committeb.

The following grants in aid of researches on light and heat have been made by tihe Rumford Committee during the year 1909-10 : —

June 9, 1909. Professor W. W. Campbell of the lick Observa- tory, for the purchase of certain parts of a quartz spectrograph $300

Professor M. A. Rosanoff, of Clark University, in further aid of his research on the fractional distillation of binary mixtures . 200

October 13, 1909. Professor L. R. Ingersoll, of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin, for the continuation of his work on the opti- cal constants of metals, additional 300

December 8, 1909. Professor Joel Stebbins, of the Univer- sity of Illinois, in further aid of his researches with the selenium photometer 300

Professor W. W. Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, in fur- therance of his researches on the polariscope study of the solar corona by means of a Hartmann photometer, additional . . . 125

February 9, 1910. Professors C. E Mendenhall, of the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, and Augustus Trowbridge, of Princeton University, in aid of their research on ether drift upon the inten- sity of radiation 250

Professor C. R Mendenhall, in frirtherance of a research on free expansion of gases, additional 250

Mr. Frank W. Very, for the purchase of photographic glass plates of the spectrum frx)m George Higgs, London, a sum not to exceed 50

Professor M. De E. Thompson, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technol(^, in aid of his research on the high temperature equilibrium of the system of materials employed industrially in the carbide process for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen . . 100

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570 PBOCEEDINOS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

It was voted on February 9, 1910, that the sum of $250 be graoted to Professor Gilbert N. Lewis, in aid of the preparation of abstracts of publications on light and heat for the forthcoming IntematioDal Physico-chemical Tables.

On March 9, 1910, it was voted to appropriate the sum of $100 for the purchase and binding of periodicals for the library, a consider- able number of back volumes of several periodicals including a complete set of the Physikalische Zeitschriffc having been secured : this sum to be paid from the amount available for use at the discretion of the Committee.

The following papers have been published in the Proceedings of the Academy during the present year at the expense of the Rumford Fund.

Vol 45, No. 8. ** On the Apphcability of the Law of Corresponding States to the Joule-Thomson Effect in Water and Carbon Dioxida" By Harvey N. Davis.

VoL 45, No. 9. " Notes on Certain Thermal Properties of Steam." By Harvey N. Davis.

Vol. 45, No. 10. "The Spectrum of a Carbon Compound in the Region. of Extremely Short Wave-Lengths." By Theodore Lyman.

Vol. 45, No. 18. "On the Equilibrium of the System consisting of Lime, Carbon, Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide." By Maurice De E. Thompson.

Reports of the progress of researches which have been aided bj grants fh)m the Rumford Fund have been received from Messrs P. W. Bridgman, W. W. Campbell, A. L. Clark, W. J. Fisher, E B. Frost, L. R. Ingersoll, N. A. Kent, F. K Kester, C. R Mendenhall, R. & Minor, J. A. Parkhurst, M. A. Rosanoff, F. A. Saunders, J. Stebblns, F. A. Very.

At a meeting of the Committee held on February 9th, it was unan- imously voted for the first time, and at a meeting held on March 9th, for the second time, to recommend to the Academy, the award of the Rumford Premium to Charles Gordon Curtis for his improvements in the utilization of heat as work in the steam-turbine.

Chables R. Cboss, Chairman.

May 11, 1910.

Report of thb C. M. Warren Committbr.

The C. M. Warren Committee beg leave to report that grants have been made during the past year to the following persons, in aid of the researches specified ; —

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RECORDS OF MEETINQS. 571

Dr. J. Elliott Gilpin, Johns Hopkins University, for the study of the natare and source of petroleum SlOO

Dr. K W* Washburn, University of Illinois, for the construc- tion of an adiabatic calorimeter for the measurement of heats of dilation and of solution 150

The research by Professor A. W. Foote, of Yale University, on the " Natare of Precipitated Colloids," in aid of which a grant of $300 was made by the Warren Committee in 1909, has been published.

Reports of progress have been received from Dr. Frederic Bonnet, Jr., and from Dr. J. Elliott Gilpin in r^;ard to researches for which money has been contributed from the Warren Fund, and the results of both these investigations it is hoped will be published during the com- ing year.

Leonard P. Kinnicutt, Chairman.

May 11, 1910.

Report of the Publication Committeb.

Between May 1, 1909, and May 1, 1910, there were published nine numbers of Volume XLIV. (Nos. 18-26) and fifteen numbers of Vol- ume XLV. of the Proceedings. In Volume XLIV. there were included two biographical notices. The total publication amounted to 714 4~ v pages, with four plates, of which three numbers (Nos. 8, 9, 10 of Volume XLV.) have been paid for by the income of the Rumford Fund.

Five numbers of the Proceedings are in press, of which one number (No. 18) has been authorized by the Rumford Committee to be published at the expense of the Rumford Fund.

There was available for the use of the Committee on Publication an unexpended balance from last year of $110.96, an appropriation of 82500, and an amount of $378.55 from the sale of publications up to March 4, 1910, — in all $2989.51 fix)m the Publication Fund, Bills against this fund to the amount of $2545.02 have been approved by the Chairman of the Committee, and have been submitted to the Treasurer. This leaves an unexpended balance of $444.49.

Bills aggregating $388.48, incurred in publishing Rumford papers, have been forwarded to the Rumford Committee.

G. W. PiEBGE, Acting Chairman.

May 11, 1910.

Report of the House Committee.

During the year 1909-10 the House has been occupied as heretofore with the exception of the first floor, which has been vacant since

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572 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

November 17tL It has Dot been let because tenants ooold not be given a lease of any length of tima

On the first of May, 1909, there was a balanoe of S109.45 to the credit of the House Expenses impropriation, and at the annual meetiog of May 12, 1900, $1450 was appropriated, making an amount of Si 559.45 for use during the year.

Of this amount, $1358.10 has been expended for current expenses, leaving a balance of $201.36 toward the expenses of the coming year.

The woodwork on the outside of the house should be painted, and the windows re-puttied and painted, if the building is to be occupied another winter. In anticipation of the gift of Mr. Agassiz, this was not done last autunm as it should have been.

William R. Wabb, Ckatrma$L

May 11, 1910.

FiNANCHAL Report op the Council.

The income for the year 1910-11, as estimated by the Treasurer, is as follows I '~~'

1, (Investments $1,660.95

General Fundj^^^^^^^^j^^ 1,800.00 $3,460.95

Publication Fund I^PP^®*^^ ^''''^ • ' ' ' ^^^'^^ PUBLICATION ruNDj^j^^^^j^^^p^^j 2,312.17 $2,926.99

RuMFORD Fund Investments $2,888.18

Warren Fund Investments $329.78

The above estimates, less 5 per cent to be added to the ci^ital, leave an income available for appropriation as follows : —

{Income $3,287.90 Unappropriated, 1909-10 • . 440.68 Unexpendedapprop'tion, 1909-10 534.95 $4,263.53

Publication Fund 2,780.64

RumfordFund 2,743.77

Warren Fund 313.29

The following appropriations are recommended : —

General Fund.

House expenses $1,200

Library expenses 1,400

Books, periodicals, and binding 900

Expenses of meetings 1^0

Treasurer's office 150 $3,800

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records of meetings- 578

Publication Fund.

Publication $2,500

BuMFORD Fund.

Research $1,000

Periodicab and binding 150

Books and binding • • 50

Publication 700

To be used at discretion of Committee 800

To be used at discretion of Committee, the unex- pended balance of 1909^10 350 $3,050

Warren Fund. Research $300

In accordance with the recommendation in the foregoing report it was

Voted, To appropriate for the purposes named the following sums : —

Prom the income of the General Fund, $3800. From the income of the Publication Fund, $2500. From the income of the Rumford Fund, $3050. From the income of the Warren Fund, $800.

On motion of the Treasurer, it was

Voted, That the assessment for the ensuing year be ten dollars ($10).

On the recommendation of the Rumford Committee, it was

Voted, To award - the Rumford Premium to Charles Gordon Curtis for his improvements in the utilization of heat as work in the steam-turbine.

The annual election resulted in the choice of the following officers and committees : —

John Tbowbridob, President. Elihu Thomson, Vice-President for Class I. Henry P. Walcott, Vice-President for Class H. John C. Gra v, Vice-President for Class HI. Edwin H. Hall, Corresponding Secretary. WiLLTAM Watson, Recording Secretary. Charles P. Bowditch, Treasurer. A. Lawrence Rotch, Librarian.

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674 PROCEEDINGS OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Councillors for Three Yearn,

Hammond V. Hates, of Class I. Merritt L. FERiiALD, of Class IL Henry H. Edbs, of Class HI.

. Finance Committee. John Trowbridge, EuoT C. Clarke, Francis Bartlbtt.

Rumford Committee. Charles R. Cross, Arthur G. Webster,

Edward C. Pickrring, Elihu Thomson, Erasmus D Leavitt, Theodore W. Richards, Louis Bell.

C M. Warren Committee.

Leonard P. Kinnicutt, Theodore W. Richards, Henry P. Talbot, Arthur A. Noyes,

Charles R. Sanger, George D. Moore,

James F. Norris.

The following Standing Committees were chosen: —

Publication Committee.

George W. Pierce, of Class L Walter B. Cannon, of Class IL Albert A. Howard, of Class II L

Library Committee.

Harry M. Goodwin, of Class I. Samuel Henshaw, of Class IL Henry W. Haynes, of Class IIL

Auditing Committee. Henry H. Edes^ Frederic J. Stimsok.

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BXCOBD8 OF MEETINOS. 575

ffaude Committee.

Arthur O. Webster, A. Lawrence Botoh,

Louis Dbrr.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the Academy : -^

Roland Burrage Dixon, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 2 (Philology and Archaeology).

Archibald Carjr Coolidge, of Boston, as Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 8 (Political Economy and History).

Worthington Chauncey Ford, of Boston, as Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 3 (Political Economy and History).

Edward Caldwell Moore, of Cambridge, as Resident Fellow in Class III., Section 4 (Literature and the Fine Arts).

Sir David Gill, of London, as Foreign Honorary Member in Class I., Section 1 (Mathematics and Astronomy).

At his request, Robert Wheeler Willson, of Cambridge, Resi- dent Fellow in Class I., Section 2, was transferred to Class I., Section 1.

On motion of R C. Pickering the nominations for Associate Fellowship were referred back to the Council.

Professor Robert W. Willson gave a communication on Halley's Comet

The following papers were presented by title : —

**0n the Magnitude of an Error which usually Affects the Results of Magnetic Tests upon Iron and Steel Rings." By B. 0. Peirce.

"The Effects of Sudden Changes in the Inductances of Certain Forms of Electric Circuits and their Mechanical Analogies." By B. 0. Peirce.

" The Influence of the Magnetic Characteristics of the Iron Core of an Induction Coil upon the Manner of Establishment of a Steady Current in the Primary Circuit" By B. 0. Peirce.

" The Effect of the Damping due to the Surrounding Medium upon the Form of the Oscillations of a Swinging Body." By B. 0. Peirce.

" Some Dlustrations of the Effects of Sudden Changes in the Resistances of Inductive Circuits." By B. 0. Peirce.

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576

PROCEEDINQS OF THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY.

" The Forms of the Magnetic Diagrams for Low Fields of Cer- tain very Pure Kinds of Soft Iron which at very High Excita- tions show extraordinarily Large Values of L " By B. 0. Feirce.

" The Reactions of Earthworms to Acids.** By S. H. Hurwitz. Presented by R L. Mark.

'^ On the Electromagnetic and the Thermomagnetic Effects in Soft Iron." By Edwin H. Hall and L. L. Campbell

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Class I. Elihu Thomson,

Amerioan Academy of Arte and Soienoes

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 19x0-11.

PRB8IDBNT.

John Trowbridge. VICB-PRB8IDBNT8.

ClAM II.

Henry P. Walcott,

Class III. XoHN C. Gray.

Class I. William L. Hooper,

William R. Livbrmorb,

Hammond V. Hays,

John Trowbridge,

CORRB8PONDINQ 8BCRSTARY.

Edwin H. Hall.

RBCORDINQ 8BCRBTARY.

WiLUAM Watson.

TRSA8URSR.

Charles P. Bowditch.

UBRARIAN.

A. Lawrence Rotch.

COUNCILLORa. Class IL

Harold C. Ernst, Terms expire 1911. Theobald Smith, Terms expire 191 2. Merritt L. Fernald, Terms expire 191 3.

COMMITTBB OF PINANCB.

Eliot C. Clarke,

in. Frederic J. Stimson.

Charles R. Lanman.

Henry H. Edes.

Francis Bartlett.

Erasmus D. Leavitt, Arthur G. Webster,

RUMFORD COMMITTBB.

Charles R. Cross, Chairman^ Edward C. Pickering, Theodore W. Richards,

C M. WARRBN COMMITTBB. Leonard P. Kinnicutt, Chairman, Henry P. Talbot, Theodore W. Richards,

Charles R. Sanger, Arthur A. Noyes,

Elihu Thomson, Louis Bell.

George D. Moore, James F. Norris.

COMMITTBB OP PUBLICATION.

George W. Pierce, of Class I, Chairman,

Walter B. Cannon, of Class II, Albert A. Howard, of Class IIL

COMMITTBB ON THB LIBRARY.

A. Lawrence Rotch, Chairman, Harry M. Goodwin, of Class I, Samuel Henshaw, of Class II,

Henry W. Haynes, of glass III.

AUDITINQ COMMITTBB.

Henry H. Edes, Frederic J. Stimson.

HOU8B COMMITTBB.

Arthur G. Webster, Chairman,

A. Lawrence Rotch, Louis Derr.

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FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

(Oomotwl to July 20, l9Uk)

RESIDENT FELLOWS. — 195.

(Number limited to two hundred.)

Class I. — Mathematical and Phy$ieal Sciences. — 79. Section I. — Mathematics and Astronomy, — 18.

Solon Irving Bailey Cambridge

William Elwood Byerly Cambridge

Setb Carlo Chandler Wellesley Hilkt

Percival Lowell Boston

Edward Charles Pickering Cambridge

William Henry Pickering Cambridge

Arthur Searle Cambridge

William Edward Story Worcester

Henry Taber Worcester

Harry Walter Tyler Boston

Oliver Clinton Wendell Cambridge

Robert Wheeler Willson Cambridge

Paul Sebastian Tendell Dorchester

Section H. — Physics. — 27.

Alexander Graham Bell Washington

Louis Bell Boston

Clarence John Blake Boston

Francis Blake Weston

George Ashley Campbell New York

Harry Ellsworth Clifford Newton

Charles Robert Cross Brookline

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580 RESIDENT FELLOWS.

Jjouis Derr BrooUine

Alexander Wilmer Duff Worcester

Arthur Woolsey Ewell Worcester

Harry Manley Goodwin Roxborj

Edwin Herbert Hall Cambridge

Hammond Vinton Hayes Cambridge

William Leslie Hooper SomerriUe

William White Jacques Newton

Frank Arthur Laws Boston

Henry Lefavour Boston

Theodore Lyman Bnx^line

Charles Ladd Norton Boston

Benjamin Osgood Peirce Cambridge

Greorge Washington Pierce Cambridge

Abbott Lawrence Rotch Bo6t<ni

Wallace Clement Sabine Boston

John Stone Stone Boston

Elihu Thomson Swampscott

John Trowbridge Cambridge

Arthur Gordon Webster • • Wolcestw

Section IH. — Chemistry, — 21.

Gregory Paul Baxter Cambridge

Arthur Messinger Comey Chester, Pa.

James Mason Crafts Boston

Charles William Eliot Cambridge

Henry Fay Boston

Charles Loring Jackson Cambridge

Walter Louis Jennings Worcester

Leonard Parker Rinnicutt Worcester

Gilbert Newton Lewis Boston

Charles Frederic Mabery Cleveland

Greorge Dunning Moore Worcester

James Flack Norris Boston

Arthur Amos Noyes Boston

Robert Hallowell Richards Jamaica Plain

Theodore William Richards Cambridge

Charles Robert Sanger Cambridge

Stephen Pasohall Sharpies « . . • Cambridge

Francis Humphreys Storer Boston

Henry Paul Talbot Newton

William Hultz Walker Newton

Charles Hallet Wing Boston

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RESIDENT FELLOWS. 581

Section IV. — Technology and Engineering. — 18.

Comfort Avery Adams Cambridge

Alfred Edgar Burton Boston

£liot Cbanning Clarke Boston

Heinrich Oscar Hofman Jamaica Plain

Ira Nelson Hollis Cambridge

Lewis Jerome Johnson Cambridge

Arthur Edwin Kennelly Cambridge

Gaetano Lanza Boston

Erasmus Darwin Leavitt Cambridge

William Roscoe Liyermore New York

Hiram Francis Mills Lowell

Cecil Hobart Peabody Brookline

Andrew Howland Russell Paris

Albert Sanveur Cambridge

Peter Schwamb Arlington

Henry Lloyd Smyth Cambridge

George Fillmore Swain Boston

William Watson Boston

Class XL — Natural and Physiological Sciences. — 60

Section I. — Geology ^ Mineralogy y and Physics of the Globe. — 16.

Henry Helm Clayton Milton

Algernon Coolidge Boston

William Otb Crosby Jamaica Plain

Reginald Aldworth Daly Cambridge

William Morris Dayis Cambridge

Benjamin Kendall Emerson Amherst

Oliver Whipple Huntington Newport

Robert Tracy Jackson Cambridge

Thomas Augpistus Jaggar, Jr Brookline

Douglas Wilson Johnson Cambridge

Charles Palache Cambridge

John Elliott Pillsbury Washington

Robert DeCourcy Ward Cambridge

Charles Hyde Warren Aubumdale

John Eliot Wolff Cambridge

Jay Backus Woodworth Cambridge

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582 BSSIDENT FELXX>W&

Section n. — Botany. — 11.

Frank Shipley Collins Maklea

William Gilson Farlow Cambridge

Charles Edward Faxon Jamaica Plain

Merritt Lyndon Femald Cambridge

George Lincoln Goodale Cambridge

John Greorge Jack Jamaica Plain

Edward Charles Jeffrey Cambridge

Benjamin Lincoln Robinson Cambridge

Charles Sprague Sargent Brookline

Arthur Bliss Seymour Cambridge

Boland Thaxter Cambridge

Section m. — Zodlogy and Physiology, — 28.

Bobert Amory Boston

Francis Gano Benedict Boston

Henry Pickering Bowditch Jamaica Plain

William Brewster Cambridge

Louis Cabot Brookline

Walter Bradford Cannon Cambridge

William Ernest Castle Cambridge

Samuel Fessenden Clarke Williamstown

William Thomas Councilman Boston

Harold Clarence Ernst Jamaica Plain

Samuel Henshaw Cambridge

Edward Laurens Mark Cambridge

Charles Sedgwick Minot Milton

Edward Sylvester Morse Salem

George Howard Parker Cambridge

James Jackson Putnam Boston

Herbert Wilbur Rand Cambridge

Samuel Hubbard Scudder Cambridge

William Thompson Sedgwick Boston

William Morton Wheeler Boston

James Clarke White Boston

Harris Hawthorne Wilder Northampton

William McMichael Woodworth Cambridge

Section IV. — Medicine and Surgery. — 10.

Edward Hickling Bradford Boeton

Arthur Tracy Cabot Boston

Reginald Heber Fitz Boston

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BESIDENT FELLOWS. 583

SamoelJason Hixter Boston

William Lambert Richardson Boston

Theobald Smith Jamaica Plain

Oliver Fairfield Wadsworth Boston.

Henry Pickering Walcott Cambridge

John Collins Warren Bostooi

Francis Henry WiUiams • • . Boston^

Class in. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 56.

Section I. — Philosophy and Jurisprudence. — 7.

Joseph Henry Beale Cambridge

John Chipman Gray Boatcm

Francis Cabot Lowell ' . Boston*

Hugo Miinsterberg Cambridge

Josiah Royce Cambridge

Frederic Jesnp Stimson Dedham

Samuel Williston Belmont

Section H. — Philology and Archasology. — 19.

Charles Pickering Bowditch Jamaica Plain

Luoien Carr Cambridge

Franklin Carter New Hayeu

Roland Barrage Dixon Cambridge

Jesse Walter Fewkes Washington

William Watson Goodwin Cambridge

Henry Williamson Haynes Boston

Albert Andrew Howard Cambridge

Charles Rockwell Lanman Cambridge

David Gordon Lyon • Cambridge

Clifford Herschel Moore Cambridge

George Foot Moore Cambridge

Charles Pomeroy Parker Cambridge

Frederick Ward Putnam Cambridge

Edward Robinson New York

Edward Stevens Sheldon Cambridge

Herbert Weir Smyth Cambridge

Franklin Bache Stephenson Boston

John Williams White Cambridge

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584 RESIDENT FELLOWS.

Section EI. — Political Economy and History. — 12.

Charles Francis Adams LanoolA

Thomas Nixon Carver Cambridge

Archibald Cary Coolidge Boston

Andrew MoFarland Davis Cambridge

Ephraim Emerton Cambridge

Worthington Chaancey Ford Boston

Abner Cheney Goodell Salem

Henry Cabot Lodge Nahant

Abbott Lawrence Lowell Cambridge

James Ford Rhodes Boston

Charles Card Smith Boston

Frank William Taussig Cambridge

Section IV. — Literature and the Fine Arts. — 18.

Francis Bartlett Boston

Arlo Bates Boston

Le Baron RusseU Briggs Cambridge

Henry Herbert Edes Cambridge

Arthur Fairbanks Boston

William Wallace Fenn Cambridge

Kuno Francke Cambridge

Edward Henry Hall Cambridge

Thomas Wentworth Higginson Cambridge

George Lyman Kittredge Cambridge

Gardiner Martin Lane Boston

William Coolidge Lane Cambridge

Edward Caldwell Moore * Cambridge

James Hardy Ropes Cambridge

Denman Waldo Ross Cambridge

William Robert Ware MUton

Herbert Langford Warren Cambridge

Barrett Weuiell Boston

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ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. 585

ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. — 80.

(Number limited to one hundred.)

Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — 81.

Section I. — Mathematics and Astronomy, — 12.

Edward Emerson Barnard Williams Bay, Wis.

Sherburne Wesley Bornham Williams Bay, Wis.

George Davidson San Francisco

Fabian Franklin Baltimore

George William ffill West Nyack, N. Y.

Edward Singleton ii olden West Point

Emory McClintock Morristown, N. J.

Eliakim Hastings Moore Chicago

Charles Lane Poor New York

George Mary Searle Washington

Vesto Melvin Slipher Flagstaff, Ariz.

John Nelson Stockwell Cleveland

Section II. — Physics. — 6.

Carl Bams . Providence

George EUery Hale Pasadena, Cal.

Thomas Corwin Mendenhall Worcester

Albert Abraham Michelson Chicago

Edward Leamington Nichols Ithaca

Michael Idvorsky Pupin New York

Section IH. — Chemistry, — 7.

Frank Aastin Grooch New Haven

Eugene Waldemar Hilgard Berkeley

John William Mallet Charlottesville, Ya.

Edward Williams Morley West Hartford, Conn.

Charles Edward Munroe Washington

John Ulric Nef Chicago

Ira Remsen Baltimore

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586 ASSOCIATE FELLOWS.

Section IV. — Technology and Engineering, — 6.

Henry Larcom Abbot Cambridge

Cyrus Ballou Comstock New York

William Price Craighill Charlestowu, W. Va.

John Fritz Bethlehem, Pa.

Frederick Remsen Hutton . New York

Robert Simpson Woodward New York

Class n. — Natural and Phonological Sciences. — 81.

Section I. — Geology , Mineralogy , and Physics of the Globe. — 9.

Cleveland Abbe Washington

George Jarvis Brush New Haven

Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin Chicago

Edward Salisbury Dana New Haven

Walter Gould Davis Cordova, Arg.

Samuel Frauklin Emmons Washington

Grove Karl Gilbert Washington

Raphael Pumpelly Newport

Charles Doolittle Walcott Washington

Section II. — Botany. — 6.

Liberty Hyde Bailey Ithaca

Douglas Houghton Campbell Palo Alto

John Merle Coulter Chicago

Cyrus Guernsey Pringle Charlotte, Vt

John Donuell Smith Baltimore

William Trelease St. Louis

Section IH. — Zoology and Physiology. — 8.

Joel Asaph Allen New York

Charles Benedict Davenport Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Frankliu Paine Mall Baltimore

Silas Weir Mitchell Philadelphia

Henry Fairfield Osborn New York

Addison Emory Verrill New Haven

Charles Otis Whitman Chicago

Edmund Beecher Wilson New York

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ASSOCIATE FELLOWS. 587

Section IV. — Medicine and Surgery. — 8.

John Shaw Billings New York.

William Stewart Halsted Baltimore

Abraham Jacobi . New York

William Williams Keen . Philadelphia

William Osier Oxford

Theophil Mitchell Prudden New York

William Henry Welch Baltimore

Horatio Curtis Wood Philadelphia

Class HI. — Moral and Political Sciences. — 18,

Section I. — Philosophy and Jurisprudence, — 4.

Joseph Hodges Choate New York

William Wirt Howe New Orleans

Charles Sanders Peirce Milford, Pa.

George Wharton Pepper Philadelphia

Section H. — Philology and Archceology. — 6.

Timothy Dwight New Haven

Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve Baltimore

William Arthur Heidel Middletown

Thomas Raynesford Lounsbury New Haven

Raf us Byam Richardson New York

Andrew Dickson White Ithaca

Section HI. — Political Economy and History. — 4.

Henry Adams Washington

Arthur Twining Hadley New Haven

Alfred Thayer Mahan New York

Henry Morse Stephens Berkeley

Section IV. — Literature and the Fine Arts. — 4.

James Burrill Angell Ann Arbor

Horace Howard Fumess Wallingford, Pa.

Herbert Putnam Washington

John Singer Sargent » . . . . London

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588 FOREIGN HONOBABT IfSBfBERS.

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. — 61.

(Kamber limited to 0eTait7-flyo.)

Class I. — Mathematical and Physical Sciences. — IS.

Section I. — Mathematics and Astronomy. — 7.

Arthur Auwers . Berlin

Sir George Howard Darwin Cambridge

Sir David Gill London

Sir William HuggiDS London

Felix Klein Gottingen

£raile Picard . , Paris

Jules Henri Poincar^ Paris

Section H. — Physics. — 4.

Oliver Heaviside Torquay

Joseph Larmor *..... Cambridge

John William Strutt, Baron Rayleigh Witham

Sir Joseph John Thomson Cambridge

Section HI. — Chemistry. — 5.

Adolf, Ritter von Baeyer Manich

Emil Fischer Berlin

Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff Berlin

Wilhelm Ostwald Leip>sic

Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe London

Section IV. — Technology and Engineering. — 3.

Maurice L^vy Paris

Heiurich MUller-Breslau Berlin

William Cawthorne Unwin ' . . London

Class IL — Natural and Physiological Sciences, — 22.

Section L — Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe. — 4.

Sir Archibald Geikie London

Julius Hann Vienna

Albert Heim Zurich

Sir John Murray Edinburgh

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FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. 589

Sbction n. — Botany. — 6.

Jean Baptiste Edouard Bornet Paris

Adolf Engler Berlin

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker Snnningdale

Wilhelm Pfeffer Leipsic

Hermann, Graf zu Solms-Laabach Strassbnrg

£daard Strasborger Bonn

Section HI. — Zoology and Physiology. — 5.

Ladimar Hermann Konigsberg

Hugo Kronecker Bern

Sir Edwin Ray Lankester London

Elias Metschnikoff Paris

Magnus Gustav Retzias Stockholm

Section IV. — Medicine and Surgery. — 7.

Emil yon Behring Marburg

Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, Bart London

Angelo Celli Rome

Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley Loudon

Robert Koch Berlin

Joseph Lister, Baron Lister London

Friedrich von Recklinghausen Strassburg

Class m. — Moral and Political Sciences, — 20.

Section I. — Philosophy and Jurisprudence. — 4.

Arthur James Balfour Prestonkirk

Heinrich Brunner Berlin

Albert Venn Dicey Oxford

Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart London

Section H. — Philology and Archceology. — 7.

Ingram Bywater London

Friedrich Delitzsch Berlin

Hermann Diels Berlin

Wilhelm Dorpfeld Athens

Henry Jackson Cambridge

Hermann Georg Jacobi Bonn

Gaston Camille Charles Maspero Paris

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590 FOREIGN HONORABT MEMBERS.

Section in. — Political Economy and History, — 5.

James Bryce . London

Adolf Harnack Berlin

John Morley, Viscount Morley of Blackbnrn London

Sir Greorge Otto Trevelyan, Bart London

Pasquale Villari Florence

Section IV. — Literature and the Fine Arts, — 4.

Georg Brandes Copenhagen

Samuel Henry Butcher London

Jean L^on G^rdme Paris

Rudyard Kipling Burwash

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STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES.

STATUTES.

Adopted May 80, 1854 : amended September 8, 1857, November 12, 1862, May 24, 1864, November 9, 1870, May 27, 1878, January 26, 1876, June 16, 1886, October 8, 1890, January \\,and May 10, 1898, May 9, and October 10, 1894, March 13, Jpn7 10, and May 8, 1895, ifay 8, 1901, January 8, 1902, May 10, 1905, February 14 oiw? i/arcA 14, 1906, January 13, 1909.

CHAPTER I. Of Fellows and Foreign Honoraby Members.

1. The Academy consists of Resident Fellows, Associate Fellows, and Foreign Honorary Members. They are arranged in three Classes, ac- cording to the Arts and Sciences in which they are severally proficient, viz.: Class I. The Mathematical and Physical Sciences; — Class II. The Natural and Physiological Sciences; — Class III. The Moral and Political Sciences. Each Class is divided into foar Sections, viz. : Class I., Section 1. Mathematics and Astrooomy; — Section 2. Physics; — Section 8. Chemistry; — Section 4. Technology and Engineering. Class II., Section 1. Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe; — Section 2. Botany; Section 8. Zodlogy and Physiology; — Section 4. Medicine and Surgery. Class III., Section 1. Theology, Philosophy, and Jurisprudence; — Section 2. Philology and Archaeology; — Sec- tion 8. Political Economy and History ; — Section 4. Literature «nd the Fine Arts.

2. The number of Resident Fellows residing in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts shall not exceed two hundred, of whom there shall not be more than eighty in any one of the three classes. Only residents in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts shall be eligible to election as Resi- dent Fellows, but resident fellowship may be retained after removal from

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592 STATUTES OP THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

the Commonwealth. Each Resident Fellow shall pay an admission fee of ten dollars and such annual assessment, not exceeding ten .dollars, as shall be voted bj the Academy at each annual meeting. Resident Fellows only may vote at the meetings of the Academy.

3. The number of Associate Fellows shall not exceed one hundred, of whom there shall not be more than forty in either of the three classes of the Academy. Associate Fellows shall be chosen from persons resid- ing outside of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. They shall not be liable to the payment of any fees or annual dues, but on removing within the Commonwealth they may be transferred by the Council to resident fellowship as vacancies there occur.

4. The number of Foreign Honorary Members shall not exceed seventy-five; and they shall be chosen from among persons most eminent in foreign countries for their discoveries and attainments' in either of the three departments of knowledge above enumerated. There shall not be more than thirty Foreign Members in either of these departments.

CHAPTER II. Op Officers.

1. There shall be a President, three Vice-Presidents, 6ne for each Class, a Corresponding Secretary, a Recording Secretary, a Treasurer, and a Librarian, which officers shall be annually elected, by ballot, at the annual meeting, on the second Wednesday in May.

2. There shall be nine Councillors, chosen from the Resident Fellows. At each annual meeting, three Councillors shall be chosen, by ballot, one from each Class, to serve for three years ; but the same Fellow shall not be eligible for two successive terms. The nine Councillors, with the President, the three Vice-Presidents, the two Secretaries, the Treasurer, and the Librarian, shall constitute the Council. Five members shall constitute a quorum. It shall be the duty of this Council to exercise a discreet supervision over all nominations and elections. With the con- sent of the Fellow interested, they shall have power to make transfers between the several sections of the same Class, reporting their action to the Academy.

3. The Council shall at its March Meeting receive reports from the Rumford Committee, the C. M. Warren Committee, the Committee on PublicatioD, the Committee on the Library, the President and Record-

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OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 593

ing Secretary, and the Treasurer, proposing the appropriations for their work during the year beginning the following May. The Treasurer at the same meeting shall report on the income which will probably be received on account of the various Funds during the same year.

At the Annual Meeting, the Council shall submit to the Academy, for its action, a report recommending the appropriations which in the opinion of the Council should be made for the various purposes of the Academy.

4. If any office shall become vacant during the year, the vacancy shall be filled by a new election, at the next stated meeting, or at a meeting called for this purpose.

CHAPTER III. Of Nominations op Officers.

1. At the stated meeting in March, the President shall appoint a Nominating Committee of three Resident Fellows, one for each Class.

2. It shall be the duty of this Nominating Committee to prepare a list of candidates for the offices of President, Vice-Presidents, Corresponding Secretary, Recording Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, Councillors, and the Standing Committees which are chosen by ballot; and to cause this list to be sent by mail to all the Resident Fellows of the Academy not later than four weeks before the Annual Meeting.

3. Independent nominations for any office, signed by at least five Resident Fellows, and received by the Recording Secretary not less than ten days before the Annual Meeting, shall be inserted in the call for the Annual Meeting, which shall then be issued not later than one week before that meeting.

4. The Recording Secretary shall prepare for use, in voting at the Annual Meeting, a ballot containing the names of all persons nominated for office under the conditions given above.

5. When an office is to be filled at any other time than at the Annual Meeting, the President shall appoint a Nominating Committee in accord- ance with the provisions of Section 1, which shall announce its nomina- tion in the manner prescribed in Section 2 at least two weeks before the time of election. Independent nominations, sit^ned by at least five Resident Fellows and received by the Recording Secretary not later than one week before the meeting for election, shall be inserted in the call for that meetmg.

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594 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEUT

CHAPTER IV. Op THE President.

1 . It shall be the duty of the President, and, in his absence, of the senior Vice-President present, or next officer in order as above enumer- ated, to preside at the meetings of the Academy ; to direct the Recording Secretary to call special meetings ; and to execute or to see to the execu- tion of the Statutes of the Academy. Length of continuous membership in the Academy shall determine the seniority of the Vice-Presidents.

2. The President, or, in his absence, the next officer as above enumer- ated, shall nominate members to serve on the different committees of the Academy which are not chosen by ballot

3. Any deed or writing to which the common seal is to be affixed shall be signed and sealed by the President, when thereto authorised by the Academy.

CHAPTER V. Op Standing Committees.

1. At the Annual Meeting there shall be chosen the following Stand- ing Committees, to serve for the year ensuing, viz. : —

2. The Committee on Finance to consist of three Fellows to be chosen by ballot, who shall have, through the Treasurer, full control and management of the funds and trusts of the Academy, with the power of investing and of changing the investment of the same at their discretion.

3. The Rumford Committee, to consist of seven Fellows to be chosen by ballot, who shall consider and report to the Academy on all applica- tions and claims for the Rumford premium. They shall also report to the Council in March of each year on all appropriations of the iueome of the Rumford Fund needed for the coming year, and shall generally see to the due and proper execution of the trust. All bills incurred on ac- count of the Rumford Fund, within the limits of the appropriation made by the Academy, shall be approved by the Chairman of the Rumford Committee.

4. The C. M. Warren Committee, to consist of seven Fellows to be chosen by ballot, who shall consider and report to the Council in March of each year on all applications for appropriations from the income of the C. M. Warren Fund for the coming year, and shall generally see to the due

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OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 595

and proper execution of the trust. All bilb incurred on account of the C. M. Warren Fund, within the limits of the appropriations made by the Academy, shall be approved by the Chairman of the C. M. Warren Committee.

5. The Committee on Publication, to consist of three Fellows, one from each class, to whom all communications submitted to the Acad- emy for publication shall be referred, and to whom the printing of the Proceedings and Memoirs shall be entrusted. This Committee shall re- port to the Council in March of each year on the appropriations needed for the coming year. All bills incurred on account of publications, within the limits of the appropriations made by the Academy, shall be approved by the Chairman of the Committee on Publication.

6. The Committee on the Library, to consist of the Librarian ex officio, and three other Fellows, one from each class, who shall examine the library and make an annual report on its condition and management. This Committee, through the Librarian, shall report to the Council in March of each year, on the appropriations needed for the Library for the coming year. All bills incurred on account of the Library, within the limits of the appropriations made by the Academy, shall be approved by the Librarian.

7. The House Committee to consist of three Fellows. This Com- mittee shall have charge of all expenses connected with the House, including the general ex|)enses of the Academy not specifically assigned to other Committees. This Committee shall report to the Council in fiarch in each year on the appropriations needed for their expenses for tlie coming year. All bills incurred by this Committee within the limits of the appropriations made by the Academy shall be approved by the Chairman of the House Committee.

8. An auditing Committee, to consbt of two Fellows, for auditing the accounts of the Treasurer, with power to employ an expert and to ap- prove his bill.

9. In the absence of the Chairman of any Committee, bills may be approved by a member of the Committee designated by the Chairman for the purpose.

CHAPTER VL

Of the Secbetabies.

1. The Corresponding Secretary shall conduct the correspondence of the Academy, recording or making an entry of all letters written in its name, and preserving on file all letters which are received ; and at each

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596 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

meeting he shall present the letters which have been addressed to the Academy since the last meeting. Under the direction of the Council, he shall keep a list of the Resident Fellows, Associate Fellows, and Foreign Honorary Members, arranged in their Classes and in Sections in respect to the special sciences in which they are severally proficient ; and he shall act as secretary to the Council.

2. The Recording Secretary shall have charge of the Charter and Statute-book, journals, and all literary papers belonging to the Academy. He shall recoid the proceedings of the Academy at its meetings; and after each meeting is duly opened, he shall read the record of the pre- ceding meeting. He shall notify the meetings of the Academy, apprise officers and committees of their election or appointment, and inform the Treasurer of appropriations of money voted by the Academy. He shall post up in the Hall a list of the persons nominated for election into the Academy ; and when any individual is chosen, he shall insert in the record the names of the Fellows by whom he was nominated.

3. The two Secretaries, with the Chairman of the Committee of Publication, shall have authority to publish such of the records of the' meetings of the Academy as may seem to them calculated to promote its interests.

4. Every person taking any books, papers, or documents belonging to the Academy and in the custody of the Recording Secretary, shall give a receipt for the same to the Recording Secretary.

CHAPTER VIL Op THE Tbeasurer.

1. The Treasurer shall give such security for the trust reposed in him as the Academy shall require.

2. He shall receive all moneys due or payable to the Academy and all bequests and donations made to the Academy. He shall pay all bills due by the Academy, when approved by the proper officers (except those of the Treasurer's office, which may be paid without such approval), lie shall sign all leases of real estate in the name of the Academy. All transfers of stocks, bonds, and other securities bek)nging to the Academy shall be made by the Treasurer with the written consent of one member of the Committee of Finance, lie shall keep an account of all receipts and expenditures, shall submit his accounts annually to the Auditing

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OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 597

Committee, and shall report the same at the expiration of his term of office or whenever called on so to do by the Academy or Council.

3. The Treasurer shall keep separate accounts of the income and appropriation of the Rumford Fund and of other special funds, and report the same annually.

4. The Treasurer may appoint an Assistant Treasurer to perform his duties, for whose acts, as such assistant, the Treasurer shall be responsi- ble ; or the Treasurer may employ any Trust Company, doing business in Boston, as agent to perform his duties, the compensation of such As- sistant Treasurer or agent to be paid from the funds of the Academy.

CHAPTER VIIL Of the Librarian and Library.

1. It shall be the duty of the Librarian to take charge of the books, to keep a correct catalogue of them, to provide for the delivery of books from the Library, and to appoint such agents for these purposes as he may think necessary. He shall make an annual report on the condition of the Library.

2. The Librarian, in conjunction with the Committee on the Library, shall have authority to expend such sums as may be appropriated, either from the General, Rumford, or other special Funds of the Academy, for the purchase of books, periodicals, etc., and for defraying other necessary expenses connected with the Library.

3. To all books in the Libraiy procured from the income of the Rumford Fund, or other special funds, the Librarian shall cause a stamp or label to be affixed, expressing the fact that they were so procured.

4. Every person who takes a book from the Library shall give a receipt for the same to the Librarian or his assistant.

«5. Every book shall be returned in good order, regard being had to the necessary wear of the book with good usage. If any book shall be lost or injured, the person to whom it stands charged shall replace it by a new volume or set, if it belongs to a set, or pay the current price of the volume or set to the Librarian ; and thereupon the remain- der of the set, if the volume belonged to a set, shall be delivered to the person so paying for the same.

6. All books shall be returned to the Library for examination at least one week before the Annual Meeting.

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598 STATUTES OP THE AMEBICAN ACADEMY

7. The Libmnan shall have castody of the Pablicatioiis of tbe Academy. With the advice and ooosent of the Presideat, he may effect exchanges with other associations.

CHAPTER IX. Op Meetings.

1. There shall be annually fonr stated meetings of the Academy; namely, on the second Wednesday in May (the Annual Meeting), on the second Wednesday in October, on the second Wednesday in Janaarjy and on the second Wednesday in March. At these meetings, only, or at meetings adjourned from these and regularly notified, or at special meet- ings called for the purpose, shall appropriations of money be made, or al- terations of the statutes or standing votes of the Academy be effected.

Special meetings shall be called by the Recording Secretary at the re- quest of the President or of a Vice-President or of five Fellows. Notifi- cations of the special meetings shall contain a statement of the purpose for which the meeting is called.

2. Fifteen Resident Fellows shall constitute a quorum for the trans- action of business at a stated or special meeting. Seven Fellows shall be sufficient to constitute a meeting for scientific oommunicatioDa and discussions.

3. The Recording Secretary shall notify the meetings of the Academy to each Resident Fellow ; and he may cause the meetings to be adver- tised, whenever he deems such further notice to be needftd.

CHAPTER X. Op the Election op Fellows and Honorary Members.

1. Elections shall be made by ballot, and only at stated meetings.

2. Candidates for election as Resident Fellows must be proposed by two Resident Fellows of the section to which the proposal is made, in a recommendation signed by them ; and this recommendation shall be transmitted to the Corresponding Secretary, and by him referred to the Council. No person recommended shall be reported by the Coonoil as a

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OP ARTS AND SCIENCES. 599

candidate for election, unless he shall have received the approval of at least five members of the Council present at a meeting. All nominations thus approved shall be read to the Academy at any meeting, and shall then stand on the nomination list until the next stated meeting, and until the balloting. No person shall be elected a Resident Fellow, unless he shall have been resident in this Commonwealth one year next preceding his election. If any person elected a Resident Fellow shall neglect for one year to pay his admission fee, his election shall be void ; and if any Resident Fellow shall neglect to pay his annual assessments for two years, provided that his attention shall have been called to this article, he shall be deemed to have abandoned his Fellowship ; but it shall be in. the power of the Treasurer, with the consent of the Council, to dispense (sub silentio) with the payment both of the admission fee and of the assessments, whenever in any special instance he shall think it advisable so to' do. In the case of officers of the Army or Navy who are out of the state on duty, payment of the annual assessment may be waived during such absence if continued during the whole official year and if notification of such absence be sent to the Treasurer.

3. The nomination and election of Associate Fellows shall take place in the manner prescribed in reference to Resident Fellows.

4. The nomination and election of Foreign Honorary Members shall take place in the manner prescribed for Resident Fellows, except that the nomination papers shall be signed by at least seven members of the Council before being presented to the Academy.

5. Three-fourths of the ballots cast must be affirmative, and the number of affirmative ballots must amount to eleven to effect an elec-* tioh of Fellows or Foreign Honorary Members.

6. If, in the opinion of a majority of the entire Council, any Fellow — Resident or Associate — shall have rendered himself unworthy of a place in the Academy, the Council shall recommend to the Academy the termination of his Fellowship; and provided that a majority of two- thirds of the Fellows at a stated meeting, consisting of not less than fifty Fellows, shall adopt this recommendation, his name shall be stricken off the roll of Fellows.

CHAPTER XI.

Op Amendments op the Statutes.

1. All proposed alterations of the Statutes, or additions to them, shall be referred to a committee, and, on their report at a subsequent stated meeting or a special meeting called for the purpose, shall require for

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600 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

enactment a majority of two-thirds of the members present, and at least eighteen affirmative votes.

2. Standing votes may be passed, amended, or rescinded at a stated meeting, or a special meeting called for the purpose by a majority of two* thirds of the members present. They may be suspended by a unanimoas vote.

CHAPTER XII.

Op Literary PERPORMANCEa

1. The Academy will not express its judgment on literary or scientific memoirs or performances submitted to it, or included in its publications.

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OF ARTS AND SaENCES. 601

STANDING VOTES.

1. Communications of which notice has been given to the Secretary •hall take precedence of those not so notified.

2. Associate Fellows, Foreign Honorary Members, and Resident Fellows, who have paid all fees and does chargeable to them, are en- titled to receive one copy of each volume or article printed by the Academy on application to the Librarian personally or by written order within two years of the date of publication. Exceptions to this rule may be made in special cases by vote of the Academy.

3. The Committee of Publication shall fix from time to time the price at which the publications of the Academy may be sold. But members may be supplied at half this price with volumes which they are not entitled to receive free, and which are needed to complete their sets.

4. Two hundred extra copies of each paper accepted for publication in the Memoirs or Proceedings of the Academy shall be placed at the disposal of the author, free of charge.

5. Resident Fellows may borrow and have out from the Library six volumes at any one time, and may retain the same for three months, and no longer.

6. Upon special application, and for adequate reasons assigned, the Librarian may permit a larger number of volumes, not exceeding twelve, to be drawn horn the Library for a limited period.

7. Works published in numbers, when unbound, shall not be taken from the Hall of the Academy, except by special leave of the Librarian.

8. Books, publications, or apparatus shall be procured from the income of the Rumford Fund only on the certificate of the Rumford Committee that they, in their opinion, will best facilitate and encourage the making of discoveries and improvements which may merit the Rum- ford Premium; and the approval of a bill incurred for such purposes by the Chairman shall be accepted by the Treasurer as proof that such certificate has been given.

9. A meeting for receiving and discussing scientific communications may be held on the second Wednesday of each month not appointed for stated meetings, excepting July, August, and September.

10. No report of any paper presented at a meeting of the Academy shall be published by any member without the consent of the author, and no report shall in any case be published by any member in a news* paper as an account of the proceedings of the Academy.

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602 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEHT.

RUMFORD PREMIUM.

In conformity with the terms of the gift of Benjamin, Count Rumford, granting a certain fand to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and with a decree of the Supreme Judicial Court for carrying into effect the general charitable intent and purpose of Count Rumford, as ex- pressed in his letter of gift, the Academy is empowered to make from the income of said fund, as it now exists, at any Annual Meeting, an award of a gold and a silver medal, being together of the intrinsic value of three hundred dollars, as a premium to the author of any important discovery or useful improvement in light or in heat, which shall have been made and published by printing, or in any way made known to the public, in any part of the continent of America, or any of the American islands ; preference being always given to such discoveries as shall, in the opinion of the Academy, tend most to promote the good of mankind ; and to add to such medals, as a further premium for such discovery and improvement, if the Academy see fit so to do, a sum of money not exceeding three hundred dollars.

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INDEX.

Adds, The Reactions of Earthwonns to, 576.

Aero Club of America, Invitation from, 553.

Aeroplanes, The future of, 554.

Agassiz, Alexander, Letter from, 555; Death of, 565.

Air, Resistance of, to a Swinging Magnet, 558.

Air Resistance to Falling Inch Spheres, 377, 560.

American Philosophical Society, Let- ter from, 553, 560.

American Scientific Congress, 565.

Ames, J. B., Death of, 559.

Amphibians, The Reactions of, to Light, 159, 559.

Antimony, The Quantitative Deter- mination of, by the Gutzeit Method, 19, 554.

Antarctic exploration, 554, 555.

Assessment, Annual, Amount of, 573.

Association des Ing^nieurs Electri- ciens sortis de Tlnstitut electro- technique Montefiore, circular from, 566.

Atomic Weight of Phosphorus, A Re- vision of the, 135, 554.

Beemaert, A., Letter from, 559.

Baxter, G. P., and Jones, G., A Re- vision of the Atomic Weight of Phosphorus. First Paper. — The Analysis of Silver Phosphate, 135, 554.

Benedict, F. G., accepts Resident Fellowship, 553.

Biddlecombe, A., Letter from, 560.

Boston "1915" Director, Circular from, 565.

Boston "1915" Directorate Confer- ence, 561.

Boston "1915" Conmiittee, Circular from, 553, 560.

Bowditch, C. P., Report of Treasurer, 566.

Buriingame, E. W., Buddhaghosa's Dhammapada Commentary, and the Titles of its three hundred and ten Stories, together with an Index thereto and an Analysis of Vaggas I.-IV., 465, 558.

Calcium Carbide. On the Equi- librium of the System consisting of Lime, Carbon, Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide, 429, 561.

Campbell, L. L. See Hall, Edwin H., and Campbell, L. L.

Carbon. On the Equilibrium of the System consisting of Lime, Car- bon, Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide, 429, 561.

Carbon Compound, The Spectrum of a, in the Region of Extremely Short Wave-Lengths, 313, 558.

Carbon Dioxide, On the Applicability of the Law of Corresponding States to the Joule-Thomson Effect in Water and, 241, 558.

Carbon Monoxide. On the Equilib- rium of the System consisting of Lime; Carbon, Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide, 429, 561.

Charter, Amendment of, 558, 562.

Chaucer, Moot Points about, 556.

Chemical Compositions, Average, of Igneous-Rock Types, 209, 558.

Chemical Laboratory of Harvard College, 'Contributions from, 19, 135.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

604

INDEX.

Chlorsulphonic Acid, The Prepara- tion and Properties of, 554.

Circuits, The Equivalent, of Com- posite Lines in the Steady State, 29, 554.

Committees, Standing, appointed, 574; List of, 577.

Congress of Americanists, Seven- teenth, 566.

Coolidge, A. C, elected Resident Fellow, 575.

Council, Report of, 666; Financial Report of, 572.

Cross, C. R., Report of the Rumford Committee, 569.

Curtis, Charles Gordon, awarded Rumford Premium, 573.

Daly, R. A., Average Chemical Com- positions of Igneous-Rock Types, 207, 558.

Davis, H. N., Notes on Certain Ther- mal Properties of Steam, 265, 558. On the Applicability of the Law of Corresponding States to the Joule- Thomson Effect in Water and Carbon Dioxide, 241, 558.

Davis, W. M., The Italian Riviera Levante, 561.

Derr, L., Photographs of Yellowstone National Park, 558.

Dhammapada Commentary, Buddha- ghosa's, 465, 558.

Dixon, R. B., elected Resident Fel- low, 575.

Dolbear, A. E., Death of, 561.

Domaldp, K., Death of, 557.

Earthworms, The Reactions of, to Acids, 576.

Echeandia, A Preliminary Synopsis of the Genus, 387, 560.

Edes, H. H., Some Lacunae in the Archives of the Academy, 564.

Electric Circuits and their Mechani- cal Analogies, The Effects of Sudden changes in the Induc- tances of Certain Forms of, 575.

Electrical Oscillations of a Hertz Rectilinear Oscillator, Experiments on the, 323, 558.

Electricity, Discharges of, throu^ Hydrogen, 453, 558.

Electrolysis, Some Minute Phenom- ena of, 369, 559.

Elia De Cyon prize, 1910, 561.

Evaporation from the Surface of a Solid Sphere, On, 361, 561.

Ewell, A. W., accepts Resident Fel- lowship, 553.

Fairbanks, Arthur, elected Resident

Fellow, 559; accepts Resident

Fellowship, 560. Farlow, W. G., Delegate to Inter- national Botanical Congress, 559. Fellows, Associate, deceased, —

S. W. Johnson, 562.

H. C. Lea, 657.

Simon Newcomb, 654.

J. M. Oriway, 564.

W. Sellers, 562.

W. G. Sunmer, 666. Fellows, Associate, elected, —

W. A. Heidel, 669. Fellows, Associate, List of, 685. Fellows, Resident, deceased, —

Alexander Agassiz, 566.

J. B. Ames, 559.

M. H. Morgan, 566. Fellows, Resident, elected, —

A. C. Coolidge, 675.

R. B. Dixon, 576.

Arthur Fairbanks, 659.

W. C. Ford, 676.

C. H. Moore, 563.

E. C. Moore, 576. C. P. Parker, 663.

Fellows, Resident, List of, 679.

Fenn, W. W., accepts Resident Fel- lowship, 653.

Femald, M. L., New and little known Mexican Plants, chiefly Labia tae, 415, 660; Some New Factors in Determining the Location of Wine- land the Good, 664.

Ford, W. C, elected Resident Fellow, 576.

Foreign Honorary Members, de- ceased — W. F.^Kohlrausch, 662.

F. W. Maitland, 559,

Digitized by

Goot

INDEX.

605

Foreign Honorary Members, elected, —

Sir David Gill, 676. Foreign Honorary Members, List of,

5S8. Foslie, M. H., Death of, 559. Fumivall, F. J., accepts Foreign

Honorary Membership, 553.

Gases, Friction in, at Low Pressures, 1, 554.

Gases, Measurement of Pressure and Density in, with the Micro Bal- ance, 558.

General Fimd, 567, 672; Appropriar tions from the Income of, 673.

Gentianaceae, Spermatophytes, new or reclassified, chiefly Rubiaceae and, 394, 660.

Gill, Sir David, elected Foreign Hon- orary Member, 675.

Gragg, F. A., A Study of the Greek Epigram before 300 b. c, 661.

Gray Herbarium of Harvard Uni- versity, Contributions from, 385.

Greek Epigram, A Study of the, be- fore 300 b. c, 561 .

Gutzeit Method, The Quantitative Determination of Antimony by the, 19, 554.

Hall, Edwin H., Air Resistance to Falling Inch Spheres, 377, 560.

Hall, Edwin H., and Campbell, L. L., On the Electromagnetic and the Thermomagnetic Effects in Soft Iron, 576.

Harvard College. See Harvard Uni- versity.

Harvard University, Invitation from, 553; Announcement of, 560.

Harvard University. See Chemical Laboratory, Gray Herbarium, Jef- ferson Physical Laboratory, and Zoological Laboratory.

Heidel, W. A., elected Associate Fel- low, 559; accepts Associate Fel- , lowship, 560.

Heidel, W. A., Tlepl ^Unrew, A Study of the Conception of Nature among the Pre-Socratics, 77, 554.

Hesse, C. A., Letter from, 553.

Historical Society of Pennsylvania,

Letter from, 565. Hogg, J. L., Friction in Gases at Low

Pressures, 1, 654. Hostinsky, O., Death of, 560. House Committee, Report of, 571. House expenses, Appropriations for,

572. Hurwitz, S. H., The Reactions of

Earthworms to Acids, 576. Hydrogen, Discharges of Electricity

through, 453, 558.

Inductive Circuits, Some Illustrations of the Effects of Sudden Changes in the Resistances of, 575.

International Agrogeological Confer- ence, Second, 565.

International American Scientific Con- gress, 565.

International Congress of American- ists, 17th Congress, 555.

International Congress of Botany, Third, 559.

International Congress of Entomol- ogy, First, 659.

International Geological Congress, Eleventh, 565.

International Zoological Congress, Eighth, 557.

Iron, Soft, The Forms of the Magnetic Diagrams for Low Fields of Certain very Pure Kinds of, which at very High Excitations show extraordi- narily Large Values of I., 575.

Iron, Soft, On the Electromagnetic and the Thermomagnetic Effects in, 676.

Italian Riviera Levante, The, 561.

Jacobi, H., accepts Foreign Honor- ary Membership, 553.

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Con- tributions from, 1, 241, 265, 313, 323, 337, 353, 361, 369, 377, 453.

Johnson, S. W., Death of, 562.

Jones, G. See Baxter, G. P., and Jones, G.

Joule-Thomson Effect in Water and Carbon Dioxide, On the Applica- bility of the Law of Correspond- ing States to the, 241, 558.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

606

INDEX.

Eennelly, A. E., The Equivalent Cir- cuits of Composite Lines in the Steady State, 29, 554.

Einnicutt, L. P., Report of C. M. Warren Committee, 570.

Kittredge, G. L., Moot Points about Chaucer, 556.

Kohhrausch, W. F., Death of, 562.

Labiatae, New and little known Mexi- can Plants, chiefly, 415, 560.

Lacunae in the Archives of the Acad- emy, 564.

Lamina, Homogeneous, The Effect of Leakage at the Edges upon the Temperatures within a, through which Heat is being conducted, 353, 558.

Lane, G. M., accepts Resident Fel- lowship, 553.

Lea, H. C, Death of, 557.

Leakage, The Effect of, at the Edges upon the Temperatures within a Homogeneous Lamina through which Heat is being conducted, 353, 558.

Lewis, G. N., and Tohnan, R. C, The Principle of Relativity and Non- Newtonian. Mechanics, 554.

Librarian, Report of, 568.

Library, Appropriation for, 572.

Light, The Reactions of Amphibians to, 159, 559.

Lime, On the Equilibrium of the System consisting of Lime, Carbon, Calcium Carbide and Carbon Monoxide, 429, 56L

Lines, Composite, The Equivalent Circuits of, in the Steady State, 29, 554.

Lowell, Abbott Lawrence, Liaugura- tion, invitation to, 553; Announce- ment of, 560.

Lowell, P., Photographs of Mars and Saturn, 561.

Lycodpodium complanatum, Ameri- can Forms of, 412, 560.

Lyon, D. G., Harvard Explorations in Samaria, 560.

Lyman, Theodore, The Spectrum of a Carbon Compound in the Region

of Extremely Short Wave-Lengths, 313, 558.

Magnet, The Resistance of the Air to a Swinging, 558.

Magnetic Diagrams, The Forms of the, for Low Fields of Certain very Pure Kinds of Soft Iron which at very High Excitations show extraordi- narily Large Values of I., 575.

Magnetic Tests upon Irqn and Steel Rings, On the Magnitude of an Error which usually affects the Results of, 575.

Maitland, F. W., Death of, 559.

Mars*and Saturn, Photographs of, 561.

Massachusetts Instituteof Technology. See Rogers I^aboratory of Pl^ysics.

Mexican Phanerogams, Notes and new Species, 422, 560.

Mexican Plants, New and little known, chiefly Labiatae, 415, 560.

Micro Balance, ^leasurement of Pres- sure and Density in Gases with the, 558.

Moore, C. H., elected Resident Fel- low, 563; accepts Resident Fel- lowship, 565.

Moore, E. C, elected Resident Fel- low, 575.

Morgan, M. H., Death of, 565.

Morse, H. W., Measurement of Pres- sure and Density in Gases with the Micro Balance, 558.

Morse, H. W., On Evaporation from the Surface of a Solid Sphere, 361, 561 ; Some Minute Phenomena of Electrolysis, 369, 559.

Museo Nacional, Mexico, 559.

Museum of Comparative ZoSlogy, Notice from Faculty of, 566.

Museum of Comparative S^oology at Harvard College. See Zoological Laboratory.

Museum of Fine Arts, Invitation from, 555.

Nature, A Study of the Conception of, among the Pre-Socratics, 77, 554.

Naval Observatory, Resolution con- cerning, 557.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

INDEX.

607

Newcomb, Simon, Death of, 554.

Newport, Probate Court, Notice from, 666.

Nikitin, Serge, Death of, 557.

Niles, W. H., resigns Resident Fellow- ship, 561.

Nobel Prize, 1910, 553.

Nominating Committee, appointed, 563.

Non-Newtonian Mechanics, The Prin- ciple of Relativity and, 554.

Officers, elected, ; 573 List of, 577.

Ordway, J. M., Death of, 554.

Oscillations of a Swinging Body, The Effect of the Damping due to the Surrounding Medium upon the Form of the, 575.

Oscillator, Experiments on the Elec- trical Oscillations of a Hertz Rectilinear, 323, 558.

Parker, C. P., elected Resident Fel- low, 563; accepts Resident Fel- lowship, 565.

Pavlov, A., Letter from, 553.

Pearse, A. S., The Reactions of Am- phibians to Light, 159, 559.

Peirce, B. O., The (Conception of the Derivative of a Scalar Point Func- tion with Respect to Another Simi- lar Function, 337, 558; The Effect of Leakage at the Edges upon the Temperatures within a Homo- geneous Lamina through which Heat is being Conducted, 353, 558; The Effect of the Damping due to the Surrounding Medium upon the Form of the Oscillations of a S^finging Body, 575; The Effects of Sudden Changes in the induc- tances of Certain Forms of Electric Circuits and their Mechanical Analogies, 575; The Forms of the Magnetic Diagrams for Low Fields of Certain very Pure Kinds of Soft Iron which at very High Excita- tions show extraordinarily Large Values of I . , 575 ; On the Magnitude of an Error which usually affects the Results of Magnetic Tests upon

Iron and Steel Rings, 575; The Resistance of the Air to a Swing- ing Magnet, 558; Some Illustra- tions of the Effects of Sudden Changes in the Resistances of In- ductive Circuits, 575.

Ilepi *i;(rc«f . A Study of the Concep- tion of Nature among the Pre- Socratics, 77, 554.

Phanerogams, Mexican — Notes and New Species, 422, 560.

Phosphorus, A Revision of the Atomic Weight of, 135, 554.

Pierce, G. W., Experiments on the Electrical Oscillations of a Hertz Rectilinear Oscillator, 323, 558; Report of the Publication Com- mittee, 571.

Policy Committee, 560.

Pre-Socratics, A Study of the Concep- tion of Nature among the, 77, 554.

Publication, Appropriation for, 573.

Publication Committee, Report of, 571.

Publication Fund, 568; Appropria- tion from, 573.

Pjrrosulphuryl Chloride and Chlor- sulphonic Acid, The Preparation and Properties of, 554.

Records of Meetings, 553.

Relativity and Non-Newtonian Me- chanics, The Principle of, 554.

*Riegel, E. R. See Sanger, C. R., and Riegel, E. R.

Riegel, E. R. See Sanger, C. R., Riegel, E. R., and Whitney, L. H.

Ritchie, John, resigns Resident Fel- lowship, 565.

Robinson, B. L., Spermatophytes, new or reclassified, chiefly Rubia- ceae and Gentianaceae, 394, 560.

Rocks, Igneous, Average Chemical Compositions of, 209, 558.

Rogers Laboratory of Physics, Con- tributions from, 429.

Ropes, J. H., accepts Resident Fel- lowship, 553.

Rotch, A. L., Report of Librarian, 568; Delegate to Boston ^* 1915" Conference, 561.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

608

INDEX.

Rubiaceae and Gentianaceae, Sper-

matophytes, new or reclassified,

chiefly, 394, 660. Rumford Committee, Report of, 569,

Reports of Progress to, 570. Rumford Fund, 567; Appropriations

from the Income, 559, 563, 573;

Papers published by Aid of, 570. Rumford Premium, 602; Award of,

573; Presentation of, 565.

Samaria, Harvard Explorations in, 560.

Sanger, C. R., and Riegel, E. R., The Quantitative Determination of An- timony by the Gutzeit Method, 19, 554.

Sanger, C. R., Riegel, E. R., and Whit- ney, L. H., The Preparation and Properties of Pyrosulphuryl Chlo- ride and Chlorsulphonic Acid, 554.

Saturn and Mars, Photographs of, 561.

Scalar Point Function, The Concep- tion of the Derivative of a, with Respect to another Similar Func- tion, 337, 558.

Sellers, W., Death of, 562.

Silver Phosphate, The Analysis of, 135, 554.

Slipher, V. M., accepts Associate Fel- owship, 565.

Spermatophytes, new or reclassified, chiefly Rubiaceae and Gentian- aceae, 394, 560.

Sphere, Solid, On Evaporation from' the Surface of a, 361, 561.

Spillman, W. J., Letter from, 553.

Standing Conmiittees, appointed, 574; List of, 577.

Standing Votes, 601.

Statutes, 591 ; Committee on Amend- ment of, 564.

Steam, Notes on Certain Thermal Properties of, 265, 558.

Sunmer, W. G., Death of, 565.

Taft, President, Letter from, 561.

Thompson, M. De K., LIII. — On the Equilibrium of the System consisting of Lime, Carbon, Cal- cium Carbide and Carbon Monox- ide, 429, 56L

Tohnan, R. C. See Lewis, G. N., and Tohnan, R. C.

Treasurer, Report of, 566.

Trowbridge, John, Discharges of Elec- tricity through Hydrogen, 453, 558; The Future of Aeroplanes, 554.

Universal Race Congress, 561.

Vaggas I.-IV., An Analysis of, 465,

558. Volterra, V., Letter from, 562.

Ware, W. R., Report of House Com- mittee, 571.

Warren (C. M.) Conunittee, Report of, 570.

Warren (C. M.) Fund, 567; Appro- priations from the Income of, 573.

Water and Carbon Dioxide, On the Applicability of the Law of Cor- responding States to the Joule- Thomson Effect in, 241, 558.

Wave-Lengths, The Spectrum of a Carbon Compound in the Region of Extremely Short, 313, 558.

Weatherby, C. A., American Forms of Lycopodium comp'anatum, 412, 560; Mexican Phanerogams — Notes and new Species, 422, 560; A Preliminary Synopsis of the Genus Echeandia, 387, 560.

Whitney, L. H. See Sanger, C. R., Riegel, E. R., and Whitney, L. H.

Wine and the Good, Some New Fac- tors in Determining the Location of, 564.

Wood, R. W., Presented Rumford Medals, 565; Photography with Invisible Bays, 565.

World's Congress of International Associations, 565.

Yellowstone National Park, Photo- graphs of, 558.

Zavodny, J., Letter from, 553.

Zodlogical Laboratory of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Contribu- tions from, 159.

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429	802
431	808
432	804
436	306
437	308
438	309
446	314
B	0
446	316
460	318
464	322
469	320
461	827
462	328
463	328
464	329
466	331
474	337
476	338
478	840
484	844
487	847
B	0
488	348
491	360
492	361

B	C
681	420
683	421
684	422
B	C
685	423
687	424
688	425
689	426
600	427
691	428
692	428
696	431
696	432
600	434

B	0
724	631
726	633
726	683
726	•
727	634
728	635
732	638
734	639
736	641
738	643
740	644
741	646
B	C
742	646
749	661
761	658
752	663
763	665
766	667
768	658
769	659
762	562
B	0
763	663
766	665
767	666

767	666
769	667
770	668
771	669
772	670
773	671
B	0
776	672
777	673
777	674
782	677
788	678
786	681
787	681
790	683
B	0
792	686
797	689
800	692
802	693
804	694
806	696
809	699
812	601
814	602
814	603
817	606
819	606
B	0
821	607
823	609
826	611
827	613
828	613
830	616
832	616
838	621
839	622
840	623
842	624
843	626

B	0
889	271
802	273
893	274
894	276
408	281
416	291
416	292
418	294
420	296
422	296

B	0
424	298
426	299
428	801
429	802
431	808
432	804
436	306
437	308
438	309
446	314
B	0
446	316
460	318
464	322
469	320
461	827
462	328
463	328
464	329
466	331
474	337
476	338
478	840
484	844
487	847
B	0
488	348
491	360
492	361

B	C
681	420
683	421
684	422
B	C
685	423
687	424
688	425
689	426
600	427
691	428
692	428
696	431
696	432
600	434

B	0
724	631
726	633
726	683
726	•
727	634
728	635
732	638
734	639
736	641
738	643
740	644
741	646
B	C
742	646
749	661
761	658
752	663
763	665
766	667
768	658
769	659
762	562
B	0
763	663
766	665
767	666

767	666
769	667
770	668
771	669
772	670
773	671
B	0
776	672
777	673
777	674
782	677
788	678
786	681
787	681
790	683
B	0
792	686
797	689
800	692
802	693
804	694
806	696
809	699
812	601
814	602
814	603
817	606
819	606
B	0
821	607
823	609
826	611
827	613
828	613
830	616
832	616
838	621
839	622
840	623
842	624
843	626

B	0
889	271
802	273
893	274
894	276
408	281
416	291
416	292
418	294
420	296
422	296

B	0
424	298
426	299
428	801
429	802
431	808
432	804
436	306
437	308
438	309
446	314
B	0
446	316
460	318
464	322
469	320
461	827
462	328
463	328
464	329
466	331
474	337
476	338
478	840
484	844
487	847
B	0
488	348
491	360
492	361

B	C
681	420
683	421
684	422
B	C
685	423
687	424
688	425
689	426
600	427
691	428
692	428
696	431
696	432
600	434

B	0
724	631
726	633
726	683
726	•
727	634
728	635
732	638
734	639
736	641
738	643
740	644
741	646
B	C
742	646
749	661
761	658
752	663
763	665
766	667
768	658
769	659
762	562
B	0
763	663
766	665
767	666

767	666
769	667
770	668
771	669
772	670
773	671
B	0
776	672
777	673
777	674
782	677
788	678
786	681
787	681
790	683
B	0
792	686
797	689
800	692
802	693
804	694
806	696
809	699
812	601
814	602
814	603
817	606
819	606
B	0
821	607
823	609
826	611
827	613
828	613
830	616
832	616
838	621
839	622
840	623
842	624
843	626