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AM ESSAY

OM TBK

PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION

VOL. II.

i
».J-

o *

^ Hn ESSAY

ON THB

PRIKCIPLE OF POPULATION;

OB, A

VIEW OF ITS FAST AND PRESENT EFFECTS

«:^~

HUMAN HAPPINESS ;

WITH

\X INQÜIRY INTO OüR PR0SPECT8 RESPECTING THE

FÜTUHE REMOVAL OR MITIGATIüN OF TUE

EYILS WHICH IT OCCASIOXS.

Bv T. R. MALTHUS, A. M.

LATX FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. IL

FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE THIRD LONDOX

EDmON.

^ WASHINGTON CITY:

PHINTED AKD FUBLISHXD BT ROGER CHEW WEIGHTMAN.

PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE.

1809.

- . •

CONTENTS

OT TBK

SECOND VOLUME

BOOK IL

Pige.
Ckap« IX« OntheFruitfulnessof Marriages, • 1
IC, Efiects of Epidemics on Registers of

BirthSy DeathS) and 'Marriages, 32

XL General deductions from the preceding
^ view of Societf) ... 50

BOOK III.

Or THX DIFFERBNT SYSTEMS OR EXFEDIENTS WHICR
HATE BEEV PROPOSED OE HAVE PREVAILED IV
SOCIETY, AS THEY AFFECT THE EVILS
ARISIMG FROM THE PRINCIPLK
OF POPULATION.

Chap. I. Of Systems of Equality. Wallace. Con-

dorcet, 77

II. Of Systems of Equality. Godwin, 97
III. Observations on the Reply of Mr. God-
win, 13'

•t

\'i CONTENTS.

Page.
Cbap. IV. Of Emigration, * • • • 133

V. Of Poor Laws, . . . . US

VI. Subject of Poor Laws, continued, 17o
VII. Of increasing Wealth, as it affects the

Condition of the Poor, • 189

VIII. Of the Dcfinitions of Wealth. Agricul-

tural and Commercial Systems, 206
IX. Different Effects of the Agricultural and

Commercial Systems, 220

X. Of Bounties on the exportation of Com, 235
XI. ()n the prevailing Errors respecting Po-
pulation and Plenty, . s?'*«

BOOK IV.

jV DUR FUTURE PROSPECTS RESPECTIKC THE RCMOVAJ

Oa MITICATIOK OF THE EYILS ARISINC FRON

THE PRINCIPLR OF POPULATION,

Cu AP. I. Of moral Restraint, and our Obligation to

practice this Virtuc, • . 29 7
II. Of the Effects which would result to So«
ciety from the Prevalence of this
Virtue, !il5

III. Of the only effectual Mode of improving

the Condition of the Poor, . 3 J :

IV. Objections to this mode considered, 34 >
V. Of the Consequences of pursuing the op-

posite Mode, • • • . 3s:'
VI. Effect» of the Knowledge of ihe Principle

Cause ttf Povcrtv on Civil I.ibcrtv, 3^7

CONTENTS. ^ vü

Page.
Cbap. VII. Plan of the gradual Abolition of the Poor

Laws proposedi • • • 388

VIII. Of the Modes of correcting the prevailing

Opinions oft Population, • * 408

IX. Of the Direction of our Charity, • 430

X« Different Plans of improving the Condi-

tion of the Poor considered, 435

XI. Of the Necessity of general Principles on

thisSubject, • '• • .461

Of our rational Expectations respecting^

the future Improvement of Society, 487

Appendix^ 50.1

ESSAY, &c.

T=se

BOOK IL

CHAPTER IX.

On the Fruitßilness of Marriages.

IT would be extremely desirable to be able to
deduce from the rate of ihcreasc, the actual popu-
lation, and the registers of births, deaths, and mar-
riages, in different countries, the real prolificness
of marriagesy and the true proportion of the bom
which lives to marry. Perhaps the problem may
not be capable of an aecurate Solution, but we
shall make some approximation towards it, and bc
able to aecount for some of the difficuities wliich
appear in many registers, if we attend to the foK
lo^ing considerations,

It should be premiscd however, that in the re-
gisters of most countries there is some reason to
believe, that the omissions in the births :jid deaÜLS
are greater tlian in rl»e marriages ; and ccnse-
quently, that the proponion of marriages ^ il-
most always given to j ii;rcat. In the enumcratiün
vol. ii. b

ESSAY ON Book

On the fruitfulness of marriages.

1 I

which latcly took place in this countiy, -whilc it is
supposed with reason, tliat the registry of mar-
riages is nearly correct, it is known with certaint)%
that there are vcrj- great omissions in the births
and deaths ; and it is probable that siinilar onus-
sions, though not perhaps to the same extent, prc-
vail in other countries.

To form a judgment of the prolificness of mar-
riages, taken as they occur, including second and
third marriages, let us out ofF a certain period qF
the registers of any countr)'-, 30 years for instance^
and inquire what is the number of births which
have been produced by all the marriages included
in the period cut off. It is evident, that with the
marriages at the beginning of die period will bc
arrangcd a number of births proceeding from naar-
riages not included in the period ; and at the end,
a number of births produced by the marriages in-
cluded in the period, will be found arranged witfi
the marriages of a succeeding period. Now if
WC could subtract the former number, and add
the latter, wc should obtain exactly all the births
produced by the marriages of the period, and of
course the real prolificness of those marriages»
K the Population be stationär}', the number of
births to bc addcd would exacüv equal the num-

Ouip. IX. POPULATION.

On the fruitfulness of marriages.

ber to be subtracted, and the proportion of births
to marriages, as found in the registers, would ex-
actly represent the real prolificncss of marriages.
But if the population be either incrcasing or dc-
creasing, the number to be added would never bc
equai to the number to be subtracted, and tlie
proportion of births to marriages in the registers
would never truly represent the prolificness of mar-
riages. In an increasing population the number
to be added would evidendy be greater than the
number to be subtraöted, and of course the pro-
portion of births to marriages, as found in the re-
gisters, would always be too small to represent the
tnie prolificness of marriages. And the contraiy
effect would take place in a decreasing population.
The questicMi therefore is, what we are to add and
what to subtract, when the births and deaths are
not equal.

The average proportion of births to marriages
in Europe is about 4 to 1. Let us suppose for
the sake of iliustration, that each marriage yields
four children, one every other yearJ In this

' Id the Statistical account of Scotland it is said, that
liie average distance between the children of the samc
family hcs been mlculatcd to bc about two ycars.

ESSAY ON Book II.

On the fniitfulness of marriages.

case it is evident, that whcrever you begin your
period in the rcgisters, the marriages of the pre*
ceding cight ycars will only liavc produced lialf
of thtir births, and the other half will be arranged
with the marriages included in the period, and
ought to be subtracted from them. In the samc
manner, the marriages of the last eight years of
the period will only have produced half of thcir
births, and the other half ought to be added. But
half of the births of any eight 3rears may bc con<-
sidered as nearly equal to all the births of the
succeeding 37 years. In instances of the most
rapid increase it will rather exceed the births of
the next 3 1 years, and in cases of slow increase
approach towards tlic births of the next 4 ycars.
The mcan tlicreforc may be taken at 3 years. *
Consequently if wc subtract the births of the first
3| ycars of the period, and add the births of the 3|
ycars subsequent to the period, y,t shall havc a
number of births nearly equal to the births produ-
ced by all the marriages included in the period,
and of course the proliiicncss of these marriages.

' According to the rate «f increase whkh is now taking
place in England, the pertod by calcuktion would be about
3| years.

map. rX. POPULATION.

^w-

Od the fruitfulness of marriages.

But if the population of a country be increasing
regularly, and the births, deaths, and marriages
continue always to bear tlie same proportion to
cach odier, and to the whole population, it is evi-
dent that all the biiths of any period will bear the
same proportion to all the birtlis of any other pe-
riod of the same extent, taken a certain number
of years later, as the births of any single year to
ti)e birdis of a single year taken the same number
rf vears later ; and the same will be true with re-

gjffd to the marriages. And consequcntly to esti-
mate the prolificness of marriages we have only to
tompare the marriages of the present or any other
year with the births of a subsequent year taken 3 J
years later.

Wc have supposed in the present instance, that
each marriage yields four births ; but the average
prc^xxtion of births to marriages in Europc is 4
to 1, and as the population of Europe is known to
be increasing at present, the prolificness of mar-
riages must be grcatcr than 4. If allowing for
this circumstance we take the distance of 4 ycars
iostead of 3J years, we shall probably be not far
from the truth. And though undoubtedly the pe-
riod will differ in differcnt coimtries, yet it will
not differ so much as we might at first imaginc ;

t> ESSAY ON Book IL

On the fruitfulness of marriages«

because in countries wherc the marriages are morc
prolific, the births gcncrally follow at shorter in-
tervals, and wherc they are Icss prolific at longer
intervals ; and with different degrees of prolific-
ness, the length of the period might still rcmain
the same.^

It will follow from these observations, that the
more rapid is the increase of population, the more
will the real prolificness of marri2^;cs exceed the
Proportion of births to marriages in the registers.

The rule which has been here laid do\vn« at*
tempts to estimate the prolificness of marri^es
taken as they occur, bat this prolificness should
bc carcfully distinguished from the prolificness of
first marriages and of marricd womcn, and stiU
more from the natural prolific ness of women in gc-
ncnü, taken at the most favorablc agc. It is pro-
bablc that the natural prolificness of women is
nearly the same in most parts of the world ; but

^ In placcs whrre there are many exports and Imports
of peoplei the calculations wiU of course be disturbed* In

towns, particularly« where thcrc is a frequent change of
inhabitants, and wherc it so often happens that the mar-
riages of the people in the neighboring country are cele«
brated, the inferences from the proportion of births to
' marriages are not to bedepended on.

Chap. IX. POPULATION.

On th^ fruitfulness of marriages«

die prolificness of marriages is liable to be aiFect-

ed by a variety of circumstances peculiar to each

countT}' ; and particularly by the number of late

marriages. In all countries the second and third

marriages alone form a most important considera-

tion, and materially influence the average propor-

tions. According to Sussmilch, in all Pomerania»

from 1748 to 1756 both included, the number of

persons who married were 56,956, and of these

10,586 were widows and widowers, According

to Busching in Pfussia and Silesia for the year

1781, out of 29,308 persons who married, 4,841

were widows and widowers,« and consequently

the Proportion of marriages will be given füll onc

sxth too much. In estimating the prolificness of

married women the number of illegitimate births^

would tend, though in* a very slight degree, to

counterbalance the overplus of marriages ; and as

it is found that the numbier of widowers who mar-

ry again is greater than the number of widows,

the whole of the correction should not on this ac-

* Göttliche Ordnung, vol. i. tablcs, p. 93.

' Sussmilch, vol. iii. tables, p. 95.

' In France belore the revolution the proportion of ille-
fitimate births was ^j of the whole number« Probabi}
kis lc9s in this countrv.

ESSAY ON BwkU,

On the fruitfulness of marria^es.

count be a{^lied ; but in estimating the propor*
tion of the bom which lives to many from a com»
parison of the marriages and deaths, which is
what we are now about to proceed to, the whde
of this correction is always neccssary.

To find the proportion of tlie bom which lives
to many, we must first subtract one sixtli from
the marriages, and then compare the marriages of
any year so corrected, widi the deaths in the re-
gisters at such a distance from them, as is equal
to the difference betwecn the average age of mar*
riage and the average age of death.

Thus, for example, if the proportion of mar*
riagcs to deaths were as 1 to 3, then subtracting
one sixth from the marriages this proportion would
Ix: as 5 to 18, and the numlxT of pcrsons many»
ing annually the first timc would be to the num-
bcr of aunual deaths as 10 to 18. Supposing in
this case the mean age of death to be ten years
latcr than the mean age of marriage, in which ten
years the deaths would increase ^, then the num«
ber of jxTsons rharryiiig annually the first time,
conipared with the number of annual deaths, at the
distance of the difference l)etwecn the age of mar-
riai3;c and the age of death, would be as 10 to 20 ;
from which it would foUow that exactly half of
the born lived to raarrw

Qhap. IX POPULATION. 9

On the fruitfulness of marriages«

The jgrourtds of this mle will appear from the
foUowing observations on registers in general.

In a country in which the population is station-
ary, tlie contemporary deaths compared with the
births will be equal, and will of course represent
the deaths of all the bom ; and the marriages, or
more properly the number of married persons
compared with both the births and deaths, will,
when a proper allowance has been made for se-
cond and third marriages, represent the true pro-
portion of the bom which Uves to many. But if
tfie population be either increasing or decreasing,
and the births, deaths, and marriages increasing or
decreasing in the same ratio, then the deaths com-
pared with the births, and the marriages compared
with the births and deaths, will cease to express
what they did before, unless the events which are
ccmtemporary in the registers are also contempo-

■

rary in the order of nature.

In the first place it is evident that death can
not be contemporary with birth, but must on an
average be always at such a distance from it, as
b equal to the expectation of life, or the mean
age of death. Consequently though the deaths
of all the bom are, or will be, in the registers,
irtiere there are no emigrations, yet, except
vd. ii. c

lü ESSAY ON Book IL

Oll the ft*uitfulness of marriages.

\vhen the population is stationaiy, the contempo-
rary pcriods of births and deaths never show this,
and \ve can only expect to find the deaths equal to
the births, if the deaths be taken at such a distance
from tlic births in the registers as is equal to the
expectation of life. And in fact, thus taken die
births and deaths will always be found equal.

Secondly, the marriages of any year can never
be contemporary with the births from which thcy
have resultedy but must always be at such a dis«
tance from them as is equal to the average age of
marriage. If the population be increasing, the
marriages of the present year have resulted from a
smaller number of births than the births of the
present year, and of course the marriages, com-
parcd with the contenii)orar\' births, will always
be too few to re])resent the proportion of the bom
which lives to marrj-, and the contrary will takc
place if the population Ik* dccrcasing ; and to find
this proportion, wc must compare the marriages of
any year widi the births of a previous year at the
distance of tlie avcragc age of marriagc.

'J'hirdly, tlie avcragc age of marriagc will almost
always be much ncarer to the* average age of death
tlian marriagc is to birth ; and consequently the
aiinual mamages comparcd with tlie contemporary'

Qhap. IX. POPULATION. 11

On the fraitfalness of marriages.

annual deaths will much more nearly represent the
true prc^rticm of the bom living to mam-, than
the marriages compared with the births. • The

' Dr. Price vcry justlj says "lObscnr. on Reserv. Pay.

Tol. i. p. 269t 4th cdit.) '*that the general effect of an

'^ increase while it is going on in a country is to render

" the Proportion of persons marrying annually, to the an-

« DQal deaths greater and to the annual births Cc99 ilran

* the true proportion marrying out of any given number

'^ bom. This proportion generally lies between the other

^ two proportionS) but always nearest the first." In these

obserrations I cntirely agree with him, but in a note to

this passage he appears to me to fall into an error. Ile

says, that if the prolificaess of marriages be increased

{\he ftrodaöilities ofli/e and i/te encouragement to marriage

remaxning the same) both the annual births and barials

voold increase in proportion to the annual vreddings.

That the proportion of annual births vrould increase is

certatnly true, and I here acknowledge my error in dif-

fcring from Dr. Price on this point in my last edition ;

bat I still think that the proportion of burials to weddings

voald not necessarily increase under the circuinstanccs

here supposed*

The reason why the proportion of births to weddings
increases is, that the births occurring in the order of na*
tarc considerably prior to the marriages which resull from
them, their increase will affect the registerof births much
more than the contemporary register of marriages. But
the same reason by no means holds with regard to the
deaths^ the average age of which is generally Jäter than
the agc of marriage. And in this case, after the firet in-
tenral between birth and marriage, the permanent effect
would bc, that the register of marriages would be more

12 ESSAY ON Book

On the fruitfulncss of marriages.

marriages comparcd with the births, aftcr a pro-
per allowancc has l:)een made for second and third
marriages, can never represent the truc projx)rtioa
of the bom living to many, unless wheii tlie popu-
lation is absolutcly stationary ; but although the
Population be increasing or decreasing according
to any ratio, yet the average age of marriage may
still be equal to the average of death ; and in tfais
Gase the marriages in the registers compared with
the contemporary deaths, after the correction for
second and third marriages, will represent the
true Proportion of the bom living to marry.'

afTectcd by the increasc of births, than the contemporary
register of deaths; and consequcntly the proportion of
the burials to the weddings would be rather decreased
than incrcased. From not attending to the circumstance
that the average age of marriage may often be considera-
bly earlier than the mean age of death, the general con«
clu&ion also which Dr. Price draws in this note does not
appear to be strictly corrcct.

1 The rcader will be aware, that as all the bom must
die, deaths may in some cases be taken as synonimous
with births* If we had the deaths registered of all the
births which had taken place in a country during a cer^
tain period, distingiiishing the married from the unmar-
ried, it is evident« that the number ofthose who dicd mar-
ried« compared with the whole number of deaths« would
arcurately express the proportion of the birthM which had
Jived tomarrv.

Chap. JX. POPULiATJON. 13

On the fruitfulness of marriages«

Generally however, when an increase of popula-
tion b going forwards, the average age of mar-
liage is less than the average of death, and then
die Proportion of marriages compared with the
GcmtempcM'ary deaths, will be too gres^t to represent
die true proportion of the bom living to many,
and to find this proportion, we must compare the
marriages of any particular year with the deaths of
a subsequent year at such a distance from it in
die registers, as is equal to the difference between
die average age of marriage and the average age
of death.

There is no absolutely necessary connection
between the average age of marriage and the ave-
rage age of death. In a country the resources of
wfaich will allow of a rapid increase of population,
Ae expectation of life, or the average age of death
raay be extremely high, and yet the age of mar-
riage be very early, änd the marriages then, com-
pared with the contemporary deaths in the regis- •
ters, would, even after the correction for second
and third marriages, be very much too great to
represent the true proportion of the bom living to
marrj'. In such a country we might suppose the
average age of death to be 40, and the age of mar-
riage only 20 ; and in this case, which however

M ESSAY ON Book //.

On the fniitfulness of mairiages*

would be a rare one, the distance between mar-
riage and death would be the same as betweeiv
biith and marriage.

If we apply these observations to registers in
general, though we shall seldom be able to obtain
accurately the trae proportion of the bom livir^
to many, on account of our not knowing the ave»
rage age of marriage, yet we may draw many use*
fol inferences from the Information which they
contain, and reconcile many of the difficulties with
which they are accompanied ; and it will generaUy
be foundi that in those countries where the mar-
riages bear a very large proportion to the deaths,
we shall see reason to believe that tlie age of mar»
riage is much earlier than the averagc age of
death.

In the Russian table for the ycar 1799, produ-
ced by Mr. Tooke, and rcferred to p. 372, the
proportion of marriages to deudis appearcd to bc
-as 100 to 200. When corrected for second and
third marriages, by subtracting one sixth froni
the marriages it will bc as 100 to 252. From
which it would seem to follow that out of 252
births 200 of them had lived to many ; but wc
can scarccly conceivc any country to be so healthy,
as that 200 out of 252 should live to marr}*. If
however we suppose what seems to be probable^

Cfc^. IX, POPULATION. 15

•^-^m._ _!■_ _^_i -- ■- - I I I -

On the fruitfulness of marriages«

that the age of marriage in Russia is 15 years ear«

iicr than the expectation of life or the average age

of death, then, in order to find the proportion which

lives to many, we must coihpare the marriages

of the present year, with the deaths 15 years later.

Supposing the births to deaths to be (as stated p.

372) 183 to 100, and the mortality 1 in 50, the

yearly increase will be about «V of the population ;

aod consequendy in 15 years the deaths will have

iocreased a litde above .28 ; and the result will be,

that the marriages compared with the deaths 15

years later. Mall be as 100 to 322. Out of 322

births it will appear that 200 live to marry, which

fix)ni the known heakhiness of children in Russia,

and the early age of marriage, is not an improbable

Proportion. The proporticm of marriages to births,

heing as 100 to 385, the prolificness of marria-

geai according to the rule laid do\vn, will be as

100 to 411, or each marriage will on an average,

iodudiag sccond and third marriages, producc

4.11 births.

The IL^ given iil the earlier part of the chaptcr
on Russia are probably not correcL It is suspcct-
ed with reason, that thcre are considerablc omis-
simis both in the births and deaths, but particular-
Ir m the deaths, and consequently the proportion

16 ESSAY ON Book IL

On the fruitfulness of marriages.

of marriages is given too great« There may also
be a further reason for this large proportion of
marriages in Russia. The empress Catherine,
in her instructions for a new code of laws, notices
a custom prevalent among the peasants» of parents
obliging their sons, while actually children, to
marry fuU grown women in order to save the ex-
pense of buying female siaves. These women, it
is Said, generally become the mistresses of the fiu
ther, and the custom is particularly reprobated by
the empress as prejudicial to population. Thb
practice would naturally occasion a more than
usual number of second and third marriages, and
of course morc than usually increase the propor-
tion of marriages to births in the rcgisters.

In the transactions of the society at Philadelphia,
(vol. iii. No. vii. p. 25) therc is a paper hy Mr.
Barton, entitlcd Ohservations on the probability of
life in the United States^ in which it appears that
the proportion of marriages to births is as 1 to 4f .
He mentions indeed 6i, but his numbers give
only 4J. As however this proportion was taken
principally from to\vns it is probable, that the
births arc givcn too low, and I think we may very
safely take as many as five for the average of
to%vns and countr}\ According to the same au-

Chap, IX, POPULATION. 17

On the fruitfulness of marriages«

thority, the mortality is about 1 in 45, and if the
pqmlaticm doubles eveiy 25 years, the births
would be about 1 in 20. The proportion of mar-
riages to deaths would on these suppositions be
as 1 to2{; and corrected for second and third
marriages as 1 to 2.7 nearly. But we cannot sup-
pose tfaat out of 27 births 520 should live to many.
If höwever the age of marriage be ten years earlier
tfaaa the mean age of death, which is highly proba-
ble, we must compare the marriages of the present
year with the deaths ten years later, in order to
obtain the tnie proportion of the bom which lives
to marry. According to the progress of popula-
tioQ here staied, the increase of the deaths in ten
years would be a little above .3, and the result will
be diat 200 out of 351, or about 20 out of 35, in-
stead of 20 out of 27 will live to marry. ' The

* If the proportions mentioned by Mr. Barton be justj
tbe espectatioD of life in America is considerably less
thin in Russia, which is the reason that I have taken onlf
10 jears for the difference between the age of marriage
and the age of death, instead of 15 years, as in Russia. Ac-
cording to the mode adopted by Dr. Price, (vol. i. p. 272.)
of estimating the expectation of life in countries the po-
pulation of which is increasing, this expectation in Rus-
»a would be about 38, (births ^^ deaths -^^ mean ^^0 ^^^
sapposing the age of marriage to be 23, the difTerence
«ould be U«
vol. ii. d

1« ESSAY ON Book IL

On the fruit fulhess of marriages«

marriages compared with the births 4 years later,
according to the ruk laid down, will in thb case
give 5.58 for the proKficness of marriages. The
calculations of Mr. Barton respecting the age tö
which half of the bom live cannot possibly be ap*
plicable to America in general. The registers on
which they are founded are taken from Philadd*
phia, and one or two small towns and village%
which do not appear to be so healthy as the ma-
derate towns of Europe, and therefore can foiiD
no criterion for the country in general.

In England the average proportion of mairi^^
to births appears of late years to have been
about 100 to 350. If we add 4 to the births, in-
stead of |, which m the chiipter on the Checks /#
Population in England I conjectured might be
nearly the amount of the omissions in the births
and deaths, this will allow for the circumstance
of illegitimate birtlis ; and the marriages will then
bc to the births as 1 to 4, to die dcaths as 1 to 3.
Corrccted for second aud third marriages, the

In America the expectation of life vould« upon ihr
samc prinriples, bc only 32], (births ,\, dcaths ^ , mcaa
s'iiO a^^l snpl>osing Üic agc of marriafcc 22] the dlffcrcnce

larmiltl 1%^ In

vould be 10.

Chap, IX. POPULATION, 19

On the fruitfulness of marriag/es«

■' ■ • " - 11.^

Proportion of marriages to deaths will be as 1 to S;6.
Supposing the age of inarriage in England about
7 years earlier than the mean age of death, the iQ.
crease in these 7 years according to the present
progrcss of^opulation of iJo yearly would be .06,
and the proportion living to marry would be 200
out of 381, or rather more than half. * The mar-
riages compared with the births 4 years lutcr will
give 4.136 for tlie proliiicness of marriages.

' Births^ deaths ^g, mean j^^ 9 and on the supposition

diat the age of marriage is 28, the difFerence would be 7«

With regard to the allowance which I have made here

and in a former chapter for the omissions in the births

and deaths, I wish to observe, that as I had no very cer-

tain and satisfactory grounds on which to proceed, it may

be incorrect, and perhaps too great, though assuming

this allowance the mortality appears to be cxtraoidi-

narilf small considering the circumstances of the country.

It shottld be remarked however« that in countries which

are different in their rates of increäse, the annual mor*

talitjr is a Tery incorrect criterion of their comparative

bealthiness. When an increase is going forward the portion

of the population which becomes extinct every year is very

different from the expectation of life, as has appeared

▼ery clearly in the cases of Russia and America just no*

ticed. And as the increase of population in England

bas of late years been more rapid than in France, this

drcumstance will undoubtedly contribute in part to the

peat diflerence in the annual mortality.

ESSAY ON Book II.

On the fruitfulness of roarriages.

These instances will be suf&cient to show the
mode of apply ing the rules which have been ^ven
in Order to form a judgment, from registers, of
the prolificness of marriages, and the proportion
of the bom which lives to many.

It will be observed how very important the cor- ;
rection for second and third marriages is« Sup-
po^ng each marriage to yield 4 births, and the
births and deaths to be equal, it would at first ap-
pear necessary that in order to produce thb efiect»
exactly half of the bom should live to marry ; but
if on account of the second and third marriages we
subtract i from the marriages, and then compare
them with the deaths, the proportion will be as 1
to 41, and it will appear that instead of one half it
will only be necessary that 2 children out of 4|
should live to marry. Upon the same principle if
the births were to the marriages as 4 to 1 , and ex-
actly half of the bom live to marry, it might bc
supposed at first that the population would be sta*
tionary, but if we subtract i from the marriages,
and then take the proportion of deaths to marriages
as 4 to 1, we shall find that the deaths in the reg^s-
Cers compared with the marriages would only be
as 3no 1 ; and the births would be to the deathi

Chap. IX. POPULATION. 2i

Oa the fruitfulness of xnarriagcs.

as 4 to 3^ or 12 to 10, which is a tokrably &st rate
ef increase.

Three causes appear to operate in producing an
excess of the births above the deaths, 1. the proli-
ficness of marriages ; 2. the proportion of the bom
which lives to marry, and 3. the earliness of these
marriages compared with the expectation of life,
or the shortness of a generation by marriage and
birth, compared with the passing away of a gene-
ration by death« This latter cause Dr. Price seems
lohave omitted to considen For though he very
josAy SBcySj that the rate of increase, supposing the
pitdific powers the same, depends upon the encou-
ragement to marriage and the expectation of a
duld just bom; yet in explaining himself, he
seems to consider an increase in the expectation
of Ufe, merely as it affectsthe increase of the num-
ber of persons who reach maturity and marry, and
QOt 2S it affects, besides, the distance between the
^ of marriage and the age of death. But it is
erident that if there be any principle of increase,
that is, if one marriage in the present generation
yidds more than one in the next, incUiding sc-
cond and dürd marriages, the quicker these gene«
rations are repeated, compared with the passing

H2 ESSAY ON JSook U.

On the fruitfulness of marrlages.

away of a gencratioa by death, the more rapid \idU
be the increase.

A &v(nable change in either of these three causes
tfae other two remaining the same, will clearly
produce an effect upon population, and occauoo
a grealer excess of the births above the deaths
in the repsters. With regard to the two first
causes» tfaough an increase in either of them will
produce the same kind of eflect on the pix^por<»
tioQ of births to deaths, yet their effects on the
propofticHi of marriages to births will be in opp^
Site directions. The greater is the proUficnes9
of marriages the greater will be the pn^ortion of
births to marriages, and the greater is the number
of the bom which lives to be married, the Icss will
be the proportion of birtlis to marriages. ^ Con*

* Dr. Price himself has insisted strongly upon this,
(voU t. p« 270, 4th edit.) and yet he says, (p. 375.) that
healthfulness and prolificness are probably causes of inr
crease seldom separatedf and refers to registers of births
and weddings as a proof of it. But though these causes
may undoubtedly exist together^yet if Dr« Price 's reason*
ing be just, such coexistence cannot possibly be inferred
from the lists of births and weddings. Indeed the two
countries, Sweden and France, to the registers of vrhtch
he refers as showtng the prolificness of their marriages,
are known to be by no means remarkably healtliy ; and
fhe registers of towns to which he alludeSf though they

Chap. IX. POPULATION. 28

On the fhiitfulness of iharriagesi

sequendy if within certain limits, the prolificness
of marriages and the number of the bom living to
many increase at the same time, the proportion of
births to marriages in the registers may still re-
main unaltered. And this is the reason why the
registers of different countries with respect to births
and marriages are often found the sanKe under veiy
diflS^rent rates of increase,

The proportion of births to marriages, indeed,
forms no criterion whatever, by which to judge of
die rate of increase. The population of a coimtry
may be stationary or declining with a proportion
as 5 to 1, and may be increasing with some rapi-
dity with a proportion as 4 to 1. But given the

tüay ftbow as he intends, a want of prolificnesS) yet ac-
cording to his previous reasoning show at the same time
great healthinesst and therefore ougbt not to be produced
as a proof of the absence of both. The general fact that
Dr. Price wishes to establish may still remain tinie, that
coantry situatlons are both morc healthy and i»orc proH-
fic than towns ; but this fact certainly cannot be inferred
merely from lists of births and marriages* With regard
to tbe different countries of Europe, it will gencrally be
foondy that those are the most healthy which are the least
prolifici and those the most prolific which are the least
healthy. The earlieragcof marriage in unhealthy coun-
tries is the obvious reasoc of this fact.

^ ESSAY O» Book IL

On the fniitfulness of niarriages.

rate of increasc which may be obtaincd from other
sourcesy it is clearl y desirablc to find in the rcgisters
a small, rather than a lai^ proporticm of births to
marriages ; becausc the smaller this proportion is^
the grcater must bc the proportion of the bora
which lives to many, and of course the more
hcalthy must be the country,

Crome^ observcs that when the marriages of
a country yield less than 4 births, the population
is in a very precarious State, and he estimates the
prölificness of marriages by the proportion of yearly
births to ntiarriages. If this Observation wert
just^ the population of many countries of Europc
would be in a precarious State, as in many coun-
tries the proportion of births to marriages in the
rcg^ters is rather below than abovc 4 to 1. It
has been shown in what manner this proportiof^
in the registers should be corrected in order to
make it a just representation of the prölificness oC
marriages, and if a large part of the bom live to
marry, and the age of marriage be considcrably
carlier than the expectation of life, such a propor-
tion in the registers is by no means inconsistcnt
with a rapid increase. In Russia it has appcarcd

* Ueber die Bevolkening der Europais« Staat* p« 9t.

Ghap. IX. POPULATION. 35

S»

•On the firuitfulness of marriages«

Üiat the Proportion of birtfas to mamages is lest

than 4 to 1, and yet its population increases faster

Üian that of any other nation in Curope, In £ng«

land the population increases more rapidly than in

France, and yet in England the proportion of

births to marriages, when allowance has been made

for onussions, b about 4 to 1, in France 4? to 1.

To occasion so rapid a progress as that which has

taken place in America, it will indeed be necessary

that all the causes of increase should be called into

acticn; and if the prolificness of marriages be

very great, the proportion of births to marriages

will certainly be above 4 to 1 ; but in all ordinary

cases, where the whole power of procreation has. '

not room to expand itself, it is surely better that

the actual Increase should arise firom that degree

of healthiness in the early sts^es of life, which

causes a great [»"(^rtic»! of the bom to live to

maturity and to marry, than firom a great degree

of prolificness accompanied by a great mortaliQr.

And consequently in all ordinary cases, a prc^xx*-

tion of births to marriages as 4 or less than 4 to 1

cannot be cönsidered as an un&vorable sign.

It should be observed that it does not foUow
that the marriages of a country are early, or that
voL ii. c

26 ESSAY ON Book IL

On the fniitfulnesft of marriagres.

the prevcntive check to population does not pre-
vail, becauae the greater part of the bom lives to
marry. In such countries as Norway and Swit-
serland, where half of the bom live to above 40,
it is evident that though rather more than half live
to many, a lai^ portion of the peoplc between
die ages of 20 and 40 would be living in an un-
married State, and the prevcntive check would
appear to prevail to a great degree. In England
it is probable that half of the bom live to above
35, and though rather more than half live to marry,
the prevcntive check might prevail consideraUy
(as we know it does,) though not to the same ex-
tent as in Nor^-ay and Switzerland.

The prevcntive check is perhaps best measurcd
by the smallness of the proportion of yearly blrths
to the whole population. The proportion of year-
ly marriages to the population is only a just crite-
rion in countries similarly circumstanced, but is in-
correct, where therc is a di&rence in the prolific-
ness of marriages, or in the proportion of the po-
pulation under the agc of puberty, and in the rate
of increase. If all the marriages of a country, be
they few or many, take place young, and bc con-
sequently prolific, it is evident that to produce the
same proportion of births^ a sniallcr proportion of

Chap. IX. POPULATION. 27

On the fniitfulness of marriages.

marriages will be necessary ; or with the same
Proportion of marriages a greater proportion of
births unll be produced. This latter case seems
to be applicable lo France, where both the births
and deaths are greater than in Sweden, though the
proportion of marriages is nearly the same or rather
less. And when in two countries compared, (Mie
of them has a much greater part of its population
under the age of puberty than the other, it is evi-
dent, that any general proportion of the yearly
marriages to the whole population vtrill not imply
the same Operation of the preventive check among
those of a marriageable age.

It is in part the small proportion of the popu-
lation under the age of puberty, as wcU as the in-
fiux of strangers, that occasions in towns a greater
proportion of marriages than in the countiy, al-
though there can be litüe doubt that the preventive
check prevails most in towns. The conversc of
this will also be true, and consequentiy in such ^
country as America where half of the population
is under sixteen, the proportion of ycarly mar-
riages will not accurately exprcss how little the
preventive check really operates.

But on the supposition of nearly the same natu-
ral proli&cness in the women of most coun-

28 ESSAY ON Book U.

On the fruitfulness of marriages.

tries, the smaUness of the proportion of biiths
will generally indicate, witli tolerable exactness,
the degree in which the preventive check prevaib,
wfaether arisirig principally from late, and conae*
qtiently unproliiic marriages, or from a large pro-
portion of the population above the age of puber^
dying unmarried«

That die reader may see at once the rate of
increäse, and the perickl of doubling, which would
result from any obaenred proportion of birdis to
deaths, and of these to the whole populatiimi I
subjoin two tables from Sussmilch, calculated by
Euler, which I believe are very correct The
first is confined to the siipposition of a mortality
of 1 in 36, and therefore can only be applied to
countries where such a mortality is known to take
place. The other is general, depending solely
upon the proportion which the excess of the birtfas
above the burials bears to the whole population,
,and therefore may be applied universally to all
countries, whatever may be the degree of thcir
mortality«

It will be observed, that when the proportion
bctwcen the births and burials is givcn, the period
of doubling will be shorter, the greater the mortali-
ty ; because the births as well as deaths are in-

Chap. IX. POPULATION. 29

On the fhiitfiilncss of marriages.

creased by this supposition, and they both bear a
greater propcntion to the whole population than if
the moitality were smaller, and there were a greater
number of people in advanced life.

The mortality of Russia, according to Mr.
Tooke, IS 1 in 58y and the proportion of births 1
in 26. Allowing for the omissions in the burials,
if we assume the mortalitjr to be 1 in 52, then the
births will be to the deaths as 2 to 1, and the pro-
p(xtion which the excess of births bears to the
whc^ population will be i%. ' According to Table
n. the period of doubling will, in this case, be
about 36 years. But if we were to keep the pro-
portion of births to deaths as 2 to 1, and suppose
a mortality of 1 in 36, as in Table L the excess of
birdis above the burials would be ^V of the wholc
population, and the period of doubling would be
only 25 years.

' The proportions herc mentioned are diffcrent from
those which have been taken from the additional table in
Mr. Tooke*s second edition ; but they are assumed here
as morc easily and clearly illustrating the subject.

TABLE I.

Jfhen in any country t/iere are 100,000 pcrscnt
Sving^ and the mortality is 1 in 36.

Jf tbe proparikm
tfdeatb* to birtbt

to :<

If
13
13
U
15
16
IT
18
19
30
33
35
30

Tben tbe exeeu of
tUbaihtmallU

^77
555
833
1110
1388
1666
1943
3231
3499
3777
3333
4165

5554

ttaaeai

TTte Proportion of
tbe vxccss of ibc
biräH,totbe^ibole
popiUation, «<// 6e

360

1
1»0

ItO

Amd tberefore tbe
f^oä qf dcubimi
voiUbe

350 yean.
135

83|

632

50J

«0

J
• 1

35»

3»5

1
40

1
3«

2SÄ

1
30

31J

1
S4

1
• •

13?

TABLE II

The prapartian of
tbe exi£*i <^birth*
abone tbe deaibt,
to tbe xsbole
tbe tiving.

Feriod* ofdaMing
in yean, and ten
/ tbounmätb partM.

»=<(

10
II

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Tbe Proportion of
tbe ex Ceti ofbirtot
abom tbe /featbi,
'o tbe xjbole <jf tbr
itving.

7.2723

7.9659

8.6595

9.3530

10.0465

10.7400

11.4333

12.1266

12.8200

S 3.5 1 33

14.2066

^''<

'21

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Periodt ofdcuhii^
in yearst amd fcn
tböusandtb parte .

14.9000
15.5933
16.2864
16.9797
17.6739
18.3662
19.0594
19.7527
20.4458
2).i39!

XBH

TABLE II, (continued.)

httmctuofhiribt
*amt tU Jcaüu

Tbefroporuan uj
tUtxcmofbiriiM

in jcart, and tn

i'aiod.^JoMif

lti,<uboUoftbe

■.otbfabclco/iht

ilau^oBiUifianL

=Mr.

''™g-

'32

33.5333

'310

145.90T3

23.9119

320

153.8387

35.2983

330

159.7702

26.6847

340

165.7017

l 1

40
43

28.0711

SSO

173.6332

29.4574

1 ! -

360

180.5647

30.a43B

370

187.4961

33.3303

380

1^4.437$

33.6165

390

301.3590

35.0029

^300

303.3505

38.4587

^310

215.2230

41.9345

330

232.1535

45.4003

330

229.0850

43.tiä6I

340

336.016*

1 i •

52.3J18

350

343.9479

55.7977

I : -

360

249.879*

59.2634

370

256.HI03

62.7393

3 SO

2S3,742S

66.1950

390

270.6740

JOD

69.6607

.400

377.605*

llO

76.5933

"410

384.5S70

120

83.5330

420

391.4685

130

90.4554

430

298.4000

140

97.3868

440

305.331»

ISO

104.3183

450

312.3629

■'

160

111.2598

I :.

460

319.1943

170

IIB. 1613

470

336.1358

ISO

125.1128

480

333.0573

190

132.0443

490

339.9883

300

138.S7J7

^500

346.9203

J :

1000

693.4»

CHAPTER X.

EJJecU qfEpvdetmcs an Registers ofBirths^ Deaths^

and Mcarriages.

IT appears clearly, from the veiy valuaUe
taUes of mortality which Sussmilch has coUected,
and which include periods of 50 or 60 years, that
all the countries of Europe are subjcct to periodical
ackly seasonsy which check their increase ; and
veiy few are exempt from tfaose great and wasdng
plagues, wluch, once or twice, perhaps, in a cen»
tury, sweep off the third or fourth part of their in-
habitants. The way in which these periods of
mortality affcct all the general proportions of births,
deaths, and marriages, is strikingly illustrated in
the tables for Prussia and Lidiuania, from the year
1692 to the year 1757.'

^ Sussmilchy Göttliche Ordnungi toI. u table xxi« p« •3f
of the tables*

TABLE m.

iiiKBl Avenue

>„„.

.„.„..

DtATHi.

froponn.n
of murugcl
toLirlhi.

Pmporti™
biiths.

S/n. 1703
fjn. 1708

5747
6070

6oea

)y71ä

34113
26896

14862
14474

16430

10
10

lü

39
44

lOy : 133
lUO: 165
100:163

Iit7«9l(in0

.pbgliC

Numbtrd«

)eaii.

247733

In 1711
1» 1T13

1202S
6367

32522
225170

10131
ltH45

10 : 27
10 : 36

100:330
100:230

J yn. to 1716
«jn. 1731
5jn. 17»
i jt». 1731
♦ yn. 173i

4V6S
4334
4719
4t)U8
5434

31603
21396
21452
39554

32692

11984
12039
12863
12ffJS
15475

10
10
10
10
10

43
49
45
42
41

100. 180
100 r 177
100.166
100: 160
100: 146

In 1736
In 1737

5380
5765

31W5Ö
18930

26371
2448Ü

Epidemk
ynn.

S jn. to 1743
iWi. 1746
J jn. 1751
tjn. 17S6

5582
5169
6433
5599

22099
25275
28235

15255
15117
17373
19154

10 : 39
10 : 46
10 ! 43
10 : 5U

100; 144
100 : 167
100: 163
IU0:148

Intte l$r^M-

95589

380J16

245763

10 1 39

10: 154

UA6 jn. ibti
thipb««.

i48777

1083872

690334

10 : 43

100:157

In 6J Äood jn.

344561

146438«

936U8r

936087

10 - 43

100: 156

528301

5477

33977

347733

b*Uihe6tjn.
mdudh« tkc
pta««.

MOSSit

148836.->

ii&iü:o

1183820

10 : 43

100: 125

304745

34 ESSAY ON , Book IL

Effects of epidemica od registers

The table, from which this is copied, contains
the marriages, births, and deaths, for cveiy par-
ticular year duriiig the whole period ; but to bring
it into a smaller compass, I have retained only the
gencral average draivn from the shorter periods of
five and four years, cxcept where the numbers for
the individual years presented any fact worthy of
particular Observation. The year 1711, irnme»
diately succeeding the great plague, is not includ-
ed by Sussmilch in any general average ; but he
has given the particular numbers, and if they bc
accurate they show the very sudden and |)rodigious
effect of a great mortality on the number of mar-
riages«

Sussmilch caiculates that above one third of
the pcople was destroyed by the plague ; and yet,
notwitbstanding this great diminution of the popu •
lation, it will appear by a refcrcnce to the table,
that the number of marriages in the year 1711
was vcry nearly double the average of the six years
preceding the plague/ To produce this ef-

* The number of people bcforc the plague, accordin^
to Sussmilrh's calculation, (voK i. eh. ix. lect. 173.) wai
570,000 from which if we tubtracl 247,733, the number
dying: in the plague, the remainder 323,957 will be the
Population after the plague ; which, divided by the

Chap.X. POPULATION. 35

of birthSf deaths^ and marrluges*

fect we must suppose that almost all who were at
tbe age of puberty were induced, from the demand
fiar labor, and the number of vacant employments,
immediately to marry, This immtnse numbtr of
marriages in the year could not possibly be ac-
companicd by a great proportional number of
births, because we caanot suppose that the new
marriages coüld each yield more than one birth in
the y^ar, and the rest must come from the mar-
n^;es which had continued uiibroken through the
plague. We cannot thercfore be surprised that
the [H'oportion of births to marriages in this year
diould be only 2.7 to 1, or 27 to 10. But though
the Proportion of births to marriages could not be
great, yet on account of the extraordinarj' number
of marriages, the absolute number of births must
be great ; and as the number of deaths would na-
turaDy be small, the proportion of births tp deaths
is prodig^ous, being 320 to 100 ; an exeess of

Aamber of marriagc^s and the number of births for the
jt»r ITllyinakes the marriages about one twenty-sixth
part of the population, and the births about one tenth
pari« Such extraordinary proportions could oniy occur
in any country, in an individual year. If they were to
continue, thejr vould double the population in less thaf\
tcayears.

^ 3Ö ' ESSAY ON Book II,

Effects of epidemics on registers

birtlis as great, ix:rhaps, as has ever been known
in Amt rica.

In the next year, 1712, the numl^er of marri-
agcs must of course diminish exceeding^y, be-
cause, nearly all who were at the age of puberty
having married the year before, the marriages . of
ihis year would be supplied principally by thos^
who had arrivcd at this age« subsequent to the
plague, Still however, as all who were marriage-
able had not probably married the year before, the
number of marriages in the year 1712 is great in
proportion to the population ; and though not much
more than half of the number which took place
during the preceding year, is greater than the
avcrage number in the last period before the
plague. The proportion of births to marriages
in 1712, though greater than in the preceding year
on account of the smaller comparativc number of
marriages, is, with refercnce to other countries^
not great, being, as 3.6 to 1, or 36 to 10. But
the proportion of births to deaths, though less
than in the preceding year, when so very large ^
proportion of the people married, is, witli refer*
cncc to other countries, still unusually great, being
f(s 220 to 100 ; an excess of births which, calcu-
lated on a mortality of 1 in 36, would double tho

#'•

Chap. X POPULATION/ 57

X3B:

of birtbsy deaths, and marriagcs«

populaiiofi of a 4::ountry (acßording to Table L
page 30} in 21^ years.

From this period die number of annual mar-

riages t>cgins to be regulated by the diminished

pc^ulatioD, and of course to sink considcrabljr

below the average number of marriages before

the phgue^ depending principally on the number

of po^ons rising annually to a marriageable State»

In die ycar 1720, about nine or ten years after die

jdague, the number of annual marriages, either

bom accident, or the beginning operaüon of tfae

preventive check, is the smaliest ; and it is at this

time that the proportion of births to marriages

riscs veiy hig^ In the period from 1717 to 1721

the pn^xHtion, as appears .by the Table, is 49 to

10; and in the particular years 1719 and 1720, it

Is 50 to 10 and 55 to 10.

Sussmilch draws the attention of his readers to
the fruitfulness of marriages in Prussia after the
plague, and mentions the prc^ortion of 50 annual
births to 10 annual marriages as a proof of it.
Thae are the begt reasons, from the general
average, for supposing that the marriages in Prus-
sia at this time were very fruitful ; but certainly
the proportion of this individual ycar, or even pe-
riod, is not a sufficient proof of it, being cvidendy
caused by a smaller number of marriages taking

38 ESSAY ON Book II.

'Effects of epidemics on registers

place in the year^ and not by a greater number of
births. ' In the two years immediately succecd-
ing the plague, when the excess of births above
the deaths was so astonishing, the births bore a
small Proportion to the marriages, and according
to the usual mode of calculating, it would have
fidlowed that each marriage yietded only 2.7 or
3.6 children. In the last period of the table,
from 1752 to 1756, the births are to the marriages
as 5 to 1, and in the individual year 1756, as 6.1
to 1 ; and yet during this period, the births are to
the deatfis, only as li8 to 100, which could not
have been the case, if the high proportion of births
to marriages had indicated a much greater num^
her of births than usual, instead of a smallcr num-
her of marriages-

The variations in the proportion of births to
deaths, in the different periods of the 64 years
included in the table, deserve particular attention.
If we were to take an average of the four years
immediately sueeeeding the plague, the births
would be to the deaths in the proportion of above
22 to 10, which supposing the mortality to be 1 in

^ Sussmikh, Göttliche Ordnung, yoI. i. c. ▼• s. Ixxxti.
f. 17S.

aiap.X POPULATION. 3| ,

. I

of birthS) deaths, and marriages.

r, I I

36 would double the population in less than 2 1 years«
If we take the 20 years from 1711 to 1731, the
average proportion of the births to deaths will
appear to be about 17 to 10, a proporticm which
(according to Table I. page 30) would double the
population in about 35 years. But if instead of 20
years we were to take the whole period of 64 years,
die average proportion of births to deaths tums out
to be but a litde more than 12 to 10, a proporticm
wluch would not double the population in less than
125 years. If we were to include the mortality of
the plague, or even of the epidemic years 173&
and 1737, in too short a period, the deaths might
exceed the births, and the population would appear
to be decreasing.

Sussmildi think» that instead of 1 in 36, the
mortality in Prussia after the plague might be 1
in 38 ; and it may appear perhaps to some of my
readers, that the plenty occasioned by such an
event ought to make a still greater di&rence. Dr.
Short has particularly remarked that an extraordi-
nary healthiness generally succeeds any very great
mortality ; ^ and I have no doubt that the Observa-
tion is just comparing similar ages together. But

■I »

* History of air, seasons» &c. vol. ii. p. 344.

-ä:\i JN Book IL

.^.«t.ac^ m rcgistcrs

.-^ . ^ . aoic jircumstances, infants

. ^> .. ;: ucrc subjcct to death than

^.^. .u -x exuaordinary propor-

. ^^ . , . ..V .■ ->u^y foUows a very greai

.u \:r^ a first die natural healih-

^ . .k.. - M prtvenis it froin making
.itt^ v. . ..X pcnoral mortalit}'.

.... X xy,:'i:.Tion of Prussia after the

V . - .^. - xC tiv:,ihs in thc ycar 1711.

^ . V. . \-.. X -".rLtiity Avas ncarly 1 in 31,

. X . . V » X •. Jv vdi* d rathcr than diminishcd,

X ivv ^ ^v.> 5U!mbcr of children bom

A. :"".is greater mortality would

.> ^vii as ihesc children began to

V ^ >::»5^'s of life ; and ihen proba-

,»o>;.r\ ations woiild be just. In

, UV slull observe, that a great

V •s.wu> tHwluces a more sensible cffect

^ , .k«. lUii ».Kl ihe deaths. By refcrring

^ VW V • il 4^*ar, that the number of an-

.^Ä vs^*^^) increases with tlic increasing

. . V»« '^- icdrly keeps up thc samc relative

^^ *. iK *av through. But the number

,.. ^%f4> ?> n*^< ver)' different during thc

^ ^x, svi-h* in this tinic, the popuIatioTV

. A * ^vi^<^xi itself; and thcrcfore the

. -*^

i 1 r

Chap. X. POPULATION. 4\

of births, deaths^ and marriages.

————*—————————— ' """■

proportwn of births to the whöle popuIation, at
first, and at last, must have changed in an extra^
ordinary degree.

Ic Avill appear therefore how liable we shouM
be to err in assuming a given proportion of births
fi3r the purpose of estimating the past popuIation
of any country. In the present mstance it would
have led to the conclusion, that the popuIation
was scarcely diminished by the plague, although
firom the number of deaths . it was known to be
diminished one third.

Variations of the same kind, though not in the
aame degree, appear in the proportions of births,
deaths, and marriages, in all the tabies which Süss-
milch has collected ; and as writers on these sub-
jects have been loo apt to form calculations for
past and future times from the proportions of a
few yearS) it may be uöeful to ^w the attention
of the reader to a few more instances of such
variations.

In the churmark of Brandenburgh, ^ during
15 years ending with 1712, the proportion of
iHTths to deaths was neärly 17 to 10. For 6
years ending with 1718, the proportion sunk to

1 Sussmilch'si Gottliehe Ordnung, toi. i. Tabies, p« 38.
voL ii. g

Ü'--

42 ESSAY ON Book II.

Effects of epidemics ob registers

13 to 10; fo^ foüt years ending with 1752^ it was
only 11 to 10; and for 4 years ending with 1756,
12 to 10. For 3 years ending with 1759, thc
deaths vcry greatly exceeded the births. Thc
Proportion of the births to the whole population is
not given ; but it is not probable that the great
variations observable in tne proportion of birdis
to deaths should have arisen solely from the varia-
tions in the deaths. llie proporüon of births to
marriages is tolerably uniform, the extremes beii^
only 38 to 10, and 35 to 10, and the mean about
37 to 10. In thb table no very great epidemica
occur tili the 3 jrears beginning with 1757, and
beyond this period the lists are not continued.

In the dukedom of Pomerania,^ the average
proportion of births to deaths for 60 years from
169i to 1756 bodi included, was 138 to 100 ; but
in some of the periods of six years it was as high
as 177 to 100, and 155 to 100. In others it sunk
as low as 124 to 100, and 130 to 100. The ex-
tremes of the proportions of births to marriages
in the different periods of 5 and 6 years were 36
to 10, and 43 to 10, and the mean of the 60 years
about 38 to 10. Epidemie years appear to havc

* Siuunilch, vol. u Table», p. 91.

N. -43

: 1 niarriages«

•. hrcc of which the deaths

it this temporär}^ diminu-

iiiced no corresponding di-

md the two individual years

Litcst Proportion of marriages

occur, one the year after, and

rs after epidemics. The excess

wr was not great tili the 3 years

, 59, with which the table concludes.

: n : » rk of Brandciibu rgh, ' for 60 years

u) 1756 both included, the average

'. of births to deaths in the first 30 years

IG 100, in the last 30 years 127 to 100,

V Itolc 60 years 136 to 100. In some periods

; curs it was as high as 171 and 167 to 100«

ihers as low as 118 and 128 to 100, For 5

•

ivs ending with 1726, the yearly average of
' >irihs ^^-as 7012; for 5 years ending with 1746, it
IV as 6927 ; from which, judging by the births, we
might infer that the population liad decreased in
this inter^'al of 20 years ; but it appears from the
average proportion of births and deaths during
this period, that it must have considerably increas-
ed notwithstanding the intervention of some epi-

« Sussmikh's Gottliche Ordnung, vol. i. TahJes, p. 99.

U ESSAY ON Book II.

Effects of epidemics on registers

demic years. The proportion of births to the
whole population must therefore have decidcdly
changed. Another interval of 20 years in the
same table gives a similar result, both with regard
to the births aiid the marriages. The extremes of
the proportions of births to marriages are 34 to
10, and 42 to 10, and the mean about 38 to 10*
The 3 years beginning with 1757 were,as in the
other tables, very fatal years.

In the dukedom of Magdeburg^ during 64
years ending with 1756, 'the average proportion
of births to deaths was 123 to 100 ; in the first 28
years of the period 142 to 100, and in the last 34
years only 112 to 100; during one period of 5
years it was as high as 170 to 100, and in two pc-
riods the deaths exceeded the births. Slight
epidemics appear to be interspersed rather thickly
thronghout the table. In the two iiistances where
threc or four occur in successive years, and di-
minish the population, they are followed by an
incrcase of marriages and births. The extremes
of the proportions of births to marriages are 42
to lü, and 34 to 10, and the mean of the 64 years
39 to 10. On this table Sussmilch remarks, that

I SuMmilch, Tol. u Tablct, p. 103.

^Ol'rLATTOV. 45

. ■.•: <■'"«;. .\U\\ nic."riu'*'es.

< r.ii^'. iiiMsiher of dc:iihs shows an

uhitioij of onc third fiom 1715 or

■ it thc births and inarrhi^s woald

K- stationan' or even dcclininir. In

•s <*onclusion howevcr, he adds ilic

inic vears endinü: widi 1759, durir,!»;

() ihe marriages and births seeni to havc

principality of Ha!l>erstadt,* the avcragc

.iiin of births to dcaths for 68 years, ending

!756, was 124 to 100 ; but m soine pcriods

years it was as hip^h as 160 to 100, and in

js as low as 110 to 100. The incrcusc in the.

i'»le 68 years was considerablc, and yet for 5

»i's ending Wim 1723, the average numlK^r of

»irths was 2818, and for 4 years encling ivitli

^^50, 2628, from which it would apixar that tlic

Ppulation in 27 years had considerably diniinish-

^^'' A similar appearance occurs wiih reg-ard to

the inarriages, during a pcriod of 32 years. In

the 5 years ending with 1718, they wcre 727 ; in

the 5 years ending with 1750, 689. Diiri- g lx)th

the« periods the proportion of deaths would havc

shown a considerable increase. Epidcmics seeni

^ Sussmilch, vol. i. Tables, p. 108.

46 ESSAY ON Book IL

Effects of epidemics on registera

to have occurred frequently, and in almost all thc
instances in which they were such as for die deaths
to exceed die births, they were immediately suc-
ceeded by a more than usual proportion of mar-
riages, and in a few years by an increascd propor-
tion of births. The greatest number of marriages
in the whole table occurs in the year 1751, after
an epidemic in the year 1750, in which the deaths
had exceeded the births alx)ve one third, and thc
four or five foUowing years contain the largest
proportion of births. The extremes of the pro-
portions of births to marriages are 42 to lü, and
34 to 10, the mean of the 68 years 38 to 10.

The remaining tables contain >imilar results,
but these will be sufficient to show the variations
which are continually occurring in the proportions
of thc births and marriages as \vell as of the deaths,
to the whole population.

It will be observed that the least variable of the
proportions is that which the births and marriages
bear to each other, and the obvious reason is, that
this proportion ncarly expresses thc prolificness of
marriages, which will not of course be subject to
grcat changes. We can hardly indeed supposr
that thc prolificness of marriages should var}' so
much as the extremes which have been mentioncd.

Chap.X, POPULATION. 47

of births, deaths, and m^jriages.

Nor is it necessary that it should, as another cause
will contribute to produce the same effect. The
biiths which are contemporary with the marriages
of any particular year belong principally to marri-
ages which had taken plape some years before,
and therefore if for four or five years a largc pro-
portion of marriages were to take place, and then
accidentally for one or two years a small propor-
tion, the effect would be a lafge proportion of
births to marriages in the registers during thesc
cme or two years ; and on the contrary, if for four
or five years few marriages comparatively were to
take place, and then for one or two years a great
number, the effect would be a small proportion of
births to marriages in the registers» This was
strikingly illustrated in the table for Prussiaand
Lithuania, and would be confirmed by an inspec-
tion of all the other tables collected by Sussmilch,
in which it appears that the extreme proportions of
births to marriages are generally more affected by
die number of marriages dian the number of
births, and consequently arise more from the vari-
ations in the disposition or encouragement to ma*
trimony, than from the variations in the prolific-
fiess of marriages.
The common epidemical years that are inter-

48 ESSAY ON Book IL

VlflTectyf epidcmics on re^i^isters

spcrscd thrr.iiirhout these tables will not of course
ha VC the SciiiR* effccts on the marriages and births^
as ♦ho ^*at j^l if^ue in the table for Prussia ; but tu
pri;;M/rrk)n to their magnifudg^ their Operation wiU
in general bc found to be simHar. Frotn the regia*
ters of m-iriy ofher coiintries, and particubrly of
tOMTis, it appiMrs that the Visitation» of the plague
were frcquent at the Litter end of the 17th atid tht
bef^inning of the 18th ccnturies.

In conttm|)latin^ the plagues and sickly seasoni
which occur in thcse tables, after a period of ra{Hd
in(*aase, it is impossible not to be imprcssed with
thi' idc'i that the numixr of inhabitants had, in
%hv>.c ifistanccs, cxcc cded the food and the accom-
mo«li*tions ntcessarj to pix'scTve them in health. —
Thv milss of the jK-ople woiild, upon this supposi-
tiüii, bc oi>liged to live worse, ainl a greater num-
ber of them woiild Ixr crowdcd togcthcr in one
hoiisc ; and tlicsc natural causes Mould evidently
contribute to produce sickncbs, evcn though the
coiintry, abs^>lutely cousidered, might not bc
crowdetl md populous. In a coujitr)-, evcn ihinly
inhabited, if an increase of popul ition takc place
bcfore niore food is raised, and morc housi s are
built, t!u iiiliabitants must be diMix-sscd for room
and sut>sistence. If m the Highlands of Scotland«

Ckp. X. POPULATION. 49

of births, deaths, and marriages.
t

for thtr next ten or twelve years, the marriages
were to be either more frequent or more prolific,
and no emigration were to take place, instead of
five to a cottage, there might be seven, and this,
added to the necessity of worse living, would evi-
dendy have a most unfavorable effect cxi the health-
of the common people«

voL iL'

CHAPTER XI.

Generar deductions front the- preceding vicw of

Society.

TH AT the checks which havc bccn men-
tioned are the immediate causes of the slow in*
crease of population, and that these checks result
principally from an insufficiency of subsistencCy.
will be evident from the comparatively rapid m*
crease, which has invariably taken place whenever^
by some sudden enlargement in the means of sub*
sistence, these checks have been in any consider-
able degree rcmoved.

It has been univeraally remarked that all new
colonies settied in healthy countries, where room
and food were abundant, havc constandy made a
rapid progress in population. Many of the ccdo-
nies from ancient Greece, in the course of one or
two centuries, appear to have rivalled, and even
surpassed, their mother cities. Syracuse and A-
grigentum in Sicily ; Tarentum and Locri in Italy ;
Ephesus and Miletus in Lesser Asia ; were, by
all accounts, at Icast equal to any of the cities of

ESSAY ON, &?c. 51

General deductions from the> b'c.

ancient Greece. AU these colonies had establish-
ed tfiemselves in countries inhabited by savage and
faarbarous nations, which easily gave place to the
Bcw settlers, who had of course plenty of good
land« It is calculated that the Israelites, though
diey increased very slowly, while they were wan-
dering in the land of Canaan, on settling in a fertile
district of Eg3rpt doubled their numbers every fif-
teen yesffs during the whde period of their stay. i
But not to dwell on remote instances, the Euro-
pean Settlements in America bear ample testimony
ID die truth of a remark, that has never, I believe,
bcen doubted. Plenty of rieh land to be had for
little or nothing is so powerful a cause of popula-
tkm as generally to overcome all obstacles.

No Settlements could easily have been worse
managed dian those of Spain in Mexico, Peru, and
Quito. The tyranny, superstition, and vices of
the modier country were introduced in ample
quantities among her children. Exorbitant taxes
were exacted by the crown ; the most arbitrary re-
strictions were imposed on their trade ; and the
govemors were not behind band in rapacity and

'Sliort's New Obscrv.on Bills of MortalUy, p. 259, 8vo-
1750.

52 ESSAY ON Book iL

General deductions from the

extortion for themselves as well as their master.
Yet under all these difficulties, the colonies madc
a quick progress in population. The city of
Quito, whicfa was but a hamlet of Indians, is re*
presentcd by Ulloa as containing fifty or sixty
thousand inhabitants above fifty years ago. ' Lima,
which was founded since the conquest, is men-
^oned by the same author as equally or more
populous, before the fatal earthquake in 1746.
Mexico is said to contain a hundred thousand
inhabitants, which, notwithstanding the exaggcra-
tions of the Spanish writers, is supposed to be five
times greater than what it contained in the time of
Montezuma«

In the Portuguesc colony of Brazil, govemed
with almost ecjual tyranny, there were supposed
to be above thirty years ago six hundred thousand
inhabitants of European cxtraction.*

The Dutch and French colonies, though undcr
tlie govemment of exclusive companics of mer-
chants, which, as Dr. Smith justly observcs, is the

* Voy. d'Ulloa, tom. i. liv. v. eh. v. p. 229. <to. 1752.
? Smitirs Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. b. iv. eh. vii. p. 363.
? Id. p. 365.

Chap. XI. POPÜLA'nON. 53

preceding view of Society.

worst of all possible govemments, still persisted
in thriving under every disadvantage. *

But die English North American colonies, now
thc powerful people of die United States of Ame-
rica, far outstripped all ihe others, in the progress
of their population. To the quantity of rieh land
which they possessed in common with the Spanish
and Portuguese colonies, they addcd a greater
degree of liberty and ecjuality. Though not with-
out some restrictions on their foreign commerce,
they were allowed the liberty of managing their
own internal affairs. Thc political Institution»
which prevailed were favorable to the alienation
and division of property. Lands which were not
cultivated by the proprictor within a limited time
were declared grantable to any other person. In
Pennsylvania, therc was no right of primogeniture ;
and in the provinces of New England, the eldest
son had only a double share. Therc were no
tithes in any of the States, and scarcely any taxes.
And on account of die extreme cheapness of good
land, a capital coukl not be morc advantageously
employed than in agriculture, which at the same

J Id. p. 368, 369.

54 ESSAY ON BookU.

General deductions from the

time that it affords the greatest quantiQr of healthy
work supplies the most valuable produce to the
Society.

The consequence of these favorable circum-
stances united was a rapidity of increase almost
without parallel in histoiy. Throughout all the
northem provinces the population was found to
double itself in 25 years. The original number
of persons which had settled in the four provinces
of New England in 1643 was 21,200. After*
wards it was calculated that more left them than.
went to them. In the year 1760 they were in-
creased to half a million. They had therefore, all
along, doubled their number ia 25 years. In New
Jersey, the period of doubling appeared to be 22
Tcars ; and in Rhode Island still less. In the
back setdcments, whcre the inhabitants applied
themselves solely to agriculture, and luxury was
not known, they were supposed to double their
number in fifteen years. Along the sea coast,
which would naturally be first inhabited, the pe-
riod of doubling was about 35 years, and in some
of the maritime towns the population was abso-
lutelv at a stand. ^ From the late ccnsus made in

> Price's Obsenr. on Revers. Paym. vol. i. p« 38S, 383,

eh^. XI. POPULATION. 55

preceding view of Society.

meiica it sqppears, that taking all the States to«-
, they have still continued co double their
mimbers every 25 years ; and as. the whole popu-

«id Tol. ii. p. 360. I have lately had an opportunity of

^Dg some extracts from the sermon of Dr. Styles,

&om which Dr. Price has taken these facts« Speaking

of Rhode Island, Dr. Styles says, that though the period

of doubling for the whole colony ts 35 years, yet that it

» different in different parts» and within land is 30 and

15 years. The population of the five towns of Glouces-

^r, Situate, CoYentry, Westgreenwich, and Exeter, was

5033, A. D. 1748, and 6986, A. D. 1755 ; which implies

t period of doubling of 15 years only. He mentions

tfterwards that the county of Kent doubles in 30 years ;

•od the county of Providence in 18 years.

I haTc also latlSly seen a paper of Facta and calcidationa
nafiecsing the fiofiuiation qf ihe United Statea^ which make»
the period of doubling for the whole of the States, since
their firsi settlement, only 30 years. I know not of what
lathority this paper is ; but far as it goes üpon public
bctsandenumerations I should thinkthatit must be to be
depcnded on. One period is very striking. From a retum
to Coogress in 1783, the population appeared to be
M89,300, and in the censusof 1790, 4,000,000: increase
ia 9 years, 1,610,700 ; from which deduct ten thousand
per annum for European settlers, which will be 90,00O ;
md allow for their increase at 5 per cent. for 4} years,
which will be 30,350 : the remaining increase during
Uiose 9 years, from procreation only, will be 1,500,450,
which is very nearly 7c.^per cent ; and consequently the
period of doubling at this rate would be less than 16 years.
If this calculation for the whole population of the States

56 ESSAY OS Book IL

General deductions from the

lation is now so great as not bc matcrially affected
f)y the emigrations from Europe, and as it is
known, that in seine of the towns and districts
near tlie sea coast, the progress of popuIation has
bcen comparatively slow ; it is evident that, in the
interior of the coinitry in general, the period of
donhiing from procrcation only must have been
considerably less than 25 years.

The popubtion of the United States of America,
according to the late census, is 5,172,312. • Wc
hnvc no reason to believe that Great Britain is
less |)opulons at present, for the emigration of the
small parent stock which produced diese nunibers.
On tlie contrary, a ccrtain degrce of emigration is
known to Ix' fiivorable to the popuIation of the
mother cuuntr}'. It has l)een particularly rcmark-
ed that llie iwo Spanish provinccs, from whicli the

be in any deq^ree near the truth, it cannot bc doubtcd«
that in particular diHlricts the period ot (loublinj; from
procreation only has ofcen been less ihan 15 ycai*s. The
period immediatcly succeeding the war was likcly to be
a period of very rapid increa«e«

^ One small State is mentioned as being omitte d in
the renbus ; and I understand that the popuIation is ge-
nerali v ronsidered at above thia number. It is said to
apprnach towards 6,U()(),000. Hut such vague opinions
cannot of course be much relied on.

Chap. XI. POPULATION. 57

preceding view of Societ^i

greatest number of people emigrated to America,
became in consequence more populous.

Whatever was the original number of British e-
migrants which increased so fast in North Ameri-
ca; let US ask, Why does not an equal number
produce an equal increase in the same time in
Gfeat Britain ? T*he obvious reason to be assign
cd is the want of food ; and that this want is the
most efficient cause of the three immediate checks
to popuIation, which have been observed to pre-
Tail in all societies, is evident, from the rapidity
with which even old states recover the desolations
of war, pestilence, famine, and the convulsions of
nature. They are then for a short time placed a
fittle in the Situation of new colonies, and the
efl^ is alwajrs answerable to what might be ex-
pected. If the industry of Ae inhabitants be not
destroyed, subsistence will soon increase beyond
the wants of the reduced numbers ; and the inva-
riablc ccmsequence will be, that population, which
before perhaps was nearly stationary, will begin
tmmediateiy to increase, and will continue its pro-
gress tili the former population is recovered.

The fertile province of Flanders, which has been
so often the seat of the most destructive wars, after
a respite of a few years, has always appeared as
voL )k i

•-r >

Book 11

uie

kition ib 11"
F)V tliL- »I

known, i!i *
near tlu
beeil t<<r.
interior

co'.i>uK ' '

"I"

ilC(M)]<

h;!vr

Ol.

kii'

^(1

1-.

■ ■

. .-^. Tic undiminishcd

_jL.i ^a^ Jcibre been no-

-rt'iffty in point. The

.. < fiunual proofs of a ve-

^ -jL noftalities, and thc

. uiiiia, which I have in-

» »j:j£in thisrcspect. The

^ ^uc in London, in 1666,

: X rears aftenvards. —

^,» \jitdwr Turkevand E-

^ 'luci les-s populous for

..^^jil> iay ihem waste. If

*ta uwv contain hc consi-

^ .4iii«.r7 . it is rather to ht

^ ^. Uli opprcsbion of tlic go-

^^_ ^1^% ^Tüun, and the conse-

__,^ ,' ^icullure, than to thc

_^Mi \v ihe plague. Thc

.^«s i*^" Juinines in China, In-

..Ä^» ..'jautrics, are by all ac-

•otcd. and the niost tre-

•jiure, such as volcanic

X i they do not liap|x^u

irtav che inhabil;mib, or

i i Jiss vol.

Cha^Xi. POKJLATION. 5Ö

pneceding tifew 6f Soc1c»)r.

descrc^ ^difch- spiiit bf indusüy , have be«i födfnd tö
produce but a trifling effect on die average pöpfü-
hdoti oTany State.

It faas appeared from thetegisters öf difietoit

coimtries which have aftitady been pfoduced, diat

die p%jgfe<>s of thcir ptfiftdaticih is chccked by the

periodical, thöagh irregulär, returtis of plagues

and sickly seatons. l!>f. Short^ in hi$ c^ridus r^-

searches into biHs of tnoitality, often uses the ex-

pression of i" terrible cörtectives 'of the redtin-

Aance of tn^hkind ;^'^ ahd in a table of all the

plagues, pe^tilences, and fkmmes, of which he

cooU ecAect accöunts, i^oi^ Ihe constancy and

univeilssAty xX their operaftioh.

The epideniical yeaSrs in his table, <a the yeai^
in which the pbgue or some gi^at and wasting e-
pidemic prevailed, fbr smailer sickly seasons seem
M to be inchided, ate 431,* of which 32 weir
bcSore the Christian «ra. • If we tiividc thereforc
the years of the present jera by 399, it will appear
^ üic periodical retüms of !^üch epidemics, to
»öve country that we are acquaihted with, have

' New Observ. on Bills of Mortality, p. 96.
* Hist. of Air, Seasons, &c. vol. ü. p. 366«
Id. vol. iL p. 202.

6» ESSAY ON Book II.

General deductions from the

been on an average only at the interval of about 4|
years.

Of the 254 great famines and dearths enume*
rated in the table, 15 were before the Christian
«ra,^ beginning with that which occurred in Pales-
tine, in the time of Abraham. If subtracting these
15 we divide the years of the present aera by the re-
mainder, it will appear that the average intenral
between the visits of this dreadful scourge has
been only about 7i years.

How iar these " terrible corrcctives to the rc-
diindance of mankind" have been occasioned by
the too rapid increase of popuIation, b a point
which it would be very difficult to determine with
any degree of precision. The eauses of most of
our diseases appear to us to be so n^sterious, and
probably are really so various, that it would be
rashness to lay too much stress on any single one ;
but it will not perhaps be too much to say, that
among these eauses we ought certainly to rank
crowded houses, and insufficient or unwholesome
food» which are the natural consequences of an in-
crease of population faster than the accommoda-
tions of a country M'ith respect to habitatious and
food will allow.

* Hlst. of Alf) Scasoas, Sic vol. ii. p« 306.

•

Chap. XI. POPUIfATION. da

preceding view of Society.

Almost aU the histories of epidemics which wc
have, tend to confirm this suppösition^ by describ-
ing thetn in general as making their principal ra-
vages among the lower classes of people. In Dr.
Siort's tables this circumstance is frequently men-
tioned ;^ and it further appears that a very consi-
deraUe proportion of the epidfemic years either fol-
löwed or were accompanied by seasons of dearth
and bad food.* In other places he also mentions
great plagues as diminishing particularly the num-
bers of the lower cmt servile sort of people ; * and in
qpeaking of diferent diseases he obsenes, that
Üiose which are occasioned by bad and uiiwnole-
some food generally last the longest. ^

We know from constant experience, that fevers
are generated in our jails, our manufactories, our
ciowded WOTkhouses, and in the narrow and close
streets of our large towns ; all which situations ap.
pear to be similar in their effects to squalid pover-
ty : and we cannot doubt that causes of this kinc!,
aggravated in degree, contributed to the produc-

* Hist. of Air, Seasons, &c. vol. ii. p. 206. ej seq.
' Id. p. 206, et seq. and 336*
*New Observ. p. 125.
^ Id. p. 108.

62 ESSAY ON Book 11.

General deductions fVotn the

tion and prevalence of those grcat and wasling
pbg;ties formerly so common in Europe, but which
now, from die mitigation of diese causes, are cvery
where considerably abatcd, and in many places
appear to be completely extirpated.

Of the other great scourge of mankind, famine,
it may be observed, that it is not ui the nature of
things diat the increase of population should ab-
solutely produce one. This increase, though iti-
pid, is necessarily gradual; and as the human
frame cannot be supported, even for a very short
time without food, it is evident that no more hu-
man beings can grow up than there is provisioii
to maintain. But though the prineipie of popula.
tion cannot absolutely produce a famine, it prc-
pures the way for one in the most complete man-
her ; and by obliging all the lower classes of people
to subsist neariy on the smallest quantity of food
tliat will support life, tums evcn a slight deficicncy
from the failure of the seasons iiito a severe dearth ;
and may be &irly said therefore, to be one of the
princii^al causes of faminc. Aniong the signs of
an approaching dearth, Dr. Short mentions one or
niorc yc;fi^ of luxuriant crops togcther : ' and this

* Hibt« of Air» Seasonft» kc. vol. ü- p. 367.

Oup. XI. POPULATION. 63

preeeditig vkw of ScKriety.

Observation is probably just, as we know that the

geneial effect of years of cheapness and abundance

is to dispose a greater number of persons to marry,

and under such circumstances the retum to a year

merdjr of an average crop might produce a scarcity.

The small-pox which at present may be consU

dered as the most prevalent and fatal epidemic in

Europe, is of all others, perhaps, the most difBcult

to acoount fc»', diough the periods of its retum are

in many places regulär« ' Dr. Short observes, that

froitt die histories of this disorder it seems to have

veiy little dependence upon the past or present

Gonstitution of the weather or seasons, and that it

appears epidemically at all times, and in ^jl states

of die air, diough not so firequenüy in a hard frost

We know of no instances, I believe, of its being

deariy generated under any circumstances of situ-

aüeii. I do not mam therefore to insinuate that

poverty and crowded houses ever absolutely pro-

doced it ; bat Imay be allowed to remark, that in

those places where fis retums are regulär, and its

ravagesamong children, particularly among those

of the lower class, are considerable, it necessarily

foBows thal these circumstances, in a greater degree

1 Hiftt. oC Alt*, Scasonsy &c- vol. ii. p. 411.

64 ESSAY ON Book IL

General deduclions from the

than usual, must always precede and accompany
I its appearance ; that is, from the time of its last
visit^ the average number. of children will bc in-
creasing, the people will, in consequence, be grow-
ing poorer, and the houses will be more crowded
tili another visit retnoves this superabundant po-
pulation.

In all thrse cases, how little soever force wc
may be disposed to attribute to the eflSK:ts of the
principle of population in the actual production of
disorders, we cannot avoid allowing their force as
predisposing causes to the reception of contagion,
and as giving veiy great additional force to the
extensiveness and fatality of its ravages.

It is observed by Dr. Short that a severe mortal
epidemic is gcnerally succeeded by an uncommon
healthinchs, from die late distemper having carried
oflf most of die declining womout constitutions. '
It is probable, also, that another cause of it may
be the grcater plenty of room and foöd, and the
consec|ucntly meliorated condition of the lower
classes of the people. Sometimes, according to
Dr. Short, a very fruitful ycar is followcd by a
ver)' mortal and sickly one, and mortal ones often

' Hist. of Airt Seasont^ 8cc. toK ii. p. 344.

Qhap. XL POPULATION- 65

preceding view of Society.

succeeded by very fruitful, as though nature
sought cither to prevent or quickly repair the loss
by death. In generai the next year, after sickly
and mortal ones, is prolific in proportion to the
breeders left«^

This last effect we have seen most strikingly
exemplified in the table for Pnissia and Lithuania.'
And from this and other tables of Sussmilch it
also appears, that when the increasing produce
of a <x>untry, and the increasing demand for labor,
so &r meliorate the condition of the laborer, as
greatly to encourage marriage, the custom of early
marriages is generally continued tili the population
has gone beyond the increased produce, and sickly
seasons appear to be the natural and necessary
ccmsequence. The continental registers exhibit
many instances of rapid increase, interrupted in this
manner by mortal diseases, and the inference seems
to be, that those countries where sobsistence is
increasing sufficiently to encourage population,
but not to answer all its demands, will be more
subject to periodical epidemics than those where
the increase of population is more nearly accom-
modated to the average produce.

* New Observ, p. 1 9 1

* Page 33 of this vol.

vol. Ü. k

66 ESSAY ON Book ß,

General deductions from the

llie converse of this will of course be true. In
those countries which ure sul^ject to periodical
sicknc!>sesy the increase of popuIation, or the ex«
ccss of births above the dcaths, will be greater
in the intervals of these pcriods than is usual in
countries not so much subject to these diseases.
If Turkey and Eg)'pt have bcen nearly stationary
in their average population for the last Century,
in the intervals of their periodical plagues, the
births must liave exceeded the deaths in a much
greater proportion than in such countries as France
and England«

It is for these reasons that no estimates of future
population or dcpopulation, formed from any cxis-
ting rate of increase or decrease, can be depended
upon. Sir William Pctty calculated that in the
year 1800 the city of London woiild contain fivc
millions three hundn^d and iifty nine thousand* inha-
bitants, instead of which it does not now contain a
fifdi part of that number. And Mr. Eton has
latcly proj^hesied the extinction of the population of
the Tiirkish cmpire in another Century ;* an cvent
which will, as certainly, fail of taking place. If

» Political Arithmetic, p« IT.

^ Survcy of the Turkish Empire, c. vii. p. 381

Chap, XI. POPULATION. 67

preceding Tiew of Society.

America were to continue increasing at the same
rate as at present, fw the next 150 years, her po-
pulatioo would exceed the population of China ;
but though prophecies are dangerous I will ven-
ture to say, that such an increase will not take
place in that time, though it may perhaps in iive
or six hundred years.

Europe was, without doubt, formerly more

subject to plagues and wasting epidemics than at

present, and this will account, in great measure,

for the greater proportion of births to deatlis in

former times, mentioned by many authors, as it

has always been a common practice to estimate

these proportions from too short pcriods, and ge-

nerally to reject the years of plague as accidental.

The highest average proportion of births to

deaths in England may be considered as about 12

to 10, or 120 to 100. The proportion in France

for ten years, ending in 1780, was about 115 to

100.^ Though these proportions have undoubt-

edly varied at different periods during the last

Century, yet we have reason to think that they

have not varied in any very considerable degree ;

■ Necker de 1* Administration des Finances, tom. i. <
üu p* 335«

68 ESSAY ON Book 11.

General deductions frora the

and it will appear therefore, that the population of
France and England has accommodated itself
more nearly to the average produce of each coun-
try than many other states. The Operation of
the preventive check, wars, the silent thougfa
certain destruction of life in large towns and ma-
nu&ctories, and the close habitations and insuflSi-
cient food of many of the poor, prevent popula-
tion from outrunning the means of subsistence ;
and if I may use an expression, which certsünly at
first appears stränge, supersede the necessity of
great and ravaging epidemics to destroy what is
redundant. If a wasting plague were to sweep off
two millions in England, and six millions in
France, it cannot be doubtcd that aftcr the inha-
bitants had recovered from the dreadful shock, die
Proportion of births to deaths would risc much
above the usual average in either countr)* during
the last Century. *

In New Jersey the proportion of births to deaths
on an average of 7 years, ending 1743, was 300 tc
100. In France and England the highcst ave«
rage proportion caiuiot be reckoned at more ihan

I This remark has becn, to a certain dcgrec, vcrified o
late in France, by the increase of births which has taker
place since the reTolution*

Chap. XI. POPULATION. 69

precedlng view of Society«

120 to 100. Great and astonishing as this diffe-
rence is, we ought not to be so wonder-struck at
it, as to attribute it to the miraculous interpo^tion
of heaven. The causes of it are not remote, latent,
and mysterious, but near us, round about us, and
open to the investigation of eveiy inquiring mind.
It accords with the most liberal spirit of philosophy
to belicve, that not a stone can fall or plant rise
without the immediate agency of divine power.
But we know from experience, that these Opera-
tions of what we call nature have been conducted
almost invariably aecording to fixed laws. And
since the world began the causes of population and
depopulation have been probably as constant as
any of the laws of nature with which we are ac-
quainted.

The passion between the sexes has appeared in
cveiy age to be so nearly the same, that it may
always be considered, in algebraic language, as a
given quantity. The great law of necessity which
prevents population from increasing in any country
beyond the food which it can either produce or
acquire, is a law so open to our view, so obvious
and evident to our understandings that we cannot
for a moment doubt it. The different modes
which nature takes to repress a redundant popula-
tion, do not appear indeed to us so certain and re-

70 ESSAY ON Book II.

General deductions from the

gular ; but though we cannot always predict the
mode we may with certainty predict the fact. If
the Proportion of the births to the deaths for a few
years indicates an increase of numbers much be-
yond the proportional increased or acquired food
of the country, we may be perfectly certain, that
unlcss an emigration take place the deaths will
shortly exceed the births, and that the increase
that had been observed for a few years cannot
be the real average increase of the population of
the country. If there were no other depopulating
causes, and if the preventive check did not operate,
very strongly, cvery country would, without doubc,
be subject to periodical plagues and famines.

The only true criterion of a real and permanent
increase in the ix)pulation of any country is the
increase of the means of subsistencc. But evcn
this criterion is subject to some slight variations,
which however are completely open to our Obser-
vation. In some countries population seems to
havc been forced ; that is, the people have been ha-
bituatcd by degrees to live almost upon the small-
cst possible quantity of food. There must havc
Ixren periods in such countries when population in-
creased permanently without an increase in the
means of subsistence. China, India, and the coun-
tries posscssed by the Bedowccn Arabs, as we havc

ChapXL POPULATION. 71

preceding view of Society.

Seen in thc former part of this work, appear to an-
swer to this description. The average produce
of these countries seems to be but barely sufficient
to Support the lives of the inhabitants, and of course
any deficiency from the badness of the seasons
must be fatal* Nations in this State must neces-
sarily be subject to famines.

In America, where the reward of labor is at
present so liberal, the Iower classes might retrench
very considerably in a year of scarcity, without
materially distressing themselvcs. A famine there-
fore, seems to be almost impossible. It may be
expected that in the progress of the pppulation of
America the laborers will in time be much less
Uberally rewarded. The numbers will in tliis case
permanently increase without a proportional in-
crease in the means of subsistence.

In the difFerent countries of Europe there must
be some variations in the proportion of the num-
ber of inhabitants and the quantity of food con-
sumed, arising from the difFerent habits of living
which prevail in each State. The laborers of the
south of England are so accustomed to eat fine
wheaten bread, that they will suflFer themselves to
be half-starved before they will submit to live likc
the Scotch peasants«

12 ESSAY ON Book IL

General deductions from the

They might perhaps, in time, by the constant
Operation of the hard law of necessity, be reduced
to Hve even Hke the Iower classes of the Chinese,
and the country would then with the same quantiQr
of food Support a greater population. But to effect
tliis must always be a difficult, and every friend to
humanit} will hope, an abortive attempt.

I have mentioned some cases where population
may permanently increase, without a proportional
increasc in the means of subsistence. But it is
evident, that the Variation in diflferent states be-
tween the food and the numbers supported by h
is restrictcd to a limit, beyond which it cannot
pass. In evcry country the population of which
is not absohitcly decreasing, the food must be ne -
ccss;irily sufticicnt to support and to continue the
y racc of laborcrs.

Ol her circumstances bcing the samc it may be
aflirnied, tluit countries are populous according to
the quantity of human fcxxl which they produce^
or can acquirc ; and happy, according to the libe-
rnlity with which this food is dividcd, or the quanti-
ty which a day's labor will purchase. Com coun-
tries arc more populous than j)asture countries ;
and rice countries more |X)pulous tlian com coun-
tries. But their happiness does not depend cither
upon their being tliinly or fuUy inhabited, upon

Clu^. XL POPULATION. 73

preceding view of So^ety.

their poverty or their riches, their youth or their
age ; but on the proportion which the popuIation
and the food bear to each othen This proportion
is generaUy the most favorable in new colonies,
where the knowledge and industry of an old State
operate on the fertUe unappropriated land of a new
cne. In other cases the youth or the age of a
State is not, in this respect, of great importance.
It is probable that the food of Great Britain is di-
▼ided in more liberal shares to her inhabitants at
the present period, than it was two thousand, three
thousand, or four thousand years 2igo. And it
has appeared that the poor and thinly-inhabited
tracts of the Scotch Highlands are more distres-
sed by a redundant popuIation than the most po-
pulous parts of Europe«

If a country were never to be overrun by a peo-
ple more advanced in arts, but left to its ovtm na-
tural progress in civilization ; from the time that
its produce might be considered as a unit, to the
tiroe that it might be considered as a million, du-
ring the lapse of many thousand years, tljere would
not be a single period when the mass of the people
could be said to be free from distress, either di-
rectly or indirectly, for want of food. In every

State in Europe, since we have first had accounts
voL il 1

74 ESSAY ÖN Book IL

Genenl deductions from the

■ ■ ' ■

of it, millions and millions of human existences
have becn repressed from this simple cause,
thoiif^h perhaps ki some of these states an abso-
lute famine may never have been known.

Famine seems to be the last, the most dreadful
resource of nature. The power of population is
so superior to the power in the earth to produce
subsistence for man, ttiat unless arrested by the
preventive check, premature death must in some
shape or other visit the human race, The vioes
of mankind are active and able ministers of depo-
pulation. They are the precursors in the greal
army of destniction, and often finish the dreadfiil
work themselves. But should they feil in this
M'ar of extirmination, sickly scasons, epidemics,
pestilence, and plague, advancc in terrific array,
and swcep off their thousands and ten thousands.
Should success be still incomplcte, gigantic inevi-
table famine stalks in the rear, and at one mighty
blow Icvels the population with the food of the
World.

Must \\ not then be acknowledgcd, by an atten-
tive cxamincr of the histories of mankind, that in
cverj' age and in every State in wliich man has ex-
•istcd or docs now exist.

Ch^XI. POPULATION. 75

preceding view of SocSety«

The kicrease of population is necessarily limit- '
cd by the meaiis of subsistence :

Population invariably increases when tlie means
of subsistence increase, unless prevented by pow*
erful and obvious checks :

These checks, and the checks which keep the
populadcm down to the level of the means of sub-
sistencCy are moral restraint, vice, and miscry.

In comparmg the State of society which has
been considered in this second book with that
which fcnmed the subject of the first, I think it
a{^)ears that in modern Europe the positive chtcks
to populaticm prevail less, and the pre venti ve checks
more than in past times, and in the more uncivil-
ized parts of the world.

War, the predominant check to ^e population
of savage nations, has certainly abated, even in-
cluding the late unhappy revolutionary contests ;
and since the prevalence of a greater degree of
perscHial cleanliness, of better modes of Clearing
and building towns, and of a more equable distri-
bution of the products of the soil from improving
knowledge in political economy, plagues, violent
diseases, and famines, have been certainly miti-
gated, and have become less frequent.

With regard to the preventive check to popula-

76 ESSAY ON, 6?f.

General deductions from the, ^c«

tion, though it must be acknowledged, that that
branch of it which comes under the hcad of mord
restraint • does not at prescnt prevail much among^
the male part of society ; yet I am strongly dis-
posed to believe, that it prevails more than in thosc
States which were first considered; and it can
scarcely be doubted, that in modern Europe a
much larger proportion of women pass a consider-
able part of their lives in the exercise of this vir-
tue, than in past times and among uncivilized
nations. But-however this may be, if we consider
only the general term which implies principally
an infrequency of the marriage union from the
fear of a family, without reference to consequences,
it may be considered in this light as the most
powerful of the checks, which in modern Europe
keep down the population to the level of the means
of subsistence.

* The reader will recoUect the confined scnsc in which
I take this term*

ESSAY, &c.

BOOK III.

or THE DIFFSRSNT SYSTEMS OR EXPEOIENTS WHICH
RATE BEEW PROPOSEO OR HAVE PREVAILED IN SO-
CIETY, AS THEY AFFECT TUE EVILS ARISING
FROM THE PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION.

CHAPTER I.

Of Systems ofEquaHty. Wallace. Condorcct.

TO a person who views the past and prc-
sent States of mankind in the light in which they
have appeared in the two preceding books, it can-
not but be a matter of astonishment that all the
writers on the perfectability of man and of society,
who have noticed the argument of the principle of
population, treat it always very slightly, and inva-
riably represent the difficulties arising from it as at
a great and almost immeasurable distance. Even
Mr. Wallace, who thought the argument itself of

'8 ESSAY ON Booklir

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

SO much weight as to destroy his whole system of
equality, did not seem to be aware that any diffi-
culty uould arise from this cause tili the whde
earth had becn cultivatcd like a garden, and was
incapable of any further increase of produce.
Were this really the case, and were a beautiful
System of equality in other respects prac:ticahle, I
cannot think that our ardour in the pursuit of such
a scheine ought to be damped by the contcnipla-
tion of so remote a difficulty. An event at such
a distance might fairly be left to providence. But
the truth is, that if the view of the argument giv-
en in this essay be just, the difficulty, so far froui
being remote, would be imminent and immediate.
At every period during the progrcss of cultivation,
from the prescnt moment to the time when the
whole earth was become like a garden, tlie distress
for want of food would be constantly pressing on
all niankind if diey were equal« Though the pro-
duce of the earth would be increasing cvery ycar,
population would be tending to increase much fas-
ter, and the redundancy must necessarily be check-
cd by the periodical or constaQt action of monil
restraint, vice, or miscry.

M. Condorcet*s Esqtätse d^un tableau histo-
rique des progres de Pesprit humam ^'as nritttn, it

(7Äfl/>. /. POPULATION. 79

Of Systems of equality« Wallace« Condorcet.

is Said» under the pressure of that cruel proscrip-

äon which terminated in his death. If he had no

hopes of its being seen during his life, and of its

interesting France in his favor, it is a singuiar

instance of the attachment of a man to principles,

which every" day's' cxperience was so fatally for

himself contradicting. To see the human mind,

inone of the most enlightened nations of the world,

debased by such a fermentation of disgusting

passions, of fisar, cruelty, maüce, revenge, ambi-

tion, madness, and folly, as would have disgraced

the most savage nations in the most barbarous age,

mnst have been such a tremendous shock to his

idets of the necessary and inevitable progress of

die human mind, as nothing but the firmest con-

viction of the truth of his principles, in spite of all

^qypearances, could have withstood.

This posthumous publication is only a sketch
oT a much larger work which he proposed should
bc executed. It necessarily wants therefore that
detail and application, which can alone prove the
mith of any theory. A few observations will be
sufficient to show how completely this theory is
contradicted, when it is applied to the real and not
tö an imaginary State of things.

ao ESSAY ON Book IIL

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

In thc last division of the work, which treats of
thc futiire progress of man towards perfection, M.
Condorcet says, that comparing in thc difierent
civilized nations of Europe the actual population
with the extcnt of territory ; and observing their
cultivation, their industry, their divisions of labor,
and their means of subsistence, we shall see that
it would bc impossible to preserve the same means
of subsistence, and consequendy the same popu-
lation, without a number of individuals who have
no other means of supplying their wants than their
industry.

Having allowed the necessity of such a class of
men, and adverting afterwards to the precarious
revenue of those families that would depend so en-
tircly on the life and health of their chief,* he says
vcry justly, " Therc exists thcn a necessary cause
" of inequality , ofdependence,andeven of misery,
*^ which menaces without ceasing, the most nu-
** merous and active class of our societies." The
difficulty is just and well stated ; but his modc of

^ To savc lime and long quotationsi I shaU here g^re
the ftubsUnce of some of M* Condorcet's sentimentst and
I hope that I shall not misrepresent them ; but I rcfer the
reader to the work itself, which will amuse if it do not
convince bim.

Cfc^- /. POPULATION- ai

Of sjttems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

removing it will, I fear, be found totally ineffica-
cious.

By tbe application of calculations to the proba«-
bifities of life, and the interest of money, he pro-
poses that a fund should be established, which
fihould assur^ to the old an assistance produced
in pari by their own former savings, and in part
by the savings of individuals, who in making the
same sacrifice die before they reap the beif§fit of
it. The same or a similar fund should give assist«
ance to women and children who lose their hus-
faands or fathers ; and afford a capital to those who
were of an jge to found a new family, suf&cient
Ibr the development of their industry. These
cstablishments, he observes, might be made in
die name and under the protection of the sooiet}%
Going still further, he says, that by the just appli-
cation of calculations, means might be found of
aore completely preserving a State of equality, by
preventing credit from being the exclusive privi-
^;c of great fortunes, and yet giving it a basis
cqually solid, and by rendering the progress of
industry and the activity of commerce less depen-
dent on great capitalists.

Such establishments and calculations may ap-
pear very promising upon paper ; but whcn applied

8S ESSAY ON Book 111.

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

to real life they will be found to be absolutely nu-
gatory. M. Condorcet allows that a class of peo*
ple which maintains itself entirely by industry is
necessary to every State. Why does he allow
this ? No other reason can well be assigned, than
because he conceives that the labor, necessary to
procure subsistence for an extended population
will not be performed without the goad of neces-
sity« «4f by establishments upon the plans that
have bcen mentioned, this spur to industry be re-
moved ; if the idle and negligent be placed upon
the same footing with regard to their credit, and
the future support of their wives ai^ fiunilies, as
the active and industrious, can we expect to see
mcn exert that animated activity in bettering their
condition, which now forms the master- spring of
public prosperity ? If an inquisition were to be
established to examinc the claims of each indivi-
dual, and to dttcrmine whether he had or had not
exerted himself to the utmost, and to grant or re-
fuse assistance accordingly, this would be little
eise than a repetition upon a largcr scale of the
English poor laws, and would be completely
destructive of the true principles of liberty and
equality.

But indcpendently of this great ohjection to
these establishments, and supposing for a moment

€Ä^. /. POPULATION. 83

Of Systems of equality. Waiiace. CondorcA.

tfaat they would give no check to produclion, Ihe
greatest difficulty remains yet behind.

Wcre every man sure of a comförtable Provi-
sion for a &mily, almost every man would have
one ; and were the rising generation free from the
'< killing frost" of misery, population must increase
witfa unusual rapidity. Of this M. Condorcet
seems to be fully aware himself ; and after having
dcsciibed further improvements he says,

*^ But in this progress of industry and happi-
^ ness, each generation will be called to more
^ eztended enjoyments, and in consequence, by
" die physical^onstitution of the human frame, to
'^ an increase in the number of individuals. Must
^ Dol tfaere arrive a period thcn when these laws
^ cqpaSiy necessary shall counteract each other ;
^ when die increase of the numl^er of men surpas-
«< sing their means of subsistence, the necessary
^ resuk must be» either a contmual diminution of
'' haiqpiness and population — a movement truly
^ retrograde ; or at least a kind of osciilation be-
** tween good and evil? In societies arpivcd at
^ this term will not this osciUation be a constantiy
*' subsisting cause of periodical misery '? Will it
^ not mark the limit when all further melioration
^ will become inipossible, and point out that term
" to the perfectiliilit)' of the human race, whicli

84 ESSAY ON Book

#f Systems of eqpiality. Wallace. Condorcct.

** «t may reach in the course of ages, but can never
" pass ?" He tlien adds,

" There is no pers»on who does not acc how
^^ ven' distant such a period is from us. But shall
*' we ever arrive at it ? It is equally impossible
^^ to pronounce for or against the future realisatioR
'^ of an eventy which cannot take place but at an
** aera when the human race will have attained im-
^* provements of which we can at present scarcety
•* form a conception.'*

M. Condorcet's picture of what may be expect-
cd to happen when the number of men shall sur-
pass their- means of subsistence is jusdy drawiu
The oscillation which he describes will certainly
take place, and will without doubt be a constantly
subsisting cause of periodical misery. The.only
point in which I differ from M. Condorcet in thb
description is, with rcgard to the period when it
may be applied to the human race. M Condor«
cet thinks that it cannot possibly be applicable, but
at an aera extrcmcly distant If the proportion
betweea the natural increase of population and
food, which u*as stated in the beginning of this
cssay, and which has rcceived considcrable confir-
mation from the povert)' that has been found to
prcvail in evcrj- stage and department of human
Society, l>e in any degree ncar the truth, it wiO

Chap,L POPULATION. •*' 85

Of Systems of equality. Waljace. Condorcet.

■ II r , ■ ■ ■

•

appear on the contrary that the period when thc
number of men suqiasses their means of subsist-
cnce has long since aitived ; and that this necessary
osciDation, this constantly subsisting cause of pe-
riodical misery, has existed ever since we have
Kad any histories of mankind, and continues to
cxist at the present moment.

M. Condorcet ho\^Tver gfoes on to say, that

should the period which he conceives to be so

distant ever arrive, the human race, and the ad-

vocates of the perfectibility of man, need not be

alänned at it. He then proceeds to rcmove the

difficulty in a manner which I profess not to un-

derstand. Having observed that the ridiculous

prejudices of superstition would by that time have

ceased to throw over morals a corrupt and degra-

db^ austerity, he alUides either to a promiscuous

concubinage which would prevent breeding, or to

something eise as unnaturah To remove the dif-

ficuhy in this way will surely, in the opinion of

most men, be to destroy that virtue and purity of

maimers which the advocates of equality, and of

die perfectibility of man, profess to be the end

and object of their views.

Xhe last questioii which M. Condorcet propo-
ses fiM" examination is, the organic perfectibility of

«6 •'• ESSAY ON Book 111.

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcel.

man. He observes, thaf if the proofs which have
been alrcady given, and which, in their develop-
ment, will reccive greatcr Force in thc w(h4c itself,
are suf&cient to establish the indefinite perfectibili-
t^ of man, upon the supposition of the same natu-
ral faculties and the same Organization which hc
has at present ; wliat will be the certainty, what
the extent of our hopes, if this Organization, these
natural faculties themselves, be ^usceptible of me-
lioration ?

From the improvement of medicine ; from the
use of more wholesome food and habitations ;
from a manner of living, which will improve the
strength of the body by exercise without impair-
ing it by excess ; from the destruction of the two
grcat causcs of the degradation of man, misery,
and too great riches ; from the gradual rcmoval of
transmissible and contagious disorders by the im-
provement of physical knowledge, rendercd more
efficacious by the progress of reason aud of social
Order ; he infers, that though man will not abso-
lutely become immortal, yet that thc duration be-
tween his birth and natural death will increasc
without ceasing, will have no assignable term, and
may properly be expressed by the word indefinite.
He tlien dcfines this word to mean either a con*
stant approach to an unlimited extent without e ver

Chap.I. POPULATION. * 87

■,\

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

reaching it ; or an increase in the immensity of
aggs to an eztent greater than any assignable quan-
titjr.

But surely the application of this term in either
0f these seiises to the duration of human life is in
die highest degree unphilosophical, and totally un-
wairanted by any appearances in the laws of na-
ture. Variations fh)m different causes are essen-
tially dbtinct firom a regulär and unretrograde in-
crease. The average duration of human life will
to a certsun degree vary from healthy or unhealthy
dimales, from wholesome or unwholesome food,
from virtuous or vicious manners, and other cau-
«CS ; but it may be fairly doubted whether there
las been realiy the smallest perceptible advance
Vi the natural duration of human life since first we
IkkI any authentic history of man. The prejudi-
ces of all ages have indeed been directly contrar}'
to tiib supposition ; and though I would not lay
ouich stress upon these prejudices, they will in
somc. neasure tend to prove, that there has been
oo iflUited advance in an opposite direction.

;. -r It may perhaps be said that the world is yct so
youi^, so completely in its infancy, that it ought
BOC to be expected that any difference should ap-
pcar so soon.

l If tlus be the case, there is at once an end of all

f..
t

88 ESSAY ON Book lU.

Of Systems of equality. WalUce. CondorceU

human science. The whole train of reasonings
from cSects to causes will be destroyed. ^c
may shut our eyes to the book of nature, as it will
no longer be of any use to read it The wiklest
and most improbable conjectures may be advan*
ced with as much certainty as the most just and
sublime theories, founded on careful and reiterated
experiments. We may retum again to the dd
mode of philosophising, and make fiicts bend to
Systems, instead of establishing Systems upon
facts. The grand and consistent theory of New-
ton will be placed upon the same footing as the
wild and eecentric h)rpothe^ (rf* Descartes. U
Short, if the laws of nature be thus fickle and in*
constant ; if it can be affirmed and be believed that
they will change, when for agcs and ages they havc
appeared immutable, the human mind will no
longer have any incitements to inquiry, but must
remain fixed in inactive torpor, or amuse itself
only in bewildering dreams and extravagant Euu
cics.

The constancy of the laws of nature and of ef-
fbcts and causes is the foundation of all human
knowledge ; and if without any previous obscrva*
blc Symptoms or indications of a change we can
infer that a change will takc place, we may as well

Chap.L POPULATION. 89

Ofsf Sterns of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

make any assertion what(rvtr, and think it as un-
reasonable to be contradicted, in afiirming that
the moon will come in contact with the earth to-
morrow, as in saying that the sun will rise at its
appointed time.

With regard tö the duration of human life there
does not appear to have existed, from the earliest
ages of the world to the present moment, the
smaUest permanent Symptom or indicätion cf in-
creasing Prolongation« The observable effects >f
dimate, habit, diet, and other causes, on length of
fifc, have furnished the pretext for asserting its
indefinite extension ; and the sandy foundation on
ivfaich the ai^ment rests is^ that because the limit
of human life is undefined, because you cannot
mark its precise term, and say so far exactly shall
it go, and no further^ therefore its extent may in-
crease for ever, and be properly termed indefinite
er unlimited. But the fallacy and absurdity of
this argument will sufficiendy appear from a slighl
cxamination of what M. Condorcet calls the or-
ganic perfectability or degeneration of the race of
plants and animals, which, he says, may be re-
garded as one of the general laws of nature.

I have been told, that it is a maxim among
9ome öf the improvers of cattle that you may
voU ii. n

90 FSSAY ON Btwk IH,

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

breed to any degree of nicety you please ; and
they fotind this maxim upon another, which is,
that some of the oflTspring will possess thc dcsi-
rable qiialities of the parents in a greater degree.
In the famous Leicestershirc breed of sheep; the
object is to procure them with small heads and
small legs« Proceeding upon these breeding
maxims it is evident, that we might go on tili the
heuds and legs were evanescent quantities ; but
this is so palpable an absurdity, that we may be
quite sure that the premises are not just, and that
thcre really is a limit, though ive cannot see it or say
exactiy where it is. In tWs case the point of tKe
greatest degree of improvcment, or the smallest
size of the head and legs may Ix? s:\id to be un-
defined ; but this is very diffen^nt from unlimitcd,
or from uidcflnite, in M. Condorcet's acccptation
of the term. Though I may not Ixi able in die
present instancc to mark die limit at which fur-
ther improvement will stop, I can wry easily men-
tion a point at which it will not arrivc. I should
not scruplc to assert, that were the breeding to
continue for ever, the heads and legs of thcsc
shcep would ncvcr l>e so small as the head and
legs of a rat.

It cannot be true tlKTefore, that among aninvils

Chap. I. POPULATION. 91

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

some of the ofFspring will possess the dcsirable
qualities of the parents in a greater degree ; or
that animals are indefinitely perfectible.

The progress of a wild plant to a beautiful gar.
den flower is perliaps more marked and striking
than any thing that takes place among animals ;
yet even here it would be the height of absurdity
to assert, that the progress was unlimited or inde-
finite. One of the niost obvious features of the
improvement is the increase of size. The flower
has grown gradually largcr by cultivation. If the
progress were really unlimited it might bc increas-
cd ad infinitum ; but this is so gross an absurdity
that WC may be quite sure, that among plants as
well as among animals there is a limit to iniprove-
ment^though we do not cxactly know where it is.
It is probable that the gardeners who contcnd for
flower prizes liave often applied strongcr drcssing
wilhout success. At the same tinie it would be
highly presumptuous in any man to say, that he
had seen the finest camation or anemone tliat could
ever be made to grow. He might ho\ve\ er assert
without the smallcst chancc of being contradicted
bv a future fact, that no camation or ancnionc
could ever by cultivation be incrcased to the sizt*
of a largt- cabbage ; and yct iherc arc assignablc
c{uantities greater than a cabbage. No man ca;i

92 ESSAY ON Book 121.

Or Systems of equality. Wallace« Condorcet.

say that hc has secn the largest ear of wheat, or
the largest oak that could ever grow ; but he might
casily, and with perfect certainty, name a point of
magnitude at which they would not arrive* In all
these cascs tficrclore, a careful distinction should
be made l>etween an ualimited pn^ess and a
progress where the limit ib merely undcfined.

It will be Said pcrliaps, that the reason why
plants and animals cannot increase indefinitely ia
size is, tliat they would fall by thcir own weight. I
answcr, how do wc know this but from experience t
From cxixirience of the degree of strength with
which diese bodies are formed. I know that a
camutiou long beforc it reachcd the size of a cab-
bagv would iiot Ix; supported by its stalk ; but I
only know düs from my cxjKTiencc of the weak-
ness and want of tciuicitv in the inaterials of a car-

nation stalk. Thcre might bc substanccs of tlic
same size tliat would support as largc a head as a
cabbage.

The reasons of the mortality of plants are at
prcscnt (Krrfcctly unknown to us. No man caR
say why such a plant is annual, another biennial,
and another cndures for agcs. The whole aflair
in all diese cascs, in plants, animals, and in the
human acc, is an aflair of experience ; and I only
coficlude üiat a man is monal, bccause Uic invari*

Chap. h POPULATION. 93

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Condorcet.

able experience of all ages ha3 proved the morta-
lity of those materials of which this visible body
is made,

*' What can we reuon but from what we know ?"

Sound philosophy will not authorise me to alter
diis (^inion of the mortality of man on earth tili
it can be clearly proved, that the human race has
made, and is making, a decided progress towards
an illimitable extent of life. And the chief reason
why I addueed the two parcicular instances from
animals and plants was to expose and illustrate, if
I could, the fallacy of that argument which infers
an unlin^ited progress, merely because some par-
tial improvement has taken place, and that the limit
of this improvement cannot be precisely ascertained,

The oapacity of improvement in plants and ani-
mals, to a certain degree, no ])erson can possibly
doubt« A clear and decided progress has already
becn made ; and yet I think it appears that it would
be highly absurd to say that this progress has no
fimits. In human life, though there arc great va-
rktkuis from different causes, it may be doubted
wfaether since the world began any oi^anic im-
provement whatever of the human Frame can be
clearly ascertained. The foundations therefore^
on which the ai^ments for the organic perfecli-
bility of man rest, are unusually weak, and cati

94 ESSAY ON Book III.

Of Systems of equality« Wallace. CondorceU

only \yc coiisidercd as mere conjecturcs. It does
not however by any means seem impossible, that
by an attention to breed^ a ccrtain dcgree of im-
provement similar to that among animals might
take place among men. Whether intellect could
bc communicalcd may be a matter of doubt ; but
size, strengthy beaiity, compkxion, and perhaps
cvcn longevitj-, are in a dcgree transmissible. The
error does not seem to lic in supposing a small de»
gi*ce of improvement possiblc^ but in not discri*
minating between a small improvement, the limit
ol* which is undefmed, and an improvement really
uiilimited. As the hiunan race however could
not be improvcd in this \va)', without condcmning
all the bad spccimen^ to celiliacy, it is not proljablc
Uiat an attention to I)rced sImhiUI cvcr iKConie ge-
neral ; indceil I know of no wcll-dircctccl attempts
of this kiiKl except in tlK* ancicut family of tht
Bickerstafis, wlio arc said to ha\c Ikch vcr\- stic-
rtssful in u hitening the sk ins and incrcasing the
hei^ht of tlicir racc by pnulent marriaj^s, parti-
cularlv bv thiit ver\' judicions crass with Maud
the milk-nmi'l, by which somc cajntal dcfccts ia
the eonstitutions of the faiuih u ere <;orreeted.

It will not l)e necessary, I think, in nrder nmrc
CDmpletely to show the miprobabilily of any ap-
pr<Kich \\\ man towards immortality on eailh, lü

Chap.L POPULATION. «5

Of sfstems of eqnality« Wallacc. Condorcet.

ui^ the very great additional weight that an in-
crease in the duration of life would give to the ar-
gument of popuIation.

M. Condorcet*s book may be considered not
only as a sketch of the opinions of a celebrated
individual, but of many of the literary men in
France at the beginning of the revolutioii. As
such, though merely a sketch, it seems worthy of
attention.

Many^ I doubt not, will think that the attemp-
^ng gravely to controvert so absurd a paradox as
die immortality of man on eartli, or indeed even
die perfectibility of man and society, is a waste of
time and words ; and that such unfounded con-
jectures are best answered by neglecL I profess,
however, to be of a different opbiion, When pa-
tadoxes of this kind are advanced by ingenious
»d able men, neglect Iias no tendency to convincc
diem of their mistakes. Priding themselvcs on
what they conceive to be a mark of the reach and
9ze of their o\vn understandings, of the extent
and comprehensiveness of their views; they will
iDok upoQ this neglect merely as an indication of
fioverty and narrowness in the mental exertions of
dieir contemporaries ; and only think, that the
«orid is not yet prcj^ared to reccivc their sublime

On the contrary, a candid invcstjgation of diese

96 ESSAY ON, i!?c.

Of Systems of equality. Wallace. Coodorcet.

subjects, accompanicd witli a perfect readiness to
adopt any theory warrantcd by soünd philosophy,
may have a tendcncy to convince them, that in
forming improbable and unfounded hypotheses, so
ihr from eiilarging tlie bounds of human science,
they are contracting it ; so far from promoting the
improvement of the human mind, they are ob-
structing it : they are throwing us back again al-
most into the infancy of knowledge ; and weak*
ening tlie foundations of that mode of phSosophi-
sing under the auspices of which science has of
latc made such rapid advances. The late rage fbr
ivide and imrestrained speculation seems to have
been a kind of mental intoxication, arising perhaps
Crom the grcat and unexpccted discovcries which
had been made in various branclies of science. To
mcn elatc and giddy with such succcsises, every
thing appcared to bc within die grasp of humaa
poH'crs ; and under this illusion they confounded ,
subjects whcrc no real progrcss could be proved^
with those where the progrcss had been marked^
ccrtain^ and acknowledgtd. Could they be per-
suaded to sol)er themselves h iUi a litde severe and
chastised thinking they would see» that the cause ^ '
of tnith and of sound philosophy cannot but suflfer -
by sul)stituting wild flights and imsupported as-,^
aertions, for patient investigation and wcU authcn* '^
ticated proofs.

CHAPTER IL

Of Systems of Equolity. Godwin.

IN reading Mn Godwin's ingenious work
on political justice, it is impossible not to be
Struck . with the spirit and energy of his st}'le, the
force and prccision of some of his reasonings, the
ardcnt tone of his thoughts, and particularly with
tbat impressive eamestness of manner which gives
an 2ur of truth to the whole* At the same time it
must be confessed that he has not proceeded in his
inquiries with the caution diat sound philosophy
requires. His conclusions are often unwarranted
hj his premises. He fails sometimes in removing
objections which he himself brings for^vard. He
relies too much on general and abstract proposK
tioDS which will not admit of application. And
ins conjectures certainly far outstrip the modestj-
ofnature.

The System of equality which Mr. Godwin
proposes is, on a first vicw, die most beaiitiful
and eng^ng of any that has yct appcarcd. A
voL ii. <»

98 ESSAY ON Book Ul.

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

melioration of society to be produced merely by
reason and conviction gives more promise of per-
manence than any chan^ effected and maintained
by force. The unlimited exercise of private judg-
ment is a doctrine grand and captivating, and has
a vast superiority over those Systems, where evciy
individual is in a manner the slave of the puUic
The Substitution of benevolence, as the master-
spring and moving principle of society, instead of
self-love, appears at first sight to be a consumma*
tion devoutly to be wished* In short, it is impos-
sible to contemplate the whole of this fiur picture
idthout emotions of delight and admiraticxi, ac-
companied with an ardent longing for the period
of its accomplishment. But alas ! that moment
can never arrivc. ITie wholc is little better than
a drcam — a phantom of the imapfination. These
** gorgeous palaces" of huppiness and immortality,
thesc " solcmn temples'' of truth and virtue, will
dissolve, " like the bascless fabric of a vision,"
whcn we awaken to real life, and contemplate the
genuine Situation of man on earth.

Mr. Godurin, at tlic conchision of the tliird
chapter of his eighth book, spcakiug of {)opulation,
says, " Therc is a principle in human society
*^ by which popukition is iKrpetually kept doun

<yup. IL POPULATION. 99

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

** tothe levelofthe means of subsistence. Thus,
•• among the wandering. tribes of America and
" Asia we never find, through the lapse of ages,
^ that population has so increased as to render ne-
"cessaiy the cultivation of the earth."' This
piinciple which Mr. Godwin thus mentions as
some mysterious and occult cause, and which he
does not attempt to investigate, has appeared to be
the grinding law of necessity — misery, and the
üar of misery.

The great error under which Mr. Godwin la-

bors througfaout his whole work is, the attributing

of almöst all the vices and misery that prevail in

cml Society to human institutions. Political re-

giilations, and the established administration of

property, are, with him, the fruitful sources of all

evil, the hotbeds of all the crimes that degrade

mankind. Were this really a true State of the case,

it would not seem an absolutely hopeless task to

reraove evil completely firom the worid ; and rea-

SOD seems to be the proper and adequate instru-

mcnt for effecting so great a purpose. But the

tnith is, that though human institutions appear to

be the obvious and obtrusivc causes of mucli

• Page 460, 8vo. 9d edU,

100 ESSAY ON Book in.

Of Systems of equality. Godwiiii

mischicf to mankind, thcy are, in rcality, light and
superficial, in comparison with those decpcr-seat-
cd causes of cvil which rcsult from thc laws of na-
ture.

In a chaptcr on the bcncfits attendant upon a

System of equality, Mr. God\^in says, " Thc

" spirit of oppression, the spirit of scrvility, and

" the spirit of fraud, these ate the immediate

" p^wth of thc established administration of pro-

** perty. They are alike hostile to intenectual im-

*• provement. The other vices of envy, malice,

*^ and revenge, are their inseparable companions.

" In a State of societ>' where men lived in thc

" midst of plenty, and where all shared alike thc

" boiintics of nature, thesc scntimcnts would in-

** cvitably expire. The narrow principle of sei.

** fishncss would vanish. No man bcinfsj obligcd

to guard his little storc, or provide with anxicty

and pain for his restless u'ants, cach would lose

** his individual existence in the thought of thc

" gcneral good* No man would be an enemy to

" his neighbors, for they would have no subject

" of contention ; and of conscqucncc philanthropy

** would resumc the cmpire which reason assigns

" her. Mind would bc dclivered from her per-

*< pctual anxicty about corporal support ; and free

Oiap. IL POPULATION. lOl

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

"to expatiate in the field of thought which is
** congenial to her, £ach would assist the iu-
'^quiries of alU"'

Tlüs would indeed be a happy State. But that
it is merely an imaginary pictiire with scarcely a
feature near the truth, the reader, I am afraid, is
aiready too well convinced.

Man cannot live in the midst of plcnty. All

G&uiot sharc alike the bounties of nature. Were

tliere no established administration of property

cveiy man would be obliged to guard with force

his lirtle store. Selfishness would be triumphant.

The subjects of contention would be perpetual.

Every individual would be under a constant anxi-

e^ about corporal support, and not a single in-

tellect would be left free to expatiate in the field

of thought.

How littlc Mr. Godwin has tumed his attention
to the real State of human society will sufficiently
appear, finom the manner in which he endeavors
10 remove the difficulty of an ovcrcharged popu-
pulation. He says, '^ The obvious answer to this
** objection is, that to reason thus is to foresee dif-
" iiculties at a great distancc. Thrce fourths of

^ Political Justice, b. viii. c« lii. p. 458.

102 BSSAY ON Book in.

Of Systems of equality« Godwio.

the habitablc globe are now uncultivated. The

parts already cultivatcd are capable of immea-
" surable improvcment. Myriads of centuries crf
'^ still increasing popuIation may pass away, and
** the carth be still found sufHcicnt for the subsist*
" ence of its inhabitants." '

I have already pointcd out the error of suppos-
ing that no distress or difficulty would arisc from
a redundant popuIation, before the earth absolute-
ly refused to produce anj' morc. But let us im-
agine for a moment Mr. Godvvin's System of
equality realized in its utmost extent, and see how
soon this diffici^lty might be expected to (»ress,
undcr so perfect a form of society. A theory
that will not admit of application cannot possibly
be just.

Let US supposc all the causes of vice and mi-
ser}' in tiiis island rcmovcd. War and contcn-
tion cease. Unwholesome trades and manufuc-
tories do not exist. Crowds no longer collect
togcther in great and pestilent cities for pur-
poses of court intrigue, of commerce, and vicious
gratification. Simple, heaUhy, and rational amusc-
ments take place of drinking, gaming, and de-

* Politictl Jutticei b. viii. c« ix. p. 5 10.

Chap. IL POPULATION. 103

Of Systems of eq'uality. Godwin.

bauchery. There are no tovvns sufficiently large
to have any prejudicial effects on the human Con-
stitution. The greater part of the happy inhabitants
of this terrestrial paradise live in hamlets and
6rm houses scattered over the face of the country.
All men are equal. The labors of luxury are at
an end ; and the necessary labors of agriculture
are shared amicably among all. The number of
persons and the produce of the island we suppose
to be the same as at present. The spirit of bene-
Toience guided by impartial justice will divide
this produce among all the members of society
accordbg to their wants. Though it would be
impossible that they should all have animal food
cvciy day, yet vegetable food, with meat occa-
sionally, would satisfy the desires of a frugal
people, and would bc sufBcient to preserve them
io health, strength, and spirits.

Mr. Godwin considers marriage as a fraud and
a monopoly. ' Let us suppose the commerce of
the sexes established upon principles of the most
perfect freedom. Mr. Godwin does not diink
himself that tliis freedom would Icad to a promis-
cuous intercourse ; und ia this I perfccdy agrec

» Polittcal Justice) b. viii, c. viii. p. 498 et »cq.

104 ESSAY ON HookUI.

Of Systems of cquality, Godwin.

with him. The love of variety is a vicious, cor-
rupt, and unnatural taste, and could not prevail
in any great degree in a simple and virtuous State
of Society. Each man would probably select for
himself a partner to whom he would adhere, as
long as that adherence continued to be the choioe
of both parties. It would be of little consequenoep
according to Mn Godwin, how many chiidren a
woman had, or to whom they belonged. Provi-
sions and assistance would spontaneously flo#
from the quarter in which they abounded to the
quarter in which they were deiicient ' And cvay
man according to his capacity would be ready ti>
fumish instruction to the rising generation.

I cannot conceive a form of society so favorable
upon the whole to population. Tlie irremcdiable*
ncss of marriage, as it is at prcsent constituted,
undoubtcdly deters many from entering into this
State. An unshackled intercoursc on tlie contrary
would bc a most powerful incitement to carly at*
tachmcnts ; and as we are supposing no anxiety
about the futurc support of chiidren to cxist, I do
not conceive that there would be one woman in a

* Political Justice, h. viii. c. viii. p. 504.

fSmap, IL POPULATION. 105

Of 878tems of equality. Godwin.

tmndred, of twenty-three years of age, without a
iunüy.

With diese extraordinary encouragements to po-

puhtion, and every cause of depopulation, as we

kave supposed, removed, the numbers would ne«

cessarily increase &ster than in any society diat

las ever yet been known. I have before mention-

ed that the inhabitants of the back Settlements of

America, appear to double their numbers in fif-

teea ycars. England is certainly a more healthy

eountiytban the back setdements of America ; and

as we have supposed every house in the island to

be airy and wholesome, and the encouragements^

lohave a fifimily greater even than in America, no

probable reason can be assigned why the popula-

tion should not double itself in less, if possible»

than fiAeen years. But to be qnite sure that we

do not go beyond the truth, we will only suppose

the period of doubling to be twent}'-five years ; a

rado of increase which is slower than is known to

have taken place throughout all the northem states

nf America.

There can be litde doubt that the equalization
n{ property which we have supposed, added to the
circumstance of the labor of the whole communi-
:V. ii. p

106 ESSAY ON Book ItT.

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

ty being directed chiefly to agriculture, would tend
greally to augment the producc of the country.—
But to answer the demands of a population increas-
ing so rapidly, Mr. Godwin's calculationof half an
hour a day would certainly not be sufficient It is
probable that the half of every man's time must
be employed for this purpose. Yet with such or
much greater exertions, a person who b acquaint^
ed with the nature of the soil in this country, and
who reflects on the fertility of the lands already in
cultivation,. and the barrenness of those that are
not cultivatedy will be very much disposed to
doubt whether die whde average produce could
possibly be doubled in twenty-fivc ycars froih the
prcscnt period. The only chance of success would
be from the ploughing up most of the grazing
countries, and putting an end almost cntircly to a-
nimal food. Yet this schemc would probably de-
Icat itself. The soil of England will not produce
inuch without drcssing ; and cattlc seem to be ne-
icssary to makc that spccies of manure which best
suits the land.

Difficult liowcver as it might be to doul)le the
average producc of the islund in twcnty-five ycars,
Ict US supposc it cffcctcd. At tht- txpiration of
the first pcrifxl thcreforc, the food, though almost

iChap. IL POPULATION. 107

Of Systems of equalily. Godwin.

^entirely vegetable, would be sufficient to support
jn health the doubled popuiation of 22 millions.

During the next period where will the food bc
lound to satisfy the importunate demands of the
increasing numbers ? Where is the fresh land to
:tum up ? Where is the dressing necessary to im-
-piove that wbickls already in cultivation? Therc
is no pers^i with the smallest knowledge of land
<but would say, that it uras impossible that the ave-
lage produce of the country could be increased
during the sccond tventy-five years, by a quantity
cqual to what it .at {»[-esent y ields. Yet we will
sippose this increase, hewcver improbablCy to take
{dacc The exuberant strength of tlie argument
aDows of almost any concession. £ven with this
concession however, there would be eleven mil-
lions at the expiration of .die second term unpro-
vided bxr. A quantity equal to the frugal support
of 33 millions would be to be divided among 44
millions.

Alas.! what becomes of the picture, where men
lived in the midst of plenty, where no man was
obliged to provide with anxlety and pain for hls
resdess wants ; where the nai row principle of sel-
fifthness did not ex ist; where the mind was de-
Ihrered from her perpetual anxiet}- alx)ut corporal

108 ESSAY ON Book III.

Of B^items of equality. Godwin.

Support, and free to expatiate in die fieM of
thougfat which is congenial to her. This beautiful
£ibric of the ima^^nation vanishes at the severe
touch of truth. The spirit of benevolence, chc-
rished and invigorated by plenty, is rcpressed by
the chilling breath of want The hatefui passions
that had vanished reappear. The mighty law of
self.preservation^xpels all the softer and more ex-
alted emotions of the souL Hie temptations tö
evil are too strong for human nature to resist— -
The com is plucked beibre it is ripe, or secrcted
in un&ir proportions ; and the whole black train of
vices that belong to falsehood are immediatefy^ ge-
nerated. Provisions no longcr flow in for the Sup-
port of a mother with a largc family. The chil-
dren are sickly from insufficicnt food. The rosy
flush of health gives place to üic pallid check and
hollow eye of misery. Benevolence yct lingering
in a fcw bosoms makes some faint expiring stnig-
glcs, tili at length sclf-lovc resumcs his wonted
cmpire, and lords it triumphant over the world.

No human institutions here ex isted, to the per-
vcrseness of which Mr. Godwin ascribes the
original sin of the worst men.^ No opiiosition

^ Political Justice) b. tIü. c. iii. p. 340.

Qhap. IL POPULATION. 109

Of ssTBtems of equality. Godwin.

bad been produced by them betwcen public and
private good. No monopoly had been created of
thoec advantages which reason directs to be left in
common. No man had been goaded to the breacli
xfoider by unjust laws. Benevolence had esta-
Uished her reign in all heaits. And yet in so short
a period as fifty years, violence, oppression, false-
hood, misery, every hateful vice, and evcry forn;
if distress which degrade and sadden the present
shte of Society, seem to have been generated by
the most imperious circumstances, by laws inhc-
fcnt b the nature of man, and absolutcly indepen
dent of all human regulations.

If we be not yet too well convinced of the rcalit}
<if tfais melancholy picture, let us but look for u
moment into the next period of twenty five ycars,
and we shall see 44 millions of human bcinr^s
lithout the means of support ; and at the conclu-
sioii of the first Century the population would be
176 millions, and the food only sufficient for 55
minions, leaving 121 millions unprovided for. In
these ages want indeed would be triumphant, and
TB^vx and murder must reign at large : and yet all
this time we are supposing the produce of the earth
absolutely unlimited, and the yearly incrcase grcat
er than the boldest speculator can imagine.

110 ESSAY ON Book JII.

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

This is undoubtedly a very different vicw of
the difficulty arising from the principle of popula-
tion, from that which Mr. Godwin gives, when he
says, ^^ Myriads of centuries of still increaung
'^ popuIation may pass away, and the earth be still
^^ found sufEcient for the subsistence of its inha-
" bitants."

I am sufiiciendy aware that the redundant m3-
lions which I have mentioned could never luve
existed. It is a perfectly just Observation of Mr.
Godwin, that ^^ there is a principle in human so-
" cicty by which popuIation is perpetually kept
** down to the levcl of the mcans of subsistence/*
The sole question is, what is this principle ? Is
it some obscure and occult cause? Is it somc
mysterious interfcrcncc of Hcaven, which at a
certain period strikcs the mcn with impotence,
and the women with barrenness? Or is it a
xause open to our researches, within our view ; a
xause which has constantly been obsor\'ed to ope-
rate, though wiih varied force, in every State in
which man has been placed ? Is it not miscrj-,
and the fear of miseiy, tlie necessar>- and inevita-
ble results'of die laws of nature, which human in.
stitutions, so far from aggnivating, have tendcd
xonsiderably to mitigatc, though tlicy can ncvtr
Qtmove ?

Chap. IL POPULATION. \\l

.m I

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

It may be curious to ol^serve in the case that we
have been supposing, how some of the principal
laws, which at present govem civilized society,
woukl be successively dictated by the mos! impe-
rious neces^ty. As man, according to Mr. God-
win, is the creature of the impressions to which
he is subject, the goadings of want could not con-
tinue long beföre some violations of public or pri-
vate stock would necessarily take place. As these
violations increased in number and extent, the
more active and comprehensive intellects of the
socie^ would soon preceive, that while population
was fast increasing the yearly produce of the
countiy would shordy begin to diminish. The
urgency of the case would suggest the necessity
of some immediate measures being taken for the
general safety. Some kind of Convention would
dien be called, and the dangerous Situation of the
couDtry stated in the strongest terms. It would
be observed, that while thev lived in the midst of
plenty it wasof little consequence who laboredthe
fcast, or who possessed tlie least, as every man
was perfectiy willing and ready to supply the
Hrants of his neighbor. But tliat the questiou was
no longer whethcr one man should give to another
4iat which hc did not use himself ; but whcther

H2 ESSAY ON Book IIL

Of Systems of equalUy. GodwiD.

he should give to his neighbor the food which
was absolutcly necessary to his own existence. It
would be represented, that thc numl>cr of thosc
who wcre in want veiy greatly exceedcd thc num-
bcr and means ofthose who should supply them; that
these pressing wants, which, from the State of the
produce of the country, could not all be gratified,
had occasioned somc flagrant violations of justice ;
that these violations had already checked thc in-
crease of food, and would, if they were not by
somc means or othcr prevented, throw the whole
Community into confusion ; that impcrious neces-
sity seemed to dictate, that a yeariy increase of
produce should, if possible, be obtained at all
cvcnts ; that in order to cfiect this first great and
indis{)ensible purposc it would be advisable to
make n more com])lete division of land, and to se-
curc Qxory man's propcrty against violation by
the most powcrful sanctions.

It might be urged pcrhaps, by somc objectors,
that r.s tlic fcrtilit}' of the land incrcased, and va-
rious accidents occurred, the sharcs of some men
miirht hc much more tlian sufficient for their sup-
port : :md tlüit when tlie rcign of sclf-lovc was
'incc cstablislicd, thcy would not distribute their
"»iirrVins produce withont some compcnsalion iii

Oiapi IL POPULATION. 11

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

return. It would be observed in answer, that this
was an inconvenience greatly to be lamented ; but
that it was yi^vil which would bear no compari-
son to the black train of distresses which would
inevitably be occasioned by the insecurity of pro-
perty ; that die quantity of food which one man
could consume, was necessarily limited by the nar-
row capacity of the human stomach ; that it was
not certainly probable that he should throw avvay
ihe rest ; and if he exchanged his surplus produce
Ux the labor of others, this would be better than
Chat these others should absolutely starve.

It seems highly probable therefore, that an ad-
ministration of property not very different from
that which prevails in civilized states at present
would be established as the best though inadequate
lemedy for the evils which were pressing on the
societ}\

The next subject which would come under

discussion, intimately connected with the preced-

ing, is the commerce of the sex es. It would bc

' Qi]ged by those who had tumcd theii- attention

fo die true «^use of the difficulties under which

flie Community labored, that while every man feit

secure that all his children would be well provided

fcr by general benevolence, the po>vers of the

WH. ik <\

114 ESSAY ON Book lll.

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

eaith woiild be absolutcly inadcquate to produce
food for tlie popukition which would inevitably
ciisue ; that even if the whole attefii^ and labor
of the Society wcre directed to this sole point, and if
by the most i>crfcct security of proi)erty, and cvery
other encouragement that could be thou^it of,
the grcatest possible incrcase of produce wcre
yearly obtaiiied; yet still the increase of food
would by no means keep pace with the much
niore rapid increase of population ; that some
check to population therefore was imperiously
calicd for ; that the most natural and obviöus check
seemed to be to make every man provide for his
own childrt I) ; that this would operate in some
resjxrct as a mcasurc and a ^ide in the incrcase
of jx^pulation, as it niight be expcctcd that no
man would bring bcings into the world for whoni
he could not find tlic mcans of supix)rt ; that whcre
this notwithstanding w as the case, it seemed ne-
cessaT)' for the example of otlicrs, that the disgrace
and inconvenicnce attending such a conduct should
fall ujKju tliat individual who had tlius inconsidc-
rately plunged himself aud his innocent children
into waut and niisery.

The ULstitution of marriage, or at least of some
expa*ss or implied Obligation, on ever)- man to sup.

f»q». IK POPULATION. 115

Of Systems of equalhy. Godwin.

poit his o>vn children, seems to be the natural re-
^t of these reasonings in a Community under the
difficulties that we have supposed.

The view of these difficulties presents us with

a very iiatural reason why tlie disgrace which at-

tends a breach of chastity should be greater in a

woman than in a man. Jt could not be expected

that women should have resources suificient to

suj^port their own children. When, therefore, a

ynxväsi had lived with a man who had entered in-

to i|0 compact to. iruüntain her children ; and, aware

of the inconvemences that he m.ight bring upon

himself, had deserted her, these children must ne«

eeasarily feil upon the society for support, or starve.

And to prevent the frequent recurrence of such an

incpnvenience, as it would bc highly unjust to

panish so natural a fault by personal restraint or in-

fiction, the men might agrec to punish it with

disgrace« The offence is besides more obvious

and conspicuous in the woman, and less liable to

my mistake. The father of a child may not always

be known : but the same unccrtaintj' cannot easily

cxist with regard to the mother. Where the evi-

dence of the oflence was most complete, and the

inconvenience to the society at the same time the

116 ESSAY ON Book:

Of Systems of equality« Godwin.

grcatcst ; there it u'as agrced tliat the largcst sl
of blame shoiild fall. The Obligation on every i
to Slipport bis children, the socicty would enfi
by positive la\vs ; and the greatcr degree of ine
venicnce or labor to which a family would n«
sarily subject him, added to sonie portion of <
grace, u hich every human being must incur i
leads another into unhappiness, might be consU
ed as a sußicicnt punishment for the man.

That a woman should at present be almost
ven fix>m socicty for an offcnce which men c<
mit nearly with impunity, seems to be undoubi
ly a breach of natural justice, But tbc origii
the custom, as the most obvious and eflec
method of preveiiting the frcquent rccurrcnce
serious inconvcnicnce to a comminiity, appcar
be natural, though not perhaps perfcctly justifia
This origin however is now lobt in the new t
of ideas, that the custoni lias since genera
Wliat at first might be dictatcd by State neccs
is now supported by female delicacy ; and <
ratcs with the greatcst force on tliat part of the
ciety, wherc, if the original intcntion of the cus
vverc prcscrved, there is the least real occasion

When Uiesc two fund:uu<Mital lau s of soci

amp.lL POPULATION. 117

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

the security of property, aiid the Institution of mar-
riage were once established, inequality of condit
üons must necessarily follow, Those who were
bom after the division of property would come in-
to a World already possessed. If their parents
from having too large a family were unable to give
them sufficient for their support, what could they
do in a world where every thing was appropriated ?
We have seen the fatal effects that would result to
Society, if every man had a valid claim to an cqual
share of the produce of the earth. The menibers
of a family which was grown too large for the ori-
ginal division of land appropriated to it could not
then demand a part of the surplus produce of
otbers as a debt of justice* It has appeared, that
fitrni the inevitable laws of human natiire some
human bcings will be exposed to ^^-ant. These
alt the unhappy persons who in the grcat lottery of
life have drawn a blank. The number of thesc
persons would soon exceed the ability of the sur-
plus produce to supply. Moral merit is a veiy
difficult criterion except in extreme cases. The
owners of surplus produce would in general seek
!>ome more obvious mark of distinction ; and it
seems to be both natural and just, that except upon

^18 ESSAY ON Bai^k I.

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

particular occasions their choice should iall \x\
those who were ahle, and professed themsch
willing to exert their strength in procuring a f
ther surplus produce, which would at once bei
fit the Community, and enablc the pn^rietore
aflford assistance to greater numbers. AU ^
were in want of food would be urged by impeH<
nccessity to offer their labor in exchange for t
article, so absolutely necessar}- to existence. T
fund appropriated to tlre pnaintenance of lal
\A ould be the aggrcgate quantity of food posses
by the owners of land beyond tlicir outi consui
tion. When the demands upon this fund i»
great and n\imerous it would natiirally be divi<
into very small sliares. Labor would be ill p;
Mcn would offer to work for a Ijare subsisten«
and tlic rearing of familics wfuild bc chcckcd
sickncss and miscr)-. On the contrary, when t
fund was incrcasing fast ; when it was great
Proportion to the number of claimants, it woul^
dividcd hi much larger sharcs. No man wr
exchange his lal>or without rcceiving an an
quantity of food in rctum. Laborers would
in ease and comfort, and would consctiucnth
abk torcar a nunierous and vigorous off^pring.

aap. IL POPULATION. 119

Of Systems of equality« Godwin.

On the State of this fund the happiness or the .

degree of misery, prevailing among the lower

blasses of people in every known State, at present

chiefly depends ; and on this happiness or degree

ofraisery depends principally the increase, stationa-

liness, or decreäse of population«

And thus it appears, that a society constituted
according to the moist beautiful form that ima-
gination can conceive, with benevoleilce for its
moving principle instead of self-love, and with
t?ciy evil disposition in all its members corrected
bf reason, not force, would from the inevitable,
^ws of nature, and not from any original depravi-
^ of man, or of human institutions, degenerate in
a very short period into a society cönstructed
fXfoa a plan not essentially different from that
«bich prcvails in every known State at present ;
t society divided into a class of proprietors and a
dass of laborers, and with self-love for the main-
l|iing of the great machine.

Ib the supposition which I have madc, I havc
vodoubtedly taken the increase of population
smalkr, and the increase of produce greater than
they really would be. No reason can be assigned
why under the circumstances supposed popu-
htion should not increase faster than in anv knowii

120 ESSAY ON, £5V.

Of Systems of equality. Godwin.

iiistaiicc. If dien we wcrc to take thc period
of doubling at fiftccn years instcad of tiventy-five
ycars, and reflcct .upon die labor necessaiy to
double die produce in so short a time, even if we
allow it possible ; wc may venture to pronounce
with certainty, that if Mr. Godwin's System of So-
ciety were eetablishcd in its utmost perfection,
instead of niyriads of centuries, not thirty years
could elapse before its utter destruction firom the
simple principle of population.

I have taken no noüce of emigration in this
place, for obvious reasons* If such societies were
instituted in other parts of Europe» these coun-
tiies would be under die siune diificuldes, with
regard to i>opuIation, and could admit no fresh
mcnibcrs into thcir bosoms, If diis bcautifui
societv wcre conüncd to ihis island, it must havc
degencratcd straiij^lj froni its original purit}',
and adniinistcr biit a very small portion of the
luijjpincss it proposcd, bcforc any of its members
would voluntarilv consent to Icave it, and live un«
der such p)vcnimcnts as at pa*scnt cxist in Eu-
ropo, or submit to thc extreme Iiardbhips of firsl
HettliTb in nc\v rcgions.

CHAPTER IIL

Ghservations ort the Reply ofMr. Godwin.

MR. GODWIN in a late publication häs
iq>lied to tliose parts of the Essay on the Princi-
pk of Population, which he thinks bear the hardest
cn his System, A few remarks on this reply will
be sufficient.

In a note to an early part of his pamphlct hc
•bserves, that the main attack of the essay is not
directed against the principles of his work, but its
conclusionJ It may be true indeed, that as Mr.
Godwin had dedicated one particular chapter
towards the conclusion of his work to the conside-
lation of the objections to his system, from the
principle of population, tliis particular chapter is
most frequendy alluded to : but certainly if the
great principle of the essay be admitted it afiects
his whole work, and esscntiiilly alters the founda*

' Reply to the attacksof ür. Pam >Tr. Mackintosh, the
author of an Essay on Population, ana otuers, p. 10.

V'jL \r. r

122 ESSAY ON Book Hl

Observations on the replf of Mr. Godwm.

tions of political justice. A great part of Mn
Godwin's book consists ofan abuse of human in«
stitutions, as productive of all or most of the evib
which afRict society . The acknowledgment of a
ncw and totally unconsidered cause of miserj
would evidently alter the State of these arguments,
and make it absolutely necessary that they ahouUJ
be either newly modified or entirely rejected.

In the first book of Political Justice, chap. vL
cntitled, ^^ The Spiiit of Political Institutions»**
Mr. Godwin observes, tliat ^^ Two of the greatefl
«< abuses relative to the interior policy of nadooB
*^ which at this time prevail in the worki consist
** in the irregulär transfer of property, either first
" by violcncc, or secondly by fraud.'* And he
gocs on to say, that if there existed no desire in
individuals to possess thcmselvcs of the substance
üf othcrs, and if ever}* man could wiih perfect &•
cility obUlin the ncccsbarics of life, civil society
niight bccome what poetry has feigned of the gold-
en age. Lct US inquire, he says, into the princi«
plcb to uliich thcsc cvils arc indcbtcd for existence.
After ucknowlcdging the truih of ihc principal
iirgunicnt in tlie essay on jxjpulation, I do not
think that he could stop in this inquirj' at mcrc
human institutions. Many oihcr piirt«i of his werk

Chap. ni. POPULATION. 123

Obserrations bn the reply of Mr« Godwin.

^vould be a&cted by this consideration in a simi-
lar maniier.

As Mr. Godwin seems disposed to understand,

;aiid candidly to admit die truth of the principal

argumieiit in the essay, I feel the more mortified

tliat he diould think it a fair inference from my

|M»ftions, that the pdi^cal superintendents of a

Community are bound to exercise a patemal vigi-

laiioe and eare over the two great means of advan-

tage and safety lo ma^kind, misery and vice ; and

4&t no evil is more to be dreaded than that \ve

ihould have too little of them in the world to coo-

faie die priaciple of population within ita proper

aphere. ^ I am at a loss to conceive what clasa

of evib Mr. Godwin imagines is yet behind, whidi

diese sahitary checka are to prevent For my own

part I know of no greater evils Chan vice and mi-

«ry ; and the sole question is respecting the most

efcctual mode of dimir*<diing fhem. The only

jcaaofi why I <^ect to Mn Godwin's System is

my fiiU convietion, that an attempt to execute it

would very greatly increase the quantity of vice

aod miaery in society. \\ Mr. Godwin will undo

litts conviction, and prove to mc though it be

^ Reply» l&c. p. 60.

124 ESSAY ON Book JH.

Obsemitions on the reply olT Mr. Godwin.

only in theor}% provided that theory be consistent
and founded on a knowledge of human nature,
that hb System wUl really tend to drive vice and
misery from the earth, he may depend upon hai-
ving me one of its steadiest and wärmest advocates.
Mr. Godwin observes, that he should naturally
be lUsposed to pronounce that man strangely in-
difierent to schemes of extraordinaiy improve-
ment in society, who made it a conclusdve argu-
ment againt them, that when they were rcalized,
they might peradventure be of no permanencc
and duration. And yet, what is morah^ indivi-
dual or political, acccurding to Mr. Godwin's own
definition of it, but a calculation of consequences ?
Is the physician the patron of pain who advises hk
patient to bear a present evil rather than betake
himself to a remedy, which though it might give
momentary relief would afterwards greatly aggra-
vate all the Symptoms? Is the moralist to be
called an enemy to pleasure, because he recom-
mends to a young man just entering into life not
to min his health and patrimony in a few years by
an excess of present gratifications, but to econo-
mize his enjoyments diat he may spread them ova
a longer pcriod ? Of Mr. Godwin's System, ac-
cording to the present arguments by which it b

Chap.lll. POPULATION. gFl25

Observations on the reply of Mr. Godwin.

supported, it is not enough to say, perochentare it
will be of no permanence ; but we can pronounce
^th certainty that it will be of no permaner.ce :
and under such circumstances an attempt to exe-
«ite it would unquesiiünably be a great political
immoraKty.

Mr. Godwin obscrvcs, that after recovcring
firom tfae first impression made by the Essay on
Population, the first thing that is apt to strike eve-
ry reflecting mind is, that the excess of power in
Ae principle of population over the principle of sub-
ästence has never, in any past instance, in any
quarter or age of the world, produced those great
and astonishing effects, that total breaking up of
an the structures and maxims of societv, which the
Qsay leads us to expect from it in certain cases in
fiiture. ■ This is undoiibtedly true ; and the rea-
80D is, that in no past instance, nor in any quarter
or age of the world, has an attempt been made to
establish such a system as Mr. Godwm's, and
witfaout an attempt of this nature none of these
great efiects will follow. The convulsions of the
social System, dcsc i ibed in the last chapter, appear-

» Reply, p. 70

126 ESSAY ON Book IIl

Obaenrations on tfae reply of Mr. Godwin.

ed by a kind of irresistible necessi^-, to tenmiiate
in the establishiuent of the laws of proper^ and
niarriage ; but in countries where these laws aie
already established, as they are in all tlie commoo
«onstitutions of society with whicb we are acqiJMunt'
ed, the Operation of the principle of popoküoii wS
always be silent and gradual, and not diferent to
what we daily see in OUT owa countiy« Otherpcr-
soitö beside Mr. Godwin have imagined» Aat I
kx)ked to certain periods in future, idien popufci»
tion would exceed the means of subsistence in t
much greater degree than at present, and that die
evils arising from the principle of population wtfc
ratlier in contemplation than in existence ; but this
is a total misconception of the ai^ment« * Po-
verty, and not absolute faminc, is the specific ef*
fect of the principle of population, as I have before
endcavored to show. Many countries are now
suffering all the evils that can cvcr be expected to
flow from this principle, and evcn if we werc ar-
rivcd at the absolute limit to all further increase of
producc, a point which we shall certainly nevcr
reach, I should by no means expcct that theae
evils would bc in any marked manncr aggravatcd.

* In other parti of his Rcply, Mr« Godwin dots not fall
into this error.

Chap. 111. POPULATION. 127

Obsenrations on the replf of Mr. Godwin.

TThc ificrease of produce in mo^t European coun-

is so veiy slow compared with what would

reqnired to support an unrestricted increase of

pcople, that the checks which are constantly in

sMäon to repress the population to the level of a

pndace increasing so slowly would have very

litde more to do in wearing it down to a produce

absolutely stationary.

Biit Mr. Godwin says, that if he looks into the

[ fNHt faistory of the world, he does not' see that in^

citanng population has been controlled and con-

hed by vice and misery alone. In this obser\'a-

tkn I cannot agree with him. I believe Mr.

Godwin would find it difficult to liame any check,

which in past ages has contributed to keep down

the population to the level of che means of subsist-

cooe, that does not fairly come under some form

of rfce Of misery; except indeed the check of

moral restraint, which I have mentioned in the

coone of diis work ; and which, to say the truth,

wbatever hopes we may entertain of its prevalence

ia fiiture, has undoubtedly in past ages operated

widi inconsiderable forcc. *

^ It should be recollected always, that by moral res-
tndnt I meaa a rcstraint from marriag^e from prudcntial

128 ESSAY ON Book ///.

Obaenrations on the replf of Mr* Godwin.

I do not think that I ^ould find it difficult to
justify myself in the eyes of my readers from the
Imputation of being the patron of vice and misery ;
biit I am not clear that Mr. Godwin would find
such ajustification so easy« For though he has posi-
tively declared tliat he doesnot ^* regard them with
complacency;" and^^ hopes thatit may not be cod*
'^ sidered as a taste absolutely singular in him thal
** he should entertain no vehement partialities ibr
*^ vice and misery ;'^^ yet he has certainly exposed
himself to the suspicion of having this Rinpihr
taste» by suggesting the Organization of a voy
large portion of them for the benefit of socieQr in
general. On this subject I need only observe, thac
I ha VC always rankcd the two checks* which hr

motives which in not foUowed by irregulär gratificatioos^
In this sense I am inclinl:d to bclicve that the expreasioiB
1 havc hcre iiscd is not too strong.

* Rcply, p. 76.

* Mr. Godwin docs not acknowledge the justice oT
Ilume's ohscn-ation respecting infanticidc ; and yet the
extreme pnpulation and povcrty in China, whcre thiscui«
lom prcvaiK, tend stmngly to cunfirm the Observation»
It is still hnvicvcr true, as Mr. Godwin obscnxsy that
the cxpedicnt is, in iis own natnre, adcquate to the cnd
for which it was ritcd« (p. 66,) l>ut to make it so in factt
it munl *H' dfiT»'- by the maq^istratc« and not lefl t» Che

C/mfi. m. POPULATION. 129

Ol>aeryalions on the reply of Mr. Godwin.

first mentions among the worst forms of vice and
miseiy.

In one part of his reply, Mn Godwin makes a

supposition respecting the number of children

tfiat might be ailowed to each prolific marriage ;

bat as he has not entered into the detail of the

node by which a greater number might be pre-

vented, I shaii not notice it further tlian merely to

observe» that although he professes to acknowlcdge

äie geometrical and arithmeticai ratios of popuki-

tioQ and food, yet in this place he appears to think

Aot practically applied, these different ratios of in-

Qtase are not of a natura to make the evil resulting

Ittents. The almost invariable tendency of this custom

toincrease population, when it depends entirely on the

parentSy showsthe extreme pain which they must feel in

ludungsuch asacrifice, even when the distress arising from

ueessive poverty may be supposed to have deadened in

freat measure their sensibility* What must his pain

be then upon the supposition of the interference of a ma-

gittrate or of a positive law, to make parents destroy a

chSd, which they feel the desire and think they possess

the power ofsupporting? The permission of infanticide

is bad cnough) and cannot but have a bad effect on the

moral sensibility of a nation ; but I cannot conceive any

thing much more detestable or shocking to the feelings than

iny direct regulation of this kind, although sanctioned by

the names of Plato and Aristotlc.

voL ii. •^

130 ESSAY ON Book

Observations on thc reply of Mr. Godwin.

from them urgent, or alarmingly to confine

natural progress of population. * This observa

seems to contradict bis fbnner ackoowledgin

The last check which Mn Godvnn ment»

and which I am persuaded is the only one wl

he would seriously recommend is, *^ that ae

" ment, whether virtue, pnidence, or pride, wh

'^ continually restrains tlie universality and

" quent repetition of the marriage contract.***

this sentiment which I have already noticed

will appear that in the sequel of this work I a

lay considerable stress. Of thk check therd

itaelf I entirely approve ; but I do not tbink I

Mr. Godwin's system of political justice is by a

means favorable to its prevalence» The tendei

to early marriages is so strong thut we want er<

possible help that we can get to counteract

and a system which in any way whatever ta

to weaken the foundation of private property , a

to lessen in any degree the füll advaiitage and i

periority which each individual may derive fn

his pnidcnce, must remove thc only countera

ing weight to the passion of love, tliat can be (

• Rcply p. 70.
» Id. p. 73.

Gmp. m. POPULATION. 131

Obsenrations on the reply of Mr. Godwin.

pended upon for any essential eflTect. Mr. Godwin
acknowledges that in his System, ^^ the ill conse-
" qaences of a numerous family will not come so
^ coorsely home to each man's individual interest
•* as thc^ do at present."' But I am sony to say,
As^ from what we know hitherto of the human
^aracter we can have no rational hopes of success
widxHit thb coarse application to individual inte-
rest, ^Hiich Mr. Godwin rejects. If the whole
Act wtre to depend merely on a sense of duty,
oonsidenng the powerful antagonist that b to be
oontended with in the present case, I confess that
I Aould absolutely despair. At the same time I
fii strcmgly of opinion, that a sense of duty, su-
pendded to a sense of interest, would by no
Bieaiis be wiihout its effect. Tbere are many
noble and disinterested spirits, who, though aware
of Ac inconveniences which they may bring upon
themsdves by the indulgence of an early and vir-
taoas passion, fed a kind of repugnance to listen
to tbe dictates of mere worldly prudence, and a
fride in rejecting these low considerations, There
is a kind of romantic gallantry in sacrificing all

■ Reply, p. 74.

132 ESSAY ON, &fr.

Observations on the reply of Mr. Godwin.

for love, naturally fascinating to a young mind ;
and to say the truth, if all is to be sacrificed, I do
1 not know in what better cause it can be donc«
But if a strong sense of duty could in these in-
stances be added to prudential suggestions, the
whole question might wear a diffcrent color. In
delaying the gratification of passion from a senae
of duty y the most disinterested spirit, the most de-
licate honor, might be satisfied. The romantic
pride might take a difierent direction, and die
dictates of worldly prudcncc might be foUowed
with the cheerfui consciousness of making a vir-
tuous sacrifice.

If we were to removc or weaken the motivc of
intcrest, which would bc the casc in Mr. Godwin*8
System, 1 fear wc should have but a weak Substi-
tute in a sense of dut}\ But if to the preaent
beneficial effects known to result from a sense of
interest, we could superadd a sense qf dutj
which is the object of the latter part of this werk, :
it does not seem absolutely hopeless, that some
partial improvement in society should result from it

SS&B9

CHAPTER IV,

Of Emigration.

ALTHOUGH the resource of emigration
to be excluded from such a society as Mr.
Godwin has imagined ; yet in that partial degree
üf improvement which alone can rationally be
expected, it may feirly enter into our considera-
faxxL And as it is not probable that human in-
dustry should be^n to receive its best direction
dnoughout all the nations of the earth at the same
time, it may be said that in the case of a redun-
dant population in the more cultivated parts of
die World, the natural and obvious remedy that
piesents itself is, emigration to those parts that
are uncultivated. As these parts are of great ex-
tcnt, and vcry thinly peopled, this resource might
qjpear, on a first view of the subject, an adequate
remedy, or at least of a nature to remove the evil
to a distant period : but when we advert to expe-
rience, and to the actual State of the !|5civilized
parts of the globe, instead of any thifilg^ like an

134 ESSAY ON Book 111

Or Emigration.

adequate remedy it will appear but a slighl
palliative^

In the accounts which we have of the peopling
of new countries, the dangers, difficulties, and
hardships, with which the first settlers have had
to struggle, api)ear to be .e ven greater than we can
well imagine they CQuld be exposed to in theh
parent State. The endeavor to avoid that degrec
of unhappiness arising from the difficulty of sup-
porting a family might long have left the new
World of America unpeopled by Europeans, ü
those more powerful passions the thirst of gain,
the spirit of adventure, and rcligious enthusiasm,
had not directed and animated the enterprise.
These passions enabled the first adventurcrs to
triumph ovcr evcry obstacle; but in many in-
stances in a way to make humanity shuddcr, and
to defeat the true end of emigration. Whatever
may be the character of die Spanish inhabitants
of Mexico and Peru at the prescnt momcnt, we
cannot read the accounts of the first conrjuests of
thcse countries without fecling strongly, that the
racc dcstroyed was in moml worth as well as
numbcrs supcrior to the race of thcir destroycrs.

The piirts of America settlcd by the Eiiglish,
from being thinly peopled, were bcttcr adaptcd t€

Chap. IV. POPULATION. 135

Of Emigration.

Ae establishment of new colonies ; yet even here,
«he most formidable difficulties presented them-
sdves. In the settlement of Virginia, begun by
Sir Walter Raleigh, and established by lord Dela-
irore, three attempts completcly faÜed. Nearly
half of the first colony was destroyed by the sa va-
ges, and the rest consumed and wom down by fa-
t%ue and &mine deserted the country, and retum-
td home in despair. The second colony was cut
off to a man in a manner unknown ; but they were
supposed to be destroyed by the Indians. The
third experienced the same dismal fate ; and the
rcmains of the fourth, after It had been reduced by
inline and disease in the course of six months
tum 500 to 60 persons, were retuming in a fam-
isbing and desperate condition to England, when
ftejr were met in the mouth of the Chesapeak bay
bf lord Delaware, with a squadron loaded with
piDvisions, and every thing for their rclief and de-
fenceJ

The first puritan se^lers in New England were
fcw in numbcr. Thev landed in a bad season,

and were only supported by their private funds.

' Burke's America, vol. ii. p. 319. Eobertson, b* ix.
P« SS, 86.

136 £SSAY ON Book llf.

Of Emigration.

The Winter was premature and terribly coki;

the country was covercd with wood, and afforded

very litüe for the refreshment of persons sickiy

with such a voyage, or for the sustenance of an

Infant people. Nearly half of them perished by

the scurvy, by want, and the severity of the cli-

mate ; yet those who survivcd were not di^iritcd

by their hardships, but supported by their energy

of character, and the satisfaction of finding them-
selves out of the reach of the spiritual arm, re-

duced this savage country by degrees to joeld

them a comfortable subsistence. *

Even the plantation of Barbadoes, which in*
creascd afterwards \vith such extraordinär}' rapidi-
ty, had at first to contend with a countr}' utterly
desolate, an extreme want of provisions, a difBcul-
ty in Clearing the ijrouiid unusually grcat from the
unconimon sizc and hardncss of the trces, a most
dishciirtcning samtiiicss and poverty in their first
crops, and a b!o\v anJ prccarious supply of provi-
sions from Kngland.*

The attcmpt of the French in 1663, to form at
onre a ijowerful colony in Guinea, was attended

' Burke's America, vol. ii. p. 144«
• l«l. p. 85.

Ch^ IF. POPULATION. 137

Of Emigration*

with the most disastrous consequences. Twelyc
thousand men were landed in the rainy season, and
[daced under tents and miserable sheds. In this
situaticHi, inactive, weary of existence, and in want
of all necessaries, exposed to contagious disteixu
pers which are always occasioned by bad provi-
sions, and to all the irregularities which idleness
produces among the lower classes of society , almost
tbe whole of them ended their lives in all the bor-
rors of despair, The attempt was completely
abortive. Two thousand men, whose robust con-
stitutions had enabled them to resist the inclemen-
cy of the climate and the miseries to which they
had been exposed, were brought back to France,
and the 25,000,000 of livres which had been ex-
pended in the expedition were totally lost. '

In the late Settlements at Port Jackson in New
Hcdland, a melancholy and afFecting picture is
drawD by Collins of the extreme hardships with
which, for some years, the in&nt colony had te
stniggle before the produce was equal to its sup-
port. These distresses were undoubtedly aggra-
vated by the character of the settlers; but thosc

■ Raynal, Hist. des Indes, tom. vii. liv. iXiu p. 43. 10
Tols* 8vo. 1795.

voL ii.

156 ' ESSAY ON Bink IH

Of Emigration.

which Were caused by the unhealthiness of a new-
ly cleared country, the failure of first crops,
and the uncertainty of supplies from so distant a
mother countiy, were of themselves sufficieiitly
disheartening, to place in a strong point of view the
necessity of great resources, as well as unconquer-
'able perseverence, in the colonization of savage
countries.

The establishment of colonies in the more
diinly peopled regions of Europe and Asia would
cvidendy require still greater resources, FroiA
the power and warlike character of the inhabitants
of these countries^ a considerable military force
>5Vould be necessary to prevent thcir utter and nn-
mediate destruction. Even the frontier provinces
of the most powerful states are defcnded with
considerable difficulty from such restless neigh-
bors ; and the peaceful labors of the cultivator are
continually intemipted by their predator}' incur-
sions. The late empress Catliarine of Russia
found it necessary to protcct by regulär fortresses,
the colonies which she had estabüshed in the dis*
tricts near the Wolga ; and the calamities which
her subjects sufTered by the incursions of the
Crim Tartars fumished a pretext, and pcrhaps a
just one, for taking possession of the whde of the

Chap, n. POPULATION. Jjfg^

Of Emigration.

Crimea, and expeliing the greatest part of thesf
turbulent neighbors, and reducing the rest to a
more tranquil mode of life.

The difficulties attending a first establishment
finom soll, climate, and the want of proper conve-
Biencesy are of course nearly the same m these re«
gions as in America. Mn Eton, in his account
of the Turkish Empire, says, that 75,000 Chris-
tians were obliged by Russia to emigrate from the
Crimea, and sent to inhabit the oountry abandoned
by die Nogai Tartars ; but the winter coming on
before the houses built for them were ready, a,
great part of them had no other shelter from the
cold than what was afibrded them by hdes
dug in the ground, covered with what they could
procure, and the greatest part of them peri^d.
Qnly 9even thousand remained a few years after-
wards. Anotber colony from Italy to the banks of
the Borysthenes had, he says^ no better fate, owing
to the bad management of those who were com-
missioiied to provide for them« •

It. is neediess to add to these iostances, as the
accounts given of the difficulties experienced ID
new Settlements are all nearly similur. It has beeil
jostly obscrved by a correspondent of Dr. I'ranklin,
that on^ of the reasons why we have secn so many

ttO ESSAY ON Book III.

Of Emigration.

fhiitless attempts to setde colonies at an immense
public and private cxpense by several of the pow-
ere of Europe is, that the moral and mechanical
habits adapted to the mother country arc finc-
quently not so to the new-settled one, and to ex-
temal events, many of which are unforeseen ; and
that it is to be remarked, that none of the Engtish
colonies became any way considerable tili the nc-
cessary mannere were bom and grew up in die
country. Pallas particulariy notices the want of
proper habits in the colonies established by Rua*
sia, as one of the causes why they did not increase
80 fast as might have been expected.

In addition to this it may be observcd, that the
first establishment of a new colony gcnerally prc-
sents an instance of a countrj'^ peopied considerably
beyond its actual produce ; and the natural con-
sequence secms to be, that this population, if not
amply supplied by the mother countrj-, should at
the commencement be diminished to the level of the
first scanfy productions, and not begin permanently
to increase tili the rcmaining numbcrs had so far
cultivated the soil as to make it yield a quantity
of food more than sufficient for their o\vn support ;
and which consequently thcy could dividc with a
fiynily. The frequent failures in the establishment

Chap. IF. POPULATION. 141

Of Emigration.

of new colonies tend strongly to show the order of
precedence between food and population.
', It must be acknowledged then, that the class of
people on whom the distress arising from a too
rapidly incFeasing population would principally
611 could not possibly begin a new colony in a
distant country. From the nature of their Situa-
tion, they must necessarily be dcficient in those
resources which alone could ensure success ; and
uideas they could find leaders among the higher
cfasses ui^d by the spirit of avarice or enter-
prise, or of religious or political discontent ; or
werc {iiniished with means and support by govern-
ment ; whatever degree of misery they might suf-
fcr in their own country from the scarcity of sub-
sisCence, they would be absolutely unable to takc
possession of any of those uncultivated regions of
frflich there is such au extent on the earth.

When new colonies have been once securelv

•

estaUished, the difficulty of emigration is indeed
veiy considerably diminished; yet, even then,
some resources are necessary to provide vcssels
for the voyage, and support and assistance tili the
emigrants can setüe themselves, and find employ-
ment in their adopted country. How far it is
incumbent upon a govemment to fumish these

142 ESSAY ON Book III.

Of Emigration.

resources may be a question ; but whatever be its
duty in this particular, perhaps it is too much to
cxpect, that except where any particular colonial
/ advantagcs are proposed emigration should be
actively assisted./

The necessaiy resources for transport and main-
tenance are however frequently fumished by indi-
viduals or private companies. For many years
bcfore the American war, and for some few räicc»
the facilities of emigration to this new world, and
the probable advantages in view, were unusuaSy
great ; and it must be considered undoubtedly as
a very happy circumstance for any country , to havc
so comfortablc an asylum for its redundant popu«
lation. But I would ask whether, even during
thesc pcriods, the distress among the common
])Cople in this country was little or nothing, and
whether every man feit sccure before he ventured
on marriagc, that however largc his family might
be, he should find no difficulty in supporfing it
without parish assistance. The answer, I fear,
could not be in the affirmative.

It will be said, that when an opportunity of ad*
vantageous emigration is offered, it is the fault of
the people themselves, if instead of accepting it
tbcy prefer a lifc of celibacy or extreme poverty

Chap^ ir. POPULATION. US

Of Emig^ration«

in thcir own country. Is it then a fault for a man

to fcel an attachment to his native soil, to love the

parents that nurtured him, his kindred, his friends,

and the companions of his early years ? or is it no

evil that he siiffers, because he consents to bear it

rather than snap these cords which nature has

wound in dose and intricate folds round the hu-

tum heart ? The great plan of Providence seems

to itquire indeed that these ties should sometimes

be broken ; but the Separation does not, on that

account, give less pain ; and though the general

good may be promoted by it, it does not cease to

be an individual evil. Besides, doubts and un-

oeitain^ must ever attend all distant emigrations,

poiticularly in the apprehensions of the lower clas-

ses of people. They cannot feel quite secure,

thai the representations made to them of the high

pricc of labor, or the cheapness of land, are accu-

raldy true. They are placing themselves in the

power of the persons who are to fumish them with

the means of transport and maintenance, who may

perhaps have an interest in deeeiving them ; and

the sea which they are to pass appears to them like

the Separation of death from all their former con-

nexioDS, and in a manner to preclude the possibili-

ty of retum in case of &ilure, as they cannot ex-

144 ESSAY ON Book Dl.

Of Emigration,

pect the offer of the same means to bring them
back. We cannot be surprised then that except ,
where a spirit of enterprise is added to the uneasi- ^
ness of poverty, the consideration of these circum —
stances should frequendy

« Make them nther bemr the iüs they luffer,
<* Than fly to othen which they know not o£"

If a tract of rieh land as large as this island wcfl^
suddenly annexed to it, and sold in small lots, <^
let out in small farms, the case would be very
ferent, and the melioration of the State of the
mon people would be sudden and strikuig ; thoi^ V^
the rieh would be continually complaining of
high price of labor, the pride of the lower
and the difficulty of getting work done. Thes^"-^ '
understand, are not unfrequent complaints amo^^-^
the men of property in America.

Ever}' resourcc however, from emigration,
used efi'ectually, as this would be, must be
short duration. There is scarcely a State in
rope except perhaps Russia, the inhabitants
which do not often endeavor to bettcr their c<
dition by rcmoving to othcr countries. As thcr^'^
States thereforc have nearlv all rather a redunda^-^
dian deficient population, in proportion to th^^
produce, they cannot Ix* supposed to afford

C3k^. iT. POPULATION. 145

Of Emigration*

efectual resources of emigration to each other.
Let US suppose for a moment, that in this more
enlightened part of the globe, the internal econo*
my of each State were so admirably regulated, that
HO checks existed to population, and the different
govemments provided evcry fecUity for emigra-
tion« Taking the population of Eurof)e, exclud-
ing Russia, at a hundred milliohs, and allowing a'
^reater increase of produce than is probable, or
cvcn possible, in the mother countries, the redun«
dancjr of parent stock in a single Century would be
de?en . hundred milliohSy which added to the na-
tund increase of the colonies, duringthe same time,
w«>iild more than double what has been supposed
to be the present population of the whole earth.

Can we imagine that in the uncultivated parts
üf Asia, Africa or America, the greatest exer-
tSoBS and the best directed endeavors could, in so
ahart a period, prepare a quantity of land sufficient
bt Ifae support of such a population. If any san-
gQihe person should feel a doubt upon the subject^
kt him ähly add 25 or 50 jrears more, and ev^
doubt musi be crushed in overwhelming convic«
äon.

It b evident therefbre, that the reason why the
Ksottfce of emigration has so long continued tp
^ ii. u

146 ESSAY ON Book JH.

Of Emigration.

be held out as a remedy to redundant population
is, because from the natural unwillingness of peo-
ple to desert their native country, and the difficul-
ty of Clearing and cultivating fresh soil, it never is
or can be adequately adopted. If this remedy weie
indeed really e&ctual, and had power so fiu*
to relieve the disorders of vice and misery in old
States as to place them in the condition of the moet
prosperous new colonies, we should soon see the
phkd exhausted, and when the disorders retumed
with increased vinilence, every hope from th»
would be forever dosed«
It is clear therefore, that with any view of mak-
ing room for an unrestricted increase of popula*
tion, emigration is perfectly inadequatc ; but as a
partial and tcmporary expedient, and with a view
to the more general cultivation of the earth, and the
wider spread of civilization, it seems to be both
useful and proper ; and if it cannot be proved that
govemments are bound actively to cncouragc it,
it is not only strikingly unjust, but in the highest
dcgree impolitic in them to prevent it. There are
no fears so totally ill-grounded as the fears of de-
population from emigration. The vis inertue of
people in general, and their attachment to their
homes, are qualities so strong and general, that wc

Omp. ly. POPULATION. 147

Of Emigration.

may rest assured that they will not emigrate, un-

less firom political discontents or extreme povert}'

they are in such a State, as will make it as much

for the advantage of their country as of themselves

^t they should go out of it. The complaints of

lugh wages in consequence of emigrations are of

a& olhers the most unreasonable, and ought the

käst to be attended to. If the wages of labor in

any country be such as to enable the lower classes

of people to live with tolerable comfort, we may

bc quite certain that they will not emigrate ; and if

they be not, such it is cruelty and injustice to de-

lamtbem

CHAPTER V.

Cf Poor Law$.

TO remedy the frequent distresaes of tfae
poor, laws to enforce their relief liave bcen insd-
tuted ; and in the establishment of a general ers-
tem of th'is kiod, England has particularly disüiw
guisbed herseif. But it is to be feared that thougjll
it may have alleviated a little the intensity of indi»
vidual misfortune, it has spread the evil over a
much largcr surfacc.

It is a subjcct oftcn started in conversation, and
mentioned ahvays as a matter of great surprise,
that notwithstanding. the immense sum which b
annually coUectcd for the poor in this country
tliere is still so much distress among them. Some
think that the money must be embezzled for pri-
vate use ; others, that the churchwardens and
overseers consume the greatest part of it in feasl-
ing. All agree, that somehow or other it must
be ytry ill managed. In short, the fact, that even
hefore tne late acarcities three millions were col-

ESSAY ON, 6V. 149

Of Poor Laws.

lecled annually for the poor, and yet that tbeir
distresses were not removed, is the subject (^
continual astonishment. But a man who looks a
little below the sur&ce of things would be much
nyjre astonisbed, if the &ct were otherwise than it
is observed to be ; or even if a collection luiiver-
sally of eighteen Shillings in the poimd, instead of
four, were materially to alter it«

Suppose, that by a subscription of the rieh, the
eigfateen^pence or two Shillings, which men eam
now, were made up five Shillings, it might be im-
agined, perhaps, that they would then be able to
Jive ccHnfortably, and have a piece of meat every
day for their dinner. But this would be a very
&be conclusi(xi. The transfer of t]^ee additional
Shillings a day to each laborer would not increase
the quanüty of meat in the country. There is
ooC at present enough for all to have a moderate
shaie. What would then be the consequence ?
die competition apdong the buyers in the market
of meat would rapidly raise the price from eigbt
peuce or nine penoe to two or three Shillings in
die poui^i, and. the commodity would not be di -
?ided among many more than it is at present.
When an artide is scarce, and cannot be distri-

150 ESSAY ON Jiook III.

Of Poor Laws.

• ♦

buted to all, he that can show the most valid pa-
tent, that IS, he that oflFers the most money becomes
the possessor. If wc can supjx)se the compctition
among the buyers of meat to continue long enough
for a greater number of cattle to be reared annual-
ly, thts could only bc done at the expense of the
com, which would be a very disadvantageous ex-
change; for it is well known, that the country
could not then support the same population ; and
when subsistence is scarce in proportion to the
number of people it is of little consequencc whe-
tlier the lowest members of the society possess
two Shillings or five. They must, at all events,
l)e reduced to live upon the hardest farc and in
the smallest quantity.

It might be said perliaps, that the increascd
number of purchascrs in cvery articlc would give
i\ spur to productive industry, and that the whole
produce of the island would be increased. But
ihe spur that these fancied riches would give to
population would more than counterbalance it ;
and the increased produce would be to bejlivided
among a more than proportionably increased num-
ber of people.

A collection from the ritrli of cip^teen Shillings

Chab. V. POPULATION. 151

'"M «.^ • ■ •

\^' '

■•Ai

Of Poor Laws.

in the pQupd, even if distributed in the most judi-
cious Bijt^per, would have an effect similar to that
resultiil^ from the supposition which I have just
made ; and no possible sacrifices of the rieh, par-
ücularly in money, eould for any time prevent the
recurrence of distress among the lower members
of Society, who ever they were. Great changes
might indeed be made. The rieh might become
poor, and some of the poor rieh ; but while the
present prqporticxi between popuIation and food
coQtinues, ;t.part of society must necessarily find
itdifficult to Support a &mily, and this difiiculty
win naturally fall on the least fortunate members.
It may at first appear stränge, but I believe it
b tme, that I cannot by means of money raise the
condition of a poöi^ man, and enable him to live
mach better than he did before, . without propor-»
tionaMy dcpressing others in the same class. If
I retrench the quantity of food consumed in my
house, and give him what I have cut off, I theii
benefit him without depressing any but myself
and &mily, who perhaps may be well able to bear
iL If I tum up a piece of uncultivated land, and
give him the produce, I then benefit both him and
* all the members of socictv, because what he before

■^^

isi Essay on HooJt

Of Poor Laws.

consumed is thrown into the common stock,
probably 9ome of the new produce whh it.
if I only give him money, supposing the prod
of the country to remain the same, I give hi
title to a larger share of that produce than forn
ly, which share he cannot receive without di
nishing the shares of others. It is evident
this effect in individual instances must be so »
as to be totaily imperceptibie ; but still it n
exist, as many other eSects do, which Uke so
of the insects that people the air elude our gra
perceptions.

Supposing the quantity of food in any coui
to remain the same for many years together, i
evident that this food must be dividcd accord
to the value of each man's patent, or the sun
money which he can aSbrd to spend in this cc
modity so universidly in requesL It is a dem
strative truth therefore, that the patents of one
of men could not be increased in value, witb
diminishing the value of the patents of some ot
sct of men. If the rieh were to subscribc s
give five Shillings a day to five hundred thousa
men, without retrenching their own tables,
doubt can exist that as these men would live m
at their ease, and consume a greatcr quantit}'

dtp. r. POPULATION, M6

Of Poor I^ws.

proirisioiis, there would be less food remaining to
divide among the rest; and consequ^ntly each
man's patent would be dim^ni^hed m vajue, pr
tbe sanie number oi pieoes of ^ver would pur-
diase a aroaller quantity of subsistence, and die
prioe of provisions would universally rise.

Tbese general reasonings have beea strikjngly
oottfirmed duriog the late scarcities. Tbe $uppQ*
ädoQ wMch I bave made of a coUection from tbe
rieh irf* ^hteen duUings in the pound has beea
aeariy realized ; and tbe effect has been such a^
night have been ejepected. If the same distri-
Imäoo had been made wjben no scarcity existed,
t ooQfindemble -advanoe in the price of prov isioos
VQidd have been a neoessaiy consequence ; but
Utoving as it did a scarcity, its e&ct must have
been doubly powerfuL No person, I believe, wiU
venture to doubt, that if we were to give three
additional riiillings a day to every laboring man
in the kingdom, as I before supposed, in order
Ihat be might have meat for his.dinner, tbe price
«f Aeat would rise in the most rapid and unex-
mpkd maimo*. But surely, in a deficiency of
com, which renders it impossible for every man
toliavehis usual .ahare, if we still continue to für-
"üol. iL X

J54 ESSAY OK Book JH.

Of Poor Law8.

lüsh each person with the means of purchasnig
the same quantity as before, the effect must be in
every respect similar.

Itseems in great measure to have escaped ob-
aervation, that the ßrice of com in a scarci^ will
depend much more upon the obstinacy widi iduch
die same degree of consumption is persevered in,
dian on the degree of the actual deficiency. A de-
fidency of one half of a crop^ if the people coiild
immediately consent to consume only one half of
what they did before, would produce little or no
eflfect on the [»ice of ccmd. A deficiency of one
twelfth, if exacdy the same consumption were^
continue for ten or eleven months, might raise the
price of com to almost any height. The more is
given in parish assistance, the more power is fur-
nished of persevering in the same consumpliony
and of course the higher will the price rise before
the necessary diminution of consumption b cf-
fected.

It has been asserted by some people that high
prices do not diminish consumption. If this were
really tnie, we should see the price of a bushel of
com at a hundrcd pounds or more, in every defi-
ciency, which could not be fully and completely
i^mcdied by importation. But the &ct is, that

Cfc^. K POPULATION; 155

Of Foor Laws.

higfa prices do ulttinately diminish consumption ;
but on account of the riches of the country, the
unwifliogness of the people to resort to sub^tutes^
and ÜK immease sums which are distributed by
parishes, tfüs'object cannot be attained tili the
prices become excessive, and force even the mid-
& classes of society, or at least those immediately
above the poor, to save in the article of bread firom
die actual inability of purchasing it in the usual
quantity. The poor who were assisted by their
parisbes had no reasQn whatever to complain of
die lügh price of gr^ ; because it was the ex.
oessiveness of this price, and this alone, which by
oforcing such a saving left a greater quantiQr of
com for the consumption of the lowest classes,
which com the parish allowances enaUe them to
command« The greatest sufferers in the scarcity
were undoubtedly the classes immediately above
die poor; and these were in the most marked man-
ner depressed by the excessive bounties given to
diose below them« Almost all poverty b relativ« ;
and I much doubt whetfaer these people would have
been rendered so poor if a sum equal to half of
diese bounties had been taken directlv out of their
pockets, as they were, by that new distribution of

156 ESSAY OK A)ok 7/7.

Of Poor Laws»

the money of tfae socicty which actually toök
place.* Thb distribution by giving to tbe poorcr
claases a command of fiood, so much greater iStma
that to which their degree of skiU and mdustiy ea*
tided them, in die actual circumstances of the
eountiy, diminished exacdy in the same propor-
tion that command over the necessmes ci Ufe»
wluch th^ classes above them, by their superioi^
skiU and industry, would nataraUy posseas ; and it
may be a question whether the degree of axawtanor
which the poor recerved, and which prevented
diem fix>m resorting to the use ofthose Substitutes»

' Supposing; the Iower classes to eam on an average
ten Shillings a week. and the classes just above them twcn-
ty, it is not to be doubted, that in a scarcity these latter
would be more straightened in their power of command-
ing the necessarics of life> by a donation of ten Shillings
a week to those below them, than by the subtraction of
five Shillings a week from their own eamings. In the
one case. they would be all reduced to a level ; the price
of provisions would rise in an extraordinary manner from
the gremtnessof the competition; and all would be straight-
ened for subsistencc« In the other case, the classes abore
the poor would still maintain a considerabte part of their
relative superiority ; the price of provisions would by no
means rise in the same degree ; and their remaining fif-
iecn shillingt wouM purchase much more than their twcn-
ty f hillingt in the former case«

Omp. r. POPULATION. 157

Of Poor Lawt.

wkich in every other country on such occasions
the great law of necessity teaches, was not more
than overbalanced by the severity of the pressure
OQ so large a body of people from the extreme
high prices, and the permanent evil which must
TC^ak from forcing so many persons on the pgrish,
who before thought themselves almost out of the
reach of want. ^

If we were to double tlie fortunes of all those
who possess above a hundred a year, the efiect on
the price of grain would be slow and inconside-
rable ; but if wc were to double the price of labor
throug^iout the kingdom, the effect in raising the
price of grain would be rapid and great. The
general principles on this subject i«il not admit
of dispute ; and that in the particular case which
we have been considering, the bounties to the
poor were of a magnitude to operate very power-
fully in this manner will sufficiently appear, if we
recoUect, that before the late scarcities the sum
coUected for the poor was estimated at three mil-
lionsy and that during the year 1801 it was said
to be ten milUons« An additional seven millions
acting at the bottom of the scale, ^ and employed

^ See a iii\all pamphlet published in November 1800«

158 ESSAY ON Book UI.

Of Poor Laws.

exclusively in the purchase of provisions, jomed
to a considerable advance in the price of wages in
many parts of the kingdom, and increased by a
prodi^ous sum expended in voluntary charity,
must have had a most powerful eifect in raising
tlie price of the necessaries of life, if any relianoe
can be placed on the clearest general [»incipleb
confirmed as much as possible by appearanccs.
A man with a &mily has received, to my know-
kdge, fourteen Shillings a week finoni the parish.
His common eamings were ten Shillings a week,
and his weekly revenue therefwe, twenty^ibur.
Before die scarcity he had been in the habit of
purchasing a bushel of flour a weck with eight
•hillings pqjhaps, and consequently had two stül-
lings out bf his ten, to spare for other necessaries.
During the scarcity he was cnabled to purchase

entitled) An inve$tigation q/* the cauMe of thr fireatnt high
/irice of /inruisions. This pamphlct was mistakcn by sonie
for an inquiry into the cause of the scarcitf« and as such
it would naturalis appear to be incompletci adrertingt as
it doesi principally to a Single cause« But the sole object
of the Pamphlet was to g^ve the principal reason for tbc
extreme high price of provisions, in proportion to the de«
gree of the scarcity, admitting the deficiency of one fourth,
as stated in the Duke of Portland's letter ; whichi I am
much inclined to think was rerj near the truth.

Chap. V. POPULATION. 159

Of Poor Laws.

tiie same quantity at neariy three times the price.
He paid twenty-two Shillings for his bushel of
flour, and had as before two. Shillings remaining
for odier wants. Such instances could not possi-
hfy have been universal, without raising the price
of wheat veiy much higher than it really was
dorii^ any part of the dearth. But similar in-
stances were by no means infrequent, and the
s]rstem itself of measuring the relief given by the
price oTgrain was general.

If die circulation of the countrv had consisted
endrely of specie, which could not have been im-
inediately increased, it would have been impossible
to give such an additional sum as seven millions
to die poor without embarrassing to a great degree
Ac Operations of commerce. On the commence-
mcnt dierefore of this extensive relief, which
would necessarily occasion a proportionate expendi-
tme in provisions diroughout all the ranks of so-
cicty, a great demand would be feit for an increas-
cd circulating medium. The nature of the me-
dium then principally in use was such, that it
could be created immediately on demand. From
die accounts of the bank of England, as laid be-
fore Päriiament, it appeared that no veiy great

wo ESSAY ON Book in.

Of Poor Lawt.

additional issues of paper took place from this
quarter. The three mUlions and a half added to
its former average issues were not probably mucli
above what was suificient to suppty the quanti^
of specie, that had been withdrawn from the cir-
culation. If thb supposition be true, and the
small quanüty of gold which made its appearanoe
at that time fumishes the strongest reason (or be-
lieviiig that nearly as much as this must have beco
withdrawn, it would foUow that the part of the cir-
culation originating in the bank of England» thougii
changed in its nature, had not been much increas-
ed in its quantity ; and with regard to the effcct ol
the circulating medium on the price of all commo-
dities it cannot be doubted, that it would be pre-
ciscly the same whether it were made up princi-
pally of guineas, or of pound notes and Shillings
which would pass currcnt for ^ineas.

The demand thcrefore for an increased circula-
ting medium was Icft to be jsupplied principally b)
the countf}' baiiks, and it could not be expected
that they sliould hcsitatc in taking advantagc of sc
profitable an opportunity. The paper issues of i
countrj' bank are, as I conceive, measured by the
quantity of its notes which will rcmain in circula-
tion ; aad this quantity is again measured, suppo

Chop, F. POPULATION. Wi

Of Poor Laws.

sing a ccMifidence to be est^lished, by the suni of
wliat is wanted to carry oa all the money transac-
iioD& of the neighborhood. From the high price
oi provisions, all these transactions became more
expensive. In the Single article of the weckly
payment of laborers' wages, including the parish
a]lowance3, it b evident that a very great addition
to the circulating medium of the neighborhood
would be wanted. Had the countiy banks at-
tempted to issue the same quantity of papcr with-
oat such a particular demand for it, they would
qoickly have been admonished of their tnot by its
rapid and pressing retum upon them ; but at this
time it was wanted for immediate and daily use^
and was therefore eagerly absorbed into the circu-

faüoii«

It may even admit of a question, whether under
similar circumstances the country banks would
not have issued nearly the same quantity of paper,
if the bank of England had not been restricted
from payment in specie. Before this event the
issoes of the country banks in paper were regulat-
cd by the quantity that the circulation would take
up, and after, as well as before, they were obliged
to pay the notes which retumed upon them in
bank of En^and circulation. The difierence in
vel. ii. y

162 ESäAY^ON Book W.

Qf Poor Law^.

!!?■*•-'

tlie two cases would artse principatty from the per«
iiicious cüstomi adopted siiice the restriction of
the bank, of issaing one and two pound notes,
and from tiie little preference that many peopfe
might fcclj if they could not get gold, between
countiy bank paper and bank of Engbmd paper.

The very great issoe of country bank paper
during the years 1800 and 1801 was evidetitly
therefore, in tts or^n rather a consequence thaa
a cause of die high price of provisions ; but being
oiice absorbed into the circulation, it must neces»
sarily affect the {nice of all commodities, and throw
very great obstacles in the way of retuming cheap-
ness. This b the great mischief of the System.
During the scarcity, it is not to be doubted that
the increased circulation, by prevcnting the em-
barrassments which commerce and specubtion
must otherwise have feit, enabled the country to
continue all the branches of its trade with less
interruption, and to import a much greater quan-
tity of grain than it could have done otherwise ;
but to overbalance these temporary advantages, a
lasting cvil might be entailed upon the Community»
and the prices of a time of scarcity might become
permanent, from the difficulty of reabsorbing this
increased circulation.

0kip. V, POPULATION. 163

Of Poor Lavs.

In tiiiß respect however, k is much better that
the great ässue of paper shouk) have coroe froi^
tbe couiUay banks tjban from the bank of England.
Dttrii^ the restriction of payment in specie, tbc^
is HO possibility of fbrcing the bank to retake its
lioties wfaen too abundant ; but wkh regard to ihft
eouotiy banks, as soon as their notes are not
wanted in the circulation they will be returned ;
and if the bank of England notes be not increased,
the whole circulating medium will thus be di-
minished.

We may oonsider ourselves as peculiarly fori-

tunate, that the two years of scarcity were suc-

oeeded by two events the best calculated to restone

pfenty and cheapness — an abundant harvest and a

peace ; which together produced a general con-

viction of plenty, in the minds both of buyers and

adlers ; and by rendering the first slow to purchase,

amd tiie others eager to seU, occasioned a glut in

U»e market^ and a consequent r^id fall of price,

^iriiich has enabled parishes to take off their allow-

wooes to the poor, and thus to preveat a retum of

high priceswben the ^darmamoQg the seHers was

If tbetWQJsears of scardty had been succeeded
nperely \f^ ycars of average cvc^, I api strongly

164 ESSAY ON Book fti.

Of Poor Law8«

disposed to believe, that as no glut would have
taken place in the market, the price of gran wouUI
have fallen only in an inconsiderable degree, the
parish aüowances could not have been resumed,
the increased quantity of paper would still have
been wanted, and the prices of all commodities
might hj degrees have been regulated permanent-
ly, according to the increased circulating medium.
If instead of giving the temporary assistance elf
parish allowances, which might be withdrawn on
the first fall of price^ we had raised universally
the wages of labor, it is evident that the obstacles
to a diminution of the circulation, and to retum-
ing cheapness, would have been still further in-
creased ; and the high price of labor would have
become permanent, without any advantage what-
cver to the laborcr.

There is no one that morc ardently desires to
see a real advance iii the price of la^x>r than my-
self ; but the attempt to effect this object by for-
cibly raising the nominal price, which was prac-
tised to a certain degree, and recommendcd almost
universally during tlie late scarcities, every think-
ing man must reprobate as puerile and ineffectual.

The price of labor, when left to find its natural
kvel, b a most important political barometer, ex-

Ch^. r. POPULATION. 165

Of Poor Laws.

pressing tbc relation between th^ supply of provi-
fflonsy and the demandfor them; between the
quantity to be consumed, and the number of con-
suipers ; and taken on the average, independently
of accidental circumstances, it further expresses
dearly the wants of the society respecting popula-
tiOQ ; that is, whatever may be the number of
children to a marriage necessary to maintain ex-
acüy die present population, the price of labor
wiB be just sufHcient to support this number, or
be above it, or below it, aecording to the State of
Ae real funds for the maintenance of labor, whe-
Act stationary, progressive, or retrograde, Instead
however, of considering it in this light, we consi-
der it as something which we may raise or depress
at pleasure, something which depends principally
upon his majesty's justices of the peace. When
an advance in the price of provisions already ex-
presses that the demand is too great for the supply,
in Order to put the laborer in the same condition
as before, we raise the price of labor, that is, we
increase the demand, and are then much surprised
diat the price of provisions continues rislng. lu
this we act much in the same manner as if, when
die quicksilver in the common weatlier-glass stood
at ^tormtfj we w]pre to raise it by some mechaniciU

166 ESSAY ON Jiook /!/.

Of Poor Lawt.

pressure to tetücdfair^ and then bc grcady aato-
nished that it continued raining.

Dr. Smith has cleaiiy slK>wn, that thc natund
tendency of a year of scarcity is either lo thr6w •
number of laborers out of employ ment, or to ob-
lige them to work iox less than diey did before,
finom the inability of masters to employ tfae same
number at the same pnce. The raising of the
price of wages tends necessarily tothrow more out
of employmeat, and completely to preveot the
good eSects which, he aays, sometimes arise firom
a year of moderate scarcity, that of makii^ thc
lOwer classes of people do more work and become
möre careful and industrious. The number of
servants out of place, and the manufacturers want*
ing employment, during the late scarcitics, werc
melancholy proofs of the truth of these rcasonings.
If a general rise in the wages of labor had taken
place prc^rtioned to the price of provisions, nooc
but &rmers and a few gentlemen could have af-
forded to employ the sanie number of workmen
as before. Additional crowds of servants and
manufacturers would have been tumed off; and
those who were thus thrown out of emplo]rmeot
would of course have no other refuge than the
parish. In the natural onler of thmgs a scaKl^

Ch^. F. POPULATION. 167

Of Poor Laws.

must tend to bwer, instead of to raiae, the price

of iabor.

After die publication and general circuladon of

such a work as Dr. Smith's I confess it appears to
ne Strange that so many men who would yct as-

piit to be thought pdiucal economists shouid still

tfaink diat it is in the power of the justices of the

peaoe, or cven of the omnipotence of parliament, to

aher by ^ßat the whole circumstances of the coun-

try ; asud \dien the demand for provisions is great-

' er dian die supply, by publishing a particular edict

to nudie the supply at once equal to ex* greater than

the demand. Many men * who would shrink at

tlie proposal of a maximum would propose them-

sdves, Üiflt the price of Iabor shouid be proportion-

<3d to die price of provisons, and do not seem to

bc aware that the two proposals are very nearly of

tbe same nature, and that both tend direcüy to fa-

mine. It matters not whether we enable the la-

borer to purchase the same quantity of provisions

which he did befwe by fixing their price, or by

RD^i^ in Proportion the price of Iabor. The only

idvantage on the side of raising the price of Iabor

is, that the rise in the price of provisions which

oeoessarily foUows it encourages importiition ; but

puttmff importation out of the question, which

ittM^I

168 ESSAY ON Book IL

Of Poor Laws.

mi^t possibly be prevented by war, or othe
circumstances, a universal rise of wages in prc
|X)rtion to the price of provisions, aided by ade
quate parish allowances to those who were throwi
out of work, would, by preventing any kind c
saving, in the same manner as a maximum, caus
the whole crop to be consumed in nine month
which ought to have lasted twelve, and thus pro
duce a famine. At the same time we musi nc
forgct that both humanity and true policy imperi
ously rcquire, that we should give every aasistanc
to the ]X)or on these occasions that the nature c
the case will admit. If provisions were to c«
tinue at the price of scarcity, the wages of bbc
must necessarilv rise or sicknessand famine woul
quickly diniinish the numbcr of laborers, and th
supply of labor bcinfj uncquul to the dcmand, il
price would soon risc in ä still greater propoi
tion than the price of provisions. But even on
or two years of scarcity, if the poor were left er
tirely to shift for thcnisch es, might produce som
effcct of this kind, and consequently it is our ir
tercst as well as our duty to give thcm temporar
aid in such scasons of distress. It is on suc
occasions that cvery chcap Substitute for breac
and cvcry mcxlc of economizing food shoukl b

Chap. V. POPULATION. 169

^^.^

Of Poor Laws.

resorted to. Nor should we be too ready to com-
plain of that high price of com which by encour-
aging importation increases die supply.

As die inefficacy of poor laws, and of attempts
farcibly to raise die price of labor, are most con-
spicuous in a scarcity, I have diought myself jus-
tified in considering diem linder diis view ; and as
Üiese causes of increased price received great ad-
ditional force during die late scarcity from die in-
erease of Üie circulating medium, I trust diat die
few observations which I have made on diis sub-
ject will be considered as an allowable digression.

iv^. ii.

CHAPTER VI.

Subject qfPoor Imw$ cantinued.

INDEPENDENTLY of any coaskkm«
tions respecting a year of deficient crops it is. evi-
dent, that an increase of population withöut a pro-
portional increase of food must lower the value of
each man^s eamings. l*he food must necessarily be
distributed in snudler quantities, and consequentty
a day's labor vnü purchase a smaller quantity of
provisions. An increase in the price of provisions
will arise either from an increase of populatioQ
faster than the means of subsistcnce, or from a dif-
ferent distribution of the money of the society.
The food of a country which has been long peo-
pled, if it be increasing, incrcases slowly and re-
gularly, and cannot be made to answer any sudden
demands ; but variations in the distribution of the
money of the society are not unfrtquently occur-
ring and are undoubtedly among the causes which
occasion the continual variations in the prices of
provisions.

ESSAY ON, £s?r. 171

Subject of Poor Law», contiaoed.

The pooF laws of England tend to depress the
general condkion of the poor in these two ways«
Their first obvious tendency is to increase popula» a
tion without increaskig the food for its aüppoit« '
A poor man may marry with Uttle or no pfospect
of being able to support a family without pariah
assistance. They may be said therefcH^, (o crealit
the poor which they maintain ; and as the provi-
aioas of Ae country must^ in consequence of the
increased population, be distributed to every man
in smaller proportions, it is evident that the labcNr
of tiiose who are not supported by parish aasis*
tanoe will purchase a smaller quantity of provisions
than befisre, and consequently more of them must
be driven to apply for assistance.

Secondly, the quanti^ of provisions ponsumed ^' \

in workhouses, upon a part of the society that

caiuiot in general be conaidered as the moajt vakia^

bk pttTt, diminishes the shares that would other-

wise belong to more industrious and more wortby

HKoaberSi and thns, in the san^e manner, forces

Uore to becmne dependefit. If the j^oor in the

irorikfaonaes were to tive bettor than they do now,

thia neiv distribtttion of tfae money of the society

wmrid tend more conspicuously to depress the

^ondkioB of those out cf the workhouses by occa-

noQii^ an advance in the price of p rovisions.

172 ESSAY ON ßook III.

Subject of Poor Laws» continued.

Foitunately for England, a spirit of indepen*
dence still remains among the peasantiy. The poor
laws are strongly calculated to eradicate thb spiriL
Thej- have succccded in part ; but had thcy suc-
ceeded as completely as might have been expected,
their pemicious tendency would not have been so
long concealed.

Hard as it may appear in individual instances,
dependent poverty ought to be hcld disgraceful.
Such a Stimulus seems to be absolutely necessaiy
to promote the happiness of the great mass of
mankind ; and every gencral attempt to weaken
this Stimulus, however benevolent its intentioo,
will always defcat its own purpose. If men be in-
duced to marry from the mere prospcct of j^arish
Provision, they are not only unjustly tcmpted to
bring unhappiness and depcndencc upon them-
sclves and children, but they are tempted without
knowing it, to injure all in the same class with
themselves.

The parish laws of England appear to have
contributed to raise the price of provisions, and
to lower the real price of labor. They have there-
fore contributed to impoverish that class of peo-
ple whose only possession is their labor. It b al-
fQ difficult to suppose that they have not power-

Chap.FI. POPULATION. 173

Subject of Poor Laws^ contihued*

fidljr contributed to generale that carelessness and
Utot of frugalhy observable among the poor, so
contraiy to the disposition generally to be re-
marked among petty tradesmdn and small farmers.
The laboring poor, to use a vulgär expression,
seem always to live fram band to mouth. Their
present wants employ their whole attention ; and
diey seldom think of the future. Even when diey
have an opportunity of saving they seldom exer*
eise it ; but all diat they eam beyond their pre*
sent necessities goes, generally speaking, to the
alehouse. The poor laws may therefore be said
to diminish both the power and the will to save

among the common people, and thus to weaken
ooe of the strongest incentives to sobriety and in-
dusliy, and consequently to happiness.

It is a general complahit among master manu-
bcturers that high wages ruin all their workmen ;
but It b difficult tQ conceive that these men would
not save a part of their high wages for the future
sapport of their &miliesy instead of spending it in
drunkenness and dissipation, if they did not rely
OD parish assistance for support in case of acci-
dents. And that the poor employed in manufac-
tures consider this assistance as a reason why they
may spend all the wages which they eam, and en-

174 ESSAY ON S«ok 111.

Sttbject of Poor Lawt, continuttd.

jojr themselves while thcy can, appears to be eti»
dent, from the number of familics that upon Ae
&ilure of any great manufactory immediately &I1
upon the parish ; when perhaps the wages eamed
in thb manufactory while it flourished were aui&-
dently above the price of common country labor,
to have allowed them to save enough for dieir aop*
port, tili they could find some other Channel ibr
their induatry.

A man who might not be detcrred from gCNng^
to the alehouse from the considerationy that on
his death or sickness he should leave his wife and
£unily upon the parish, might yet hesitate in thns
dissipating his eamings, if he were assured that in
either of these cases his family must starve, or be
left to the Support of casual bount)'.

The mass of happiness among the common
pcople cannot but be diminisiKd, when one of the
strongest chccks to idieness and dissipation is thus
rcmoved ; and positive institutions which render
dcpendent poverty so general wcaken that dis-
grace, which for the best and most humane rea-
sons ought to be attached to it.

The poor laws of England were undoubtedly
institutcd for the most benevolent purpose ; but
it is evident they have faiied in attaining it. They

Chap. n^ POPULATION. 175

Sobiect of Poor Laws, continued»

#l||aiiil}r mit^;ate some cases of severe distress

yijfch in^;fat otherwise occur, thougfa Üie State of

tfae.poQT wbo are supported by parishes, consider-

cd in alt its circumstaiices is very miserable. But

OK of die principal objections to the system is,

tfot fix the assistance which some of the poc»* re-

cdvCy io itself ahnost a dpubtfiil blessing, the

whole dass of common people of England is sub-

jccted to a set of grating, inconvenient, and tyran-

lucal laws, totaUy inconsistent with the genuine

spirit of the Constitution. The whole business of

Settlements, even in its present amended State, is

CQDtradictory to all ideas of freedom. The parish

persecution of men whose &milies ar^ likely to

become chargeable, and of poor women who are

oear Ijrii^ in, is a most disgraceful and disgusting

tynumy. And the obstructions continually occa-

aoued in the market of labor by these laws have a

instant tendency, to add to tlie difficulties of

thosc who are stru^ling to support themselves

widx)ut assistance.

These evils attendant on the poor laws seem to
be irremediable. If assistance l>e to be distribut-
td to a certain class of peop|e, a power must be
lodged somewhere of discrimina ting the proper
objects, and of managing the conce ras of the insti-

176 ESSAY ON 6ook W

Subject of Poor Laws, continued.

tutions that are necessary ; but any great interfcr-
ence with the affiurs of other people is a species Ol
tyranny, and in the common course of things, thc
exercise of this power may be expected to becomc
grating to those who are driven to ask for suf^iort
The tyranny of justices, churchwardens, and ovcr
seers, is a common complaint among the poor
but the &ult does not lie so much in these persoos
who probably before they were in power werc no
worse than other people» but in the nature of al
such institutions.

I fecl persuaded, that if the pocx* laws had nevci
existed in this country, though there might havi
been a few more instances of very severe distress
the aggregate muss of happiness among thc com-
mon pcoplc would havc l^ecn much greater thai
it is at prcscnt.

The radical dcfcct of all svstems of the kind L

that of tending to incrcase population without in
crcasiiig the mciuis for its support, and by thu
deprcssing the condition of those that are not rc
ücvcd by parishcs to crcate more poor. If, indeed
we cxaminc some of our Statutes strictly with rc
ferencc to thc principle of ixjpulation, we shall fin
that they attempl an absolute impossibilit}* ; an

Chap. FI. POPULATION. 177

Subject of Poor Laws, continued.

cannot be surprised therefore, that they should
iC^onstantly fail in the attainment of their object.

The famous 43d of Elizabeth, which has been

Si€^ often referred to and admired, enacts, that the

O'verseers of the poor, " shall take order from timc

•* to time, by and with the consent of two or more

*• justices, for setting to work the children of all

such whose parents shall not by the said per-

sons be thought able to keep and .maintain their

children ; and also such persons married or un-

married, as having no means to maintain them»

use no ordinary and daily trade of life to get dieir

" living by. And also to raise, weekly or other-

" wise, by taxation of every inhabitant, and every

** occupier of lands in the said parish, (in such

** competent sums as they shall think fit) a conve-

" nient stock of flax, hemp, wool, thread, iron,

** and other necessary wäre and stuff, to set the

"poor to work.''

What is this but saying that the funds for the
maintenance of labor in this country may be in-
otased at will, and without limit, by ^fiat of go-
vemment, or an assessment of the overseers.
StricÜy speaking, this clause is as arrogant and as
absurd as if it had enacted that two ears of wheat
vol. iL a a

178 ESSAY ON Book IIL

Subject of Poor I^ws, continued.

should in future grow where onc oiüy had grown
bcfore. Canute, when hc commandcd thc waves
not to wet his princely foot, did not in reality as*
sume a greater power over tlic laws of nature.
No directions arc given to the overseers how to
increase the fiinds for tlie maintenancc of labor ;
the necessity of industry, economy, and enlighten-
edexertion, in the management of agricultuFal
and commercial capital is not insisted on for this
purpose ; but it is expectcd that a miraculous in-
crease of these fqnds should immediately foliow
an edict of the govemment used at the discretion
of some ignorant parish oificers.

If this clause wcre rcally and fjonoßdc put in cxc-
cution, and the shame attending thc rccciving of
}xirish assistance wom off, cvcrj- luboring niaji
might marrj' as early as hc pleascd, undcr thc ccr-
tain prospect of having all his childrcn propcrly
provided for ; and as according to thc supposition,
thcre would be no check to population from thc
conscqucnccs of poverty aftcr marriagc, die in-
crease of people would bc rapid bcyond cxumplc
in old States. After what lias bccn said in thc
former parts of this work it is sul)mittcd to thc
nadcr, whcthcr the utmost excrtions of thc most

(Mp. VI. POPULATION. 179

Subject of Poor Laws, continued.

cnlightened govemment could, in this case, make
the food keep pace with the population, much less
a mere arbitraiy edict, the tendency of which b
certainly rather to diminish than to increase the
funds for the maintenance of productive labor.

In the actual circumstances of every country,
the prolific power of nature seems to be always
ready to exert nearly its füll force ; but within the
Umit of possibility, there is nothing perhaps more
improbable, or more out of the reach of any go-
vemment to effect, than the direction of the indus-
try of its subjects in such a manner as to produce
4e greatest quantity of human sustenance tliat the
earth could bear, It evidently could not be done
^out the most complete violation of the law of
property, from which every thing that is valuable
to man has hidierto arisen. Such is tlie disposition
tomarry, particularly in very young people, that if
the difficulties of providing for a family were en-
tirely removed, very few would remain single at
twenty-two. But what statesman or rational go-
vemment could propose, that all animal food should
be prohibited, that no horses should be used for
business or pleasure, that all the people should
live upon potatoes, and that the whole industry of

180 ESSAY ON Book in.

Sübject of Poor Laws, continued.

^m^

the nation should be exerted in the production of
them, except what was necessar}^ for the mere nc-
eessaries of cloathing and houses. Could such
arevolution be effected, would it be desirable;
particularly as in a few years, notwithstanding
all these exertions, want, with less resource than
cver, would inevitably recur.

After a country has once ceascd to be in the
peculiar Situation of a new colony , we shall always
find, that m the actual State of its cultivation, or in
that State which may rationally be expectcd front
tfie most enlightened govemment, the increase of
its food can never allow for any length of time an
unrcstricted increase of popuIation ; and thcrcforc
the due execution of the clause in the 43d of
Elizabeth, as a permanent law, is a physical
impossibility.

It will be said perhaps, that the fact contradicts
the theory, and that the clause in question has rc-
mained in force, and has been exceuttd during
the last two hundred years* In answcr to this I
should say without hesitation, that it has not real-
ly been executed ; and that it is merely owing to
its incompletc execution, that it rcmains on out
Statute book at prescnt«

Chap, FL POPULATION. I8l

Subject of Poor Laws, continued.

i*Mr-

The scanty relief granted to persons in distress,
'ihe capricious and insulting- manner in which it is
sometimes distributed by the overseers, and tte
jnatural and becoming pride not yet quite extinct
.aoncHig the peasantry of England, have deterred
che mcHie thinking and virtuous patt öf them fix)m
venturing on marriage, without some better pros-
pect of maintaining their families than mere parish
assistance« The desire of bettering our condition
and the fear of making it worse, like the vis me-
dkatrix natura in physicks, is the vis medicatrix
reipubUea in politics, and is continually counter-
icting the disorders arising from narrow human
iDstitutions. In spite of the prejudices in favor of
Population, and the direct encouragements to mar-
nage from the poor laws, it operates as a preven-
tive check to mcrease ; and happy for this country
is it that it does so. But besides tliat spirit of
independence and prudence which chccks the
frequency of marriage notwithstanding the en-
couragements of the poor laws, these laws them-
seives occasion a check of no inconsiderable mag-
nitude, and thus counteract with one ha^d what
they encomage with the other. As each parish is
<)bliged to maintain its own poor, it is naturally

182 ESSAY ON Book UL

Subject of Poor Laws^ continued.

fearful of increasing their number, and evciy
landholder is in consequence more inclined to puU
down than to biüld cottages. This deficicncy of
cottages operates necessarily as a strong check to
marriage, and this check is probably the principal
reason why we have been able to continue the
System of the poor laws so long.

Those who are not prevented for a time frora
manying by diese causes, are eithcr relieved veiy
scantily at their own homes, where they sufier all
the consequences arising from squalid poverty ;
or they are crowded together in close and un-
wholesome workhouses, where a great mortality
almost universally takes place, particularly among
the young children. Tlie dreadful account givcn
by Jonas Hanway of the treatment of piirish chil-
dren in London is well kno\%7i ; and it appcars
from Mr. Howlett and othcr writers that in somc
parts of the country their Situation is not very
much better. A grcat part of the redundant po-
pulation occasioncd by the poor laws is thus ta-
kcn ofl' by the Operation of the laws thcmsclves,
or at least by their ill execution. The rcniaining
part which survives, by causing the funds for the
maintenance of labor to be dividcd among a grcat-

Chap. VI. POPULATION. 183

Subject of Poor Laws, continued.

er number than can be properly maintained by

them, and by tuming a considerable share from

the Support of the diiigent and careful workman,

to the Support of the idle and the negligent, depres-

ses the condition of all those w ho are out of the

workhouses, forces more everj' year into them,

and has ultimately produced the enormous evil

which we all so justly deplore, that of the great

and unnatural proportion of the people which is

DOW become dependent upon charity.

If this be a just representation of the manner in
which the clause in question has been executed,
and of the eflFects which it has produced, it must
be allowed, that we have practiced an unpardona-
ble deceit upon the poor, and have promised what
wehave been very far from performing. It may
be asserted without danger of exaggeration, that
the poor laws have destroyed many more livcs
4en they have prcserved.

The attcmpts to employ the poor on any great
Scale in manufactures have almost mvariably fiul-
ed,and the stock and materials have been wasted.
In those few parishes which, by better managemen^
orlarger funds, have l:)een enablcd to perscvcrc in
this System, the effect of these new manufactures
in the market must have been to throw out oC ^^m

184 ESSAY ON Book IIL

Subject of Poor Laws, continued«

ployment many independent workmen who wcrc
before engaged' in fabrications of a similar nature.
This effcct has been placed in a strong point of
view by Daniel de Foc, in an address to parlia-
mcnty entitled, G'w'ing alms no charity. Si)eaking
of the empIo}mient of parish cliildren in manufac-
tiires he says, For eveiy skein of worsted thesc poor
chiidrcn spin there miist be a skcin the less spun
by some poor family that spun it before; and for
cvcr}' piece of bays so made in London, t}icrc must
be a piccc the less made at Colchester, or some-
wherc eise. • Sir F. M. Eden, on the same sub-
ject, observcs, that whether moi^s and brooms are
made by parish chiidrcn orb) private worknun, no
more can Ixi sold than the pul^lic is in want of.'

> See extracls from Daniel de l'oe, \\\ Sir F. M. Eden's
valiiable work on the poor, vol. i. p. 261.

' Sir F. Eden, speaking of the Ji\jppf)sc(l rij;ht of the
poor to bc supplicd wilh employnicnt while ahlc to work,
und with a maintenance when incapaciiated frini labpr,
vcry justly remarks, " It may howevcr be doiihtcd, whc-
'*therany light, ihc gratification of which sccms lo bc im-
" practicable, can bc said lo exist," vol. i. p. 447. No
man has collected so many matcrials for forming a judg-
ment on eflects of the poor laws as Sir F. Eden^ and the
result hc thus expresses. »• Upontlie wholc ihcreforc therc
** sccms to be just grounds for conrtuding, that the sum

},FL POPULATION. 185

Subject of Poor Laws, continued.

will be Said perhaps that the same reasoning
t be applied to any new capital brought into
»etition in a particular trade or manufacture,
1 can rarely be done without injuring, m some
c, those that were engaged in it before. But
is a material difierence in the two cases. In
the competition is perfecüy fair, and what
man on entering into business must lay his
int to. He may rest secure that he will not
pplanted, unless his competitor possess supe->
kill and industry. In the other case, the com-
on is supported by a' great boutity, by which
s, notwithstanding very inferior skill and in-
jr (Ml the part of his competitors, the indepen*
¥orkman m ly be undersold, and unjustly ex-
d fh>m the market« He himself perhaps is
to contribnte to this competition against his
eamings, and the funds for the maintenance
or are thus tumed from the support of a trade
I yields a proper profit, to one which cannot
ain itself without a bounty. It should be

Kxl to be expected from a compulsory maintenance
e poor will be far out-balanced by the sum of evil
b it will inevitahly create/' vol. i. p. 467. I am
to have the sanction of so practical an inquirer to
inion of the poor laws.

i. bb

186 * ESSAY ON Book i/7.

Subject of Poor Laws^ continued.

observed in general that when a fimd for the main-
' tenance of labor is raised by assessment, die
greatest part of it is not a new capital brought into
trade, but an old one, which before was much moir
profitably employed, tumed intoa new channd«
The farmer pays to the poor's rates for the en-
couragement of a bad and unprofitable manufiic-
ture, what he would have employed on his land
with infinitely more advantage to his country.
In the one casc, the funds for the maintenanoe
of labor are daily diminished ; in the other, daily
increased. And this obvious tendency of asseas-
ments for the employment of the poor, to decrease
the real funds for the maintenanoe of labor in any
country, aggravates the absurditj' of supposing
that it is in the jxiwer of a govemmcnt to find em-
ployment for all its subjects, however &st thcy
may increase.

It is not intended that these reasonmgs should
be applied against every mode of cmploying the
poor on a limited scale, and with such restrictions
as may not encourage at the samc timc thtir in-
crease. I would never wish to push general prin-
ciplcs too far, tliou^h I think that they ought al-
ways to be kept in view. In particular cases, the
individual gocxl to be obtained may Ixr so grcat^

Ch^.rL POPULATION. 187

Sabject of Poor Laws^ continued«

- -^^siA the general evil so slight, that the former may
«karly overfoalance the latter.

The mtention is merely to show, that the poor
laws as a general System are founded on a gross
; and that the common declamation on the
bject of the poor, which we see so often in print,

^nd hear continually in conversation, namely, that
tiie market price of labor ought always to be suffi-
cient decendy to support a family, and that em«
fdoyment ought to be found for all those who are
willing tö work is in effect to say, that the funds
finr the maintenance of labor in this country are
not only infinite, but might be made to increase
wUh such rapidity, that supposing us to have at
fiesent six millions of laborers, including their fa-
ules, we might have 96 millions in another Cen-
tury ; or if these funds had been properly mana«
ged since the be^nning of the reign of Edward L
supposing that there were then only two millions of
kdxxierSy we might now have possessed above four
million millions of laborers, or about four thousand
times as many laborers as it has been calculated
äiat there are people now on the &ce of the earth.

CHAPTER VII.

Of mcreasing fFealth as it affects the Condititm

of the Poor.

THE professed object of Dr. Smith's inqui*
17 is, the nature and causes of the wealth of na-
tions. There is another however perhaps stiO
more interesting, which he occasionally mixes with
it, the causes that aflfect the happiness and comfort
of the lower orders of societ)*, which in everj' na-
tion form the most numeroits class. I am suffi-
ciently aware of the near conncxion of these two
subjfcts, and that generally speaking, the causes
which contribute to increasc the wealth of a statc
tend also to increasc the happiness of the lower
classes of the people. But perhaps Dr. Smith has
considered these two inquirics, as still more nearljr
connected than they really are ; at least he has not
stopped to take notice of those instances, where the
wealth of a society may increasc according to his
definition of wealth, without baving a proportional
tendency to increasc the comforts of the laboring*
part of it.

ESSAY ON, &?«?. 189

Of incrcasing wealth as it affects, Is^c.

I do not mean to enter into any philosophiöal

^iscussion of what constitutes the proper happiness

man, but shall merely consider two universally

:nowledged ingredients, the command of the

mmecessaries and comforts of life, and the possession

of health.

The comforts of the laboring poor must neces-
sarily depend upon the funds destined for the main-
tenance of labor ; and will generally be in propor- .'
tion to the rapidity of their increase, The demand }
fijT labor, which such increase occasions, will of
coorse raisc the valiie of labor ; and tili the addi-
tional numbcr of hands required are reared, the in-
creased funds will be ^liiptributed to the same num-
ber of persons as before, and therefore every la-
borer will live comparativel)i at his ease. The
entjr of Dr. Smith lies in representing ever}' in-
crcTse of the revenue or stock of a society, as a pro-
portional increase of these funds. Such surplus
stock or revenue will indeed always be considered
bjr the individual possessing it, as an additional
fimd finom which he may maintain more labor ; but
widi regard to the whole country , it will not be an
eftctual fund for the maintenance of an additional
nomber of laborers, unless part of it be convertible
ioto an additional quantity of provisions ; and it

190 ESSAY ON Book lU.

Of increaing wealth as it afTects

will not bc SO convertible where the increase has
ariaen merely from the produce of labor, and not
fix>m produce of the land. A distinction may
in this case occur between the number of handi
which the stock of the society could employ and
the number which its territory can maintain.

Dr. Smith defines the wealth of a State to be
the annual produce of its land and labor. This
definition evidently includes manufactured pro-
duce as well as the produce of the island. NonT
supposing a nation for a course of years to add
what it saved from its yearly revenue to its manu-
&cturing capital solely, and not to its capital em-
ployed upon land, it is evi^^ that it might grow
richer according to the above definition, without
a power ofsupi)ortinj| a greater numlDcrof laborc-rs,
and therefore without any increase in the real funds
for the maintenance of labor. There would not-
withstanding be a demand for labor, from the ex-
tension of manufacturing capital. This demand
would of course raise the price of labor ; but if the
yearly stock of provisions in the countrj- were not
increasing, this rise would soon tum out to bc
merely nominal, as the price of provisions musl
necessarily rise with it The demand for manu-
facturing laborers would probably entice somc

^ *.■»•»■

Ch^, ril. POPULATION. 191

thc Condition ofthc Poor.

Aom private service, and some even from agri-

culture ; but we will suppose any effccts of this

Idnd on agriculture to be compensated by improve-

moents in the instruments or mode of culture, and

€he quantity of provisions therefore to remain the

same. Iraprovements in manufacturing machine-

¥7 would of course take place ; and this circum-

stance, added to the greater number of hands em.

ployed in manufactures, would augment consider-

ably the annual produce of the labor of the country.

The wealth therefore of the country would be in-

creasing annually according to the definition, and

m^t not be increasing very slowly. '

1 I havc supposed here a case which, in a landed na*
tkm« l allow to be very improbable in fact ; but approxl-
Butions to it are perhaps not unTrequently taking place.
Mf Intention is merely to show, that the funds for the
naintenance of labor do not increase exactly in proportioti
tothe increase in the prodnce of the land and labor of a
country, but with the same increase of produce, may be
nore or Icss favorable to the laborer, according as the
iBcitase has arisen principally from agriculture or from
BttDQfactures. On the supposition of a physical impos-
sSbility of increasing the food of a country it is evident,
tktt by improvements in machinery it might grow yearly
ncher in the exchangeable value of its manufactured.
produce, but the laborer though he might be better clothed
and lodgedj could not be better fed.

■bitatär^..

192 ESSAY ON Book lU.

Of increasing irealth as it affects

The question is, how far wealth increasing in
this way has a tendency to better the condition of
the laboring poor. It is a self-evident proposition,
that any general advance in the price of labor, the
stock of provisions remaining the same, can odIj
be a nominal advance, as it must shortly be follow-
ed by a proportional rise in provisions. The in-
crease in the price of labor which we have suppos-
ed, would have no permanent eifect therefore in
giving to the laboring poor a greater command
over the necessaries of life. In this respect thcy
would be nearly in the same State as before. In
some otlier respects they would be in a worx
State. ''A greater proportion of them would bc
employed in manufacturcs, and a smaller propor-
tion in agriculturc. And this cxchangc of profes-
sions will be allowed, I think, by all to be very
unfavorable to health, one esscntial ingredient of
happiness, and to be further disadvantageous on
account of the qreater uncertainty of manufactur-
ing labor, arising from the capricious taste of man,
the accidents of war, and othcr causes which oc-
casionally produce very severe distress among the
lowcr classes of society. On the State of the poor
employed in manufactories, with respect to health
and other circumstances which afTcct their happi-

Otap. FJL POPULATION. 19S

the Condition of the Poor.

ness, I will beg leave to quote a passage frora Dr.

Aikin's description of the country round Mcin-

chester.

" The invention and improvements of machines

*' to shorten labor have had a surprising influence
•* to extend our trade, and also to call in hands
" from all parts, especially children for the cotton
" mills. It is the wise plan of providence, that in
" this life there shall be no good without its at-
" tendant inconvenience. There are many which
" are too obvious in these cotton mills and similar
" factories, which counteract that increase of po-
"pulation usu^ly consequent on the improved
" fecility of labor. In these, children of very ten-
" der age are employed, many of thcm coUected
" from the uorkhouses in London and Westmin-
" ster, and transported in crowds as apprentices
" to masters, resident many hundred miles distant,
** where they serve unknown, unprotected, and for-
** gotten by those to whose care nature or the laws
* had consigned them. These children are usually
** too long confmed to work in close roonis, often
" during the whole nig;ht. The air thcy breathe
** from the oil, &.c. employcd in the machinery,
** and other cir cumstances, is iiijurious ; little at-
voL iL c c

194 £SSAY ON Büok lU,

Of increasing wealth as It aßccts

^^ tention is paid to tlicir cleanliness ; and frequcnt
*^ ch^ges from a warm and deosc to a cold and
" thin atmosphcre are prcdisposing causes to sick*
ness and disabiliA', and particularly to the epide-
noic fever which is so generally to be mct with
'* in, thesi^ faptories. It is also much to be qiues-
^* tioiiedi if Society does not rcceivc detriment
^^ from the manncr in which children are thus em-
*^ ployed during thcir early years. They are not gc-
" ncrally strong to labor, or capablc of pursuing
any other branch of business wlicn the tcrm of
their apprenticeship expirqs. The females are
wholly uninstructed in sowing, knitting» aiid
" other domestic afFairs, rcquisite to make them
** notable and frugal wivcs and mothcrü. This is
" a very great niislbrtunc to thcm and the public,
'' as is sadly provcd by a comj)urison of the fami-
** lies of laborers in husbandr\. and thosc of ma-
" nufacturers in genenil. In the fonner we meet
*' with neatness, cleanliness, and comfort ; in the
*' latter, with filth, rags, and jxnerty, although
*' their u-ages may be nearly doul^k* to üiose of
" the husbandman. It must be addcd üiat the
" want ofcürly religious instnictiou and i xample,
*^ and the numerous and indiscriniinatc asbociation

Omp. rn. POPULATION. 195

ttie Condition of the Poov.

" in these btiildings, are ver}^ unfavorable to their
" ftiture conduct in life."*

In addition to the evils mentioned in this pas-
sage, we all know how subject particular manufiic-
ture^ are to fail, from the caprice of taste, or the
accldent of i^^ar, The weavers of Spitalfields
were plunged into the most severe distress by the
fiishion of muslins instead of julks ; and numbcrs
of the workmen in Sheffield and Bimuiigham were
for a tinie thrown out of employmcnt, frotn the
adoption of shoe-strings and covered buttons, in-
stead of buckles and metal buttons. Our manu-
bcturesy taken in the mass, have incruascd with
great rapidity, but in particular places they have
iatied, and the parishes where this has hapfx*ned
alre invariably loaded with a crowd of poor in the

most distressed and miserable condition. In tho

•

work of Dr. Aikin just alludcd to, it appears that
the register for the collcgiate church at Manches-
ter, from Christmas 1793 to Christ nlas 1794,stat(.tl
a decrcuse of 168 marriiigcs, 538 christcnings.

' Page 219. Endeavors have beew made, Dr.Aikin jays,
to rtmedy these cvils, and in some factories the« !iavr
bccn attended with succcss. An acl of parliam'-ut lias of
latc also passed on this subject, from which it is hoped
that much good will result.

196 ESSAY ON Book HI.

Of incrcasing wealth as it affects

and 250 burials. And in the parish of Rochdale
in tlie neighborhood, a still more melancholy re-
duction, in proportion to the number of people^
took place. In 1792 tlie births wcre 746, the
burials 646, and the marriages 339. In 1794 the
births were 373, the burials 671, and the marri-
ages 199. The cause of this suddcn check to
population was ihe commcncement of the war, and
the failure of commercial credit, which occurred
about this time ; and such a check could not have
taken place in so sudden a manner, withöut bcing*
occasioned by the most severe distress.

Under such circumstances of Situation, unless
the increase of the riches of a countrj- from nia-
nufactures give the lower classc's of the society^
on an average, a dceidedly greater command over
the necessarics and eonvenicnces of life, ii will
notappear that their condiilon is inijTovcd.

It will be Said perhaps, ihat ihe adv;;nce in thr
pricc of provisions will immediately tum somc
additionul capital into the Channel of agricukure,.
and thus o<xasion a much greater produce. But
from experience it appears, that this is an efiect
which sometimes follows ver}* slouly, particularly
if heavy taxes that affect agricultural industr}-^

Chap. VIL POPULATION. 197

the Condition of the Poor.

and an advance in the price of labor, had preceded
the advance in the price of provisions,

It may also be said, that the additional capital
of the nation would enablc it to import provisions
sufficient for the maintenance of those w hom its
stock could employ. A small country with a
large navy, and great accommodations for inlaiid
carnage, may indeed import and distribute an
e&ctual quantit}»^ of provisions ; but in large
landed nations, if they may be so called, an im-
portation adequate at all times to the dcmand is
scarcely possible.

It seems in great measurc to have escapcd
attention, tliat a nation which, from its extent of
territory and popuhrion, must necessarily siipport
the greater part of its peoplc on the produce of its
cwm soil, but which yet in average ycars draws a
small portion of its com from abroad, is in a
much more precarious Situation, with regard to
the constancy of its supplies, than such statcs as
diaw almost the whole of their provisions from
other countries, The demands of Holland and
Hamburgh may be known with considenible ac-
curacy by those who supply them. If thcy in-
crease, they increase gradually, and are not sub-
jcct from year to year to any great and suddcn

198 ESSAY ON Book HL

Of increasrn^ wealth as it afiects

yariatioiis. But it is othenvisc with such a coQn-
try as England. Supposing it, in avenigc years,
tu want about four hundred thousand quarters of
wheat. Such a demand will of coursc be vcrv
easily snpplied. But a year of dcrficient crops oc-
curs, and thc dcmanci is suddenly two millions of
qiiarters. If thc demand had Ixrcn on an avcrage
two millions, it might pcrhai>s havc bcen adequate-
ly supplicd, from the extendcdagriculturcof thoae
countries which are in the habit of exporting com :
but we cannot expect that it can easily Ix* answer-
cd thus suddenly ; and indeed \vc know from ex-
perience that an unusual demand of this naturc^
in a nation aipable of paying for it, cannot ex Ist,
without niising the price of w licat \ ery considcr-
ably in all the ports of Eiiro{>c. Hamburg, Hol-
land, and tlie jK)rtsof the Bahic, feit very sensibly
the high priccs of England during the latc s^uircity ;
and I have been informed from \ cn szdocI autho-
rity, that the price of bread in New York was
little inferior to the highcst price in London.

A nation possessed of a large territor)' is un-
avoidably subjcct to this uncertainty in its means
of subsistcnee, when the coinincrcial [lart of its
populatiou is either equal to or has inercaserl
beyond the surplus produee of its cultivators. No

Cbap. FIL POPULATION. 199

the CooditioD of the Poor.

resenre being in these cases left in exportation,
the füll eflfect of every deficiency from unfiivorablc
sG9ß0M must necessarily be feit ; and diough the
richea of such a country niay enable it for a certain
pmod to continue raising the nominal price of
wages, so as to givc the Imver classes of the Socie-
ty, a power of purchasing imported com at a high
price ; yet, as a sudden demand can very seldom
be fulty answered, the competition in the market
will iavariabiy raise the price of provisions, in ftiU
propartion to the advance in the price of labor ;
the lower classes will be but little relieved ; and
tbe dearth will operate severely throughout all the
lanks of Society.

According to the natural order of things, years
of scarcity must occasionally recur in all hinded
nations. They ought idways therefore to enter in-
ta our consideration ; and the prosperity of any
country may justly be considered as precarious, in
wUch the funds for the maintenance of labor arc
liable to great and sudden fiuctuations from everj
unfiivorable Variation in the seasons.

But putting, for the present, years of scarcity
cmt of the question ; whcn the conimcrcial p()j)ula-
tkn of any country increases so much beyond the
sui|>his.produce of the culüvators, that the dcmund

200 ESSAY ON Book IL

Of increasing wealth as it afiecU

for imported com is not casily supplied, and tl
price riscs in proportion to tlie price of wages, n
furtlKT increase of riches will have any tendenc
to give thc laborer a greater command over tt
necessarics of life. In the progress of wealth th
will naturally take place ; either from the largenc
of the supply wanted ; the increased distance finoi
which it is brought, and consequenüy thc incres
ed cxpense of importation ; the greater consum]
tion of it in the countries in which it is usuai
purchased ; or what must unavoidably happen, tl
neccssity of a greater distance of inland carriage
these countries. Such a nation, by increasing i:
dustr}', and increasing ingc-nuit)' in the improv
mcnt of macliincry, may still ^ on increasing tl
yearly c|uanlity of its manufacturcd producc ; b
its funds for llic maintcnancc of lal)or, and cons
quently its population will Ix! jxrrfcctly stiitionar
This poiut is thc natural limit to thc population
all comnicrcial statesJ In countries af a gre

' Sir Jiime^ Slcnart's Political r.conomy» »ol. i. b
c. xviii p. 119. It is probable that Holland bcforc the
Vülution \yv\ neaiiy rtMchf I ihis pnini, not so niuch ho
cvcr fmin ibc «üTiculiy of oblainini; »norc foreij^ com, \
from thc vtry hcuvy laxes wbich wcrc im|>o5ed on t!
finit ncccsüary of life. All thc grcat landcd nalions of £

CSk^. riL POPULATION. 201

the condition of the Poor.

distaiice firom this limity an eiFect approaching to

what has been here described will take place when-

cver the march of commerce and manufactures is

more rapid than that of agriculture. During the

last ten or twelve years it cannot be doubted, that

the annual produce of the land and latxx* of Eng-

Jand has very rapidly increased, and in conse-

-quence the nominal \vages of labor have gready in-

-cieased ; but the real recompense of the laborer,

^hough increased, has not increased in proportion.

That every increuse of tlie stock or rcvenue of

at nation cannot be considered as an increase of the

nal funds for the maintenance of labor, and there-

Skxt cannot have the same good effcct upon the

condition of the poor, will appear in a strong light

if the argument be applied to China.

Dr. Smith observes, that China has probably
Wng been as rieh as the nature of her laws and
bsätutions will admit ; but that, with other laws
^nd institutions, and if foreign commerce were
lidd in honor she might still l)e much richer.
The question is, would such an iucrcasc of wcalth
be an increase of the real funds for the maintenance

ope are ccrtainly at a considerable distance from this point
preseDt.

/• ii. d d

202 £SSAY ON ßm* lU.

Of increasing wealth as It affects

of labor, and consequently tend to place the lowcr
classes of people in China in a ;state of greater
plenty ?

If trade and foreign commerce were lidd in
great honor in China, it is evident, that frtmi die
great number of laborers, and the cheapness C3f
labor, shc might work up manufactures for icMreign
sale to an immense amount. It is equally evident,
that from the great bulk of provisions, and the amaiu
ing extent of her inland territory, ^ could nol
in retuni import such a quantity as woukl be any
sensible addition to the annual stock of suhsistmor
in the country. Her immense amount of laaim*
fectures therefore she would exchange chiefly for
luxuries coliccted from all parts of the world* At
present it api^ars that no labor wliatevcr is ^xuied
in the production of food. The countr}* is rather
overpeoplcd in proponion to wluit its stock caa
employ, and kibor in therefore so abundant thal
no pains are takcn to abridj^e it. Tlie consequencc
of this is probably the greatcst pn)duclion of food
that the soil caii possibly afford ; for it will be gc-
nerally obscrved, tliat proccsses for abrid^ng
agricultund labor, thoiigh they may ciiablc a farm-
er to liring a ccrtain quantity of grain cheaper to
market, tcnJ rather to diminish tlian inca'ase the
wholc producc. An immense ca])ital could not

CÜ^. m, POPULATION. 203

the condition of the Poor.

be employed in China in preparing manufactures
for Foreign trade, without taking off so many ia-
bwers from agriculture, as to alter this State of
diings, and in some degree, to diminish the pro-
duce of the country. The demand for manufac*
turing iaborers would naturally raise the price of
hbor; but as the quantity of subsistence woiild
not be increased, the price of provisions woukl
kcep pace with it, or even more than keep pace
wich k, if the quantity of provisions were really
decreaising. The country would however be evi-
dently advancing in wealth ; the excliangeable va-
hie of the annual produce of its kind aixl labor
would be annually augmented ; yct the real funds
fbr the m^ntenance of labor would be stationary
or even declining ; and consequently the increas-
ing weahh of the nation would tend rather to de-
press than to raise the condition of the poorJ

* The condition of the poor in China is, indeed, vcry
mtimtblc at present ; but this is not owing to their waot
of fiyreign commercey but to their extreme tendency to
BUUTiAge and increase ; and if this tendency were to con-
tiime the aame, the only way in which the introduction of
a greater number of manufactures could possibly make
the lowcr classes of people richer, would be by increasing
the mortality amongst them^ which is certainly not a very
öesirable mode of growing rieh.

204 ESSAY ON ßook IIL

Of increasing wealth fts it affects

With regard to the command ovcr the neccssaries
of life tliey would be in die same or radier worse
State than l^cFore ; and a great part of them would
have exchanged the healthy labors of agriculture
for the unhealthy occupations of manufacturin^
industiy.

The argumcnt perhaps appairs clearer when
applied to China, because it is generally aHowed
that its wealth has long been stationary, and hs

•

soil cultivated nearly to the utmost. With regard
to any other country it might always bc a matter
of dispute, at which of the two periods compared,
wealth was increasing the fastest, as it is upoD the
rapidity of the increase of wealth at any particular
period, that Dr. Smith says, the condition of the
jjoor depends. It is evident however, that two
nations might increase exactiy with the same ra-
pidity in the cxchangeable viiluc of the annual
produce of their land and labor ; yet, if one had
applied itself chiefly to agriculture, and the other
chiefly to commerce, the funds for the niainte-
nance of labor, and consequcntly the cffcct of the
increase of wealth in ejich nation, would be ex-
tremely different. In that which had applied itself
chiefly to agriculture the poor would live in grcat-
cr plenty, and population would rapidly increase.

Ck^ FIT. POPULATION. 205

the condition of Ihe Poor.

Inthatwhich had applied itself chiefly to com-
merce the poor would be comparatively but little
benefited, and consequently population would either
be stationaiy or ihcrease veiy slowh'. ^

* The condition of the laboring poor, supposing their
Mwts to remain the same, cannot be very essenlially im-
pfwcd but by givinj^ them a greater command over the
meins of subsistence. But any advantage of this kind
inürt from its nature be temporary, and is therefore
rcaUy of less valae to them than any permanent change
in tbeir habits. But manufactures by inspiring a taste
fercomforts^ tend to promotea favorable change in these
Inbits, and in this way perhaps counterbalance all their
&«d?antagea. The laboring classes of society in nations
nereiy agricultural are generally on ihe whole poorer
tlian in manufacturing nations, though less subject to
tliose occasional variations which among manufacturers
often produce the most severe distress. But the consi-
derations which relate to a change of habits in the poor
beloi^ more properly to a subsequent part of this work.

CHAPTER VlIL

Ofthe DefimHam of JFealth. Agricultural and

Commercial Systems.

THERK are none of the definitions of the
wealth of a State that are not liable to some objcc-
tions. If we take the gross produce of the land it
is evident, diat the funds for the maintenance of
hbor, the popuIation, and the weahh may increaac
very rapidly, while the nation is apparently poor,
and has ven^ little disposeable revennc. If wc
take Dr. Smith's definition, wealth may increase,
as has bcfore been shown, without tciulinff to in-
crease the funds for the maintenance of lalx>r and
the populatton. If we take the clcar surplus pro-
duce of the land, according to the Economists, in
this case the funds for the maintenance of labor
and the population may increase, without an in-
crease of w(ralth, as in the instance of tlie cultiva-
tion of new bnds, which will p:iy a profit but not
a rent ; and vice versa^ wealth may increasc with.
out increasing the funds for die maintriuince ot

ESSAY ON, £?<?. 207

3x:

Of the definitions of wealth. Üc«

labor, and the population, as in the instance of
improvements in agricultural Instruments, and in
the mode of agriculture, which may make the
Und yield the same produce, with fewer persons
€mployed upon it ; and consequently the dispose-
dbte wealth or revenue would be increased without
a power of supporting a greater number of people.
The objections however to the two last defini-
tions do not prove that they are incorrect; but
merely that an increase of wealdi, though generally,
is not necessarily and invariably accompanied by
WH increase of the funds for the maintenance of
hbor, and consequently by the power of support-
bg a greater number of i^eople, or of enabiing
Ae former number to live in greater plentj' and
Ittppiness.

Whichever of these two definitions is adopted

asdie best criterion of the wealth, ix)wer, and

fn)spmty of a State, the position of the Economists

will always remain tnie, ihat the surplus produce

of ibe cultivators is the great fund which ultimately

pajs aU those who are not employed upon die land.

Throughout the wholc world the number of ma-

nu&cturers, of proprietors, and of persons engaged

m the various civil and military professions, must

be exacdy proportioned to this surplus produce.

208 ESSAY ON Book

Ofthe definitions of wealth.

and cannot in the naturc of things increase bcy
it. If the earth had becn so niggardly of
produce as to oblige all her inhabitants to k
for it, no manufacturers or idle [)ersons could <
have existed. But her first intercourse with i
was a voluntary present, not vcry large ind<
but suflicient as a fund for his subsistence, tili
the proper exercise of his faculties he could ]
eure a greater. In proportion as the labcM*
ingenuity of man exercised upon the land, li
incrcased this surplus produce, leisure has b
given to a greater nuniber of persons to emj
themselves in all the inventions which embel
civilized life. And though, in its turn, the de
to profit In ihcsc inventions has greatly cor
butcd to siiinulatc die cultivators to increase tl
surplus produce ; yet the ordcr of prccedcno
clearly the surplus produce; bccause the fu
for the subsistencc of the manufacturcr must
advanccd to him bcfore he can complcte his wo
and if \ve were to imagine, that we could c<
mand this surplus produce, whenevcr we wi
it, !)y forcing manufactures, we should be quic
admonishcd of our gross error, by the inadeqi
support which iJie workman would reccive,
spitc of ;iny v\^' that might takc i)lace in his

Chap. VUI. POPULATION. 209

A^ricuhui*al and commercial Systems.

minal wages. If in asserting the peculiar produc-

tiveness of labor employed upon land, we look

only to the clear monied rent yielded to a certain

mimber of proprietors, we undoubtedly consider

Ac subject in a very contracted point of view.

The quaatity of the siirplus produce of the culti-

vatCHS is indeed in part measured by this clear

Tttit, but its real value consists in its afibrding the

means of subsistenee, and the materials of cloath-

ii^ and lodging to a certain number of peopie,

•coonling to its extent, some of whom may live

Without manual exertions, and others employ

Aemselves in modifying the raw materials of

natiire into the forms best suited to the gratifica-

tionofman.

A clear monied revenue, arising from manu-

Bictures, of the same extent, and to the same

number of individuals^ woiild by no means be

accompanied by the same circumstances. It would

tfarow the countrv in which it existed into an ab-

solate dependance for food and materials on the

sorplus produce of other nations, and if this fo-

reign supply were by any accident to fail, the re-

▼enue would immediately cease.

The skill to modify the raw materials produced
from the land would be absolutely of no value,
tW. ii. e e

210 ESSAY ON Book lU.

Of the deBnitions of wealth*

aiid thc indivicluals possessing it wonld immedi«
ately pcrish, if diese mw materials, and the food
necessiiry to support those who are working them
up could not be obtained ; but if the materiib
and the food were secure, it would be easy to find
thc skiil sufEcient to render them of considerabk
value.

According to the System of the Economisli»
maniifactures are an objeet on which revenue ii
spcnt, and not any part of the revenue itself. • Bat
though from this description of manu&ctures, ind
the epithet sterile sometimes applied to tbem,
they seem rather to be degraded by the terms of
the Economibts, it is a very grcat error to suppose

■ Kvcn upon this systcin ihere is onc point of vicw in
which maniifactures appcar (>;rcatly to add to the riclict
of a State. The use of a revenue, according to the £co-
nomists, is to be spent ; and a great part of it will of coune
be spent in manufactures. But if by the judicious ein«
ployment of manufacturing capital« these commoditict
grow considerably cheaper, the surplus produce becomes
proportionably of so much greater value« and the real
revc.iue of the nation is virtually increased. If this view
of 'he siibject donot, in the eyes of the Economists, com-
plc'tcly justify Dr. Smith in calling manufacturing labor
prjductivr^ in thc strict sense of that tcrm, it must fuUf
Warrant -AI thc pains he has taken in explaining the na*
ture and eHccts of commcrcial capital» and of the di%*itioii
of manufacturing labor.

Chap, rUI. POPULATION. 211

3BSB

Agricultural and commercial Systems.

thattheir system is really unfavorable to them.
On the contrary, I am disposed to believe, that it
is die only System by which commerce and manu«
Actures can prevail to a ver}' great extent, without
Irii^ing with them at the same time the seeds of
tiieir own ruin. Before the late revolution in
Holland, the high price of the nccessaries of life
\aA destroyed many of its manufactures. ' Mo-
Qopolies are always subject to be broken; and
cven the advantage of capital and machinery,
wiuch may yield extraordinary profits for a time,
is table to be gready lessened by the competition
of odicr nations. In the histor}' of the world, the
ntions whose wealth has been derived principally
Gnom manu&ctures and commerce, have been per-
fecta ephemeral beings, compared with those,
die basb of whose weahh has been agriculture.
It is in the nature of things tliat a State which sub-
sisCs lipon a revenue fiimished by other countries,
Bmst be infinitely more exposed to all the acci-
of time and chance, than one which pro-
\ its own.

No error is more frequent than that of mistaking
cfixts fbr causes. We are so blinded by the

• Smith*s Wealth of Nations, vol. iii. b. v. c. ii. p. 392.

212 ESSAY ON Book III.

Of the definitions of wealth.

showincss of commerce and manufacturcs, as to
believe, that they are almost the sole cause of üic
wealth, power, and prosperity of England. But
pcrhaps they may be more justly considered as the
consequences than the cause of this wealth. Ac*
cording to the definition of the Economists, which
considers only the produce of land, England is the
richest countr}' in Europe in proportion to her sizc
Her System of agriculture is beyond comparisoo
better, and consequently her surplus produce »
more considerable. France is verj- greatly supe-
rior to England in extent of territory and popubu
tion ; but when the surplus produce, or disposca-
ble revenuc of the two nations are compared,
the supcriorit)' of France almost vanishes. And
it is this great suq^lus produce in England, arising
from her agriculture, which cnabics her to support
such a vast bocly of manufacturtrs, such formida-
ble fleets and armics, such a crowd of pcrsons en-
gaged in the liberal professions, and a proportion
of the Society living on moncy rcnts very far be-
yond what has cver bcen known in any other coun-
try of the* world, According to the rctums lately
made of the population of England and Wales, it
appears tliat the numbcr of persons employed in
agriculture is considerably less then a fifth part of

Chap. VllL POPULATION. 213

Agricultural and comniercial Systems.

the whole. There is reason to believe that the clas-
«fications in these retums are incorrect ; but mak-
iDg ven' great ailowauces for crrors of tliis nature, it
can scarcely admit of a doubt that the number of
persons employed in agriculture is very unusually
small in proportion to the actual produce. Of lata
years indeed the part of the society, not connected
with agriculture has unfortunately incrcased be-
yond this produce ; but the average importation <rf
com, as yct, bears but a small proportion to that
which b grown in the countrj', and consequently
Ac power which England possesses of supporting
sovast a body of idle consumers must be attributed
principally to the greatness of her surplus produce.
It will Ijc said that it was her commerce and
manufactures which encouraged her cultivators
to obtsdn this grcat surplus produce, and therefore
indirectly, if not directly, created it. That com-
merce and manufactures produce this effect in a
great degree is true ; but that they sometimes pro-
duce a contrary effect when carried to excess, is
equally true. Undoubtedly agriculture cannot
flouri^ without a vent for its commodities, citlier
at home or abroad ; but when this want has been
adequately supplied, the intcrcsts of agriculture
demand nothing more. When too grcat a part of

214 ESSAY ON Book Ul.

Or the deiinitions of wealth«

a nation is engaged in commerce and manuiactureSy
it is a clear proof that, either from undue encou*
ragcment, or from other particular causes, a ciq)i-
tal is employed in tliis way to much greatcr ad«
vantage than in domestic agriculture ; and under
such circumstanceS) it is impossible that the land
should not be robbcd of much of the capital which
wotilcl naturally have fallen to its sliare. Dr. Smith
jusily observcsy that the navigation act, and the
monoply of the colony trade, necessarily. forced
into a particular und not vcry advantageous chm*
nel» a greatcr proportion of the capital of Grcat
Britain than would otherwise have gone to it ; and
by thus taking capital from othcr emplo}TnentS9
and at the samc time universally raising the rate of
British mcrcantile profit, discouraged the improve*

mcnt of the land. * If the improvemcnt of land,

he goes on to say, aifords a greater capital than
wliat can be drawn from an equal capital in any
mcrcantile employment, the land will draw capital
from mcrcantile cmploymcnts. If the profit bc
Icss, mcrcantile employments will draw capital from
the improvemcnt of land. The monopoly therc»
fort, by raising the rate of British mcrcantile pro-

* Wealth of Nationi) vol. ii. b« iv« c. tu. p« 435.

Chap. rill. POPULATION. 215

Agricultural and coramercial Systems«

fit, and thus discouraging agricultural improve-
nent, has necessarily retarded the natural increase
of a great original source of revcnue, the rent of

The East and West Indies are indeed so great
an object, and afford employment with high pro-
fits, to so great a capital, that it is impossible that
Acjr should not draw capital from other employ-
ments, and particularly from the cukivation of the
»il, the profits upon vvhich in general are very
tvuüL

All corporations, patents, and exclusive Privi-
leges of every kind, which abound so much in
4e mercantile system, have in proportion to their
cxtent the same efFect. And the experience of
the last twenty years seems to Warrant us in con-
chidmg, that the high price of provisions^arising
from the abundance of commercial wealth, ac-
companied as it has been by very great variations,
nid by a great rise in the price of labor, does not
#perate as an encouragement to agriculture suffi-
cient to make it keep pace with the rapid strides
tf commerce.

It will be said perhaps, that land is always im*

* W«alth of Kations^ vol. ii. b« iv. c. viu p. 436.

216 ESSAY ON Book 111.

Of thc definitions ofwealth.

proved by the redutidancy of commercial capitaL
But tliis cfTect is late and slow, and in the nature
of things cannot operate powerfiilly , tili this capi-
tal is rcally redundant, which it ncvcr is, while thc
intcrest of money and the profits of mercantile
stock are high. We cannot look forwards to any
considerable efFect of this kind tili thc intcrest of
money shiks to 3 per cent. Whcn mcn can gti 5 or
6 per cent. for their money, without any troubtc«
they will hardly venture a capitiil upon land, where»
including risks, and the profits up<3n their owa
labor and attendance, they may not get much
more. Wars and loans, as far as internal circum*
stances are concerned, impede but little the pro*
gress of thosc branchcs of commerce whcre thc
profits of stock are high ; but affect very consider*
ably thc incrcase of that more essential and per-
mancnt source of wcalth, thc improvemcnt of the
land. It is in this point, I am inclined to bclieve,
that the national debt of England has bc*en most
injurious to her. By absorbing the rcdundancy
of commercial capital, and kccping uj) ihc rate of
intcrest, it has prcvented this capital from over-
flowing upon thc soil. And a large mortgagc'

> Thc prmcipal error of the Frcnch Economistt appears

CÄ^. rni. POPULATION. 5217

Agricultural and commercial Systems.

thus been established on the lands of England,
interest of which is drawn from the payment
o^ productive labor, and dedicated to the support
idle consumers.

tD l)e on the subject of taxatlon. Admitting that the

MiTplos produce of the land is the fund which pays eveiy

thing besides the food of the cultivators ; yet it seems to

be a mistake to suppose that the owners of land are the

•ole proprietors of this surplus produce* It appears to

mey that erery man who has realized a capital in money

bis Tiitually a mortgage on the land for a certain portion

of the surplus produce ; and as long as the conditions of

Ulis mortgage remajn unaltered, (and the taxes which

licet bim only in the character of a consumer, do not

idter these conditions) the mortgagee pays a tax in the

ttme manner as the land holder, finally. As consumers

indtcd it cannotbe doubted, that even those who live upon

the Profits of stock and the wages of labor, particularly of

pf^ofetsional labor, pay some taxes on necessaries for a

▼My considerable time, and many on luxuries permanent-

I7;becau9e the consumption of individuals who possess

iwgc shares of the wcalth which is paid in profits and

•8g«8,may be curtailed and tumed into another Channel,

witbout impeding, in any degree, the continuance of the

■anc quantity of stock, er the production of the same

qnantity of labor.

The real surplus produce of this country, or all the
produce not actually consumed by the cultivators, is a
vcry diffcrent thing, and should carefully be ^islinguished
from the sum of the iiet rents of the landlords. This
sum, ii is supposed, does not much exceed a fifth part of

voU ii. f f

218 ESSAY ON Book UL

Of the definitions of wealth.

It must be allowed thcreforc, lipon the whoie,
tliat our commerce has not donc so much for cur
agricukure as our agriculture has for our com-
merce ; and th;ilt the improvcd system of cultiva*

th€ gross produce* The reinainiDg four fifths is cerlminly
not consumed hj the laborers and horses employed in
agriculture ; but a vcry considerabfo portion of it is paid
by the fanner in tithes, in taxes, in the instmiueDls oC
agriculture, and in the manufactures used in bis own &•
xnily« and in the families of bis laborers« It ia in thia
manner that a kind of mortgage is ultimately established
on the land, by tax es, and the progress of commerctal
wealth ; and in this sense, all taxes may be satd to fiUI
wholly upon the Und, though not whoUy on the Und»
holders. It secms a little hard therefore, in taxing sur*
plus produce» to make the landlords pay for what they
do not rcccive« At the same timc it must be confesscdt
that indcpcndently of thcse considerations which makea
a land tax partial, it is the best of all taxes, as it is the
only one which does not tcnd to raisc the price of com*
moditics. Taxes on consumption by which alone monied
revcnues can be reached, without an incomc tax, ncces-
sarily ruisc all prices to a degree greatly injurious to a
country«

A land tax, or tax upon not rent, has little or no cflTect
in di&couraging the improvement of land, as many have
supposed. It is only a tithc, or a tax, in proporiion to
the gross produce which dots this. No man in bis scnses
will bc dctertrd from gctting a clcar pruBt of 20]. instead
of 101. because he is always tu puy a fuurtli or filth of bis
< Icar gains ; but whcn he is to pay a tax in proi)ortion to
bis gross produce, which In the casc of capital laid out

Otap. rill. POPULATION. 219

Ag^icultural and commercial Systems.

ticHi which has taken place, in spite of consider-
able discouragements, creates yearly a surplus
produce, which enables the country , with but little
assistance, to support so vast a body of pcople
engaged in pursuits unconnected with the laiid.

in improvements is scarccly cver accompanied with a
proportional increase of his clear gains, it is a very diffcr-
ent thingy and niust necessarily impedc, in a g;rcat de*
gree» the progress of cultivation« I am astonished, that
so obvious and easy a commutation for tithes as a land
tax cm improved rents has not been adopted. Such a tax
vonld be paid by the same persons as before» only in a
l>ctter form \ and the change would not be feit, cxcept in
die adrantage that vould accrue to all the parties concem-
ed» the iandlord, the tenant, and the clergyman. Tithes
undoubtedly operate as a high bounty on pasture» and a
great discouragement to tillage, which in the prcsent
pecaliar circumstances of the country is a vcry gica'
^isidvantage»

CHAPTER IX.

Different Effects oft he AgricuUural and Commerz

dal Systems.

ABOUT the middle of the last Century wc
were genuinely, and in the strict sense of tbe
Economists, an agricultural nation. Our com-
merce and manufactures were however then in a
veiy respectable and thriving State; and if thcy
nad contip.Mcd to bear the same relative proportion
to our agriculture, they would evidently liave gonc
on iiicreasing considcrably, with the improving
cultivation of the countr}-. Thcre is no apparent
limit to the quantity of manufactures which might
in time be supported in this way, The increasing
wealth of a country in such a State sccms to bc
out of the reach of all common accidcnts. TTierc
is no discoverablc germ of decay in the System ;
and in theory there is no reason to say that it
might not go on increasing in wealth and prospc^
rity for thousands of years.
Wc have now however stepped out of the agri»

ESSAY ON, fc?c. 221

Different efTects of thcy tsfc.

ultural System, into a State in which the commer-
system clearly predomiiiates ; and there is but
«0 much reason to fear that even our commerce
manu&ctures will ultimately feel the disad-
of the cliange. It has bcen already ob-
ed that we are exactly in the Situation in
hich a country feels most fully the effect of those
^3inmon years of deficient crops, which in the
»"Ä^tural course of things are to be expccted. The
c^^Dinpetition of increasing commercial weahh, opc-

upon a supply of corn not increasing in the

■

Proportion, must at all timcs tcnd to raisc

nominal price of labor ; but when scar<:e years

taken into the consideration, its eftlcl in tliis

must ultimately bc very grcat. Du ring the

late scarcities the p/ice of labor has been continu-

ally rising, and it will not readily fall again. lu

cvery country there will be many caiiscs, which,

in practice, operating like friction in mechanic\?,

prevent the price of labor from rising and falliiig

exactly in proportion to the price of its compo-

nent parts. But besides tliese causes, there is

onc very powerful cause in theor)-, which operjtrs

10 prevent the price of labor from falling when

once it has been raised. Supposing it to be riii ^

edby a temporary cause, such as a scarcity of pro-

222 ESSAY OS Book HI.

Different effects of the

visions, it is evident tliat it will not fall again, un-
less some kind of stagiuition take place in the com-
Petition among the purchasers of labor; but the
power which the increase of the real price of labor,
on the retum of plenty, gives to the laborer of
purchasing a greater quantity both of rüde and
manulactured produce, tends to prevcnt this Stag-
nation, and strongly to coiinteract that £01 in the
price which would otherwise take place.

Labor is a commodity the price of which will
not be so rcadily afiected by the price of its com-
ponent parts as any other. The reason why the
consumer pays a tax on any commodi^', or ao
advance in the price of any of its component parts»
isy because if he cannot or will not pay this ad-
vance of price, ihc commodity will not bc pro-
diiced in tl>c same quantity, and the ncxt year
thcrc will bc only such a proj>ortiün in the mar-
ket as is accommodated to the number of i)ersons
that will consent to pay the advance. But in the
case of labor, the Operation of withdrawing the
commodity is much slower and morc painful.
Although the piu'chasers refusc to pay the advan-
ccd price, the same supply will necessarily rcmain
in the market, not only tlie ncxt year, but for some
years to comc. Conscquently, if no incrcase take

<:hap. IX. POPULATION. 223

agricultural and commercial Systems.

place in the demand, and the tax or advance in
tbe price of provisions be not so great as to make
it immediately obvious that the laborer connot
support his &niily, it is probable, that he will
coQtinue to pay this advance, tili a relaxation in
the rate of the incrcase of population causes the
market to be under supplied with labor, and then
of course the competition among the purchasers
will raise the price above the proportion of the ad-
vance, in Order to restore the necessar}^ supply.
In the same manner, if an advance in the price of
labor take place during two or tliree years of scar-
dty, it b probable that on the retum of plent}%
^ red recompense of labor will continue higher
Üian the usual average, tili a too rapid increase of
population causes a competition among the labor-
^ and a consequent diminution of the price of
labor below the usual rate.

When a country in average years grows morc
com than it consumes, and is in the habit of ex-
poiting a psMt of it, thosc great variations of price
which from the competition of commercial wealdi
often produce lasting effects, cannot occur to the
same extent, The wages of labor can never rise
^vry nmch abovc the common price in othci*

224 ESSAY ON BookJU,

Different efTects of the

commercial countries; and under such circum-
stances, England would have nothing to fear from
the füllest and most open competition. The in-
crcasing prospcrity of other countries would onljr
open to her a more extensive market for her com-
modities, and give additionai ^irit to all her com-
mercial transactions.

The high price of com and of rüde produce in
p;encral, as far as it is occasioned by the frcest
competition among the nations of Europe, is a
vcry great advantage, and is the best possible cn-
couragement to agriculture ; but when occasioned
merely by the competition of monied %vealth at
liomc, its cffect is different. In the one case, a
^rrc:\t cncourr/^^cment is givcn to production in ge-
nri\il, w.v\ the morv is prochiccd the better. In
\\\r fu!v-r casc, the pnxlucc Is ncccssarily confined
■ f) ih'- !i )inc consumption. The cuhivators are
ius-Iy i-Vaid of t^rowing too much com, as a con-
'.i ^ »:';! loss will be sustaincd ui)on that part of
i: \'. M' '. is s(»l(l iihroad; and a glut in the homc
!iia:l .: \.ill imiversally makc the price fall l»cln\v
*i:K' i.iir aiul proper reeonipeiisc to the growcr. It
is imnohsihli liiat a eountry imder bueh cireiini-
s:;»nces should not be >>uujcct to gixat and IVi;. unt
\ ariations in the price of eurn.

Chap. IX. POPULATION. 225

Agricultural and commercial Systems«

If we were to endeavor to lower the price of
l^bor by encouraging the importation of fbreign
com, we should probably aggravate the evil ten-
fold« Experience Warrants us in saying, that the
&!! in the price of labor would be slow and un-
certain ; but the decline of our agriculture would
be certain. The British grower of com could not,
in hb own markets, stand tiie competition of the
foreign grower, in average years. Arable lands
of a moderate quality would hardly pay the ex-
pcnse of cultivation. Rieh soils alone would
yield a rent. Rouiid all our towns the appearances
iwmld bc the same as usual ; but in the interior of
the country, much of the land would be neglected,
and almost universally, where it was practicable,
pasture would take place of tillage. This State
of things would continue, tili the equilibrium was
restored, either by the fall of British rent and
wages, or an advance in the price of foreign com,
or, what is mwe probable, by die union of both
causes. But a period would have elapsed of con-
iiderable relative encouragement to manufactures,
aod relative discouragemcnt to agriculture. A
certain portion of capital would be taken from the
land, and when the equilibrium was at length res-
tored, the nation would probably be found depen.
iW. ii. g g

226 ESSAY ON Book III.

Different effecto of the

dent upon forcign supplies for a great portion of
her subsistence ; and unless some i>articular cause
were to occasion a Foreign demand greater than
the home demand, her independence in this res-
pcct, could not be rccovered. During this period
even her commerce and manufactures would be
in a most precarious State ; and circumstances by
no means improbable in the present State of £u*
rope might rediice her population within the li-
mits of her reduced culüvaüon.*

In the natural course of things a country which
depends for a considerable part of its supply of coro
upon its poorer neighbors, may expect to see this

> Though it be tnie that the high price of labor or
taxes on agricultural capital ultimately fall on the rent«
yet we must by no means throw out of our consideration
the current leases. In the course of twenty years^ I am
inclined to believe» that the State of agriculture in any
country might be very flourishing, or vcry much the re-
versc, according as the current leases had tended to en*
courdge or discourage improvement. A general fall in
the rent of land would be preceded by a period most un«
favorable to the Investment of agricultural capital ; and
consequently cvery lax which affects agricultural capital
is peculiarly pemicious. Taxes which affcct capitals in
trade are almost immediately shifted ofTon the consumer ;
but Uxes which affect agricultural capital fall, during the
' iirrent leases. whollv on the farmcr.

Chip. IX, POPULATION. 227

Ag^ricultural and commercial Systems.

- supply gradually diminbh, as these countries in-
crease in riches and population, and have less sur-
plus of their rüde produce to spare.

The pditical relations of such a country may
iexpose it, during a war, to have diat part of its
supplies of provisions which it dcrives from fo-
reign states suddenly stopped, or greatly dimin-
ishcd ; an event which could not take place with*
out producing the most calamitous eßccts.

A nation in which commercial wealth predomi-
nates has an abundance of all those articles which
form the principal consumption of the rieh, but is
exposed to be straightened in its supplies of that
article, which is absolutely necessar)' to all, and in
which by £ir the greatest portion of the revenue of
tbe industrious classes is expended.

A nation in which agricultural wealth predomi-
nates, though it may not produce at home such a
surjdus of luxuries and conveniences as the com-
onercial nation, and may therefore be exposed pos-
siAj to some want of these commodities, has, on
the other hand, a surplus of that article which is
.cssential to the well being of the whole State, and
ia therefore secure firom want in what is of the
greatest importance.
And if we cannot be so sure of the supply of

228 ESSAY ON Book UI.

DifTerent efTects of the

what we derive from others, as of what we pro-
cluce at homCy it seems to be an advantageous po-
lier in a nation, whosc territory will allow of it, to
secure a surplus of that eommodit}^ a deficiencj
of which would strike most deeply at its happiness
and prosperity.

It has been almost universally aeknowledged,
that there is no braneh of trade more profitable to
a country, even in a commercial point of view,
than the sale of rüde producc. In general its va-
lue bears a much greater proportion to the ex-
pensc incurred in procuring it, than that of anjr
other commodity whatever, and the national pro»
fit on its sale is in conseqiicnce greater. This is
oftcn noticed by Dr. Smith ; but in combating the
argiimcnts of the Economists, hc sccms for a mo-
mcnt to forgct it and to spcak of the superior ad-
vantage of exporting manufacturcs.

He observes, that a trading and manufacturing
countr}' exports what can subsist and accommo-
date but vcrj- few, and Imports the subsistencc
and accommodation of a great number. The
other exports the subsistence and accommodation
of a great number, and imports that of a verj' few
only. The inhabitants of the one miist always en-
joy a much greater quantity of subsistence than

Ch^. /X POPULATION. 229

Agricultural and commercial Systems.

ivhat their own lands im the actual State of their
cultivation could afford. The inhabitants of the
other mustalways enjoy a much smaller quantity.^
In this passage he does not seem to argue with
bis usual accuracy. Though the manufacturing
nation may export a commodity which, in its ac-
tual shape, can only subsist and accommodate a
very few ; yet it must be recollected, that in order
to prepare this commodity for exportation, a con-
siderable part of the revenue of the country had
been employed in subsisting and accommodating
a great number of workmen. And with regard
to die subsistence and accommodation vvhich the
other nation exports, whether it be of a great or
a small number, it is certainlv no raore than suflS-
cient to replace the subsistence that had been con-
sumed in the manufacturing nation, togcther witli
the profits of the master manufacturer and mer-
chant, which, probably, are not so great as the
profits of the farmer and the merchant in the agri-
cultural nation. And though it may be true that
die inhabitants of tlie manufacturing nation enjoy
a greater quantity of subsistence than what their
own lands in the actual State of their cultivation

^ Wealth of Nations, vol. iii* b. iv. €• ix. p. 97.

230 ESSAY ON Book 11 J-

Different efiecU of the

could aflbrd ; yet an inference in favor of the ma
nufacturiiig System by no means fbllows,
the adopt:on of the one or the other System
itiake the greatest difference in their actual
of cultivation. If during the course of a Century
two landed nations were to pursue these two dif*
ferent Systems, that is, if one of tliem wcrc regu-
]ar!y to export manufactures, and tmport subsis-
tence ; and the other to export subsistence, and
imix)rt manufactures, there would be no compari-
SCHI at the end of the period between t}ie State of
cultivacion in the two countries ; and no doubt
could rationally be entertained that the countiy
which exported its raw produce, would be ablc to
subsibt and accommodate a much grcater po(>ula-
tion tlian the other.

In the ordinary course of things, the expoita-
tion of com is sufficienüy profitable to the iudivi-
duals concenied in it. But with regard to national
advantage, there arc four very strong reasons why
it is to be preferred to any other kind of export.
In the first place, com pays from its own funds
the expenses of procuring it, and the whole of
what is sold is a[clcar national profit. If I set up a
new manufacturc, the persons cmployed in it must
be supported out of the funds of subsistence al-

Ch^.IX. POPULATION 231

Agricultural and commercial Systems,

ready existing in the country, the value of which
must be dcducted Irom the price for which the
commodity is sold, before we can estimate the
dear national profit. But if I cultivate fresh land,
or employ more men in the improvement of what
was before cultivated, I increase the general funds
of sabsistence in the country. With a part of
this increase I support all the additional persons
cmployed, and the whole of the remainder wliich
is cxported and sold is a clear national gain ; be-
sides the advantage to the countr)-, of supporting
an additional popuIation equal to the additional
number of persons so employed, without tlie süght-
est tendoicy to diminish the plcnty of the rest.

Secondly, in all wrought commodities, the samc
quantity of capital, skill, and labor^ employed, will
produce the same or very nearly the same quanti-
ty (rf complete manufacture. But owing to the
variations of the seasons, the same quantity of ca-
pital, skill, and labor in husbandry may produce in
diferent years very different quantities of corn.
Consequently, if the two commodities wcre equal-
ty valuable to man, from the greatcr probabiliiy of
tlie occasional failure of com than of nianufactures,
it would be of morc consequence to have an avc-
rage surplus of the fornier than of the hitter.

232 ESSAY ON Book UZ

DifTerent efTects of the

Thirdly, com being an articlc of the most abso«^
lute necessity, in com[)arison with which all othersa
will be sacrificed, a deiiciency of it must necessa-
rily produce a much greater advance of price than
^a deficiency of any other kind of produce; and
as the price of com influences the price of so manj
other commodities, die evil cffects of a deficiency
will not only bc more severe and more general, but
more lasting, than die eficcts of a deficiency in
any other commodity.

Fourthly, there appear to be but three ways of
rcndering the supplies of com in a particular coun*
tr)' more equable, and ofprcventing the evil efiects
of thosc dcficiences from unfavorable seasons,
which in the natural coursc of things must be cx-
jKctcd occasionally to rccur. These arc, 1. An
immcdiatc supply from foreign nations, as soon as
the scarcity occurs. 2. Largc public gnuiaries,
3. The liabitual growth of a quantity ofcom fora
more extcnded market Uian the avcragc home
consumption aSbrds. Of tlic first, cxpcricncc has
convinccd us Uiat the suddenncss of the dcmand
prcvcnts it from Ix^ing effectual. To the second
it is acknowlcdged by ;ill, tliat thesc are vcrv grcat
and weighty objcitioiis. Tlicre rcmains Uicn on-
Iv the third.

Chap. IX. POPULATIOK. 233

AgricttltU^ and cofAAiefcHil Systems*

These Considerations seem to make it a point of ^
tiie flrst conseqaence to the happiness and permä-
öent pfosperity of any country, to be able to carry
oti tht äxpott trade of com as one consideraUö
braneh of its commercial transactions.

But hovv to give this ability^ how to tum a Da-^

tkm froni the habit of importing com to the habk

dt expörting it, is the great difficulty. It ha^

been generally acknowledged, and b frequently

toticed by Dr. Smith, that the poHcy of modern

Eirfop^ häs led it to encourage tlie indu<stry of th^

towns more than the industry of the country, or,

fa other words, trade more than agriculture. la

Aus pollcy, England lias certainly not been be-

hind the rest of Europe ; perhaps indeed, except

in oft6 tnstance,* it may be said Ihat she has been

fte foremost. If things had been left to take their

tttttifäl course, there is nö reason to think, that the

tommercial part of the socictj'^ would have itN

creased beyond the surplus produce of the cuiti-

vators; but the high profits of commerce from

monopolies, and other peculiar encouragements^

have altered this natural course of things : and the

hoäj politic is in an artificial, and in some degree

' Thcbounty on the exportation of com.
voi lu h h

2S4 ESSAY ON, öfcr.

Difiereat cffccts of the, e^r«

diseased State, with ODe of its principal memhers^
out of Proportion to the rest« Almost all medi«'
eine is in itself bad ; and one of the great evils oT*
illness h the necessiQr of taking it« Ko person caa
ivell be more averse to medicine in the animal
cconomyi or a system of expedients in political
economy, than myself ; but in the present State of
the countiy something of the kind may be necesaa*
ry to prevent greater evils« It is a matter of very
little comparative importance, whether we aie
fuUy supplied with broadcloth, linens, and muslins^
oreven with tea, sugar, and coffee ; and no rational
pditician therefore would think of proposing a
bounty upcm such commodities. But it is oer*
tainly a matter of the very highest importance,
whether we are fuUy supplied with food ; and if a
bounty would produce such a supply, the most
liberal political economist might be justified in pro-
posing it ; considering food as a commodity distinct
fiom all 9therSy and pre-eminently valuable.

CHAPTER X.

OfBcunties on the Exportation of Cara.

IN discnsshig the policy of a bounty on the
exportation of c(nii, it should be premised, that
die private ipterests of the fkrmers and proprietors
ahoold never enter in the question. The sole ob-
jcGt of our consideratioo ought to be the penna-
rat interest of the consumer, in the character of
which is comprehended the whole nation.

AcooitLing to the general principles of political
coonomy, it cannot be doubted^ that it is fcx* the
imeresl oC the civilized workl that each nation
dKNild purchase its conunodities wherever they
caabe had the cheapest.

Accordingtotheseprinc^IeSy itisrather desi»
rable that some obstacles should exist to the ex«
cessive accumulation of wealth in any particular
CQuntiy, and that rieh nations should be tempted
to purchase their com of poorer nations, as by
diese means the wealth of the civilized worid will
not only be xnxxe rapidiy increased, but more
equably diffused.

236

ESSAY ON Jtoak ILt-

C)f bounties on the exportation of com.

— . « — » M

It is evident, however, that local uiterests
political rclatioi.s may modify the appUcatii» — ^
of .hese gcntral principles ; J»nd in a couiitr;^
\vith a territory fit for the production of com, ai
independent, and at tl\e ianie time a more equal
su|»ply of this necessary of life, may be an objec
pf such importance a3 to Warrant a deviation

tjK'm.

It is undoubtedly tnie, that every thing wil
ultimutely find its level, but this level is somc-
times effected in a very harsh manner, En|
may export com a hundrcd years hcnce without^" ^
the assistance of a bounty ; but this is mach na
likely to liappen from the destniction of her ma
nufcicturcs, than from the increasc of her agricul
iure ; and a policy which, in so important a point,
may tend to soften the harsh corrections of gene-
ml laws, seems to be justifiable.

The reguLuions resjx'ctinjij importation and ex-
portation adofUcd in the com laws that \^*erc csta-
bÜshcd in 1688 and 1700, scemed to have the ef-
fect of jjfiving ihat encouragcmcnt to agrieulture,
which it so niucii wantcd, aud the appareiU result
was gradiKiUy to |)roduce a j;r<iwih of com in thw
couMtn- coiisicleriblv ahove the wants ff the' ariiKtt
population, to lower the avcrat^; priee c»f it, and

Chap.X. POPULATION. «37

■^mii

Of bonnties on the exportation of coHii

give a steadiness tQ prices that hnd never been
cxperienced before.

Puring the seventeenth centuiy, and indeed the
ivhole period of our history previous to it, the
prices <^ wheat were subject to great fluctuations^
and the average price was very high. For fifty
years before the year 1700, the average price of
wheat per quarter was 31. lld. and before 1650
it was 61« 8s. lOd. ^ From the time of the com«
pletion of the com laws m 1700 and 1706, the
prices became extraordinariiy steady; and the
average price for forty years previous to the year
1750, sunk so low as IL 16s. per quarter. This
was the period of our greatest exportations. In
tbe year 1757, the laws were suspended, and in
the jrear 1773 they were totally altered. The ex-
ports oi com liave since been regularly decreasing,
and the iroports incrcasing. The average price of
ivfaeat for the forty years ending in 1800, was
% 9s. 5d. ; and for the last five years of this po».
nod, 3L 6s. 6d. During this last term, the balance
of the imports of all sorts of grain is cstiinatcd at
2,938,357,* and the dreadful fluctuations of price

• Dirom's Inquiry into ihe Corn Laws, Appendix, No. I.

* Anderson's Investi«j:ai'ionof the Circum^tanccsNv hieb
Icd to Scarcily* Table, p. 40.

ESSAY ON Book ///*

Ofboimtiev on the exportation of com*

wlücb fasive occurred of latc years, we are but
wen acqnainted with.

It is at an times dangerous to be hasty in Aimr
lug generai inierences from partial experience
txit, iD the present instance, the period that
been consideted is of so considerable an extent,
and the changes from fluctuating and high prices
ta steady and low prices, with a retum to ftuctuat»
ingand high prices ag^n, correspond soaccuratdjF
with the establishmcnt and füll vtgor of the com
iaws, and with thcir subsequent akenitions and
inefficacy, that it was certainly rather a bold asser*
tion i» Dn Smith to say, that the faM in the price
of com miist have happcned in spite of the bounty;
and coutcl noi possibly have happcned in conse-
quencc of Lu* Wc have a riglu to expect that hc
blioukl dcfend a position so contrar}- to all apparcnC
experience, bj" the raost powerful arguments. As
In ihe present State of this country, the subject
bcems to be of the highest importance, it will bc
Wortli while to examine the validity of these argu.
ments.

He olxiervcs, tluit both in ycars of plcnty, anj
in years of scarcity, the bounty ncccbbarily tcnds

• Wcaltb €f Nations, vol. ii> b. iv. c. v. p, 264.

CkafhX, POPULATION. 23f

IUI II I s=B— ae

Of bonnties on the exportation of com.

to raise the money price of com somewhat higher

<han It otherwise would be in the home market^

That it does so in years of plenty is undaubted-

ly true ; but thaC it does so in years of scarcity ap«

pears to me as undoubtedly fake. The only ar«

^ument by which Dr. Smith supports tfais latter

posiüon is, by saying that the exportation prevents

iSbc plenty of one year froin relieving the scarcity

of another. But this is certainly a very insufficient

reasen. The scarce year may not immediately

CoDow the most plentiful year ; and it is totally

eootrary to the habits and practice of farmers, to

sive the superflui^ of six or seven years for a con-

^Dgency of this kind. Great practical inconve«

luences generally attend the keeping of so large a

icserved störe« Difficulties often occur from a

waot of proper accommodations for it. It is at all

times liable to damage from vermin and other cau-

SCSI When very large, it is apt to be viewed with

^ je^ous and gnidging eye by the common people.

And in general, the farmer may either not be able

toremain so long without his retums ; or may not

be williog to employ so considerable a capital in a

w^ in which the retums must necessarily be dis-

*• Wealth of Nationsi toI« ü. b. ir. c. v. p. 265*

240 ESSAY ON Book UL

BBS

Or bounties on the exportaüoti of com«

tant and precarious. On the whole, therefore, wc
cannot reasonably expect that, upon this plan, Ae
reservcd störe should in any degree bc equal to
that, which in a scarce year would bc kcpt at homCi
in a country which was in the Ilabit of constant
exportation to a considerable amount; and ive
know that even a very little difference in the de-
grce of deficiency will oftcn make a very great
diflference in the price*

Dr. Smith then proceeds to State very jusdy^
that the defenders of the com laws do not insisl ai^
much upon the price of com in the actual State
tillagc, as upon their tendency to improlre
actual State, by opening a more extensive foragn
market to the com of the farmer, and securing to-
him a bettcr price than hc coukl othcrwise expect
for his commodity ; which double cncouragement,
they imägine, must in a long pcriod of years occa«
sion such an incrcvisc in die production of com^
as may lowcr its price in the home market much
more than the bouiity can raise it, in the State of
tillage thcn actually existing. '

In answcr to this hc obscrvcs, that whatever ct-
ttnsion of the foreign market can bc occasioned by

* Wcalth of Nationsy vol. ii« b. iv« c. v. p. 265.

Oia^ X POPULATION. 241

Of bountics on the exportation of com.

ihe bounty, must in every particular year be alto-
gether at the expense of the home market, as eve-
ry bushel of com which is exported by means
of the bounty, and which would not have been ex-
ported without the bounty, would have remained
in the home market to increase the con&umption
ttid to lower the price of that commodity.

In this Observation he appears to me a litde to
misose the term market, Because, by selling a
commodity below its natural price, it is possible to
get rid of a greater quantity of it, in any particular
market, than would have gone off otherwise, it
cannot justly be said that by this process such a
market is proportionally extended. Though the
removal of the two taxes mentioned by Dr. Smith,
aspaid on account of the bounty, would certainly
lathcr increase the power of the lower classes to
porchuse ; yet ineach p:*rlicular year the consump-
tioo must be ultimately limited by the population ;
aid Üie increase of consumption from the rcmoval
tf these taxes might by no means be sufficicnt to
ökcoff the whole superfluily of tlie farmers, with-
out lowering the generai price of com, so as to de-
prive them of their fair rccompence. If the price
of British com in the home market rise in conse-

quence of the bounty, it is an unanswerable proof,

• •• • •

m. n. 1 1

242 ESSAY ON JBooklJl

Of bounties on the exporiation of com.

that the efiectual market for British com is exU
cd by it ; and that the diminution of demand ^
home, whatever it may be, is more than countcr:^
balanced by the extension of the demand

There cannot bc a greatcr discouragement
the production of any commodity in a large quaC^
tit}', than the fear of overstocking the market wit —
it. Nor can there be a greater encouragemcnt tr^
such a production, than the certainty of finding
cfil'Ctual market for any quantity, however
that can be obtained. It sliould be observed fur^'*'
ther, that one of the principal objects of the boun«^
ty is to obtain a surplus above the homc consump-— '
tion which may supply the deficicncy of unfavora--^
ble ycars ; but it is evident that no jx)ssible ex— —
tension of tlic homc market can attain this object—- -

Dr. Smith t^ocb on to say, tliat if the two taxcs-^^
paid by the pcople on account of the bounty, name-
ly, the one to the governmcnt to pay this bounty»
and the other paid in the advanced pricc of the
commodity, do not, in the actual statc of the crop,
raisc the pricc of lalx)r, and tlius return upon the
farmcr, thtv must rcducc die abilitv of tlie lal>or.
ing poor to bring up their childrcn, and l)y thus
rcsträining tlic population and industrj' of the
countr}% must tcnd to stunt and rcstrain tlie gra-
dual extension of the homc market, and tliercbv.

Tiop. X POPULATION. 243

Of bounties on the exportation of corxu

the long nin, rather to diminish than to aug-
cnt, the whole market and consumption of com.'
I think it has been shown, and indeed it will
arcely admit of a doubt, that the s} stem of ex-
rtation arising from the bounty has an evident
idency in years of scarcity to increase the sup-
cs of com, or to prevent their being so much
minished as they othervvise would be, which
mes to the same thing. Consequently the la-
ring poor will be able to live better, and the po-
lation will be less checked in thesc particular
ars, than they would have been without the
steni of exportation arising from the bounty.
at if the effect of the bounty, in this view of the
ibject, be only to repress a little the population in
ears of plenty, while it encourages it comparative-
r in years of scarcity, its effect is evidently to re-
jilate the population more equally according to
bat quantity of subsistence, which can permanent-
|r, and without occasional defalcations, be supplicd.
bd this effect I have no hesitation in saying, is
«le of the greatest advantages which can possibly
ccur to a society, and contributes more to the
appiness of the laboring poor, than can easily be

^ Wcalth of Nations, toI. ü.b. iv. ct. p. 267<

au ESSAY ON Book ül

Of bounties on the exportation of com*

conceived by those who have not deeply cooskkr»
ed die subjcct. In die whole compass oF human
events, I doubt if diere be a more firuitfiü source
of misciy, or one more invariably productive of dis»
astrous consequences, Üian a &udden Start of po|>u-
lation from two or three years of plenty, which
miist necessarily be repressed on thc first return of
scarcity, or evcn of average croivs* It has bcen
suggested, that if we werc in the habit of export-
ing com in consequenc^ of a bouiUy, the prlce
wouii fall still lower in years of extraordinär/
abundanco, than without such a bounty and such
exportation ; because thc exuberancc belonging to
that part of the crop usually cxiK)rtcd would fall
upoii thc home market. But thcre sccnis to be no
reason for supposiiig tliat this would bc thc case.
Thc (juantity annually ^cxportcd would by no
means be fixcd, but would dcpcnd uyajn die statc
of the crop, and tlic dcmauds of thc homc market«
One great advantagc of a foR*ign market^ both
with rcgard to buying and selling, is thc improba«
bility, that years of scarcity, or years of abundancc,
should in many difllrcnt countrics occur at the
same timc. In a ycar of abundancc Uk* fixcd sum
of the bounty would always bcar a grcatcr projx>r-
tion to die cost of production. A gnatcr cncou-
ragement would thereforc be given to cxixjrt, and

Ou^. X POPULATION. 245

Of bounties on the exportatioD of com«

a very moderate lowering of price would probably
enable the farmer to dispose of the whole of hb
excess in foreign markets.

The most plausible argument that Dr. Smith
adduces against the com laws is, tliat as the money
price of com regulates that of all other home-
made commodities, the advantage to the proprie-
tor fix>m the increased money price is merely appa-
rent, and not real ; since what he gains in his
sdes, he must lose in his purchases. *

TMb Position howcver, is not true, without
many limitations. The money price of com in a
particular country is undoubtedly by far the most
powerful ingredient in regulating the price of labor,
and of all other commodities ; but it is not enough
fcr Dr. Smith's position, that it should be die
most powerful ingredient ; it must be shown that
odier causes remaining the same, the price of every
artide will rise and fall exactly in proportion to
4c price of com, and this does not appear to be the
casc. Dr. Smith himself excepts all foreign com-
niodities ; but when we reflect upon the sum of
Ottr imports, and the quantity of foreign aiti-
des used in our manufactures, this exception alonc

' Wcahli of Nations, vol. ii. b. iv. c. ▼. p. 2fi9.

246 ESSAY ON £odk 111.

Of bounties on thc exportation of com.

is of veiy great importance. Wool and raw hides,
two most important materials of home growth, da
not, according to Dr. Smith's own reasonings,
(Book i. c. XI, p. 363, et seq.) dcpcnd much upon
the price of com and the rent of land ; and thc
price of flax is of coursc greatly influenced by thc
quantity we Import. But woollen cloths, leather,
linen, cottons, tea, sugar, &c. which are compre-
hended in the above named articles, form almost
the whole of the clothing'and luxuries of the indus-
trious classes of societ}\ Consequently, ahbough
that part of ihe wagcs of labor which is expendcd
in food will rise in proportion to the price of corn,
the whole of the wages \vill not rise in thc samc
proportion. \Vhen great improvemcnts in num-
fecturing niachinery h ive taken plucc in any coun*
Xt\\ that part of thc price of thc wrought commo-
dity which pays thc interest of the fixcd capital
cniployed in producing it, as this capital had becn
accumulatcd beforc the advancc in the price of la-
bor, will not rise in conscqucncc of tliis advancc,
cxcept as it requires gradual renovation. And in
thc case of great and numerous taxcs on consump-
tion, as those who live by thc wagcs of labor must
alu'ays rcceive whcrewithiil to pay them, at Icast
all those upon neccssarics, a rise or fall in thc price
of com, though it would incrcasc or dccrcasc iliat

Outp. X. POPULATION. 247

Of bounties od the exportation of com«

part of the wages of labor which resolves itself into
food, evidently would not increase or decrease that
port which was destined for the payment of taxes.

It cannot then be admitted as a general position,

that the money price of com in any country is an

aux^iirate measure of the real value of silver in that

country. Bat all these considerations, though of *

great weight to the owners of land, will not influ-

cnce the growth of com beyond the current leases.

At the expiration of a lease any particular advan-

tage which the farmer had received from a favora-

Ue Proportion between the price of com and of

hbor, would be taken from him, and any disad*

vantage from an unfavorable proportion made up

to him. The sole cause which would determinc

the quantit}' of effective capital employed in agri*

culture would be the extent of the effectual demand

Jbr com, and if the bounty had really enlarged this

demand, which it certainly would have done, it is

impossible to suppose that more capital would not

be employed upon the land.

WhenDr. Smith says, that the nature of things
has stamped upon com a real value, which cannot
be altered by mercly altering the money price ; and
that no bounty upon exportation, no monopoly of
the home market, can raise that value, nor the

248 ESSAY ON Book ID.

Of bounties on the exportation of com.

freest competition Iower it,* it is evident, that hc
changcs the qucstion from the profits of the grow-
ers of com or the proprictors of land, to the phy-
sical and absolute value of com in itself. I cer*
tainly do not mean to say, that the bouoty alters
the physical valuc of com, and makes a bushel of it
Support a greater number of laborers for a day than k
did before ; but I certainly do mean to say, that the
bounty to die British cultivator does, in the actual
State of tliings, really incrtase the dcmand for Bri-
tish corn ; and thus encourages him to sow morc
than he otherwise would do, and enables him in
consequcncc to employ more busheis of com in
the maintenuncc of a greater number of laborers.

If Dr. Sinitirs theory were strictly truc, and the
real price of com, or its price in the sum of all
other eommfxlities, never suffered any Variation, it
would be düHcult to givc a rcason why we grow
more com now than we did 20 ) years ago. If no
rise in the nominal price of com were a real rise,
or could cnable the farmer to cultivate better or
detemiine morc of the national capital of t!ie land,
it would appcar that agriculture was indecd in a
most unfortunate Situation, and that no adcquate

» Wealth of Nationi, vol. ii. b. it. c. t. p. 278,

C&^. X POPULATION. 249

Of bounties on the exportation of coro.

motive could exist to the further Investment of
Capital in this branch of industry» But surcly \ve
cannot douot tliat the real price of com varies,
though it may not vary so much as the real pricc
of other commodities, and that there are periods
when all wrought commodities are cheaper, and
periods when they are dearer, in proportion to the
price of com ; and in the one case capital flows
fixMn manufactures to agriculture, and in the otlier
from agriculture to manufactures. To overlook
ihese periods, or consider them of slight import-
ance, is unpardonable, because m every branch of
trade these periods form the grand encouragement
to an increase of supply. Undoubtedly the pro-
fits of trade in any particular branch of industry,
can never long rcmain higher than in others, but
W are they lowered except by influx of capital
occasioned by these high profits ? It never can bc
a national object permanently to increase the pro-
fits of any particular set of dealers. The national
object is in the increase of supply, but this object
cannot be attaincd but by previously increasing
the profits of these dealers, and thus dctermining
a greater quantity of capital to this particular eni-
ployment. The ship-owners and sailors do not
make greater profits now, tlian they did bcfore tl\e
vol. ii. k k

250 ESSAY ON Bqok ///.

Of bounties on the exportaüon of corn.

Navigation act ; but the objecl ol thc nation was
not to increase the profits of sliip-ovvncTb and sail-
ors, but the quantity of shippinj; i«nd sciimcn, ;ind
this could not be done but by a la\\ , wliich b\ in-
creasingthe dcmand for them, raiscd the profitt» ot
the capital beforc employed in this way, and dctcr-
mined a greater quantity to flow into the same
Channel. The object of the nation in the coni
laws is not the increase of the profits of the fariQ*
ers, or the rents of the landlords, but the detemu-
nation of a greater quantity of the national capital
to the land, and the consequent increase of supply ;
and though in the case of an advance in the pricc
of corn from an increased dcmand, the riae of
wages, the rise of rents, and the fall of silver, tend
to obscurc in somc degrce our view of the sub-
ject ; yct wc cannot refusc to acknowlcdge, that
the real price of com varics du ring periods sufli-
ciently long to affcct the dctermination of capital,
or \ve shall be reduccd to the dilrmma of ownii^
that no motive can exist to the further invcstment
of capital in the production of com.

The mode in which a bounty upon the expor-
tation of com opcrates secms to be this. Lct us
suppose that the price at which the British growtr
can afibrd to seil his com in average years is 55

äup'^ pöPüEAtiöN. ist

.. j

Or boanties on the expoftätton of com.

aiiiUin|;s, and the price at which the Foreign grow-

ct dah seil it, 53 Shillings. Thus circumstancedi

it iä evident that th^ British grower cannot export^

dorn even in years cotisiderably above an' average

Äbp, In this statt of thmgs let'a bounty of fi\-e

diillings pie'r quarter be' granted on exported com.

fiiim6diately as this bounty was established the

(AEportatiön w'öuld begin, and go on, tili the price

iiitlife honife märtet had risen to the price at which'

BiitL^ com could be sold abroad with the addition

(Jf'the bounty. The abstraction öf a part of the*

hörnt süpply, or even the apprehensJon of it,

WtHlId söon raise the price in the home market^

aiSi it is pirbbable that the qnantity exported be-

6re this rise had takeri place would not, at th^^

Äost^ bear such a pröportion to the whole quan-

% in the'ports of Europe, as to lower the gene-

rftl pritc more than a Shilling in the quarter.

Gonsequetttly the British grower' would seil his

€bm abtöäd för 52 Shillings, which with the addi*

tlbn of the bounty would be 57 shiHings, and

what was soM at home would beär exäctly the^

söne' price, throwing out of our cohsideration at

piescnt the expenses of frcight, &c. The British'

gfrower therefore, iristead of 55 Shillings at which*

he cöuld lafförd to seH, wöüM*get'57 shiUtngü för

352 ESSAY ON Book OL

Of bounties on thc exportation of com.

his whole crop. Dr. Smith' has supposed that i
bounty of (ive Shillings would raise the price of
com in the home market four Shillings, but tfab
is e vidently upon the supposition that the growing
prioe of the com was not lower abroad than at
home, and in this case his supposition would pro-
bably be correct. In the case before supposed
faowever, the extra profits of the farmer wbuld be
only two Shillings. As far as this advance would
go, it would raise the profits of iarming, and en-
courage him to grow more com. Tlie next ycar
thcreforc the supply would be increased in pro-
portion to the number of purchascrs of the year
before, and to mxdwC this additional quantity go off
the price must fall ; and it would of course faU
bolh in tlic forcign and the home market, as while
any exportation continucs, the price in the home
market will be rcgulated l^y die price in Foreign
markets with the addition of thc bount)*. ITiis
fall may ht inconsiderable, but still the efiect will
be in tliis direction, and after thc first year, the
price of com will for some timc continuc to fall
towards its former Icvel. In the mcan time how-
ever, the cheapncss of com abroad might graduallv
tend to incrcase the number of purchascrs, and
extrnd the efiectual demand for com, not onlv

Siap. X POPULATION. 3SS

Of bounties on thc exportatlon of com«

it the latc reduced prices, but at tlie original or
cven higher prices, But every extension of this
kiiid would tend to raise the price of com abroad
to a nearer levci with the giowing price at home,
md consequently would give the British fanner
a greater advantage from the bounty. If the de-
mand abroad extended only in proportion to the
:heapness, the effect would be, that part of the
igriculture of foreign countries would be checked
\Q make room for the increased agriculture of
Britain, and some of the foreign growers, who
:raded upon the smallest profits would be justled
3ut of the markets.

At what time the advanced price at home would
3egin to affect the price of labor and of all other
^ommodities, it would be very difficult to say ;
tMit it is probable that the interval might be consj-
derable, because the first and grcatcst risc, upon
the supposition that has becn made, would not \k:
above three pence in the bushel, and this advancc
would for some time diminish every year. But
after tlie füll effect from this advance, whatcver \{
might be, had taken place, the influence of thc
bounty would by no mcans be lost« For some
years it would give the British grower an absolute

$iS4 ESSAY OK JStok ItL

Of bountiea on the exportation of corti.

advantage over the Foreign grower. This advan«
tage would of course gradually dimini^, becauäer
it 19 the nature of all effectual detnand to be ulti*
mately supplied, and to oblige the producers to seil
at the lowest price that they can affiml. But afler
having experienced a period of very decidM en-
couragement, the British grower will find himself
at last on a level with the foreign grower, which
he was not before the bounUr, and in the habit of
supplying a larger market than his own upoo
equal terms with his competitors. And after this,
if the foreign and British markets continued to ex-
tcnd themselves equally, the British grower would
continue to proportion his supplies to both, becausc
unless a panicular increase of demand were to
take place at home, he could ncvcr withdraw his
foreign supply without lowering the price of his
whole crop ; and the nation would tiius be in pos*
Session of a constant störe for years of scarcity.

To the prescnt state of things, indeed, the sup-
Position here made will not apply. In averagc
years we do not grow enough for our own con-
sumption. Our first object must thercfore be ta
supply our own wants before we aim at obtaining
OD excess, and the rtsuictive law» on importation

ehap. X, rOPÜLATION 555

Of bounties on the exportation of com*

are strong^y calculatcd to produce this effect. It '

i$ difficult to poncdve a more decided encourage-

ment to the invefttment of capital in agriculture,

than the certaiaty, that for many years to come,

tfae price will never fall so low as die growing

price. If such a certainty has no tendency to give

encouragement to British agriculture, on account

of the advance it may occasion in the price of la^

bor, it may safely be pronounced^ that no possible

, mcrease of wealth and population can ever en-

Courage the production of com,^ In a nation

which never imported com except in a scarcity^

commeFce could never get the start of agriculture ;

and restrictive laws on importation, as &r as they

^ If the Operation of the com laws, as they were csta«

Uished in 1700, had conti nued uninterrupted, I cannot

bring inyseif to believe, that we should be now in the

babit of importing so much com as we do at present.

Potttng the bounty on exportation out of the question,

the rettnctive laws on importation alone would haye made

it impossible« The demand for British com would, for

Che bat 30 years, hare been both greater and more uni-

§ana than it has been ; and it is contrary to erery prin-

cipleof supply and demand to suppose, that this would not

have occasioned a greater growth. Dr. Smith's arg^-

ment clearly prores too much, which is asbad as proving

tottlittle.

256 ESSAY ON . Book

Of bounties on the exportation of com*

go, tend to givc a relative discouragement to ma —
nu&ctures, and a relative encourdgement to agri —
culture. If witliout dimiiiishing manufacturcs^
they were mercly to determine a greater pari of th^
future annual accumulatioii to fall on the iand,
c&ct would undoubtedly be in the highcsl degr^
desirabk ; but cvcn allowing that the present veO*
rapid march of wealth in gcncral were to suflR^ ^
slight rclaxation in its progress, if therc be an>'
foundation whatever for the alarms that have o^
late been expressed respecting the advantageou^
employmcnt of so rapidly increasing a eapital, wr
mtglit surely be wiUing to s^icrifice a small portion
of present riches, in ordcr to attain a greater degree
of scciirity, indcpcndcncc, and psrrmancnt pros-
pcrity.

Havinjf considercd tlie tflcct of the boiinty on
the farmcr, it remuius to considcr its cflcct on the
consunicr. It must bc allowcd, that all tlie direct
effccts of the bounty are to raise, and not to lower
tlic pricc of corn to the consumcr ; but its uidircct
effccts are both to lovvcr the avcrage pricc, and to
prevcnt the variations alx>vc and bclow that price.
If WC take any {KTiod of sonic Icngth prior to the
cstablishmcnt of Uic boiintv, wc shall find tliat Uie

». X POPULATION. 257

Of bounticB on the exportation <^ com.

age price of ccmti is most powerfuUy affected
ears of scarcity. From 1637 to 1700, both
isive, the average price of corri, according to

Smith, was 21. lls. 0\\ yet in 1688 the
kring price, according to an estimate of Grego-
Ling, which Dr. Smith sup|K)ses to be correct,
only 1 /. 8^, It appears therefore, that during
period it was the monopoly price from de-
ncy of supply, rather than the growing price
*h influenced the general average. But this

average price would not proportionally en-
age the cultivation of corn. Though^ie far-

might fi^l vary sanguine during one or two
'S of high price, and project many improve-
ts, yet the glut in the market which would
w, would depress him in the same degree, and
roy all bis projects. Sometimes, indeed, a

of high price really tends to impoverisli the
, and prepare the way for future scarcity.—

period is too short to determine more capital
le land, and a temporary plenty is often restor-»
•y sowing ground that is not ready for it, and

injuring the permanent intcrests of agricul-
. It may easily happen therefore that a very
uating price, although the general average be
K. I 1

iÄ ESSAY ON Book Ul

Of bounties on tbc exportation of com.

hoictu will no€ tend lo encourage the determinatkn
of capital to the land in the same degree as a stea-
dkr price with a lower general average, provided
that this uvcTuge is above the growing {H*ice. And
if the bounty has any tendency to encourage a
greater supply, and to cause the general average
to be more afiected by the growing price than the
price of scarcit}-, it may produce a benefit of veiy
high magnitude to the consumer, while at the
>ame time it fumishes a better encouragement to
the furmer, tvvo objects vvhich have been consi«
dered ^ incompatible, tliough not with sufficient
reuson. For let us suppose that the growing price
lu this countrj' is 55 Shillings per quartcr, and
that for three years out of tlic last ten, the price
Trom scarcity had becn five guineas, for four years
55 Shillings, and for the rcmaining three years 52
>hiirmgs. In this case the average of the ten
vvurs will be a little above 3/. 9s. This is a most
VHc\Hiraging price, but the three years \\ hich were
bclA.>w the growing price would dcstroy, in a great
iiKü^ure, its effect, and it cannot be doubted that
.kUricultim! would have reccivcd a much more bc-
*Ktivuil Impulse, if the price liad continued steadily
ilk s* jjtiiiKas during die whole timc. With regard
V ^' ci>nsumer, the advantage of the latter aver-
i^v Ktvwl not bc insistcd on.

yup. X. POPULATION. 259

Of bounties on the exportation of corn«

Whcn Dr. Smith asserted that a fall in thc price
of com could not possibly happcn in consequence
sf a bounty, he overlooked a distinction which it
hs necessary to make in this case between the grow-
jig prioe of com in years of common plenty, and
iieaverage price ofapcriod including years of
scarcity, which are in fact tvvo vcry different things.
Supposing the wages of labor to be regulated liiore
rcqvently by thc former than the latter price,
mhkh perhaps is the case, it will readily bc allowed
Iiat thc bounty could not lower the growing price,
fiough it might very easily lower the averagc
firice of a long period, and I have no doubt what-
nrer had this effect in a considerable dcgree du«
ring the first half of the last Century.

The Operation of the bounty on the value of
silver is, in the same manner, in its direct effects
U) depreciate it, but its indirect effects may perhaps
tcnd more powerfuUy to prevent it from falling.
In die progress of wealth, when commerce out-
fltrips agriculture, there is a constant tendency to
a dt[»eciation of silver, and a tendency to an oppo-
site effect, when the ballance leans to the side of
agriculture. Duringthe first half of the last Cen-
tury agriculture seemed to flourish more than com
merce, and silver, according to Dr. Smith, seem-

260 ESSAY ON Book Ilf.

Of bouDties on the ex{x>rtation of com.

cd to rise in valuc in most of the countries in Eu-
rope. During the lattcr half of the Century, com*
merce seemed to have got the start of agricultinti
and the eflfect not being counteracted by a defi«
cicncy ofcirculadng medium , silverhas been vcry
generally depreciated. As far as this depreciadon
b common to the commercial World, it is cotii-
paratively* of litt* importance ; but undoubce^
those nations will feel it most, where

' Eren the depreciation which is common to the
mercial worid produces much eyil to indiTiduals who_
fixcd incomcai and one important national cyiI, tbat «^^^
disposing landlords to let long leases of farma. Witl^^ ^
gard to leases, the Operation of the bounty would ccrt— ^^
If be favorable. It has appcared« that after the adv^^^^
occasioned on its first establishment, the pricc of ^^®^
would for many years tcnd to fall towards its formcr 1«^^
and if no othcr causcs intervcned a very considerable \^^^^^
might elapsebefore it had regained the hei^;ht from wl^**^,
it began to sink. Conscquently after the fii st depre^^****'
tion, futurc depreciation would be chcckcd, and of cou "^
long leases morc enconraged. The absolute depreoiat '**
occasioned by the establishment of the bounty, wouM ^
perfectly inconsiderablc, compared with the othcr cau ^^^'
of depreciation, which are constantly operating in t -^^
country. Indepcndently of the funding System, the ^^ ''*
tended usc of paper, the infltjx of commercial wealth, » ^
the comparaii VC deficiency of com, every tax on the nccr ^' !
taries of life tends to lower the value of siWer.

Chap, X POPULATION. 261

Of bounties on the exportation of com.

has prevailed in the greatest degree, and where
the nominal price of labor has risen the highest^
«nd has been most affected by the competition of
oommercial wealth, operating on a comparative*
deficiency of com. It will certainly be allowed
diat those landed nations which supply the ports of
Europa with com, will be tlie least liable to this
^Bsadvantage, and even those small states whose
wants are known will probably suffer less than
tfiose whose wants, at the same time that üiey are
quite uncertain, may be very considerable. l'hat
J&igland is in the latter Situation, and tliat die ra-
ludprogresä of commercial wealth, combined vvitii
years of scarcity, lias raised the nominal price of
wages more than in any other country of Europe,
vrSl not be denied ; and the natural consequence
is, that silver is more depreciated here than in the
rest of Europe.

If the bounty has any effcct in weakening this
sause of depreciation, by preventing the average
price of com from being so much affected by the
price of scarcity, the ultimate advantage which
its indirect Operation occasions, with regard to the
value of silver, may more than counterbalancc
Ae prcsent disadvantage of its direct Operation.

On the whole thcrefore it appears, that the com

ita ESSAY QN MmklBL

Ot iüinfi I og tbc cxgc<rar;iin itomi»

cy cpcamg a arger, out mcir ^^-^ -,

X wül be 2iLa vrsL s an advancixrc af

^rSLxa jmi in :ni^ rxrts c£ Enropc« and ;tt jar s

-MC :' SIC iimcr? c^uli ^raci^aiiT -zcreAsc üicir gr»«tk

tiac 4 5cr*ila^.:c w:-^IJ ar'.sc *: hoo« to dcmAad tlic
▼!tcic o& it« B«i>t iü '^is case. üi« grear lacnease of öe
uttiHii m:$cs soteiy trjci iLe cacx^ocss. anc micst tbcfc-
■t-n: Sr t^jCiIIv cf a uferest niture frooi sach a denusd
a>* ;i üic jctual clrcwi3.5txacc5 of thc coQntrr. wovild e»-
coumjtc 4a cficmaoi scppij. If th« makers of sopcrte
^>cv«iAi c&txh« «o«««i scU üi«ir commooitj ibr 4 cKit|iny i
T^ni iTi^ccJC ci" 4 f:\iinea. i: cxnnoc bc doubted ^hit ÜK
JciBLioJ vculd incrcase mort than ten fold ; bui tbc cer«
:4io(T Ol such an incnnsc of demand. ia sucb a caset
«ottk! h4vc DO teodcDCT whatcYcr« in the actual circuiD-
>taB%:e5 of an 5 known countnr. lo cncouragc thc mann*
t\jctur« ofbroad cloth?.

K X. POPULATION. 263

Of bounties or, the exporlation of conu

ominal price of com regulates the price of all
• commodities, a proportional difference in the
5 of silver. With regard to the permanent
ests of commerce there is great reason to be-
, that this disadvantage would be more tlian
terbalanced by the tendency of a fuUer and
Lier supply of corn to prevent the futurc dc-
tation of silver in this country, but still it is a
mt evil ; and the good and evil of the systeni
t be compared with the good and evil of a per-
freedom in the commerce of grain, the name
hich is undoubtedly most fascinating. The
ntages of an unlimited freedom of importa-
and exportation are obvious. The specific
to be apprehended from it in a rieh and com-
:ial countr}' is, that the rents of land and the
» of labor would not fall in proportion to the
n the price of com. If land yielded no other
uce dian corn, the proprietors would be abso-
f obliged to lower their rents exactly in pro-
on to the diminished demancl and diminished
r, because, universally, it is price that deter-
» rent, not rent that determines price ; but in
jntry where the demands for the products of
jre are verj' great, and daily mcreasing, tlie
j of land would not be entirelv delcrmined bv

264 ESSAY ON Book UL

Of bourities on the exportation of com.

thc price of com ; and though they would fitU
a fall in the price of com, they would not fall in
Proportion. In the same manner, the \v^nes of
labor being influenced not only by the price of
com, but by the competition of commercial wealth,
and the otlier causes before enumerated, though
they would probably fall with a fall in the price of
corn would not fall in proportion. During die
first half of the last Century the average price of
corn feil considerably, but owing to the demand
for labor arising from an increasing commerce, die
price of labor did not fall with it. High rents and
high wages occasioned by an increased demand
and an increased price of com, cannot possihly
stop cultivation, for tlic obvious reason, that the
power of paying the advance is given previous to
thc advance taking place ; but high rents and high
wages supported by other causes than the price
of corn tcnd most powcrfully to stop it. Undcr
these circumstances land on which little lalx>r has
been bestowed, will generally yicid a higher rent
than that on which much has l)cen bestowed,
and the bringing of fresh land under cultivation is
most powcrfully checked. A rieh and commer-
cial nation is thus by tlie natural course of things

Cyutp. X POPULATION. 265

Of bounties on the exportation of com.

Icd more to pasture than tillage, and is tempted

to become daily more dependent upon others for

its smpplies of com. If all the nations of hurope

oould be considered as one great country, and if

any one State could be as secure of its supplies

fi-om others, as the pasture districts of a particu-

lar State are from the com districts in their ncigh-

^l3orhood| there would be no härm in this dcpcn-

dence, and no person would think of proposing

com laws. But can \ve safely consider Europe

in thi» light? The fortunate Situation of this

country, and the excellence of its laws and govera-

ment exempt it, above any other nation from fo-

reign invasion and domestic tumult, and it is a

paidonable love of one's country, which under

such circumstances produces an umvillingnesk to

expose ity in so important a pouit as the suppl} of

its principal food, to share in the changcs and

diances which may happen to the contiiicnt. How

would the miseries of France have been aggravat.

cd during the revolution if she had bcen dcptndent

on foreign countries for the support of two or threc

mülions of her people.

That we can readily tum oursclves from an im-
porting to an exporting nation, in the artick of
com, I would by no means prctend to say ; but
voL H. mm

•

266 ESSAY ON Book 111.

Of bounties on the exportation of com.

•

both theory, and the experience of the first half of
the last Century, Warrant us in concluding it prac-
ticable ; and we cannot but allow tkit it is wortb
the experiment, as tlie permunencc of our national
prosperity may depend upon it. ' If we proceed
in our present coursc, let us but for a moment re-
flect on the probable conscquenecs. Wc can hardly
doubt that in the course of some years, we shaD
draw from America, and the nations bordering on
the Baltic, as much as two millions of quarters of
wheat. besides other com, the support of above
two millions of peoplc. If under tliese circum-
staiices, any commercial discus&ion, or other dis-
pute, were to arisc with these nations, with what a
wcight of power thcy would negociate ! Not the
wholc British navy could ofler a morc coiivincing
argumcnt than the simple thrcat of shutting all
their i>orts. I am not unaware, that in gencral, wk:
may securely deptnd uiK)n pcopic's not acting di-

* Sincc ihis was first writtcn, a new systeni of com
laws has bcen cstablibhcd by the legisluturc. but it is not
so powerful in its Operation as that of 1688 and 1700.
The new laws tend sirongly toencourage the growth of an
independent supply of com, but not so strongly the pro-
ductjon of an excess. An independent supply howcTcr
ia ccrtainly the fir&t and most important objtct.

Ch^. X. POPULATION. 267

Or bounties on the exportation of com.

rectly contraiy to their interest. But this consi-
deration, all powerful as it is, will sometimes yield
vduntarily to national Indignation, and is some-
times forccd to yicld to the resentment of a so-
v^reign* It is of sufficient weight in practicc
f^hen applied to manufactures ; because a delay in
tlieir sale is not of such immediate consequence,
and from their smaller bulk they are easily smug*
gled But in the case of com, a delay of three
or four months may pnxiuce the most compücated
misery , and from the great bulk of com, it will
generaUy be in the power of a sovereign to exe-
cute almost completely his resentful purpose»
Small commercial states which depend nearly for
the whole of their supplies on foreign powers, will
always have many friends. They are not of suf-
ficient consequence to excite any gcneral indigna-
tioa against them, and if they cannot be supplied
from one qoarter, they will from another. But
diis is by no means the case with such a country as
Great Britain, whose commercial ambition is pe-
coliarly calculated to excite a general jealousy, and
in &ct has excited it to a very great degree. If
our commerce continue increasing for a few years,
and our commercial population with it, we shall be
iaid so bare to the shafts of fortune, that notliing

268 ESSAY ON Jiook ///.

Of bounties on the exporlation of com«

but a miracle can save us from being Struck.
The periodical retum of such seasons of dearth,
as those which we have of late experienced, I coo-
»der aa absolutely certaii), upon our preaent im*
poiting System : but excluding from the questioQ
at present the dreadful distress that they occaaiony
wnich however no man of humani^ can long ba-
nish from his mind, I would ask, is it poUtic,
merely with a view to our national greatneas, to
render ourselves thus dependent upon others for
our Support, and put it in the power o( a combi»
nation against us, to diminish our populatioD tivo
jnillions ?

To restore our independence, and build our na«
tional greatncss and commercial prosperity on the
sure foundation of agriculturc, it is cvidcntly noi
suiiicicnt, to proposc prcmiums for tillage, to cul*
tivate this or that waste, or even to pass a general
inclosure bill, though thcse arc all exccllent as
far as tlicy go. If the iiicrease of the commercial
population keep pace witli these cfTorts, we shall
only be where we wcre before, with regard to the
necessity of importation. The object requircd is to
alter the relative proportion between the commcr-
cial and the agricultural population of the country,
which cjn onlv l)C doae bv somc svstem wliich

Oup. X POPULATION. 469

Of bounties on the exportation of corn«

will determine a greater proportion of the national
capital to the land. I see no other \\ray at present
of e&cüng thb object, but by com laws adapted to
the peculiar circumstances of the country and the
ttate of foreign markets. All Systems of peculiar
lestraints and encouragements are undoubtedly

•

fisagreeable, and the necessity of resorting to them
may justly be lamented. But the objection which
Dr. Smith brings against bounties in general, that
of fcxx^ing some part of the industry of the country
iato fi Channel less advantageous than that in which
it would run of its own accord,* does not apply in
die present instance, on account of the pre-eminent
qoalities of the products of agriculture, and the
dreadiul consequences that attend the slightest
fuiure of them. The nature of things has indeed
stamped upon com a peculiar value ;' and this re-
nark, made by Dr. Smith for another purpose,
nay &irly be applied to justify the exception of
thb commodity from the objections against boun-
ties in general. If throughout the commercial
World every kind of trade were perfectly free, onc
should undoubtedly feel the grealest reluctance in

* Wealth of NatioDS, vol. ii. b, it. c. t. p. 278.
« Idcm.

27Ü ESSAY ON BooklU^

or bounties on the cxportation of corn«

])roposing any intcmiption to such a System of gc-
neral libcrtv; and indeed, under such circum-
stances, agriculture would not need peculiar en-
couragements. But under the present universal
prevalcnce of the commercial System, with all ita
difierent expedients of encouragement and re-
straint, it is folly to exccpt from our attention the
great manufacture of com which supports all the
rest. The high duties paid on the importation of
foreign manufacturcs are so direct an encourage-
ment to the manufacturing part of the societf,
that nothing but some encouragement of the same
kind can place the manufacturers and cultivators
of this countT}' on a fair footing. Any System of
encouragement thercforc, which mip;ht l^ found
nccessary for the commerce of grain, wonid evi-
deiilly 1)0 owing to the prior cncouragtments
which had been given to manufiictures. If all be
free, I havc nothing to say ; but if \vc protect and
encouragc, it seems to bc folly not to encourage
that production, which of all others is the most
imiK)rtant and valuable.'

* Thoui»!) 1 have dwclt miich on ihe imporiancc of
paiVinj* a qTianiif y of corn in the country bcyond the de-
ii)an(U of the hoine consuniption. yet I do not mcan Xn

Vhap. X POPULATION. 271

Of bounües on thc exportation of com.

Let it not however be imugined, thut the most
^ightened System of agricuitiirc, though it \a ill

Tecommend that general System of ploughing, vhich

lakes place in most parts of France, and defeats ils owu

porpose« A large stock of cattle is not only nccessary as

&Tery valuable part of the food of the country, and ascon-

tribuling vcry greatly to the comforts of a considerable

portion of its population ; but it is also necessary in the

pitNiuction of com itself. A large surplus produce, in

Proportion to the number of persons employed, can never

beobtained without a great stock of cattle. At the same

time it does not follow, that we should throw all the land

that it fit for it into pasture. It is an Observation of Mr.

Toang, and I should think a just one, that the first and

nost obyious improvement in agriculture is to make the

Ukmsof a country support the additional cattle a*tid shecp

Vttited in it. (Travels in France, vol. i. p. 361.) I am by

Bo means sanguine however, as to the practicability of

cooTerting England again into an exporling country, whilc

die demands for the products of pasture are daily increas-

iogf from the increasing riches of the commercial part of

tke nation« But should this be really considered as im*

pncticable, it seems to point out to us one of the great

caii9es of the decay of nations. We have always heard

that ttates and empires have their periods of declension ;

tBdwe leam from history that the diiferent nations of the

' ttrth have flourished in a kind of succession) and that

poor countries have been continually rising on the ruins

oftheir riclier neighbors. Upon the commercial svsteni,

this kind of succession seems to be in tl:e natural and nc-

cessaiy course of things, indcpendently of the cffects of

war. If from the increasing riches of thc commercial

272 ESSAY ON Book III.

Of bounties on the exportation of com«

undoubtedly be able to producc food beyond the
dcmaiids of the actual population, can evcr be

part of any nation, and the consequently increasing de-
ipands for the products of pasture, more land were dailf
laid down to grass» and more corn imported l'rom oUier
countriett the unaroidable consequence seems lo bCf that
the increasing prospcrity of thene countries which theiic
CKportations of com would contribute to accelerate» m'
uliimately diminUh the population and power of the
tries which had fostered them« The ancienla alway
attributed this natural weakness and old age of ttates
luxury. But the modems who have generally conaid
luxury as a principal encouragement to commerce
manufactures« and consequently a powerfui initni
of prospenty, have, with great appearance of rcatony
unwilling to considcr it as a cause of decline. But alle
ing, with the modems, all the advantagcs of luxury, an
when it falls short of actual vice, they are certainly
there seems to be a point beyond which it must necc
rily bccome prejudicial to a State, and bring with it th
seeds of weakness and decay. This point is, when it r
pushed so far as to trench on the funds necessary for i
Support, and to become an impediment instead of
encouragement to agriculture.

I should be much misunderstood, if, from any thiag^
that I have said in the four last chapters, 1 should b^
considcred as not suiüciently awarc of the advantagc#
derived from commerce and manufactures. I look upoD
them as the most distinguishing characteristics of ci^tli-
zation, the most obvious and striking marks of the im*
provement of society, and calculated to enlarge our en*
joyments, and add to the sum of human happinett. No

Chap, X. POPULATION. 273

()f bo\inlies on the cxportalion of corn.

made to keep pace with an unchecked popubtion.
The crrors that hüve arisen from the constivtit ap-
pcarance of a füll bupply, produced by tlie agri-

great siirplus produce of ajjriculture could exist without

them^ and if it 4i! t^xist, it woiild be '-.o m parat ively of

Tcry littltr valiie. Hur still they are rathcr tlie omamenta

mnd cmbcllii^hinentsof ihe political structure than its foun-

dations. W'hiltr ihest; foundalions are pci*fectly seciirc,

we cannot ne too s>/licii')u<i to make all the apartments

conTcnient an 1 elccant ; but if there be the slij^iicst rca-

•OQ to fear ihat t:\e for.v.l.itions thcnselves may jyjve way,

k seems lo '»e io!ly lo contiiiiie dirtctinq; our principal

attention to ttie 'ess essenlial parts. There has ncver yet

becn an instance in history, of a lari>;c nation conünuing

with undirair.:ic.i vj^^or, to su!>port four or five millions of

ita people on imported com ; iior do 1 believe that there

cver will be such an instance in futiire. England isi un-

doubtedly, from her insular Situation, and commanding^

navy« the most likely to form an exccption to this riile ;

Vut in spitc evcn of tne ptculiar advantages of England,

itappears lo me clear that il -»:-j coiuinue yearly to in-

crease her iniportations of corn, she cannot ultimaiely

escape that dccline which seems to be the natural and

Becessary consequence of exccssive commercial wealth.

1 am not now speaking of the next twenty or thirty years,

•but of the next two or three himdred. And though we are

Utile in the habitof looking so far Ibrwards, yet itmay be

qoestioned, whether we are not bound in duty to make

some exertions to avoid a System which must necessarily

terminate in the wcakncss and decline of our postcriiy.

But whether we make any practical application of such a

discussion or not, it is curious to contemplate the causes

vol. ii. n n

274 ESSAY ON, ^c.

Of bountics on thc exportation of com.

cultural systciA, aiid ihc source of somc other prc-
judiccs Ol) thc biibjcct of population, will be no«
ticcd in ihc following chapter.

ofthose rcverses in the fates of emptreS) which so fre-
qucntly changed the face of the world in past timcs^ and
inay be expected to produce similar, thoiigh perhaps not
such violent chang;es in future. War h as undoubiedly in
ancient times, the principal cause of these changes; bul
it frequenily only finished a work which excess of luxury
and the nei^lect of a^^nculture had begun* Foreign In-
vasion«^ or internal convulsions, produce but a tempormry
and comparatively slight effect on such countries as
Lombardy« 'luscany, and Flandera, but are fatal to such
States as Holland and Ilambuif^h ; and though the com-
merce and inanufactures of England will probably mlways
be siippotted in a grcat degrec by her avrriculture^ yet
that part which is not so snpportcd will still rcmain sub«
ject to the revcrsc» of depcndcnt states.

\Vc sho\ild rerollcct, that it is only within thc last
twenty or ihirty ycars ihat wc havc bccome an importing
nation. In so shori a pcriod, it coiild hardly bc expected
that the cvils of the sy^tcm sho\ild be pcrcrptible. \Ve
have howevcr alrvady feit somc of its inconvenicnces;
and if wc pcrscvcre in it. ils cvil consccjuenccs may by
no nieans bc a matter of rcmote spcculation.

CHAPTER XL

On the prevailing Errors respectmg Population and

Plenty.

TV has been observed, that many coim^ries
atthe period of their p^eatest depjce of populous-
ness have lived in the grealest plenty, and have
bccn able to export com ; but at other periods,
wfaen their population was verj- low, liavc liver] in
Gontinual poverty and want, and have been obliijed
to imp<Ht com. Eg}'pt, Palestine, Rome, Sicily,
»d Spain, are cited as particular exemplifications
of this fact ; and it has been inferred, that an in-
erease of population in any State, not cultivated to
the utmost, will tend rather to augment than di-
nmii^ the relative plenty of the whole socieiy ;
md that, as Lord Kaiines observes, a country can-
not easily become too populous Ibr agriculture ;
because agriculture has the signal property of pro-
ducing food in proportion to the number of con-
sumers.'

^Sketches of the History ofMan^b.i. sketch i« p. 106^
107. 8yo. 1788«

376 ESSAY ON Book HL

On the prevailing crrors

The gencral facts from which thcse inferenccs
arc dra\ni, thcre is no rcason to doubt ; but the
iiifcrenccs by no mcans foUow from the premises«
It is the nature of agriculture,particularly when well
conducted, to produce suppoit for a considerable
number above tliat which it employs ; and conse*
quently if thcse members of the societ)% or as Sir
James Steuart calls them, the free hands, de not
increase, so as to rcach the limit of the number
which can be supported oy the surplus produce,
the whole popiilation of the country may continue
for ages increasing with the improving stute of
agriculture, and yet always be ablc to export com.
But this incrcase aftcr a certain p(*riod, will be
vcrj' differcnt from the natural and unrcstrictctl
incrcasc of population ; it will mcicly foUow the
slow au^mentalion of produce from tht gradual
improvcnitnt of ap^iculturc, aiul populaiion will
still bc chcckcd by the ditficulty of procuring sub-
sisteiice. It is vcrv iustlv obscrvtd bv Sir Jumes
Stcuiirt, that the population of K.nirland in ihc mid-
die of the last Century when the expf rts ofeom
were considerable, was still chreked for Wüiit of
food.' The precise measure of the pnpnl.Jtw » in

> Polit. £con. vol. i. b. i. c« xv. p. 100.

Chap. XI. POPULATION. 277

respecting population and plenty.

a country thus circumstanced, will not indeed bc
the quantity of food, because pari of it is exported,
but the quantity of employment. The State of
this employment however will necessarily regu-
late the wages of labor, on which depends the
power of the lower classes of people to procurc
food; and according as the employment of the
country is increasing, whether slowly or nipidly,
these wages will be such, as either to check or to
cncourage early marriages, such, as to enable a
laborer to support only two or three, or as many
as five or six children.

The quantity of employment in any country
will not of course vary from year to year, in the
same manner as the quantity of produce must ne-
eessarily do, from the Variation of the seasons;
and consequcntly the check from want of employ-
ment will be much more steady in its Operation,
and be much more favorable to the lower classes
of people, than the check from the immediate want
of food. The first will be Ihe prcventive check ;
the second the positive check. When the dem^.id
fior labor is either stationarj-, or increasing very
slowly, people not seeing any employment opcn
by which they can support a family, or the wages
of common labor being inadequate to this purj)osc,

278 ESSAY ON Meok 111.

()n the prevailing errors

t _

will of coursc be deterred f rom maiT)ing. But if
a demand for labor continue iiicreasing with some
rapidity, although the supply of food be uncertain,
on account of variable seasons, and a dependciice
011 othcr countries, the popuIation will evidently
go on, tili it is positively checked by famine, er
the diseases arising from severe want.

Scarcity and extreme poverty therefore may er
may not accomjxmy an inereasing popuIation, ac-
cording to circumstances ; but tliey must neces-
sarily accompany a permanently declining popub*
tion ; because there never has been, nor probabljr
ever will be, any other cause than want of fcod^
which makes the popuIation of a country perma-
nciitly decliiie. In the numerous instances of de*
popuIation which occur in historj-, the causes of it
may alwavs be traced to the want of industr\\ or
the ill direction of that industry, arisnig from vio^
lence, bad govcmment, iguorance, &c, which first
occasions a want of food, and of course depopula*
tion follows. When'Rome adopted the custom
of iniporting all her com, and layiiig all Italy into
pasture, she soon declined in popiilution, 'ITic
aiuses of the dei>opuIation of Kt^\pt anr! Turkcy
have iUreadv lx*en allufUd to ; and in the case of
Spain, it was certainly not the numerical loss of

CÄfl^. XI. POPULATION. 279

respecting population and plenty.

people occasioned by the expulsion of the Moors ;

but the industry and capital thus expelled, which

permanently injured her population. When a

country has been depopulated by violent causes,

if a bad govemment, with its usual concomitant

insecurity of property ensuc, which has generaHy

been the case in all those countries which are now

less peopied than formerly, neither the food nor

the population can recover themselves, and the in-

habitants will probably live in severe want. But

when an accidental depopulation takes place, in a

country which was bcfore populous and industri-

cus, and in the habit of exporting com, if the re-

maining inlmbitants be left at liberty to exert, and

<io exert, their industry in the same direction as

Icfore, it is a stränge idea to entcrtain that they

'^^rould then bc unable to supjjly themselves with

com in the same plenty ; particularly as the di-

Tninished numbers would of course cultivate prin-

•

cipally the more fertile parts of their territory, and
not be obliged as in their more populous State, to
apply to ungrateful soils. Countries in this Situa-
tion would evidently have the same chance of re-
covering their former number, as they had origi-
nally of reaching this number ; and mdeed if abso-
lute populousness were necessary to relative plen-

280 ESSAY ON Book lU.

On the prevailing cirors

ty, as some agriculturists luve supposed, * it would
be impossible for new colonics to increasc iiith
the samc rapidity as old stiitcs.

1 Among others, I allude more particularlf to Mr.
Andci*son, who, in a Calm Invrntigation qf the Circum"
Mtancea which havc led to the firctrnt Scarcity of groin im
Dritairiy (publishcd in 1801) has labored with extraordV
nary eamestncss, and I believe with the beut intentior*-^
possible, to impress this curious tnith on the minds ^^
bis countrymcn» The particular position which be ft-^'
tempts to prove is, that an incrcase oj fiofiulation in «r^^ ^
9tate vfhoaeßelda have not been made /• attain their fäf^kt
po^Mtöle dcgree of firoductivtneuM^ (a thing that
haa nrver yet bcen sren on thU globe) iviii ncccMaarily hüi
ita mcana of subsistence rather augniented than ditniniake^^
by that augmentation of ita poftutation ; and the rci^eraf^^
The proj>osition is, to be sure, expressed rather obscure
ly ; but from the contcxt, bis nicaniiig cvidcnily i», tha-^
every increasc of population teiuls to increase rtlativ^^
plenty, and vice versa. Ile conchidcs his proofh by ob-^^
scrving, that if the facts which he has thus brought for-^
ward and connected do not serve to remove the fears of^
those whodoubt the possil)iliiy of this counlry producing
abundance to sustain its incrcasing po]>ulation, were it
to augment in a ratio greaily more progressive than it
has yet done, he shouhl doubt whether they couhi be con-
vinced of it, were one evcn to risc froni tlie dcad lo teil
them so. Mr. A. is perhaps justified in ihis doi;ht, ln>m
the known incredulity of the age, which might cunse {>co-
ple to remain unconvinred in botli cases. 1 agree uith
Mr. A. howevcr, cntirely, resixctinj^^ tlu- imiwrtanct of
directing a greatcr part of the national industry to a^i-

Ch^, XI, POPULATION. 281

respecting. population and plenty.

The prejudices on the subject of population
bear a very striking resemblance to the old pre-
judices about specie, and we know how slowly
aod with what difficulty these last have yielded to
juster conceptions. Politicians observing, that
States which were powerful and prosperous were
almost invariably populous, have mistaken an ef-
fect for a cause, and concluded that their popula-
tion was the cause of their prosperity, instead of
their prosperitj' being the cause of their popula-
tion ; as the old political economists concluded,
that the abundance of specie was the cause of na*
tioiial wealth, instead of the effect of it. The an-
nual produce of the land and labor, in both these
instances, became in consequence a secondary
coosideration, and its increase, it was conceived,
would naturally foUow the increase of specie in
die one case, or of population in the other. The
fijly of endeavoring by forcible means to increase
the quantity of specie in any country, and the ab-

cnhare ; but from the circumstance of its being possible
fer m country, with a certain direction of its industry,
ilwayt to export com, although it may be very populous,
he has been lad into the stränge error of supposing, that
n sgricultural country could support an unchecked po*
pulaüoii«

voL ii. o o

28Ü ESSAY OK Book UI,

On the prevailing errors

solute impossibility of accumulating it bejrond a
certain level by any human laws that can be devi*
sedy are now fully established, and havc been com-
pletely cxemplified in the instances of Spain and
Portugal ; but the Illusion still remains respecting
population ; and under this impression, almost eve-
ry political treatisc has abounded in proposab to
encourage population, with little or no compan-
tivc reference to the means of its suppcnt« Yct
surely the foUy of endeavoring to increase the
quantity of specie in any country without an in*
crease of the commodities which it is to circulate,
is not greater, than that of endeavoring to increase
the number of peoplc without an increase of the
food which is to maintain them ; and it will be
found, that the levcl above which no human laH's
can raise the population of a country, is a Umit
more fixed and impassable than the limit to the
accumubtion of specie. Howevcr improbable in
fact, it is possible to conceive, that means might
be invented of retaining a quantity of specie in a
State, greatly beyond what was dcmunded by the
produce of its land and labor ; but whcn by great
cncouragements, population has been raised to
such a hcight, that this produce is meted out to
each individual in the smallcst portions that can

Chaft. XI. POPULATION. 28

respecting population and plenty.

su[qx)rt life, no Stretch of ingenuity can even con-
ocive tbe possibility of going furthen

It has appearedy I think, clearly, in the review
of difierent societies given in the former part of
this woAi^ that those countries the inhabitants of
which were sunk in the most barbarous ignorance,
4»" oppressed by the most cruel tyranny, however
lowr they might be in actual population, were veiy
|«q;>ulous in proportion to their means of subsist-
€iice ; and upon the slightest failure of the seasons
generaUy suffered the severities af want Igno-
rance and despotism «seem to hare no tendency to
destroy the passion which prompts to increase ;
but they effectiially destroy the checks to it from
xtaaoa and foresight. The improvident barbarian
wbo thinks only of his present wants, or the misc-
laUe peasant, who, from his political Situation, fcels
little securit}' of reaping wliat he has sown, will sel-
4om be deterred from gratifying his passions by
die prospect of inconveniences whicli cannot be
Cxpected to press on him under three or four
years. But though this want of foresight which is
fostered by ignoranoe and despotism tend thus ra-
ther to encourage the procreation of children, it is
absolutely fatal to the industry which is to support
&em. Industry cannot ex ist without foresight

284 :BSSAY ON Book UL

Oll the prcvailin^ cirors

and security. The inHoIence of the savage b wdl
known ; and the poor £g}^tian or Abyssinian 6r-
mer without capital, who rents land which is kt
out yearly to the hi^est bidder, and who is con-
stantly siibfect to the demands of bis tyrannicil
masters, to the casual plunder of an encmy, and»
not unfrequently, to the violation of bis miaerabfe
contractu can have no heart to be industrious, aml
if he had» could not exercise that industry
success. Even povertj' itself, which appearsto
the ^jeat spup4!b industry, when it has onoe
certain limits, almost ceases to operatc. The in- -
digence which is hopeless, destroys all vigorous^
exertion, and confines the efforts to what is suffi- -
cient for bare existcncc. It is the hope of bettcr-
inp our condition, and the fear of want, radier "
than want itself, that is the best Stimulus to indus-
try ; and its niost constant and best dirccted ef-
forts will almost invariably be found among a class
of pcople alx)vc tlie chss of the uretchedly poor«
The cffect of ignorance and oppression will
thercfore always be to destroy the Springs of indus-
tr}% and consequently to diminish tlic annual pro-
duce of the land and labor in any country ; and thb
diminution will inevitably be followed by a de-
crease of the population, in spitc of the birtb of

Cht^. XI. POPULATION. 285

respecting population and plenty.

any numbcr of children whatever, annually. The
desire of immediate gratification, and die retnoval
cf the restraints to it from prudence, may perliaps,
in such countries, prompt universally to early mar«
riages ; but wheii these habits have once reduced
die people to the lowest possible State of poverty,
Aey can evidendy have no further effect upon the
populati(Mi. Their only effect must be on the de-
gree of mortality ; and there is no doubt, that if we
coiild obtain accurate bills of mortality in those
«outhem countries, whcre very few women remain
Bnmarried^ and all marry young, the proportion of
die annuai deaths would be 1 in 17, 18, or 20, in-
atead of 1 in 34, 36, or 40, as in European states,
where the preventive check operates.

That an increase of population, when it foUows
in its natural order, is both a great positive good
in itaelf, and absolutely necessary to a further in-
crease in the annuai produce of the land and labor
cf any country , I should be the last to deny. The
oily question is, ivhat is the natural order of its
pft^ress ? In this point, Sir James Steuart who
has in general explained this subject so well, ap-
pears to me to have fallen into an error. He de>
totnines that multiplication is the efficient cause
«f agriculture, and not agriculture of multipHca-

fi86 ESSAY ON Boot lU.

On the prevailing errors

tion. ■ But though it may be allowed, that tbe
increase of people beyond what could eaaily «ib-
sist on the natural ihiits of the earth, first prompt-
ed man to tili the ground ; and that the view of
maintaining a family, or of obtaining some vahit^
ble consideration in exchange for the products of
agriculture» still operates as the principal sdmuluf
to cultivation ; yet it is clear, that these prodnctSi
in their actual State, must be beyond the loweift
wants of the existing population, before any per-'
manent increase caii possibly be supported* Wrr
know that a multiplication of births has in num^-^
berless instances taken place, which has produoe^
no effect upon agriculture, and has mercly bcer^
followed by an increase of diseases ; but perhap!^
there is no instancc where a permanent increase o^
agriculturc, has not effccted a permanent increase-^
of popubtion, some wliere or othcr. Consequent- —
ly, agriculture may with more propriety be termed
the efiicient cause of population, than population
of agriculture,* though thcy certainly re-act

PoHt« Econ. vol« i. b« i«c. xviii. p« 114.

^ Sir James Steuart explains himself afterwards bf tay»

ing that he means principally the multiplication of thoie

persona who have some valuable consideration to give for

the products of agriculture ; but this is evidently not

Chap. XL POPULATION. 287

respecting population and plenty.

upcm each other, and are mutually necessary to
each other's support. This indeed seems to be
tbe hinge on which the subject tums, and all the
prejudices respecting population have, periiaps,
arisen from a mistake about the order of prece-»
dence.

The author of DAmi des Hommes^ in a chapter

€0 the effects of a decay of agriculture upon po-

puhtion, acknowledges that he , had fallen into a

fundamental error in considering population as

the source of revenue ; and that he was afterwards

iiillj convinced that revenue was die source of

jtopulation.^ From a want of attention to this

most important distinction, statesmen, in pursuit

^ the desirable object of population, have been

Icd to encourage early marriages, to reward the

Etfbers of fiimilies, and to disgrace celibacy ; but

^liis, as the same author justly observes, is to dress

mai water a piece of land without sowing it, and

^id yet to expect a crop.

Among the other prcjudices which have pre-
vaikd on the subject of population, it has beea

mere increase of population« and such an explanation
Kernt to adnüt the incorrectness of the gcneral proposi-
tioB.

* TonuTÜi« p. 34. 13ino. 9 ?ola. 1763.

288 ESSAY ON Book Ol.

On the prevailing errors

generally thought, that while there is either waste
among the rieh, or land remaining uncultivutdl
in any eountry, the complaints for want of food
cannot be justly founded, or at least that the pres-
sure of distress upon the poor is to be atthbuted
to the ill conduct of the higher classes of societj,
and the bad management of the land. The real
eiFect however of these two circumstances m
merely to narrow the limit of the actual populatioo;
but they have little or no influence on what may be
called the average pressure of distress on the poofcr
members of society. — If our ancestors had bcoi
so frugal and industrious, and had transmitted such
liabits to their posterity, that nothing superfluous
Avas now consumed by the higher classes, no horsrt
werc used for j leasurc, and no land \ras left uncul*
tivated, a striking difference would appear in ibc
State of the actual populätion ; but probably nooc
whatever, in the State of the lower classes of pco»
ple, wiih r<"spect to the price of labor, and tht f cii-
ty of supporting a family. The wastc among the
rieh, and the horses kcpt for pleasure, have indi^ t
little the elTect of the consumption of grain in dis«
tilleriesy noticcd before with regard to China. On
the supposition that the food consumed in this
manner may be withdrawn on the occasion of a

Ghap. XL POPULATION. 289

respecting population and plentf •

acarcity, and be applied to the relief of the poor,
Aey operate certainly as far as they go, like gra-
naries which are only opened at the time that they
ire most wanted, and must therefore tend rather
tobenefit than to injure the lower classes of societ}\
With regard to uncultivated land, it is evident,
diat its effi^t upon the poor is neither to injure
not to benefit them. The sudden cultivation of
it inll indeed tend to improve their condition for
a time, and the neglect of lands before cultivated
wiäl certainly make their Situation worse for a cer«
lain period ; but when no changes of this kind are
going forward, the effect of uncultivated land on
die lower classes operates merely like the posses-
Bon of a smaller territory. It is indeed a point of
rery great importance to the poor, whether a
Qountry be in the habit of exporting or importing
com ; but this point is not necessarily connected
iritfi the complete or incompletc cultivation of the
ivfaole territOT)', but depends upon the proportion
of the surplus produce, to those who are support-
^ by it I and in fact this proportion is generally
he greatest, in countries which have not yet com«
)leted the cultivation of all their territory. If
ivcry inch of land in tliis country werc well culti-

H/L ii. p p

290 ' ESSAY ON Book DL

On the prevailing errors

vatcd, there would be no reason to expect, mereljr
from this circumstance, that we should be able to
export com. Our power in this respect would
depend entirely on the proportion of the surpitis
produce to the commercial population; and tiiisi
of course, would in its tum depend on the direc-
tion of capital to agriculture or commerce«

It is not probable that any country with a larp
territory should ever be completely cultivated;
and I am inclined to think that we often draw verjr
mconsideratc conclusions agamst the industry and
'govemmcnt of states from the appearance of un-
cultivated lands in them. It seems to be the dar
and express duty of cvery govemment to removc
all obbtacles, and give everj' facility to the inclo«
siirc and cultivation of land ; but when this has
becYi donc, tlie rc3t must be Icft to tlie Operation
of individual intcrest ; and upon this principle it
cannot be* expectcd tliat any new land should be
brought into cultivation, the manure and the labor
nccessar}' for which, might be employed to grcatcr
advantage on the improvement of land already in
cultivation ; and this is a case vvhich will verv fi^e*
quently occur. In countries possesscd of a largc
tcrritorj-, there will always be a grcat quantity of

Chap. XI, POPULATION. 291

respecting population and plenty«

land of a middling quality , Avhich requires con^^
dressing to prevent it from growing worse, '\^
which would admit of very great improve^ent, if
a greater quantity of manure and labor could be
employed upon it The great obstacle to the me-
lionition of land is the difficulty, the expense, and
somctimes the impossibility of procuring a suffl*
eient quantity Sf dressing. As this instrument of
improvement^ therefore, is in prdctice limited»
whatever it may be in theory, the question will al-
ways bCi how it may be most profitably employed ;
and in any instance where a certain quantity of
dressing and labor employed to bring new land
into cukivation, would have yielded a permanent-
ly greater produce if employed upon old land,
bodi the individual and the nation are losers.
UpOQ this principle, it is not uncommon for für-
ners in some situations never to dress thelr poorest
landy but tö get from it merely a scanty crop evcry
Ünee Ofr four years, and to employ the \a hole of

Öicir manure, which they practically ftel is lin it-

cd, CHI those parts of their farms, where it wiil

froduce a greater proportional tffcct.
The case wdll be different of cour.se, in a small

territory with a .great population, supporttd on

292 ESSAY ON Book IDL

On the prevailing eirors

fi{D& not derived fromi their own soil. In this
wk there will be little er no choice of land, and
M comparative superabundance of manure ; and
under such circumstances the poorest soUs maj
be brought under cultivation. But for this pur-
po6e, it is not mere population that is wanted, but
a population which can obtain the produce of
other countries, while it is gradually improving
its own ; otherwise it would be immediately re-
duced in proportion to the limited produce of tUs
small and barren territory and the meliora-
tion of the land might perhaps never take place *
w if it did, it would take pbce very slon^y indee^^
and the population would always be exactly me:^^ -
sured by this tardy rate, aiKi could not'possibl
increase beyond it.

This subject is illustrated in the cultivation
the Campine in Brabant, which, according to th^
Abbfe Mann,* consisted originally of the mos^
barren and arid sand. Many attempts werc mad^
by private individuals to bring it under cultivation^
but without success ; which proves that, as a farm^

^ Mcmoir on the Agriculture of the Netherlands, pub--
liahed in vol. i. of Communications to Ihc board of Api^
culture, p. 'i35.

Chap. XI. POPULATION. 293

respecting population and plenty.

11^ project, and considered as a sole dependence,
äie cultivation of it would not answen Some re-
Ugious houses however, at last settled there, and
being supported by other funds, and improving the
land merely as a secondary object, thcy by degrees,
in the course of some centuriesy brought nearly the
whok under cultivation, letting it out to farmers
as soon as it was sufficiently improved.

There is no spot, however harren, which might
■ot be made rieh this way, or by the concentrated
population of a^manufacturing town; but this is
DO proof whatever that with respect to population
and food^ population has the precedence, because
this concentrated population could not possibly
czist, without the preceding existence of an ade-
quate quantity of food in the surplus produce of
some other district.

In a country like Brabant or Holland, ^where
territory is the principal want and not manure,
such a district as the Campine is described to be,
may perhaps be cultivated widi advantage. But
in countries possessed of a large territory, and
with a considerable quantity of land of a middling
quality, the attempt to cultivate such a spot, would
be a palpable misdirection and waste both of in
dividual and national resources.

294 ESSAY ON Book lU.

On the prevailing^ errors

The French havc already found their error in
bringing under cultivation too great a quantity of
poor land. They are now sensible that they have
employed in this way a portion of labor and dres-
sing, which would have produccd a permanently
better effect, if it had been applied to the further
improvement of better land. Even in China,
which is so fuUy cultivated and so fully peopled»
barren heaths have been noticed in some districts,
which prove that distressed as the people appear
to be for subsistence, it does not miswer to them
to employ any of their manure on such spots.
These remarks will be still further confirmed, if
we recollect, tliat in die cultivation of a large sur-
face of bad land, tlierc must ncccssarily be a vcry
great vvaste of secd corn.

\Vc shouUl not tlK-rcforc be too rcady to makc
infcrences agi\inst the internal ceononiy of a coun-
\xy froni the apiKarancc of uncultivatcd headis,
without othcr cvidcncc. But die lact is, tlut as
no country has cver rcachcd, or probably cver
will rcach, its highest possiblc acmc of producc,
it appears ahvays as if the want of industry, or
tiic ill-dircction of that industry, was the actua
limit to a further increasc of produee and popula-
tion, and not the absolute rcfusal of natiirc to

Vu^. XI. POPULATION. 295

respccting population and plenty«

ield any raott ; but a man who is locked up in a
3om may be feirly said to be confined by thc
raUs of it, though he may never touch them ;
nd with regard to the principle of population, it
\ never the question, whether a country will pro-
oce any morey but whether it may be made to
roduce* a sufficiency to keep pace with an ün-
hecked increasc of people. In China, the ques-
on is not, whether a certain additional quantity
if rice might be raised by improved culture, but
irhether such an addition could be cxpected du-
ring the next twenty-five years, as would be suffi-
incnt to Support an additional three hun Jred mil-
lions of people. And in this coyntr}', it is not
the question, whether by cultivating all our com-
nons, we could raise considerably more com than
it present ; but whether we could raise sufficient
br a population of twenty millions in the next
wcnty-five years, and forty millions in the next
ifty years.

Thc allowing of the produce of thc earth to bc
ibsolutely unlimited, scarcely removes thc weight
if a hair from the argument, which depends en-
irely upon the difterently increasing ratios of
[Kopulation and food : and all that the most en-

296 ESSAY ON, &V.

On the prevailing erron« Ü'r.

liglitencd govemments, and the most perseverim^Bg
and best guided eßbrts of industry can do, is
make the neccssary checks to population operal
more ecjuably, and in a direction to produce
least evtl ; but to remove them is a task absotutef^Hy
hopeless.

■

ESSAY, &c.

BOOK IV.

-^F OVR FUTÜRl PROSPECT8 RESPSCTIVG THS RIMOvXl

CR XITIGATION OF THE EVILS ARISIN6 FROX

THB PRIRCIPLt OF POPULATION.

CHAPTER I.

€)fmoral Restraintj and our Obligation to Fraetiie

this Virtue.

AS it appears that in the actual State of
cvay Society which has come within our review,
Ifac natural progress of popuIation has been con-
stantly and powerfuUy chccked; and as itseems
evident, that no improved form of govemment, no
plans of emigration, no bcnevolent institutions,
and no degree or direction of national industry, can
prevent the continued action of a great check to
popuIation in some form or other ; it foUows that
rxJ. ii. q q

298 • ESSAY ON BwA /^.

Of moral restraint.

WC must submit to it as an inevitable law of
ture ; and thc only inquiry that remains is, how L^«^
may takc place with thc least possible prejudice t^i^ o
the virtuc and happincss of hiiman society. Al^KJl
thc immediate checks to population which havi
been observcd to prevail in the same and diflkrenr
countries, seem to be resolvable into moral re-
straint, vice, and misery ; and if our choice be con—
fined to these three, we cannot long hesitate in
decision respecting which it would be most eligi-
ble to encourage.

In the first edition of this essay I observed,
as from the laws of nature it appeared, that soine
check to population must exist, it was better thit
this check should arisc from a foresight of the dif-
ficulties attending a family, and tlic fear of depen-
dent povcrty, than from thc actual prcscnce of want
and sickness. This idea will admit of being pur-
sued furthcr, and I am inclincd to tliink that from
the prevailing opinions respecting population, which
undoubtcdly originatcd in barbarous ages, and
have been contiiuicd and circulated by that part of
^vQvy Community which may hc supposcd to be
intercßtcd in their support, wc havc bccn prcvent-
cd fnjm attending to thc clcar dictatcs of rcason
and nature on this subjcct.

Cfc^. /. POPULATION. 399

Of moral restraint.

Natural and moral evil seem to be Üie instru-
ments employed l^ the Deity in admonishing us
k> avoid any mode c^conduct, which is not suited
to our being, and will consequently injure our
toppinesä. If we be intemperate in eating and
fainking, we are disordered ; if we indulge the
nnsports -of anger, we seldom feil to commit acts
)f which we afterwards repent ; if we multiply too
aat, we die miserably of poverty and contagious
Sseases. The laws of nature in all these cases
re similar and uniform. They indicate to us,
hat we have followed these impulscs too far, so
s to trench upon somc other law which equally
bemands attention. The uneasiness we feel from
q^ledkm, die injuries that we inflict on ourselves
IT othcrs in anger, and the inconvenicnccs we suf-
Sbt on the approach of poverty, are all admonitions
to US to regulate these impulses better ; and if we
hoed not this admonition, we justly incur the pe-
oahy o( our disobedience, and our sufibrings ope-
me as a waming to others.

From the inattention of mankind hitherto to the
oooKqoences of increasing too fast, it must be pre-
samed that these consequences are not immediate-
ly and powerfully connected with the conduct
which leadsto them, as in the other instances ; but

300 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of moral restraint.

the delayed knowkdge of any particular eflfects
does not alter their nature, nor our Obligation to
regulate our condnct accordingly, as soon as we
are satisfied of what this conduct ought to be.-^
In many other instances it has not been tül after
long and painful experience, that the conduct most
&vorable to the happiness of man has been forced
upon his attention. The kind of food, and the
mode of preparing it, best suited to the purposes
of nutrition and the gratification of the palate ; the
treatment and remedies of diiFerent disorders ; the
bad eflfccts on the human frame of low and marshy
situations ; the invention of the most conveiuent
and comfortable clothing ; the constniction of good
houses ; and all the advantages and extended cn*
joyments which distinguish civilized life, were not
pointed out to tlie attention of man at once ; but
were the slow and lato result di experience, and
of the admonitions received by repeated fiiiluies.
Diseases have been generally considered as the
inevitable inflictions of Providence ; but perhaps t
great part of them may more justly be consideied
as indications that we have offended against some
of the laws of nature. The plague at Constantino-
ple> and in other towns of the East, is a constant
admonitim of this kind to the mbabitants« The

Ohap, L POPULATION. 301

Of moral restraint«

g===^= ■ 'r

human Constitution cannot support such a State of
filth and torpor ; and as dirt, squalid poverty» and
indolence, are in the highest degree un£ivorabIe to
happiness and virtue, it seems a benevolent db-
pensation, that such a State should by the laws of
nature produce disease and death, as a beacon to
adiers to avoid Splitting on the same rock.

The prevalence of the plague in London tili the
irear 1666, operated in a proper manner on the
Bonduct of our ancestors ; and the removal of nui*
wnces, the construction of drains, the widening of
tlie streets, and the giving more room and air to
Aveir houses, had the effect of eradicating com-
pletety this dreadful disorder, and of adding greatly
to the health and happiness of the mhabitants.

In the history of every epidemic it has almost
invariably been observed, that the lower classes
of people, whose food was poor and insufficient,
lud who lived crowded together in small and
firty houses, were the principal victims. In what
other manner can nature point out to us, that if
we increase too fast for the means of subsistcncc,
90 as to render it necessary for a considerable part
of the Society to live in this miserable manner, wo
have offended against one of her laws. This law
sbe has declared exactly in the same manner, as

302 ESSAY ON ßook IF

Of morai restraint»

she declares that intemi^erance in eating and drink*
ing will be foUowed by iU health, and that however
gratcfui it may be to us at the moment to induige
thesc passions to excess, this indulgencc will ulti-
mately produce unhappiness. It is as much a
law of nature that repletion is bad for the human
frame, as that eating and drinkiiig, unattendcd
with this consequcnce, is good for it. ,

An implicit obedience to the impulses of oor
natural passions would Icad us into the wildcst
and most &tal extravagancies ; and yet we have
the strongest reasons for bclicving that all thesc
passions are so necessary to our being, that thcy
could not be gcncrally wcakcncd or diminished»
without injuring our happincss. The most pow-
erful and universal of all our dcsircs is the dcsirc
of food, and of those thinpjs, such as clothing,
houscs, &.C. which are immcdiatelv necessar>' to
rclievc us from the pains of hunger and cold. It
is acknowlcdged by all, that these dcsires put in
motion the greatest partof tliat activity, from which
the multiplicd improvements and advantages of
civilized lifc are dcrivcd ; and that the pursuit of
thesc objects, and the gratification of these desires,
form the principal happincss of the largcr half of
mankind, civilized or uncivilized, and are indis-

Chap.l, POPULATION. 303

Of moral restraint.

pensably neccssary to the more refined enjoyments

of the other half. We are all conscious of the

inestimable bcnefits that we derive from these de-

^rea, when directed in a certain manner ; but wc

arc cqually conscious of the evils resulting from

diem, when not directed in this manner ; so much

so, diat Society has taken upon itself to punish

most severely what it considers as an irregulär

gradfieation of them. And yct the desires in both

cases are equally natural, and abstractedly consi-

. dered, equally virtuous. The act of the hungr)-

\. töan who -satisfies his appetite by taking a loaf

■ fixm the shelf of another, is in no respcct to be

disdngubhed from the act of him who does the

samt diing with a loaf of his own, but by its con-

aequences. From the consideration of these con-

sequences, we feel the most perfect convictiou

4at if people were not prcvcnted from grati-

fying dieir natural desires with the loaves in the

possession of others, the number of loaves would

unitrersally diminish. This experiencc 5s the

foundation of the laws relating to propcrty, and of

Ae distinctions of virtue and vice, in the gralifi-

catkm of desires, otherwise perfectly the same.

If the pleasure arising from the gratification of

propensities were universally diminished in

304 £SSAY ON Book IF

Of moral restraint.

' vividness, violations of property would become
less frequent ; but this advantage would be great-
ly overbalanced by the narrowing of the sourocs
of enjoyment. The diminution in the quantity of
all those productions which contribute to human
gratification would be much greater in proportion
than the diminution of thefts ; and the loss of ge-
neral happiness on the one side, would be beyood
comparison greater than the gain to happiness oo
the other. \Vhen we contemplate the ccmstaot
and severe toils of the greatest part of mankind,
it is impossible not to be forcibly impressed with
the reflection that the sources of human happinesr
would be most cruelly diminished, if the proqptct
of a good meal, a \varm house, and a comfortabk
fuxiside in the evening, were not incitements suf-
ficiently vivid, to give interest and cheerfulness to
the labors and privations of the day.

After the desire of food, the most powerfiil and
gencral of our desires is the passion between the
sexes taken in an enlarged sense. Of the happi*
ness spread over human life by this passion» voj
few are unconscious. Virtuous love, exalted by
friendship, seems to be that sort of mixturc of scn-
sual and intellectual enjoyment, particularly suited
to the nature of man, and most powerfuUy calcubn

Cfiap.I, POPULATION. 305

C)f moral restrainU

ted to awaken the sympathies of the soul, and pro-
duce the most exquisite gratifications. Perhaps
there is scarcely a man who has once experienced
the genuine delight of virtuous love, however great
his intellectual pleasures may have been, that does
not look back to the period as the sunny spot in
his whcde life, where his imagination loves most to
bask, which he recollects and contemplates with
the fondest regret, and which he would most wish
to live over again.

It has been said by Mr. Godwin, in order to
abow the evident inferiority of the pleasures of
aense, " Strip the commerce of the sexes of all its
•* attendant circumstances, and it would be genc-
lally despised." He might as well say to a man
idio admired trees, strip them of their spreading
bianches and lovely foliage, and what beauty can
you see in a bare pole ? But it was the tree with
the brancbes and foliage, and not without them,
that excited admiration. It is '^ the symmetry of
** person, the vivacit}', the voluptuous softness of
" temper» the affectionate kindness of feeling, the
^imagination and the wit'" ofawoman, which

^ Political Justice, vol. u b. i. c. v. p» 72« 8vo.

30Ö ESSAY ON Book JF.

Of moral restraint.

cxcite the pi^ssion of love, und not the roere dis-
tinctioii of her being a female*

It is a very great mistake to suppose that the
passion between the sexes only operates and in-
fluenccs human conduct, whcn the immediate
gratification of it is in contemplation. The for-
m»tion and steady pursuit of some particular plan
of life, has been justly considered as one of the
most ptrmanent sourc^s of happiness ; but I am
inclined to believe that there are not many of these
plans formed that are not connected in a consider-
able degree with the prospect of the gratificatioa
of this passion, and with the support of childreiB
arising from it. The evcning meal, the warm
house, and the comfortablc fireside, would lose
half of their intcrest, if wc wcrc to cxciude the
idea of some object of affectioii with whom thcy
were to Ik* shared.

Wc have also great reason to Ixrlicve that the
passion between the sexes has the most powerful
tcndency to soften and meliorate ihe human cha-
ractcr, and krcp it morc alivc to all the kindlier
emotioris of Inrnevolence and pity. Obscr\atioas
on savajjc lifc have jjrenerally tciukd to pro\e, tliat
natlons in which this passion appeared to be Icss
vivid wcre distinguished by a fcrocious and nialig:-

Chap. I. POPULATION. 307

Of moral restraint.

nant spirit, and particularly by tyranny and cruelty

'to the sex. If inilecd this bond of conjuj^vil af-

*fection were considerably vveakened, it stcms

probable, either that the man would makc usc of

liis superior physical strength and tum his wifi: in-

•to a slave, as among the generality of savagcü, or

at best, that every iittle inequalÄy of temper wbich

must necessarily occur between two persons,

wouH produce a total alienation of affection ; and

this could hardly take place, without a diminution

of purtntal fondness and care, which would havc

the most fatal cffect on the happiness of societj-.

It may be furtlier remarked, that obsenations
on the human character in different countries War-
rant US in the conclusion, that the passion is strong-
cr, and its general effects in producing gendeness,
kindness, and suavity of manners, much more
powerful, where obstacles are thrown in the way
of very early and universal gratification. In some
of tlie southem countries where everj" »mpulse may
be almost immediately indulged, the passion sinks
into mere animal desirc, is soon weakened and al-
most extinguished by excess ; and its influence
on ihe character is extremely confined. But in
European countries, where, thougli the women be
not seduded, yet manners have imposed consider*

308 ESSAY ON Book IV,

Of moral rcstraint.

able restraints on this gratification, the passion r.r *
only rises in Force, but in the universality and
tieficial tendency of its effects, and has often ih
most influence in the formation and improvcmcni
of the charactcr where it is the least gra tified.

Considering then the passion betwccn the sexes
in all its bearings*and rclations, and including the
endearing engagcment of })arent and child resulting
from it, few will be disposed to deny that it is one
of the principal ingredients of human happiness.
Yet experience teachcs us that much evil flows
from the irregulär gnitification of it ; and thcmgh
the evil be of little weight in the scale, when com*
pared \vith the good, yet its absolute quantity can-
not be inconsidcral)le on account of the strcngth and
universality of the passion. It is evident howevcr,
from the gcneralcom'uct ofall governnimts in their
distribulion of punishmcnts, that the evil resulting
from this cause is not so great and so immediate-
ly dangerous to society, as the irregulär gratifica-
tion of the desirc of property ; but placing this
evil in the most iormidable point of view, we
should evidently purchase a diminution of it at a
ver}- dear price, by the extension or dimmution of
the passion which causes it ; a change, which
would probably convert human life» eitbcr into a

Chap. L POPULATION. 309

Of moral restraint.

cold and cheerless blank, or a scene of savage and
merciless ferocity.

A careful attention to the remote as well as
immediate effects of all the human passions, and
all the general laws of nature, leads us strongly to
the conclusion, that under the present Constitution
of things, few or none of them would admit of
being gready diminished, without narrowing the
sources of good, more powerfully than the sour-
ces of evil« And the reason seems to bc ob-
vioos. They are, in faet, the materials of all our
pleasures, as well as of all our pains ; of all our
happiness, as well as of all our misery ; of all our
TUtues, as well as of all our vices. It must there-
Iotc be regulation and direction that are wanted,
not diminution or extinetion.

It is jusdy observed by Dr. Paley, that " Hu-
man passions are either necessary to human wel-
fere, or capable of being made, and in a great
** majority of instances, in faet, made conducive to
its happiness. These passions are strong and
general; and perhaps would not answcr their
** purpose, unless they were so. But strength and
" generality, when it is expedient that particular
" circumstances should be rcspected, becomc, if
" lefttothemselves,excessandmisdirection. From
" which excess and misdirection die vices of man-

4«
iC

310 ESSAY ON Book 1 f.

Of moral restraint.

** kind (thc causes no doubt of much miseiy) ap-
** appcar to spring. This account while it show3
** US the principle of vice, shows us at the stmc
•• time, the province of reason and sclf-govcrn-
"menf."

Our virtue therefore, as reasonable beings, ni
dently consists in educing from the general matc.
rials which the Crcatcx* has placed under cur gui-
dance, the greatest sum of human happiness ; tnd
as our natural impulses are abstractedly consider-
cd good, and only to bc distinguished by their coo*
sequences, a strict attention to these consequeo*
CCS, and thc regulation of our conduct confonnabif
to thera, must Ix* considcrcd as our principal duty.

The fccundity of ihc human sjx^cies is, in sorac
rcspccts, a distinct consideration from the passion
bctwcen tlie scxcs, as it cvidcntly dcpends more
\\\ydx\ thc power of women in lxarii'^children,than
upon the strcngih or wcakncss of this {xission. —
It ib howcvcT a law exactiy simihu* in its grcat fea-
turcs to all the other laws of nature. It is strong and
general, and apjjarcntly would not admit of any vc-
r}' considerable diminution, wilhout iKing inadc -
cjuate to its object ; the evils arisinfjfrom it are in-

^ Natural Thcology, c. xxvi. p. 547.

10/». /. POPULATION. 3U

Of moral reslraint*

ental to these necessaxy qualities of strength
l generality ; and these cvils are ca^ble of be-
; very greatly mitigated, and rendered compa-
ively light by human energy and virtuc. Wc
mot but conceive that it is an object of the
^tor that the earth should be replenished, and it
)ears to me clear that this could not be efiected
liout a tendency in population to increase faster
n food; and as vvith the present law of increase,
: peopling of the earth does not proceed verj^ ra-
ily, we have undoubtedly some reason to be-
^e that this law is not too powerful for iu> appa-
it object. The desire of the means of subsist-
Ä would be comparatively confined in its efFects^ ,
i would fiiil of producing that gcneral activity
necessary to the improven^nt of tlie human fa-
Ities, were it not for the strong and universal ef-
t of population, to increase with grcatcr rapidity ^
in its supplies* If these two tendcncies wert j]
actly balanced, I do not see what motive therc
Mild be, sufficientiy strong to ovcrcome the ac*
owledged indolence of man, and make him pro-
sd in the cultivation of the soil. The popula-
n of any large territory, however fertile, would
as likely to stop at five hundred, or five thou-
kI, as at five millions, or fifty millions. Suöh a

312 ESSAY ON Book IT,

Of moral restraint.

balance therefore, would deariy defeat one gitit

purpose of creation ; and if the question be merelj

a question of degree, a question of a little mort or

a little less strength, we may fairly distrust our

competence to judge of the precise quantity ne-

cessary to answer the object with the smallest sum

of incidental evil. In the present State of tluogs

we appear to have imder our guidance a great

power, capable of peopling a desert region in a

small number of years ; and yet under other cir«

cumstances, capable of being confined by humaa

energy and virtue to any limits however narrow, at

the cxpense of a small comparative quantity of

evil, The analogy of all the other laws of nature

would be completcly violated, if in this instance

alone, there were no provision for accidental fai-

lures, no resources against the viccs of mankind«

or the partial mischiefs resulting from other gene-

ral laws. To effect the apparent object without

any attendant evil, it is evident that a perpetual

change in the law of increase would be necessary«

varying with the varying circumstances f eack

countr}\ But instead of this, it is not only more

consonant to the analogy of the other parts of na*

ture, but we have reason to think, that it is more

Gonducive to the formaüon and improvement of

aap, 1. POPULATION. 513

Of moral restraint.

■'»'■' ' -**

the human mind, that the law should be uniform,
and the evils incidental to it, under certain circum»
stances, be left to be mitigated or removed by
man himself. His duties in tliis case vary with
his Situation ; and he is thus kept more alive to the
consequences of his actions, and his faculties have
evidently greater play and opportunity of improve-
ment, than if the cvil were removed by a perpetu-
al change of the law according to circumstances,
Even if from passions too easily subducd, or
the facility of illicit intercourse, a State of celibacy
were a matter of indifference, and not a State of
some privation, the end of nature in the peo|)ling
of the earth would be apparently liable to be de-
feated. It is of the very utmost importance to the
happiness of mankind, that they should not in-
creuse too f st ; out it docs not apptar that the ob-
jcct to be accomplished would admit of any very
considerablc diminution in the desirc of marriage.
It is clearly the duty of each individual not to
marry tili he has a prospect of supporting lüs chil-
dren ; but it is at the same timc to be wished that
he should ret:\in undiminishtd his desire of mar-
liage, in order that he may cxert himsc If to realize
this prospect, and be stiniiilated to make provision
for the Support of greater numbcrs,

It is evidently therefore, regulation and direc-
voL ii. s s

zu ESSAY ON, &?r.

Of iDoral restraint.

tion that is required with regard to the principle of
population, not diminution or alteration. And if
moral restraint be the only virtuous mode of avoid-
inj^"* the incidental evils arising from this prin-
ciple, öur Obligation to practise it will evident-
ly rest exactly upon the same foundation, as our
Obligation to practise any of the other virtues, the
foundation of Utility.

Whatever indulgence we may be disposed to
allow to occasional failures in the discharge of a
duty of acknowledged difBcuIty ; yet of the strict
line of duty, we cannot doubt. Our Obligation
not to marry tili we have a fair prospect of being
ahle to Support our children, will appear to descrvc
the attention of the moralist, if it can be proved,
that an attention to this Obligation is of morc efTcct
in the prevention of misery, thaii ull the other vir.
tues combined ; and that if in viohition of this duty,
it werc the gcneral custom to follow the first im-
pulsc of naturc, and marry at the agc of pubcrty,
the universal prcvalcnce of evcry known virtue, in
the greatcst conccivablc dej^ce, would fail of res-
cuing Society from the most wrctched and despe-
rate State of want, and all the diseases and famines
which usuaily uccompany it.

CHAPTER IL

&fthe effects which would result to society from

the prevalence oj this virtue.

ONE of the principal reasons which has
prevented an assent to the doctrine of the constant
tendency of population to increase beyond the
means of subsistence, is a great unwillingness ro
believe, that the Dcity would by tiie laws of nature
bring beings into existence, which by the iaws
of nature could not be supported in that existence.
But if in addition to that general activity and di-
rection of our industry put in motion by thcse
laws, we further consider, that the incidental evils
arising fix)m them are constandy directing our
attention to the proper check to population, moral
restraint ; and if it appear, that by a strict obedi-
ence to those duties which are pointed out to us
by the light of nature and reason, and are confirm-
cd and sanctioned by revelation, these evils niay
be avoided, the objection will, I trust, be removed,
and all apparent imputation on the goodness of
fhe Deity be done away.
The heathen moralists never represented hap

316 ESSAY ON Book ir.

Of thc cffccts on aocicty

pincss as attainable on carth, but through thc
medium of virtue ; and among their virtues pni-
dence ranked in the first class, and by somc was
even considered as including ever}' other. Thc
Christian religion places our present as well as
fu'iire h ippiness in the cxercise of those virtues
which tcnd to fit us for a State of superior enjoy-
ment ; and the subjection of die passions to the
guidancc of reason, which, if not the whole^ is a
principal branch of prudence, is in consequence
most particularly inculcated.

If for the sake of Illustration, we might be per-
mitted to draw a picture of societ}-, in which eacb
indivtdual endeavored to attain happiness by thc
strict fulfiimLnt of thosc duiics, which the niost
enlightcned of the ancicnt philosophers deduced
from the law» of natuR% and which have been
diPLCtly laiight, and rcccivcd such powcrful sanc-
tions in the moral code of Christianilv, it would
present a very differcnt sccnc from that which wc
now contemplate. Evcrj' act which was prompted
by thc desirc of immcdiate gratification, but which
threatcned ao ultimate overlxilancc of jxiin, would
be considered as a brcach of duty ; and consc-
quently no man whose earnings were only sufficient
to maintain two cliildren, would put himself in a

Chap. IL POPULATION. 317

of moral restraint.

Situation in which he might have to maintain four

or five, however he might be prompted to it by

the passion of love. This prudential restraint, if

it were generally adopted, by narrowing the sup-

ply of labor in the market, would, in the natural

course of things, soon i-aise its price. The period

of delayed gratification would be passed in saving

tlie eaniings which were above tlie wants of a sin-

^e man, and in acquiring habits of sobricty , indus-

try, and economy, which wouid enable him in a

iew ycars to enter into the matrimonial contract

^nthout fear of its consequences, • The ©Iteration

of the preventivc check in this way, by constantly

Iceeping the population within the limits of die

food, thouj3^h constantly following its incnuse,

would give a real value to the rise of wages, and

'the sums saved by laborers before marriage, very

different from those forced advances in the

price of labor, or arbitrary parochial donations,

nrhich, in proportion to their magnitude and ex-

tensiveness, must of necessity be followed by a

proportional advance in the price of provisions.

As the wages of labor would dius be suflicicnt to

mainüdn with decency a large family, and as

cvery married couple would set out wiih a sum

for contingencies, all squalid poverty would I)e

318 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of the effects on «ociety

removcd from society, or at Icast, Ije confincd to
a vcry fcw, who had fallen into misfortuncs aguinst
which no prudcnce or foresight could provide.

The intcrval between die age of puberty and die
pcriod at which cach iiidividual might venture on
marriagc must, according to thc supposition, bc
passed in strict chastity ; becausc the law of chas-
tity cannot bc violated without producing cviL
Thc cffcct of any diing likc a promiscuous intcr-
coursc which prevcnts die birdi of children, b evi-
dently to wcal^cn die best affcctions of thc heait,
and in a vcr}' markcd uianner to dcgrade the fc-
malc charactcr. And any other intcrcoursc wouU
without inipropcr arts, bring as many children in-
lo thc society as marriagc, with a niuch greattr
prol)al)ility of thcir bccoming a bürden to it.

These considerations show tluit the virtiic of
chastity is not, ;js some havc siipposed, a forccd
produce of artificial society ; but ihat it hab thc
niost real and solid foundation in naturc and rca-
son ; being apparently thc only virtuous mean of
avoiding die vice and misery which rcsult so oftcn
from the principlc of population.

In such a society as we havc Ixen supposing, it
might l)c neccssary for both scxes to pass many
of thc early yeai's of lifc in thc singlc slate ; and if

Chap,lL POPULATION. 319

of moral restraint.

Ihis were general, there would certaiuly be rooni

for a much greatcr number to marry afterwards,

ao that fewer, upon the whole, would be (ondcmii-

cd to pass their iives in celibacy. If the-i^^stoni

of not marrying early prevailed gencrolly, and if

violations of chastity were equally dishonorable in

both sexes, a morc familiär and friendlv inter-

eourse between them might take place without

danger. Two young people might converse togc-

ther intimatcly without its being immediatcly siip-

posed that diey either intended marriage or in-

trigue ; and a much better opportunity would thus

bcgiven to both sexes of finding out kindrcd dis-

positions, and of forming those stron.^ and lasting

lOaebments, without which the marricd State is

geoerally more productive of miser}- than of h.ippi-

acss. The earlier years of life would not be spcnt

without love, though without the füll gratiilcation

of it The passion instead of l)eing cxtinguishcd,

IS it now too frequently is by early scnsuali'tv,

woald only be repressed for a tinic, that it miglit

afterwardb burn with a brightcr, purer, and steadi-

cr Same ; and the happiness of the married stat'/,

iDSteadof an opportunity of immediate indul.<3^nce,

would be looked forward to as the prize of indus

320 ESSAY ON Jiook IT.

Of thc cffccts on socicty

tr)' and virtue, and die reward of a genuine and
constant atüichmcntj

The passion of love is a powerfui Stimulus b
the formation of character, and ofien prompts to
the most noble and gencrous exertions ; bUi this
is only when the affcctions are centered in ooc
objcct ; and generally, when füll graUfication n
dclayed by difficultic. .* The heart is perfaq»

' Dr. Currie, in his interesting observatioos on tk
charactcr and condition of the ^^cotch peasantry« whkh
he has pretixcd to his life of Büros, remarkt» witb %
just knowledgc of human nature, that ^ in appreciadsf
*^ the huppincäs and virtue of a Community, there n
^^ perhaps no Single criterion on which so much depcB-
•' dciKc n^ay bc placed as ihc slatc of thc intercourse b<»
'* twecn Ulf stxcs. Wherc this displays ardorof atticb-
'* mcnt, accompanied by purily of coiiduct, thc chanctef
^* aiul ihe inflijtr.cc of \\<imcn li.-c, cur impcrfcct nature
'^ niounis in tlic scalc of moral cxccllcncc; and from the
•» hoiiicc üf this Single arTcclion. a siream of felicity de»
•< scends, which branches into a thousand rivulets tbil
•' rnrich and adom the ficld of life. Wherc the attach-
** mcnt belwecn the sexe^ sinks in'o an appetite, thc hcrit-
** age of our specics is coinparaiivcly poor, and man ap-
•* Ijioaches to ihc condition of tlie brutcs that perish."
Vol. i. ]). 1 8.

* Dr. C'unic observes, that the Scottish peasant in tlM
com sc of his passion oficn excrls a spirit of advcnture«
of \^l.icli a Spanish ca^alicr necd not bc ashamed. Bumt*
Works, vol. i. p. 16. It is no« to be doubtcd, that thift
kind ofronianlic passion which Dr. C. says, charmcterii«f

Chap. IL POPULATION. 321

of moral rcstraint.

never so much disposed to virtuous conduct, and
certainly at no time is the virtue of chastity so
litüe difficult to men, as when under the influencQ
of such a passion. Late marriages taking place in
this way would be very different from those of the
same name at present, where the union is too fre-
quendy prompted solely by interested views, and
the parties meet not unfrequently with exhausted
constitutions, and generally with exhausted affec-
üons. The late marriages at prescnt are indced
principally confined to the men; and there are
fcw, however advanced in life they may be, who
if they determine to marry, do not fix their choice
(Ml a veiy young wife. A young woman without
fortune, when she has passed her twentj'^-fifth year,
b^ins to fear, and with reason, that she may lead
a life of celibacy ; and with a heart capable of
fonning a strong attachment, feels as each year
ereeps on, her hopes of finding an object on which
to rcst her affections gradually diminishing, and
Ae uneasiness of her Situation a^ravated by the

the attachments of the humblest people of Scotland, and
«hieb has been greatly fostered by the elevation of mind
giTen to them by a superior education, has had a most
powerful and most beneficial influence on the national
character.

TfoL ii, l t

322 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of thc eifects on society

silly and iinjust prejudices of the world. If thc
general agc of marriage among women were latcr,
tlie period of youth and hopc would be prolonged,
and fewer would bc ultimately disappointed«

Tliat a changc of diis kind would be a most
decidcd advantage to thc more virtuous half of
societv, we cannot for a momcnt doubt« How«
cver impatiently the privaüon might be boroe bj
the mcn, it would be supported by the women
rcadily and cheerfully ; and if they could look for*
wards with just confidence to marriage at twcnty-
cight or thirty, I fully believc that if the matter
wcre left to their free choice, they would clearij
prefer waiting tili this period, to the being involv-
cd in all the carcs of a large family at twenty-fivc«
Thc most eligible age of marriage howevcr, could
not be fixcd ; but must dcpcnd entin^ly on circum*
stances and Situation. Tiicrc is no period of hu-
man life at which nature morc strongly prompts to
an Union of tlic sexes, than from scventecn or eigh-
tcen to twenty. In evcr}- societ}- above that ^tat^
of depression which almost cxcludcs rcason and
forcfiiight, thcsc carly tendencies must neccssarily
bc restrained ; and if hi thc actual bUite of things,
such a restraint on thc impulscs of nature bc found
unavoidablc, at what time can wc bc con^tcntly

Onp. IL POPULATION. 3Ü3

of moral restraint*

rdeased from it, but at that period, whatever it
may bc, when, in thc existing circumstances of the
50ciety, a fair prospect presents itself of maintain-
ing a family?

The difficulty of moral restraint will perhaps bc
objected to this doctrine. To him who does not
acknowledge the authority of the Christian reli-
gkm, I have only to say, that aller the most careful
kivestigation, this virtue appears to be absolutely
necessary, in order to avoid certain evils which
would otherwise result from the general laws of
nitiire. According to his own principles, it is his
daty to pursue the greatest good consistent with
laws ; and not to fail in this important end,
produce an overbalance of misery, by a partial
obedienoe to some of thc dictates of nature while
hc ne^ects others. The path of virtue, though it
be the only path which ieads to permanent happi-
Hess, has always been represented by the heathen
monlists as of difficuh ascent.

To the Christian I would say, that the scriptures
OKMt dearly and preciscly point it out to us as our
duty^ to restrain our passions within the bounds of
leason ; and it is a palpable disobedience of this
faw, to indulge our desires in such a manncr as rc;i-
squ teils us will tmavoidablv cnd \\\ niisCr^-. Thc

524 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of the effects on society

Christian cannot consider the difficulty of moral
restraint as any argument against its being bis du-
ty ; since in almost every page of the sacred writ*
ings, man is described as encompassed on all sides
by temptations, which it is cxtremely difficult to
resist ; and though no duties are enjoined which do
not contribute to his happiness on earth as well as
in a future State, yet an undeviating obedience b
never represented as an easy task.

There is in general so strong a tendency to lovc
in carly youth, that it is extremely difiicult at tlüs
pcriod to distinguish a genuine from a transient
passion. If the carlier years of life were passed by
both sexes in moral restraint, from the greater fäsKä-
lity that this would give to the meeting of kindred
dispor itions, it might even admit of a doubt whc-
thcr more happy marf iages would not take place,
and consequenüy more pleasure from the passion
of love, than in a State such as that of America, the
circunistances of whicli would allow of a very ear-
ly Union of the sexes. But if we compare the in-
tcrcüurse of the sexes in such a society as I havc
bccu supposing, with that which now exists in Eu*
rojK', takcn underail its circunistances, it may safe-
ly hj asscrted, that indcpendendy of the load of
iTiiscry uliich would be removed, the sum of piea-

Chap. IL POPULATION. 525

of moral restraint.

surable sensations from thc passion of lovc would
be increased in a ver)^ great degrce.

If we could suppose such a system general, the
accession of happiness to society in its internal
cconomy, would scarcely be greater than in its ex-
temal relations. It might fairly l)e expected that
war, that great pest of the human race, would, un-
der such circumstances, soon cease to extcnd its
ravages so widely and so frequently, as it does at
present.

One of its first causes and most powerfui im-
pnlses, was undoubtedly an insufficiency of room
and food; and greatly as the circumstances of
mankind have changed since it first began, the
same cause still continues to operate and to pro-
duce, though in a smaller degree, the same effects.
The ambition of princes would want instniments
of destniction, if the distresscs of the lower classes
of people did not drive them under their Standards.
A recniiting serjeant always prays for a bad har-
vest, and a want of emploympnt, or in other words,
a redundant population.

In the earlier ages of the world, when war was
die great business of mankind, and thc drains of
population from this cause were, bcyond compari-
son, greater than in modern times, thc legislators

326 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Of the efiects on society

Hnd statesmen of each countrj', adverting princi-
pally to the means of offcnce and defcnce, encou-
raged an increase of peoplc in e very possible way,
fixed a sti^a on barrcnncss and celibacy, and ho-
nored marriage. The populär religions foUowcd
these prevailing opinions. In many countries the
prolific power of nature was the object of solenm
worship. In the religion of Mahomet» which was-
cstablished by the sword, and the Promulgation oT"
which, in consequencey could not be unaccompara*
cd by an extraordinär}- destruction of its foUo%%Tr\
the procreation of children to glorify the Creator
was l^d down as one of the principal duties of
man ; and he who had the most numcrous off.
spring, was considered as having best answcntl
the cnd of his creation. The prcvalcncc of such
moral sentimcnts had naturally a grcat cffcct in en-
couraging marriage ; and the rapid procreation
which followcd was partly the cffcct and parlly the
cause of incessant war. The vacancies occasioD-
cd by former desolations madc room for the rcar-
ing of fresh supplies ; and the overflowing rapidi-
ty with which thcse supplies followcd, constanüy
fumishcd fresh incitements and frcsh instruments
for rencwed hostiüties. Under the influcnce of

Chap, IL POPULATION. 327

of moral restraint.

such moral sentiments it is difßcult to conceive
ho»v the fury of incessant war should ever abate«

It is a pleasing confirmation of the tnith and
divinity of the Christian religion, and of its being
adapted to a more improved State of human Socie-
ty, that it places our duties respecting marriage
and the procreation of children, in a difTcrent light
from that in which they were before beheld.

Without entering minutely into the subject,
ivhich would evidently lead too far, I think it
irill be admitted, that if we apply the spirit of
St Paul's decla(^tions respecting marriage to die
present State of society, and the known Constitu-
tion of our nature, the natural inference seems to
tae, that when marriage does not interfere with
tiig^r duties, it is right ; when it does, it is \vrong.
.According to the genuine principles of moral
scieiice, " The method of Coming at the will of
** God from the light of nature, is to inquire in-
** to the tendency of the action to promote or di
^nünish the general happiness."* There are per-
haps few actions that tend so directly to diminisli
4c general happiness, as to marry without the
means of supix)rting children. Hc who commits

#*-

' Palcy's Moral Philosophyi.vol. i. b, ii c iv. p. 65.

323 ESSAY ÜN Book IV.

Of the efiects on society

this act thcrefore, clearly offends against thc will of
God, and having bccome a bürden on thc society in
which he Hves, and plungcd himself and family
into a Situation in which virtuous habits are prc-
served with more difficulty tlian in any othcr, hc
appears to Iiave violatcd his duty to his neighbc»^
and to himself, and thiis to have listened to thc
voice of pussion in Opposition to his higher obh-^
gations.

In a society, such as I have supposed, all thc^
mcinbcrs of which endcavor to attain happiness
by obedience to thc moral code derived from die
light of nature, and enforccd by strong saiictions
in rcvcalcd religion, it is evident that no such
niarriagcs could tukc place ; and thc i)rcvcntion of
a r».dund:int population, in this way, would rc-
nii)vc onc of thc principal cncouragcmcnts to of-
ftii:^ivc war; and at ihc siinic timc tcnd powcrful-
1} r.ü cradicatc thosc two fatal political disordcrs,
iniernal tvranny and intcnial tumult, whicli rnu-
tually producc cacli oüier.

Indis|X)scd to a war of ofll-ncc, in a w:u" of dc-
fcncc, such a society would bc stronjj as a rock ol
adamant. WIktc cvcry family possessed ihc nc-
ccssarics of lifc in j)lcnty, and a dcccnt portion uf
its comfurts and convcnicncics. thcre could net

CfVp' U' POPULATION. 329

of moral restraiot«

cxist that hope of cliange, or at best tliat melan-
cfaoty and disheartening indifierence to it, which
aometimes prompts the lower classes of people to
aay, ** let what will come we cannot be worse off
*' than we are now.'* Every heart and hand would
be united to repel an invader, when each indivi-
dual feit the value of the solid advantages which
he enjoyed, and a prospect of change prescntcd
only a prospect of being deprived of them.

As it appears therefore, that it is in the power of

cach individual to avoid all the evil consequences

to himself and society resulting from the principlc

of population, by tlie practice of a virtue clearly

dictated to him by the light of naturc, and ex-

j^ressly enjoined in revealed religion ; and as we

liave reason to think, that the exercise of this vir-

Cue to a certain degree, would rather tcnd to in-

csrease than diminish individual happiness ; we can

bavc no reason to impeach the justice of the Dcity,

because his general laws make this virtue ncces-

^aiy, and punish our offences against it by the

evik attendant upon vice, and the pains tliat ac*

Company the various forms of premature death.

A really virtuous society, such as I have suppos-

od, would avoid these evils. It is the app.ircat

object of the Creator to deter us from vice by the

. r.

330 ESSAY ON, &?r.

Of the effects on societyi l^c.

|| pains which accompany it, and to lead us to virtue
by the happiness that it produces« This obfcct
appears to our concepdoiis to be worthy of a bc-
ncrvolcnt Creator. The laws of nature respccting
population tend to promote this object. No Im-
putation thereforc, on the benevolence of the Dei-
ty, can be founded on these laws, which is not
equally applicable to any of the evils neccssaril}'
ncidcntal to an impcrfect State of existcnce.

CHAPTER m.

Ofthe only effectual mode of impraoing the eondi^

tion of the Poor.

HE who publishes a moral code, or System

«f dutiesi however firmly he may be convinced of

the stroDg Obligation on each individual stiicdy

to conform to it, has never the foUy to imagine

that it will be universally or even generally prac*

tised« But this is no valid objection against the

publication of the code. If it were, the same

objection would always have applied ; we should

be totally without general rules ; and to the vices

of mankind arising from temptation, would be

added a much longer list than we have at present,

tf vices from ignorance.

Judging merely from the light of nature if we
led convinced ofthe misery arising from a redun«
dant population on the one band, and of the evils
4nd unhappiness, particularly to the female sex,
arising fit>m promiscuous intercourse, on the other,
I do not see how it is possible for any person who
admpwledges thfs principle of Utility as the great

^ 332 ESSAY ON ^ Book !¥.

Of the only efiectual mode of

^füundation of morals, to cscape the conclusion,
that moral rcstraini, or the abstaining from marri-
agc tili we are in a condition to support a family»
with a pcrfectly moral conduct during that period,
is tlie strict line of dut\' ; and whcn revelation is
taken into the question, this duty undoubtedly re«
ceives very powerful confirmation. At the samc
timc I beÜeve that few of my readers can be less-
sanguine in their expectations of any great change
in the gencral conduct of men on this subject than
I am ; and the chief reason why in the last chapter
I allowed mysclf to suppose the imiverBal preva-
lence of this virtue was, that T might endeavor to
remove any imputation on tnc goodness of the I)e-
ity, by showing that tlic evils arising from the
princiT^le of population werc cxacttly of the same
nature as the generality of other evils which excite
fewer complaints, that thcy uerc increascd by
human ignorance and indolence, and diminished
by human knowledgc and virtuc ; aixl on the sup-
Position that räch individual strictly fuliilled his
duty, would hc almost totally rcmovcd ; and this,
without any gencral diminution of those sources
of pleasure, arising from the regulated indulgence
of the passions, which have been justlv considered
as the principal ingredients of human bappincs».

Chap. HL V ' POPULATION. 333

improvin); the condition of the poor«

If it will answer any puq^ose of illustration, I

see no härm in drawing the picture of a society in

which each individual is supposed strictly to fulfil

his duties ; nor does a writer appear to be jusdy

liable to the Imputation of being visionary, unless

he make such universal or gencral obedience ne-

cessary to the practical Utility of his System, and

to that degree of moderate and partial improve-

ment, which is all that can rationally be expected

from the most complete knowledge of our duties.

But, in this respect, there is an essential differ-

cnce between that improvcd State of society which

I have supposed in the last chapter, and most of

the other speculations on this subject. The im-

provement there supposed, if we e ver should make

approaches towards it, is to be efFected in the

i¥ay in which we have been in the habit of seeing

all the greatest improvements effected, by a direct

application to the interest and happiness of each

individual. It is not required of us to act from

motives to which we are unaccustomed, to puisue

a general good which we may not distinctiy com-

prehend, or the efFect of which may be wealcened

by distance and difFusion. The happiness of the

whole is to be the result of the happiness of indi-

viduals, and to begin first with them. No co-

334 £SSAYON BookJV.

Of the only effectual mode «f

Operation is required. Every step teils. He wbo
performs his duty faithfliUy will reap the fuU fruits
of it, whatever may be the numbcr of others who
£dl. Thb duty is express aiid intelligible to the
humblest capacity« It is merely that he is not (o
bring beings into the World for whom he cannot
find the means of support. When once this sub-
ject is cleared from the obscurity thrown over it by
parochial laws and private benevolence, every man
must feel the strongest conviction of such an oUi^
gation. If he cannot support his children tbe>^
must starve ; and if he nuury in the face of a £d^
probability that he shall not be able to support hi
children, he is guilty of all the evils which he thu
brings upon himself, his wifc, and his ofTspring. I
is clearly his intcrest, and will tend grcady to pro-
mote his Iiappiness, to dcfer marrying, tili by in-
dustry and economy he is in a capacity to support
the children that he may reasonably cxpcct from
his marriage ; and as he cannot in the mean timc
gratify his passions, without violating an express
command of God, and running a great risk of in*
juring himself, or some of his fellow creaturcs, con-
siderations of his own intercst and happiness will
dictatc to him the strong Obligation to a moral con*
duct while he rcmains ummarried.

Chap, itl, POPULATION. 335

improving the condition of the poor.

However power ful may bc the Impulses of

passion, they are generally in some degree modified

by reason. And it does not seem entirely vision-

ary to suppose, that if the true and permanent cause

of povcrty were clearly explained, and forcibly

brought home to each man's bosom, it would have

some, and perhaps not an inconsiderable influenae

on bis conduct : at least the experiment has never

yet been fairly tried. Almost every thing that has

been hitherto done for the poor has tended, as if

with solicitous care, to throw a veil of obscurit}'

over this subject, and to hide fh)m them the true

cause of their poverty. When the wagcs of labor

^re hardly suificicnt to maintain two children, a man

marries and has five or six. He of course fuids

liiinself miserably distressed. He accnses the in-

sufficiency of the price of labor to maintain a fa-

nily. He accuses his parish for their tardy and spar-

ing fulfilment of their Obligation to assist him. Hc

acc'ises the avaricc of the rieh, who sufier him to

^wnt what they can so well spare. He accuses the

parüal and unjust institutions of socicty, which

lave awarded him an inadequate sharc of the prc-

duce of the earth. He accuses perhaps the dis-

pensations of Providence, which have assigned to

Iiim a place in socie^ so besel with unavoi Jabic

336 ESSAY ON Book

Of the only efiectual mode of

distress and dependance. In searching fw ol>
jects of accusation, he never adverts to the quarter
from which all his misfortunes originate« The
last person that he would think of accusing is him*
seif, on whom in fact the principal blame lies, ex-
cept in as &r as he has been deceived by the high-
er classes of society. He may perhaps wish that
he had not married, because he now feels the in^
conveniences of it ; but it never enters into hi^
head that he can have done any thing wrong.
has always been told that to raise up subjec
for his king and country is a very meritorious
He has done this act, and yet is suffering for i
He naturally thinks that he is suffering for righte-
ousness sake ; and it cannot but strikc him as most
extremely unjust and cruel in liis king and coun-
tr)-, to allow him thus to suffer, in rctuni for giv-
ing them wliat thcy arc continually dcclaring that
they particularly want.

Till these erroneous ideas liave been correclcd,
and the language of naturc and reason has been gc-
ncrally hcard on tlie subject of popuIation, instead
of the language of error and prejudice, it can-
not bc Said that any fair experimcnt has been made
witli the undcrstandings of tlie common people ;
and we cannot juslly accusc them of improvidence

Chap. 111. POPULATION. 337

improving the conditon of the poor.

and \vant of industry, tili they act as ihey do now,
aftcr it has been brought home to their coraprehen-
sions, that they are thcmselves thc cause of their
own poverty ; that the means of redrcss are in their
own hands, and in the hands of no other persons
whatev'er ; that the societ}^ in which they live, and
the govemment which presides over it, are with-
out any direct power in this respect ; and however
ardently they may desire to relieve them, and what-
cver attempts they may make to do so, are really
and truly. unable to execute what they benevolent-
}gf wish, but unjustly promise ; that when the wa-
ges of labor will not maintain a family, it is an in-
controvertible sign that their king and country do
Bot want more subjects, or at least that they can-
aot Support them ; that if they marry in this case,
so fer from fulfilling a duty to society, they are
flirowing a useless bürden on it, at the same timc
that they are plunging themselves into distress ;
and that they are acting directly contrary to the will
of God, and bringing down upon themselves vari-
ous diseases, which might all, or the greatcr part,
kave been avoided, if they had attended to the re-
peated admonitions which he gives by the general
laws of nature, to every being capable of reason.
t?o/. ii. XX

338 ESSAY ON JBook IF.

Of die oDly cffiectnal node of

Dr. Paley, in h'is Moral Philosophy, observcs»
that ^^ in countries in which subsistence b become
^ scarce, it behoves the State to watch over thc
'^ public morak with increased solicitude ; fiir no-
^* thing but the instinct of nature, under thc res-
^ traint of chastity, will induce men to undeitakc
^^ the labor, or consent to the sacrifice of personal
^^ liberty and indulgence, which the support of a
^* fiimily in such circumstances requires.*' * ' Thal
it is ahirays the duty of a State to use every exer-
tion likely to be effectual in discouraging vice and
promotii^ virtuc, and that no temporary circum*
stances onght to cause any relaxation in these ex-
ertions is certainly tnie. The means therefbre
proposed arc always good ; but the particular cnd
in vicw in this case^ appears to be ahsolutely cri-
ininaL Wc wish to force pcople into marriagc,
when from thc acknowledged scarcity of subsist-
ence, they will have kttle chance of bcing ablc to
support tiieir children* We might as well forot
peoplc into the water who arc unable to swim. In
both cases we rashly tempt Providence. Nor have
we morc reason to believe, that a m'uaclc will bc

* VoL ii« c. xi. p. 353

Ciep. JIL POPULATION. 3S9

improriiii^ Ibe eonditioii of tlie poor«

worked to save us firom the miseiy and mortality
resnltii^ frotn oiir comduct in the ooe case^ than
in theother«

The object crf^those who reaBy wish to better
the conditioo of the Iower classe&of socfety, must
be to rase the relative proportion between the
prioe of labor and the price of pravisions» so as to
enobfe the laborer to command a larger share of
äie iieoesBaries and comforts of life» We have
bitherto principally attempted to attain tlüs end by
cncouraging the married poor, aod conseqoently
tocreasing ätenumberoTlaborers^ and overstock-
ing the maiHket with a commodity which we still
o^" diat we wish to be desHV It would seem to
lave lequired no great spirit c^ di vinaticx^ to fxx^-
dl tbe certainr faüure of such a plan of proceeding.
There is notMng however like experience. It
las been tried m many difierent countrles^ and for
nany hundred years^ and the success has always
)een answend[)Ie to the sature of the schemc. It
s really time now to tiy sometlüng eise.

When it was found tbat oxygene, or purc vital
VBTy would not eure consumptions, as was expect-
sd, but rather aggravated their Symptoms ; a trial
vas made of an air of the most opposite kmd. 1

340 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of theonly eflcctual mode of

wish we had acted with the same philosophical spi*
rit in our attempts to eure the disease of povertj' ;
and having found that the pouring in of fresh sup-
plies of labor only tcnded to aggravate the symp.
toms, had tricd what would be the cflFect of with-
holding a little these supplies.

In all öld and fully-peoplcd states it is from thb
methody and this alone, that we can rationally es-
pect any essential and permanent melioraticn in the
condition of the lower classes of people.

In an endeavor to raise the proportion of thr
quantity of provisions to the number of consumers
in any country, our attention would naturally be
first directed to the incrcasiiig of the absolute
quantity of provisions ; but fiiiding that as fast as
WC did this, the number of consumers more ihan
kcptpacc with it, and that with all our cxcrtions we
wcre still as far as cver bchind, wt- siiould Ix! convin-
ccd tiiat our cfforts directed oiilv in this wav would
never succeed. It would appcar to l>c setting ihc
tortoisc to catch the liarc. Finding thcrcfore, ihat
from the laws of naturc we could not proportion
the food tothe population, our ncxtattcmpt should
naturally Ixr to proportion the populaiion lo ihe
food. If WC can pcrsuadc the harc to go to slccp

Chap. 111. POPULATION. 341

improi^ing the condition of the poor*

Jie tortoise may have some chaiice of overtaking
lier.

We are not however to relax our efforts in in-
:reasing the quantity of provisions ; but to com-
!>ine another effort with it, that ol keeping the po-
pulation when once it has been overtaken, at such
i distance behind as to effect the relative propar-
don which we desire ; and thus unite the two grand
lesiderata, a great actual population and a State of
societ}^ in which squalid poverty and dependencc
are comparatively but litde known ; two objects
which are far from being incompatible.

If we be really serious in what appears to be the
object of such general research, the mode of essen-
tially and permanently bettering the condition of
the poor, we mustexplain to them the tnie nature
of their Situation, and show them that die withhold-
ing of the supplies of labor is the only possible
wSy o^ r^lly rising its price ; and that they them^
selves being the possessors of this commodity have
alone the power to do this.

I cannot but consider this mode of diminishing
poverty, as so perfectly clcar in theor}% and so in-
^'ariably confirmed by the analogy of evcry other

)imß^^

J42 ESSAY ON, Sfr.

Of the onlf effecttial mode of, tXc*

commodity tfaat U brooght to mtfket^ that noihing
but its being shown to be calculated to produce
gn?ater evUs than it proposes to remedy, can justi-
fy US in not making die attemptto put it inta exe-
eution.

CHAPTER IV.

Objectims lo this mode consideretL

ONE objection which perhaps will bc
de to this plan, is that from which alone it dc-
s its value — a market rather understocked witli
3r. This must undoubtedly take place in a
tain degree ; but by no mtans in such a üegrec
X) affixt the wealth and prosperi^ of the coun-

The way in which we are going on at pre-
t, and the enormous increase in die price of pro-
ons, which seems to threaten us, will tend much
re eflFectually to enable foreigners to undersell
Q the markets of Europe than the plan now pro-
ed. If the populätion of this country were bet-
proportioned to its food, the nominal price of
\T might be lower than it is now, and yet bc
icient to msuntain a wlfe and six children.-^
putting this subjectof a market understocked
i labor, in tte most unfavorablc point of view ,
le rieh will not submit to a slight inconveniencc
rssarily attendant on the attainment of what

profess to desire, thej cannot really be \u

344 ESSAY ON Jiook IV.

Objections to this mode considered.

eamest in thcir profcssions. Tlieir benevolencc
to the poor must be either childish play or h}-po-
crisy ; it must be either to amuse themselves or to
pacify the minds of the common peoplc with a
mere show of attention to their wants* To wish
to better the condition of the poor by enabling
them to command a greatcr quanüty of the neccs-
saries and comforts of life, and then to compbin
of high ^vages, is the act of a silly boy %vho givcs
away his cake and then cries for it. A market
overstocked with labor, and an ample rcmunera-
tioh to each laborcr, arc objects perfectly incom*
patible with each other. In the annals of th^
World they never cxisted togcther ; and to coupl^
them cvcn in Imagination I^ctrays a p^oss ignt:^
rancc of the simplcst principles of political cconc:^
mv.

A sccond objection that may bc madc to th^
plan is, the diminution of population tliat it woul^^
cause. It is to Ix^ considered howcvcr, ihat ihi^ ^
diminution is mcrcly relative ; and whcn once thE—
relative diminution liad been effcctcd, by kecpin^
the population stationär}', whilc ihc supply of fooi^
had incrcascd, it mightthen start afrcsh, and con
tinuc incrcasing for ages, with the increasc of food^

Cimp, IF, POPULATION. 345

Objectkms to thts mode considered«

maintaüning always the same relative propoition
to iL I can easily conceive, that this country,
mth a proper direetion of the national industiy,
n^ht, in the course of some Centimes, contaia
:wo or three times its present populatioiii, and yet
-very man in the kingdom be much better fed and
jotfaed tban he is at present. While the ^ings
if industry cantinue in vigor, and a sufficient part
if that industry is directed to agriculture, weneed
>e under no apprehensions of a deficient popula^
wtk ; and nodiing perhaps would tend so strongly
o excite a spirit of industry and economy among
be poor, as a thorough knowledge that their hap-
^ineas must always depend principally upon tbem«
lelTes ; and that if they obey their passions in op-
poation to their reason, or be not indnstrious and
Bmgal while tfiey are single men, to save a sum
Tor ibe common contingencies of the married State,
hcf must expect to suffer the natural evils wbich
ProTidence has prepared ft»* those who disobey its
xpeated admonitions.

A tfaird objectioQ which may be started to this
plm, and the only one which appears to me to
liave any kind of plausibüity is, thatby endeavor-
ing to urge the duty of moral restndnt on the poor,
we may increase the quantity of viee velating to
the sex.
inrf. ii. y y

346 ESSAY ON Book IV,

Objections to this mode considered«
-■ ■ -^'™"^^ * -

I should be extremely sony to say any thing,
which could either directly or remotely be con-
strued unfavorably to the cause of virtue ; but I
certainly cannot think that the vices %vhich relatc
to the sex, are the only vices which are to be con-
sidered in a moral question ; or that they are eveii
the greatest and most degrading to the human
character. They can rarely or never be comnut-
ted without producing unhappiness somewheit
or other, and therefore ought always to be stron^-
ly reprobated ; but therc are other vices, the cf-
fects of which are still more pemicious ; and ther^
are other situations which lead more certainly \x^
moral offences than the refraining from marriage^i-
Powerful as may be the tcmptations to a brcacl^
ofchastity, I am incUned to think that they
impotent, in comparison of the teniptations aris-
ing from continued distress. A largc class of w
nien, and many men, I havb no doubt, pass
considerable part of their lives in chastity ; but I
believe there will be found very fcw who pass
through the ordeal of squalid and hopeless pover-
ty, or even of long continued cmbarrasscd cir-
cumstances, without a considerable moral degra-
dation of character.

In the higher and middlc classes of society, it

ip, IV. POPULATION. 547

Objections to this mode considered.

melancholy and distressing sight to observe,
unfrequently, a man of a noble and ingenu-
disposition, once feelingly alive to a sense of
w and integrity, gradually sinking under tlie
3ure of circumstances, making his excuses at
with a blush of conscious shame, afraid of
lg the faces of his fricnds from whom he may
borrowed money, reduced lo the meanest
s and subterfuges to deby or avoid the pay-
: of his just debts ; tili i^timateiy grown &mi*
^th falsehood, and at enmity with the world^
ses oll the grace and dignity of man •
3 the general prevalence of indigence, and
xtraordinary encourogements which we afford
18 country to a total want of foresight and pru-
e among the common people, * is to be attri*

4r. Colquhoun, speaking of the poor laws, obscrves,
« in spite of all the iogenious arguments which have
I used in favor of a system» admitted to be wisely
:eived in its origin, the effccts it bas produced in-
;estibly prove, that with respcct to the mass of ihc
r, thcrc is something radically wrong in the execu-
• If it were not so, it is impossible that there could
X in the metropolis such an inconceiv^le portion of
lan miscry amidst cxamples of munificence and bc •
olonce unparallcled in any agc or country" Po-
f Metropolis, c. xiii. p. 359.

S48 £SSAY Ott Aok IT.

Objections to this mode connderad.

buted tbe principal part ofthose continuai idepre-
<&tiocis cm property, and odier more attraciooi
crimes, which drive us to the painfiil vesource of
such a number of executions.' Accnrdmgt»
Mr. Colquhoun, above twenty thousand miaefi-
bk individuals of rariotis classes rise up evciy
moming without knowing how er by what meaoi
they are to be supported during the pessing di^,
or where m many instances, Üiey are to kidge osk
the succeeding nigh^'' It is by these uahappgr
persons that the principal depredations on tbe pub-
lic are cainmitted;'and aupposing btR few
them to be manried, and driven to theae acts»
Irom die neoessi^ of supporting their cfaildrcn ;
yet still it will not cease to be true, that the too
great frequenc}' of marriage atiiong the poorest
classes is one of the principal causes of the temp-

in the effects of the poor laws, I fully agree with Mr.
Colquhoun ; hut I cannot agree with him in admittin^
that the System was well conceived in its origtn. 1 attri-
bute still more evil to the original ill conception» than t«
the subsequent ill execiUion*

' Mr. Col(]uhoiin obsenrcs, that " Indif^ence in tlie
*^ present State of society, may be contidered as a prtnci«
" pal cause of the increase of crime»." Police of Me-
tropolis, c. xiii. p. 3S9«

* Id. c. xi« p« ^\2,

Cbo^ H^. POPULATION. 349

Objections to this mode contidered«

taüons to these crimes. A considorable part of
these unhapf^ Mrretches will prohably be found to
be the o&pring of such marriages, educated in
workhouses where cveiy vice is propogated, or
bred up at home in filth and rags, and with an
utter ignorance of every moral Obligation.» A
still greater part perhaps consists of peraons who
bring unable for some time to get employment
omqg to the fuU supply of labor, have been urg-
ed to these extremities by their temporaiy wants,
and having thus lost their characters, are rejected,
even when their laben* may be wanted, by the
wril-lbunded caution of civil society.»

^ Police of Metropolis, c. xi. xii. p. 355) 370«

^ Police of the Metropolis, c. xiii. p. 353 et seq. In

so large a town as London« which must necessarily en-

courage a prodigious infliix of strangers from the countrf ,

fhere must be always a grcat many persons out of werk ;

aad it is probable that some public Institution for the re-

li€f of the casual poor, upon a plan similar to that pro-

poaed by Mr. Colquhoun (c. xiii. p. 371.) would, under

tcrjr judicioiis management, produce more good than

eril. But for this purpose it would be absolutely neces-

ytctj^ that if work werc provided by the Institution, ihe

sum that a man could earn by it should be less than the

irorst paid common labor ; otherwise the claimants would

rapidly increase, and the funds would soon be inadequate

tn their objcrt. In tlic Institution at Hamburgh, which

350 ESSAY ON BooklF.

Objections to this mode considered.

When indigence does not produce overt acts of
vice, it palsies evcry virtue. Under the continued
teinptations to a breach of chastity, occasional fiul-
Qres may take place, and the moral sensibility in

appears to have been the most successful of anj yet eita-
blished, the nature of the work was such, that thoogb
paid above the usual price, a person could not easilf ean
by it more than eightcen pence a week. It was the de-
tcrmined principle of the managers of the institution Is
reduce the support which they gave, Iower than whatany
industrious man or woman in such circumstances could
earn* ( Account of the management of the poor in Hain«
burgh, by C. Voght, p. 18.) And it is to this principle
that they attribute their success« It should be obserred
however, that ncither the Institution at Hamburgh, nor
that planned by Count Rumford in Bavaria, has subsist-
ed long enough for us to be able to pronounce on their
permanent good effects. It will not admit of a doubtthat
institutions for the relief of the poor, on their first esta«
blishment, remove a great quantity of distress. The
only qucstion is^ whether, as succeeding gcnerations
arise, the increasing funds necessary for their support,
and the increasing numbcrs that become dependcnt, are
not grcater evils than that which was to be remcdied ;
and whether the country will not ultimately be Icft witb
as much mendicity as before, besides all the poverty and
dcpcndence accumulated in the public institutions. This
scems to be nearly the case in England at present« I
do not believe that we should have more beggars if we
had no poor laws.

(i:hap.jv. Population: 351

Objections to this mode considered*

other respects, not be very strikingly impaired ;
but the continued temptations which beset hopeless
pover^y and the streng sense of injustice that ge-
nerally accompanies it from an ignonince of its
true cause, tend so powerfully to sour the disposi-
tion, to harden the heart, and deaden the moral
sense, that, generally speaking, virtue takes her
flight clear away from the tainted spot, and does
not often retum.

Even with respect to the vices which relate to
the sex, marriage has been found to be by no
means a compleie remedy. Among the higher
classes, our Doctors Commons, and the lives that
many married men are know to lead, sufficiendy
prove this ; and the same kind of vice, though not
so much heardof aniongthe lower classes of peo-
ple, owing to their indifference and want of delica-
cy on these subjects, is probably not very much
less frequent.

Add to tlüs, that squalid povert}', particularly
when joined with idleness, is a State the most un-
favorable to chaistity that can well be conceived, —
The passion is as strong, or nearly so, as in other
situations, and every rcstraint on it from personal
respect, or a sense of mordlity is generally remov-

352 ESSAY ON, ÖV-,

Objections to this mode considered«

cd. There is a degree of squalid poverty, in
which, if a girl was brought up, I sliould sajr that
her being really modest at twenty was an absotate
mhracle. Those persons must have extraordinary
minds indeed, and such as are not usually fonned
under similar circumstances^ wfao can continue to
respect themselvesy when no other pcrsm what-
ever respects thenu If tbe children thus brought
up were cven to marry at twenty, it is probable
that they would have passed some ]rears m Ticaoa^
habits before that period.

If after all, however, these arguments ahouM
pear insufficient ; ifwe reprobate the idca cf
voring to encourage the virtue of moral
among the poor, from a fear of producing vice ^
and if we think that to facilitate marriage by al^
possible means is a point of the first consquence to^
the morality and happiness of the pec^k, let us^
act consistently, and before wc proceed, endcavor*
to make ourselvcs acquainted with the mode by
which alone we can eifect our object

"?=as

CHAPTER V.

Of the consequenccs ofpursutng the opposite mode.

IT is an evident truth, that whatevcr may
bc the rate of increase in the means of subsistence,
the increase of population must be limited by it, at
least after the food has once been divided into the
smalkst shares that will support life. All the chil-
dren bom beyond what would bc required to keep
up the population to this level, must necessarily
perish, unless room be made for them by the deaths
of grown persons. It has appeared indeed, clear-
ly in the course of this work, that in all old states
the marriages and births depend principally upon
the deaths, and that there is no encouragement to
eaiiy unions so powerful as a great mortality. To
act consistently therefore, we should facilitate, in*
stead of foolishly and vainly endeavoring to impede
the Operations of nature in producing this mortali-
ty ; and if we dread the too frequent v^itation of
the horrid form of famine, we should sedulously
encourage the other forms of destruction which wr
voL ii. z z

354 ESSAY ON BookF,

Of thc consequcnccs of

comptl nature to use. Instcad of recommending

cleaiilincss to thc poor, wc shoiild encourage con-

trary habits. In our towns, we should make the

streets narrower, croud more people into thc

houses, and court ihe return of the plague. In the

country, we should baild our villages near stag-

nant pools, and porticularly encourage Settlements

in all marshy and unwholesome situations. * But

above all, we should rvprobatc specific rcmcdics

for ravaging diseases, ::iid those benevolent, but

much mistaken men, who havc thought they weit

doing a Service to mankind by projccling Scheines

for the total extirimtion of panicülar disorders.—

If by thesc and siniilur means, thc annual mortali-

• Ncckcr, spcaking of ihc proportion of thc births i»
France, »iiukcs use of a ncw and instructive cxpre^sion
on this suhjv-ct, ihough he harclly seeins to bc üutncicnüx
aware of ii himsilf. ile says, ^' Le nombrc des naissan-
'* CCS est accdu dc!» hdbitaiis de un a ▼in^t-ti*ois et viugt-
" quatre daiis Icb licux contrarirt fiar im. nuture^ ou fiar
" dcM circonstancet morulc» : ce meine rapport dans la plus
'* grande partic de la France, est de un a 25, '25 >, and 36.*'
Administ. des Finances, tom. L. c« ix. p. 254. 12mo. It
would appear thercf >re, that we had nolhing more to do,
thdii to sctHe pcpple in marshy situations, and oppres»
tj 4 m by a bad government, in order to attain what politj-
cUni ba/c hitherto considered as so desirable— a grcat
pr' i>ortion of marriages and a grcat proportion of birth«

Chap. F. POPULATION. 555

pui*suiüg tlic opposile mode.

ty were iiicreascd from 1 in 36 or 40, to 1 in 18 or
20, we might prolxibly every one of us many at
the age of puberty, and yet few be absolutely
slarvcd.

If howc ver we all many at this age, and yet still

continue our exertions to impcde the Operations of

nature, we may rest assured that all our effbrts will

be vain. Nature will not, nor cannot be defeated

in her pur]K)ses. The necessary mortality must

come, in some form or other ; and the extirpation

of one disease will only be the signal for the birth

of another perhaps more fatal. VVe cannot lower

the waters of misery by pressing diem down in

different placcs, which must necessarily make

tbem rise somewhere eise : the only way in which

we can hope to eflfect our purpose is by drawing

tbem oflF. To this course nature is constantly di-

recting our attention by the chastisemcnts which

await a contrary conduct. These chiistisemcnts

are more or less severe, in proportion to the de-

gree in which her admonitions produce their in-

tended effect. In this countn^ at present, these

admonitions are by no mcans entirely neglected.

The preventive check to popuIation prevails to a

considerable degree, and her chastisemcnts are in

356 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of the consequences of

consequence moderate : but if we were all to marry
at the age of puberty they would be severe indced.
Political evils would probably be addcd to physi-
cal. A people goaded by constant distress, and
visited by frequent retums of famine, coiild notbc
kept down by a crtiel despotism. We should ap-
proach to the State of the people in Egy pt or Abys-
sinia; and I would ask, whether in that case it ib
probable that we should be more virtuous ?

Physicians have long remarked the great chan-
ges which take place in diseases ; and that, whilc
some appear to yield to the efforts of human cair^
and skill, others seem to becomc in proportioiL
more malignant and fatxil. Dr. William Hcber-
den published not long sincc, scnic vahiable obsc^-
vations on this subjcct dcduced from the London
bills of mortality. In his prefacc, speaking oT
these bills, he says, " the gradual changes they ex-
" hibit in particular diseases, correspond tothe al-
'' terations which in time are known to take pbce,
" in the Channels through which the great stream
*' of mortality is constantly flowing."' In ihc

' Ohsenrations on the Increase and Decrcase of diflcrtni
Diseases* Prefacc» p. v. 4to. 180U

. y. POPULATION. 357

pursuing the opposite mode.

of his work ailerwards, speaking of somc
:ular diseases, he observes with that candour
ii always distir^ishes true science ; " It is
: easy to give a satisfactory reason for all tlic
inges which may be observed to take place
the history of diseases. Nor b it anyjiis-
ce to physicians, if their causes are often so
dual in their Operation, or so subtle as to elude
estigation.''*

lope I shall not be accused of presumption,
nturing to suggest, that under certain circum-
es, such changes must take place ; and per«-
without any alteration in those proximate cau-
'hich are usually looked to on these occasions.
s should appear to be üiie, it will not seem
ordinary that the most skilful and scientific
cians, whose business it is principally to in-
i;ate proximate causes> should sometimes
h for these causes in vain.

a country which keeps its population at h
In Standard, if the averagc number of mar-
s and births be given, it is evident that the

bsservations on the Increase andDecreasc ofdiffer-
iacaseS) p« 43. 4te. 180U

358 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Of the consequences of

average number of deaths will also bc given ; and
to use Dr. Hcberden's mctaphor, the channcb
through which the great siteam of mortality is
constantly flowingj will always convey off a given
c|iiantity. Now if we stop up any of these Chan-
nels^ it is most perfectiy clear that the stream of
mortality must run with greatcr force through
some of the other Channels ; that is, if wc eradi-
cate some diseases, others will become proportion-
ally more fatal. In this case the only distinguish-
able cause is the daming up a neccssarj- outkt ol
mortality. * Nature, in the attainment of her greai
purposes, seems always to seize upon the weak-
est part. If this part be made strong by human
skill, she seizes upon tl»c next wcakest pari, and
so on in succession ; not likc a capricious deity,
with an intention to sport with our sufferings, and
constantly to defcat our labors ; but likc a kind
though sometimcs severe instructor, with the in-
tention of teaching us to makc all parts strong,
and to cha^e vice and misery from the earth. b
avoiding one fault we are too apt to run into somf

^ The way in which it operates is probably by increaüng
poverty« in consequence of a supply of labor too rapid
for the demand.

CÄ^. K POPULATION. 55«

J u

pursuing the opposite modc.

)ther; but we always find nature faithful to her
;reat object, at every false step we commit, ready
:o admonish us of our errors, by the infliction of
iome physical or moral evil, If the prevalence of
the preventive check to popuIation in a sufficient
iegrec, were to remove many of those diseases
Bi^hich now afRict us, yet be accompanied by a
considerable increase of the vice of promiscuous
intercourse, it is probable that the disorders and
anhappiness, the physical and moral evils arising
firom this vice, would increase in strength and de-
gree, and admonishing us severely of our error,
would point to the only line of conduct approved
by nature, reason, and reügion, abstinence fix)m
marru^ tili we can support our children and chas-
tity tili that period arrives-

In the case just st^ted, in which the popuIation
and the number of marriages are supposed to be
iixed, the neccssity of a change in the mortalit}'
cf some diseases, from the diminution or extinc-
tion of others, is capable of mathematical demon-
stration« The only obscurity which can possibly
involve this subject, arises from taking into consi-
deration the effect that might be produced by a
Äminution of mortality in increasing tlie popub-

360 ESSAY ON Book jl'.

Of the consequences of

grr

tion, or in decreasing the niimber of inarria^>
That the removal of any of the particular caui>c*
of mortality can have no further eflFect upon popu
lation than the rnean^ of subsistence will allow;
and that it has little influenae on these means of
subsistence is a fact, of whicli I hope the rcader b
already convinced. Of its Operation in tendiiig to
prevent marriage, by diminishing the dcmand for
fresh supplies of children, I have no doubt ; aod
there is reason to think that it had this efiect, in no
inconsiderable degree, on the extinction of the
plague, which had so long and so dreadfully rava*
gcd this country. Dr, Heilerden draws a striking
picture of the favorable changc observed in the
health of the peopleof England since this pcriod;
and justly attributes it to the improvements which
ha\ c gradually taken place, not only in London
l)ut in all great towns ; and in the manner of livii^
tliroughout the kingdom, particularly with respeci
to cleanliness and Ventilation ' . But these causes
would not have produced the effcct observed, if
they had not l^een accompanied by an incrcase of
the preventive check ; and probably the spirit of

* Obsen*. onlncond Dcc.of Diseatet, p« 35

••

Chttp.F. POPULATION. 361

pursuing the opposite mode.

tleanliness, and better mode of living, which tben
>^;an to prevdl, by spreading mocc generally a
lecent and useful pride, principally contributed to
lus increase. The diminution in the number of
aarriages however, was not sufficient to make up
>r the great decrease of mortality, from the extinc-
ion of the plague, and the striking reductiön of the
eaths in the dysentery. • While these, and some
ther discmlers became almost evanescent, con-
amption, palsy, apoplcxy, gout, lunacy, and
he small-pox, became more mortaL' The widen-
ng of these drains was necessary to carry off the
population which still remained redundant, not-
withstanding the increased Operation of the pre-
ventive check, and the part which was annually
di^posed of and enabled to subsist by the increase
ofagriculture*

Dr. Haygarth, in tfie sketch of his benevolent
plan fi)r the extermination of the casual small-pox,
iraws a frightful picture of the mortality which
las becn occasioned by this distemper, attributes
0 it the slow progress of population, and makes

* Observ. od Inc. and Dec. of Diseases, p* 34«

• Idem, p. 36 et seq.

ol. ii. a a a

362 £SSAY ON Book JF.

Of the conscquencea of

some curious calculations on the favorable efiecte
which would be produced in this respect by itstx*
termination. ^ His conclusioiis howcver, I fear,
would not follow from his premises. I am bj
firom doubting that millions and mlllions of human
beings have been destroyed by the sinall*pox.
But were its devastations, as Dr. Haygarth sup-
poses, many thousand degrees greater than the
plague,' I should still doubt whether the avcrage
population of the earth had been diminished by
them. The sniall-pox is certainly one of the chao-
nols» and a very broad one, which nature has opcD-
ed for the last thousand years, to keep down the
population to the level of the means of subsist*
ence ; but had this been closed, others would havc
btcome wider, or new ones would have been form-
ed. In ancicnt times the mortality from war and
the plague was incomparibly greater than in nio
dem. On the gradual diminutiou of this strea^
of mortality, tlie generation, and almost univer:»^
prevalence of the small-pox is a great and striki^
instance of one of those changcs in the Channels ^

* Vol. i. part ü. scct. v. and vi.
' Id.s. vüi. p. 164.

Viap. V. POPULATION. 363

pnrsuing the opposite mode«

oitality, which ought to awaken our attention,
id animate us to patient and persevering investU
tion. For my own part, I feel not the slightest
Mibt, that if the introduction of the cow-pox
ould extirpate the small-pox, and yet the num-
r of marriages continue the same, we shall find
^ery^percepiible difFerence in the increased mor-
ity of some other diseases. Nothing could pre-
nt this eSect but a sudden start in our agricul-
re ; and should this take place, which I fear we
ve not much reason to expect, it will not be
^ing to the number of children saved from death
the cow-pox inoculation, but to the alarms oc-
(ioned among the people of property by the late
rcities, and to tlie increased gains of farmers,
ich have been so absurdly reprobated. I am
jngly however inclined to believe, that the num-
* of marriages will not, in this case, remahi the
le; but that the gradual light which may be ex-
ted to be thrown on this interesting topic of
nan inquiry, will teach us how to make the ex-
rtion of a mortal disorder, a real blessing to us,
^ improvement in the general health and hap-
ess of the society.
[f, on contemplating the increase of vice which

364 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of the conaequences of

might contingently foUow an attempt to inculcatc
Üic duty of moral restraint, and the increase of
. miseiy that must necessarily follow the attempts to
encourage marriage and population, we conie to
the conclusiony not to interfcre in any respect, tut
to leave every man to his own free choice, ud
responsible only to God for the evil whicb he does
in either way ; this is all I contend for ; I would
On no account do more ; but I contend that at pit-
sent we are very far from doing this«

Among the lower classes, where the point is of
the greatest importance, the poor laws afford a di-
rcct, constant, and systematical encouragement «>
marriage, by removing from each individual tha^
heav)' responsibility whicli hc would incur by tV^^
laws of naiure, for bringing beings into the wor^
which he could not support. Our private benev^^
lence has the same direction as the poor laws, a^^
almost invariably tends to facilitate the rcaring
familics, and to equalize as much as possible, t^
circumstances of married and single men.

Among the higher classes of peoplc, the supi*^
rior distinctions which married women recciv^
and the marked inattentions to which single wC^
men of advanced age are exposed, enable maiB>^

*.. -'

». F. POPULATION. 365

purauing the opposite mode.

who are neither agreeable in mind or person,
are besides in the wane of life, to choose a
ner among the young and fair instead of being
ined, as nature seems to dictate, to persons
early their ovm age and accomplishments. It
:arcely to be doubted, that the fear of being
Ml maidy and of that silly and unjust ridicule
:h folly sometimes attaches to this name, drives
ly women into the marriage' union with men
im they dislike, or at best to whom they are
eedy indifferent. Such marriages must to
ry delicate mind appear litde better than legal
stitutions ; and they often bürden the earth
1 unnecessary children, without compensating
it by an accessioh of happines and virtue to the
ies thcmselves.

rhroughout all the ranks of society, the pre-
ing opinions respecting the duty and Obligation
narriage, cannot but have a very powerful in-
aice. The man who thinks that in going out
he World without leaving representatives behind
1, he shall have failed in an important duty to
iety, will be disposed to force rather than to
»ress his inclinations on this subject ; and when

reason represents to him the diificulties attend-

366 ESSAY ON, Gfr.

Of the conteqoences off (7c.

ing a family, he will endeavor not to attend to
these suggestions, will still determine to ventuir,
and will hope that in the discharge of what hecoa-
ceives to be his dutj, he shall not be dcserted b)
Providencc.

In a civilized coimtry, such as England» whor
a taste for the decencies and comforts of life prt-
vail among a very large dass of people, it is not
possible that the encouragements to marriage from
positive mstitutionsand prevailing opinions» shoiild
entirely obscure the light of nature and reason m
this subject ; but still they contribute to Hiakc k
comparatively weak and indistinct. And tiD thb
obscurity is entirely rcmovedy and the poor arc
iindeccived wrth respect to the principal cause of
their past poverty, and taught to know that ihei^
futurc happiness or miscry must dcpend chicfl)'
upon thcmsclves, it cannot be said that with rcgard
to the great question of marriage, we leave eveijT
man to his ouii free and fair choicc.

CHAPTER VI.

:ts of the knawledge of the principal cause of
paverty on Civil Liberty.

IT may appear, perhaps, that a doctrine
h attributes the greatest part of the sufferings
z lower classes of society exclusi vely to them-
s, is unfavorable to the cause ofliberty, asaf-
ig a tempting opportunity to govemments of
^ssing their subjects at pleasure, and laying
rhole blame on the laws of nature and the im-
mce of the poor. We are not howevcr to
to first appearances ; and I am ströngly dis-
l to believe that those who will be at the pains
nsider this subject deeply will be convinced,
lothing would so powerfully contribute to the
icement of rational freedom, as a thorough
ledge generally circulated of the principal
: of poverty ; and that the ignorance of this
, and the natural consequences of this igno-
form at present one of the chief obstacles to
ogress.

368 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Effects of the knowledge of

The pressure of distress on the lower classes of
people, with the habit of attributing this distress
to their rulers, appears to tat to be the rock of dc-
fence, the Castle, the guardi in spirit of despotism.
It afibrds to the tyrant the fatal and unanswerabfe
plea of necessity. It is the reason that every free
govemment tends constantly to its destniction;
and that its appointed guardians become dafly Icas
jealous of the encroachments of power. It is die
jreason that so many noble efibrts in the cause of
freedom have failed, and that almost every revolu-
tion, after long and painful sacrifices, has termioA-
ted in a military despotism. White any dissatis-
fied man of talents has power to persuade the low-
er classes of people that all thcir poverty and dis-
tress arise solely from the iniqiiity of the govem-
ment, though iKThaps the greatest part of wha]^
they suffer is unconnected with this cause, it is cvi-
dent that the seeds of fresh discontents and
revolutions are continually sowing. When an
tablished govemment has been destroyed, fiiKlin|;^
that their poverty is not removed, their rescntment
naturally falls upoii the successors to power ; an4
when these have been immolated without produ-
cin^ the dcsired effcct, other saerifices arc called

Qhap. FI. POPULATION. 369

the principäl cause of poverty, &c«

for, and so on without end. Are we to be surpri-
sed, that under such circumstances, the majority
af well disposed people, finding that a govemment
mxh proper restrictions was unable to support it-
seif against the revolutionary spirit, and weary and
exhausted with perpetual change to which they
eould see no end, should give up the struggle in
despair, and throw themselves into the arnis of the
first power which could aiFord them protection
against the horrors of anarchy.

A mob, which is generally the growth of a re»
dundant population goaded by resentment for real
sufierings, but totally ignorant of the quarter finom
which they originale, is of all monsters the most
fatal to freedom. It fosters a prevailing tyranny,
Ihd engenders one wherc it was not ; and though,
in its dreadful fits of resentment, it appears occa-
sionally to devour its unsightly ofFspring; yet no
sooner is the horrid deed committed, than however
unwilling it may be to propogate such a breed, it
immediatcly groans with a new birth.

Of the tcndency of mobs to produce tyranny,
we may not fje long without an example in this
cöuntr}'. As a fricnd to freedom, and naturally
an cnemy to large stunding armies, it is with ex-
:?»/. ii. b b b

370 ESSA\ ON Book IT.

Effects of the knowledge of

treme reluctance that I am compelled to acknow-
Icdge, that had it not been for the great organized
force in the country, the dbtresses of the |)eoi)le
durin<^ the late scarcities, encouraged by the ex-
treme ignorance and folly of many among the bigb-
er classes, might have driven them to comnut
the most dreadfiil outrages, and ultimately to in-
volve the country in all the horrors of famine.
Should such periods often recur, a recurrcnce
which we have too much reason to apprehend fifxmi
t|ie present State of the country, the prospect which
opens to our view is melancholy in the extremei
The EngUsh Constitution will be seen hasteiung
with rapid strides to the Euthanasia foretold by
Hume, unless its progress bc interrupted by some
populär commotion ; and this alternative presents
a picture still more appalling to the imagination.
If political discontents wereblended with the cries
of luinger, and a revolution werc to takc pbce by
the instrumcntality of a mob clamoring for want
of food, the consequences would Ix* unceasing
cliange and unocasing carnag«*, the bloody carcer
of which nothing but the cstablishnient of some
complete despotism could arrcsl.

We can scarcely lK*Iicve that the apix/mtcd giii^r

CÄojfr. FI. POPULATION. 371

Ihe principal cause of poverty, See.

dians of British liberty should quietly have acqui-
esced in those gradual encroachments. of power,
which have taken place of late years, but from the
apprehension of these stiU more dreadful evüs*
Great as has been the influence of comiption, I
cannot yet think so meanly of the country gende-
men of England as to believe that they would
dius have given up a part of their birthright of li-
berty, if they had not been actuated by ä real and
genuine fear, ihat it was then in greater danger
from the people than from the crown. They ap-
peared to surrender themselves to govemment on
condition of being protected from the mob ; but
diey never would have made this melancholy and
disheartening surrender, if such a mob had not ex-
isted either in reality or in imagination. That the
feirs on this subject were artfully exaggered and
increased beyond the limits of just apprehension is
imdeniable ; but I think it is also undeniable, that
the frequent declamation which was heard against
the unjust institutions of socicty, and the delusive
argum^nts on equality which were circulated
amon^ the lower classes, gave us just reason to
suppose that if the vox populi had been allowed to
speak it would have appeared to be the voicc •(*
error and absiirditv, instead of the vox Dei.

572 ESSAY ON Book U

EiTects of the knowledge of

To say that our conduct is not to be regulated
by circumstances, is to betray an ignorance <tf the
most solid and incontrovertible principles of mo-
ralhy. Though the admission of this princi[de
may sometimes affbrd a cloak to changes of opi-
nion that do not result from the purest xnotives ;
yet the admission of a contrary principle would bc
productive of infinitely worse consequences. Tbc
phrase of existing circumstances has, I believe, nd
unfrequendy created a smile in the English Houst
of Commons ; but the smile should have been re-
served for the application of the phrase^ and not
have been excited by the phrase itself. A very
frequent repetition of it has indeed, of itself, rathcr
a suspicious air \ and its application should alu-ays
be watched with the most jcalous and anxious at-
tention ; but no man ought to be jiidged m limine
for saying, that existing circumstances had obliged
him to alter his opinions and conduct. The
country gentlcmen were perhaps too easily convin-
ced that existing circumstances calied upon thcm to
give up some of die most valuablc privilcges of
Englishmen ; but as far as they were really con-
vinccd of this Obligation, they acted consistently
witK the clcaresi rulc of morality.

CA^. VI. POPULATION. 373

the principal cause of poverty, See*

The degree of power to be given to the civil go-
vemment, and the measure of our Submission to
it, must be determined by general expediency ;
and in judging of this expediency, every circum-
stance is to be taken into consideration ; particu-
larly the State of public opinion, and the degree of
ignorance and delusion prevailing among the com-
mon people, The patriot who might be called
upon by the love of his countr}- to join with heart
and band in a rising of the people for some speci-
fic attainable object or reform, if he knew that they
were enlightcned respecting iheir own Situation and
would stop short when they had attained their de-
mand^ would be called upon by the same motive
to submit to very great oppression rather than give
the sUghtest countenance to a populär tumult, the
mcmbers of which, at least the greater number of
them, were persuaded that the destniction of the
Farliament, the lord mayor, and the monopolizers,
would make bread cheap, and that a revolution
would enable them all to support thcir families.
In this case it is more the ignorance and delusion
of the lower classes of people that occasions thr
oppression, than the actual disposition of the go-
vemment to t)Tanny.

374 ESSAY ON Book IT.

Effects of the knowledg^ of

That there is however in all power a constant
tendency to encroach is an incontrovertiblc truth,
and cannot be too strongly inculcated. Tbe
ehecks which are necessary to secure thc liberty of
the subject will always, in some degree, embam»
and delay the Operations of the executive govcro-
ment. The members of this government feeliiig
these inconveniencies, whiie they are exertiD|
themseives, as they conceive, in the service of
their countr}-, and conscious perha{)& of no iO is-
tention towards the people, will naturally be db-
posed on every occasion, to demand the mssfOir
sion or abolition of these ehecks ; but if once tbc
convcnicncc of ministcrs be piit iiUo compctitkjn
with thc lil:)ertk's of tl>c pcoplc, and wc get into
a habit of relying on fair assuranccs and i)ersonal
charactcr, instcad of cxaniining, willi the most
scrupulous and jealoiis c;irc, tlic mcrits of cachpa'*
ticular casc, thcrc is an cnd of British frccdom. '^
we once admit thc principle, that thc govcmmcnt
must know bctter, with rcgard to thc cjuantity ^
power which it wants, than wc can possibly do wUn
our limited incans of iiifonnation, and tliat thcrcf^
it isour duiy to surrender up our private judgmcnl*^
we niay just as well at the same tinic surrender '^f

!>.n. POPULATION. 375

the principal cause of poverty^ &c«

whole of OUT Constitution. Government is
Harter in which liberty is not, nor cannot
rery faithfully preserved. If we are wanting
urselves, and inattentive to our great intcrests
Ws respect, it is the height of folly and
asonableness to expect that govemment will
id to them for us. Should the British con-
don ultimately lapse into a despotism, as has
i prophesied, I shall think that the country
lernen of England will have really much morc
iswer for than the ministers,
0 do the country gentlemen justice, however,
ould readily acknowledge, that in the partial
rtion of their posts as guardians of British free-
which has already taken place, they have been
ated more by fear than corruption. And the
apal reason of this fear was, I conceive, the
rance and delusions of the common people,
the prospective horrors which were contem-
d^ if in such a State of mind, they should by
revcdutionary movement obtain an ascendant.
he circulatioa of Paine's Rights of Man, it is
osed, has done great mischief among the lower
middling classes of people in this country.
i is probably true ; but not because man is

376 ESSAY ON Book

Effects of the knowledg^ of

without rights, or that these rights oughc not to bc
known; but because Mr. Paine haa Fallen into
some fundamental errors respecting the prindples
of govemment, and in many importantpoints hgs
shovm himself totally unacquainted wtb the struc-
ture of Society, and the different moral effects to
be expccted from the physical differencc betwcfn
this country and America. Mobs of the suu
description as those collections of people known
by this name in Europe could not exist in Ame-
rica. The number of people without proper^ is
there, from the physical State of the country, com-
paratively small; and therefore the civil powtf
which is to protect property, cannot require die
same degrcc of strcngth. Mr. Paine very justly
observes, tliat ^\ hatever tlie apparont cause of any
riots may bc, the real onc is always want of hap-
piness ; but whcn hc i^ocs on to say, it showsthat
something is wronij in the system of govemmcnt,
that injures the Fdicity by which socicty is lo bc
prcscr\ed, he falls into the common error ol^'
tributingall want of Iiappincss to govcrnment. ^
is evident that this want of happincss niight hav«
cxisUfl, and from ignorance might havc bcentht
priiiciniil cause of the riots, and vet bc alino^

'hap. VI. POPULATION. 377

the principal cause of poverty, &c.

faolly unconnected with any of the proceedings
r govemmcnt. The redundant population of an
id State fumishes materials of unhappiness un-
nown to such a State as that of America ; and if
I attempt were to be made to remedy this un-
ippincss, by distributmg the produce of the taxes
\ the poorer classes of society, according to the
lan pr(^)osed by Mr. Paine, the evil would be ag-
navated a hundred fold, and in a very short time
> 8um that the society could possibly raise would
t adequate to the proposed object.

Nothing would so eflfectually counteract the
lischiefs occasioned by Mr, Paine^s Rights of
[an, as a general knowledge of the real rights of
lan. What these rights are it is not my business

present to explain ; but there is one right which
lan haÄ generally been thought to possess, which
am confident he neither does nor can possess, a
ght to subsistence when his labor will not fairiy
irchase it. Our laws indeed say, that he has
ds right, and bind the society to fumish employ-
tcnt and foocl to those who cannot gct them in
« regulär market ; but in so doing they attempt
\ revcrse the laws of miture ; and it is in conse-
uence to be expected, not only that they should

o/. ii. c c c

iH^

378 ESSAY ON Book IT.

Effects of the kn^wledge of

fail in their object, but that thc poor who weit
intended to be benefited, should suffer xnost cnicUy
from this inhuman deceit which is practised upon
them.

The Abbe Raynal has said, that " Avant toutes
'* les loix sociales l'homme avoit le droit de sub-
" sister."* He might with just as much proprietjr
have said, that before the institution of social lairs^
cvery man had a right to live a hundred years. Un-
doubtedly he had then, and has still, a good right
to live a hundred ye<irs, nay a thousand, ifhe ea^
without interfering with the right of others to live;
but the a£&ir in both cases is principally an afitf
of po^ve^, not of right. Social laws very greatly
incrcase this power, by enabling a much greatcr
number to subsist than could subsist without them,
and so far very greatly enlargc le droit de stibsister ;
but neither before nor after tlie institution of social
laws could an unlimitcd number subsist ; and be-
fore, as well as since, hc who ceased to have the
power, ceased to have the right.

If the great trulhs on these subjects were mofc
generally circulated, and the lowcr classcs of p^o*

^ Ravnal, Ifist, des Indes, voU x. ^. x. p. 322, Sto-

Ch^. VI. POPULATION. 379

tbe principal cause of poverty, 8cc.

ple could be convinced, thatby die laws of nature,
independently of any particuiar insütutioiis, except
the great one of property, which is absolutely ne-
cessary in order to attain ahy considerable produce,
HO person has any claim of rigJit on society for
subsistence, if bis labor will not purchase it, the
greatest part of the mischievous declamation on
tbe unjust institutions of society would fall power-
less to the ground. The poor are by no means
inclined to be visionary. Thcir distresses are al-
ways real, though they are not attributed to the
real causes. If tliese real causes were propcrly
explained to them, and they were taught to know
how small a part of their present distress was attri-
butable to govemment, and how great a part to
causes totally unconnected with it, discontent and
iiritation among the lower classes of people would
ahow themselvcs much less frcquently than at pre«
aent ; and when they did show Üiemselves, would
be much less to be dreaded. The efibrts of tur-
bulent and discontented men in the middle classes
of society might safely bc disregarded, if the poor
were so far enlightencd respecting the real nature
of their Situation, as to be aware that by aiding
Acm in their sclienies of renovation, thev would

380 ESSAY ON Beak JT^

EfiTccU of the knowledge of

probably be promoting the ambitious views
others, without, in any respecl, benefitii^ them —
selves. And the country gentkmen, and men
property in England, might securely retum to
whoiesoifie jealousy of the encroachroents of pow-
er ; and instead of daily sacrificing tbc libcrties
the subject on tlie alter of public safety, might,
witliout any just apprehension from the people,
not only treud back all their latc Steps, but firmly
insist upon those gradual rcforms, which the hq»e
oF time and the storms of the poUtical world, hive
reudered nccessar}* to prcvent the gradual deslnic*
tion ot the British Constitution.

All improvements in govcmment must neces-
sarily originate with persons ot some education^
^ and tlicsc will of course be found among the peo-
* ple of property. W'hatevcr may be said of a few,
it is impossible to supposc* tliat the great mass of
the pcoplc of proiKTty should be really intcrestcd
in the abuses of government. Thcy nierely sub-
mit to them from the fear that an endeavor U> rc-
move them might be productive of greater cvils.
Could we but take away this fear, reform and
improvcmcnt would procecd with as much £icilit}'
as the removal of nuisances, or the paving and

Chap. FI. POPULATION. 38J

the priocipal cause of povcrty» 8cc.

lighting of the streets. In human life \ve are
coiitinually calied lipon to submit to a lesser evil
in Order to avoid a greater ; and it is the part of a
wise man to do this readily and cheerfully ; but
HO wise man will submit to any evil if he can get
lid of it without danger. Remove all apprehension
firom the tyranny or folly of the people, and the
tyranny of govemment could not stand a moment.
It would then appear in its proper deformit}% with-
out palliation, without pretext, without protcctor.
Naturally feeble in itself, when it was once strip*
ped naked, and deprived of the support of public
opinion and of the great plea of neccssity, it would
&U without a strudle. Its few interested defend-
ers would hide their heads abashed, and would bc
ashamed any longer to advocate a cause for which
nb human ingenuity could invent a plausible
ai^ment

The most successful supporters of tyranny arc
^thout doubt those general declaimers, who at-
tribute the distresses of the poor, and almost all
tlie evils to which society is subject, to human in-
atitutions and the iniquity of govcmmcnts. The
-'fid^ty of these accusations, and the dreadful con-
sequences that would result from thcir bcinij jr**

382 ESSAY ON JBooklf^.

Effects of the knowledge of

iieraliy admittcd aiid acted upon, make it absoluteljr
necessar}' tliat thcy should at all events be rcsist*
cd ; not only on account of the immediate revo-
lutionary Horrors to be expected from a movemeiit
of the people acting undcr such impressions, a
consideration which must at all times have very
great wcight, but on account of the extreme pro-
bability that such a revolution would terminate in
a much worse despotism than that which it had
destroyed. On thcse grounds a genuine fiicnd of
{reedom, a zcalous advocate for tlie real rights of
man, might bc found among the dcfendcrs of a
considerablc dcgrce of tyraiiny. A cause bad in
itsclf might bc supportcd by the good and the vir-
tuous, incrcly bccausc* that which was op))oscd lo
it was mucli worsc ; aiul at the moment, it was
absolutclv ncccssarv to makc a choicc betwecn
the two. Whatcvcr thercforc may bc the intcntion
of thosc indiscriminate accusations against go-
vernmcnts, thcir real cft'cct undoubtcdly is, to add
a weight of taknts and principlcs to the prcvail-
ing poucT wliich it ncvcr would liave received
othcrwisL.

It is a truth wliich I trust lias bcen sufiiciently
provcd m the coursiL* of tliis work, that under a

ooo

Chap.VI. ' POPULATION. 38

the principal cause of porertff 3cc.

^^^l^idh— Mi»^M*1^ I ■ I ■ ■ _ ■ II ■ ■! ■■! ■ ■

government constnicted upon the best and pur^st
principles, and executed by men of the highest
talents and integrity, the most squalid poverty
and wretchedness might universally prevail from
an inattention to the prudential check to popula-
tion. And as this cause of unhappiness has hi-
therto been so little understood, that the efforts of
Society have always tended rather to aggravatc
than to lessen it, we have the strongest reasons
fbr supposuig tkit m all the govemments with
wfaich we are acquainted, a great part of the mi-
aery to be observed among the lower classes of the
people arises from this cause.

The inference therefore which Mr. Paine and
otfaers have drawn against govemments from the
unhappiness of the people, is palpably unfair ; and
before we give a sanction to such accusations, it
is a debt we owe to truth and justice, to ascertain
Haiw much of this unhappiness arises from tlit*
pirinciple of population, and how much is fairly to
t^^ attributed to govemment. When this distinc-
Äon has been properly made, and all the vaguc.
ir^definite, and false accusations removed, govern-
iJ^^cnt would remain, as it ought to be, clearly res-
|KMisible for the rest; and the amount of this

384 ESSAY ON Bookir^

EiTecu of the knowledg^ of

would still be such as to make the responsibili^
very considerable. Though govemment has \M
little power in the direct and immediate relief
poverty, yet its indirect influence on ttie prosperi^
of its subjects is striking and incontestible. And
the reason is, that though it is comparatively im-
potent in its efibrts to make the food of a country
keep pace with an unrestricted increase of popu-
lation, yet its influence is great in giving the bett
direction to tliose checks which in some form or
other must necessarily take place. It has dearijr
appeared in the former part of this work, tfaat die
most despotic and worst-govemed countries, hofir-
ever low they mip^ht be in actual |K>pulationy wcrc
unifo? nil} the most populous in proportion to their
meiins of subsistence, and the necessarj' eflKxt of
this State oF tliincp must of course bc very low
wagcs. In such countrics the checks to popula*
tion arise morc from the sickness and mortality
consequent on poverty, than from the prudencc
and foresij^ht which restrains the frequency and
iiniversality of early marriap;t*s. The cl^cks arc
morc of the ix)sitive and less of the prcventi>T
kind.

The first }.';rund requisite to the growth of pru-

Chap. VI. POPULATION. 385

the principal cause of poverty^ &c.

[ential habits is the perfect security of property,
nd the next perhaps is that respectability and
nportance which is given to the lower classes by
quäl laws, and the possession of some influenae
1 the framing of them. The more excellent
lerefore is the govemment, the more docs it tend
> generate that prudence and eievation of senti-
lent, by which alone in the present State of our
eing can poverty be avoided.

It has been sometimes asserted, that the only
»son why it is advantageous that the people
iiould have some share in the governmcnt, is that
representation of the people tends best to secure
le framing of good and equal laws, but that if the
une objecc could be attained under a dcspotism,
le same advantage would accrue to the commu-
ity. If howevcr the represcntative system, by
^curing to the lower classes of society a more
]ual and liberal mode of ircatnitiit fiom their su-
Mors, gives to cach individual a greater personal
rspectability, and a greatcr fear of personal degra-
:ft.tion, it is evident that it will iK)werfully co-op-
"üte with the security of property in animaling the
v^crtions of industry, anJ in gciierating habits of
rudtncc, and llius more powerfuUy tcnd to in.
o/. *n. d d fl

J86 ESSAY ON BooktV.

Effects of the knowledg^ of

crease the riches and prosperit}" of the lower class-
es of the commiinity, than if the same laws had ex«
isted undcr a despotism.

Bat though the teiidency of a free cQnstitution
and a good govemment to diminish povcrty be
certain ; yet its effect in diis way must necessarily be
indirect and slow, and very different from the direct
and immediate relicf which the lower dasses oT
])eoplc are too frequently in the habit of looking
fonvard to as the consequence of a revolution.
This habit of expecting too much, and the irrU
tation occasioned by disappointment, continuaOy
give a wrong dtrection to their efibrts in &vor of
Überty, and constantly tend to defeat the accom-
plishnicnt of thosc gradiial reforms in govemment,
and tli:\t slow melioration of the condition of the
lower cl'\ssrs of socicty, which arc rcally attainablc.
It is of ilic vcry highest importcince therefore
to know distiüctly what govemment cannot do, as
well as what it can do. If I wcre calied upon to
luune the cause, which, in my conception, had
mü^;e than any othcr contributed to the verj* slow
progress of frcedom, so disheartcning to cvcrj
liberal mind, I should sav that it was the confusicx)
tlut liad existcd respccting die causes of die un-
luippincss and discontcnts which prcvail in socio-

F{. POPULATION. 387

• r Ä«

the principfll cause of povertyy &c.

nd the advantage which govemments had
able to take, and indeed had been compellcd
e, of this confusion, to confirm and strengthen
power. I cannot help thinking thereforc^
I knowledge generally circulated, that the
ipal cause of want and unhapptness is only in-
fy connected with govemment, and totally
id its power directly to remove ; and that it
ds upon the conduct of the poor themselves,
l instead of giving any advantage to govem-
(, give a great additional weight to the popu-
de of the question, by removing the dangers
nrhich from ignorance it is at present accom-
i ; and thus tend, in a very powerful manner,
rniote the cause of rational freedom^

CHAPTER VIL

Phm of a gradual abolition of the Poor Law,

proposed.

IF the principles in the preceding cl
should stand the test of examiiiation, and
should ever feel the Obligation of endcavoring
act upon them, the next inquiry would be, in
wajr we ought practically to proceed. The
grand obstacle which presents itself ki thh
tiy is tlie System of the poor ia\vs, which has
justly stated to be an evil, in comparison of whicl^f^'^
tlie national debt, with all its magnitude of terror,
is of little moment. * The rapidity with wliich
poors rates have increascd of late ycai b, presents
indeed with the prospect of such an cxtrai
Proportion of paupers in the society, as w<
seem to be incredible in a nation flourishing in arts,
agriculture, and commerce, and with a govem-

^ Reports of tht Society for betterin{ the conditioo
the poor, T«l. üi. p. 21«

ESSAY ON, &c. 389

Plan of a gradual abolkion, ^r.

ment which has generally been allowed to be the
best that has hitherto stood the test of experience. >
Greatly as we may be shocked at such a pros-
pect, and ardently as we may wish to remove it,
the evil is now so deeply seated, and the relief
given by the poor laws so widely extendcd, that
HO man of humanity could venture to propobc
their immediate abolition. To mitigate thcir ef-
iecta however, and stop their futurc increase, to
which, if left to continue upon tlieu* present plan,
we can see no probable termination, it has been
proposed to fix the whole sum to be raised, at its
present rate, or any other tliat might bc dctermin-
ed upon ; and to make a law that on no accouut
this sum should be exceeded. The pbjection to
this plan is, that a very large sum would be still to
be raised, and a great numbcr of people to be sup-
ported ; the consequence of which would be, that
poor would not be easily able to distinguish the

* It has been said that during the late scarcitics, half of
Population of the country received relief. If the
rates continue increasing as rapidly as they have
doneonthe aTerage of the last ten years, how melancholy
Ajr« our future prospects? The System of the poor laws
bms been justly stated by the French to he ia plair pcUtiquc
^^ i*Angi€ierr€ Ia fiiu9 d/votwite* (Comitd de Mendicilf-^

S9Ü ESSAY ON Bookir.

Plmn of a gradual abolition

alteration that had becn made. £ach individiul
would think that he had as good a right to be
supported when he was in want as any other person :
and those who unfortunately chanced to be in
distress when the fixed sum had been coUected,
would think tliemsehes particiilariy ill used oa
being excluded from all assistance, while so many
others were enjoying this advantage. If the sum
coUected were divided among all that were in want»
however their numbers might increase, tfioi^
such a plan would not be so unfair with regard to
those who became dependent aftcr the sum had
been fixed, it would undoubtedly be very hard up
on those who had l)cen in the habit of receiving a
morc liberal supply, and had donc nothing to jiis-
lify its lieing taken from thcni ; and in l)Oth cascb,
it would be ccrtainlv unjust in the society to un-
dcrtake tlic support of the ix)or, aiid yct if their
numbers increased, to fccd tlicm so sparingt}
that they must necessarily die of huiigcr and
disease.

I have reflected much on the subject of the poor
laws, and hopc thercforc that I shall Ixr excused
in venturing to suggest a modc of their gradual
abolition, to wliich I confess that at present I caii

"S.

Chap. VII. POPULATION, 391

of the poor laws proposed.

5CC no material objection. Of this indeed I feel
learly convinced, that should we ever become
nifficiently sensible of the wide-spreading tyranny,
iependence, indolence, and unhappiness, which
hey create, as seriously to make an effort to abo-
ish them, we shall be compelled by a sense of
ustice to adopt the principle, if not the plan, which
[ diall raention. It seems impossible to get rid
rf so extensive a system of support, consistendy
¥ith humanity, without applying ourseives direct-
y to its vital principle, and endeavoring to coun-
eract that deeply-seated cause, which occasions
he rapid growth of all such establishments, and
nvariably renders them inadequate to their object
^ a previous step even to any considerable alter-
tion in the present system, which would contractu
«• stop the increase of the relicf to be given, it
ppears to me that we are bound in justice and
onor formally to disclaim the right of the poor
^ support

To this end, I sliould propose a regulation to
*c made, declaring that no child born from any
ic^ttrriage, taking place after the expiratiun of a
^estr from the date of the lau* ; and no illegitimate
"Uld born two years from the same date, should
^ver be entitled to paribh assistance. And to give

392 ESSAY ON Book IT*

Plan of a gredual abolition

a more general knowledge of this law, and to en-
force it more strongly on the minds of the
classes of people, the clergyman of each
should after the publication of banns, read a
address, stating the strong Obligation on
maii to Support his own children ; the impropricQ^^
and even immorality, of marrying without a
prospect of being able to do this ; the evils
had resulted to the poor themselves, from the at-
tempt which had been made to assist by pubücrr
institutions in a duty which ought to be ezclu — -
aively appropriated to parents ; and the abaolui
necessity which had at length appeared, of aban^
doning uU such institutions, on account of thel
producing effccts totally opposite to those whi<
werc uUcndcd.

This would operatc as a fair, distinct, and
L'isc notire, which no inan could well nustake
and without prcssing harJ on any particular indi
viduuls, would at oncc tlirow off tlic rising gcne
ration from that mibcrablc and hclpless dtpcndci
upoii the govcrnnicnt and the rieh, the nioral
well as pliysical consequcnces of which are
iucalculable.

After the i)ubiic nolicc which I havc pro|
had becn gi^ en, and the system of poor bws

Ai^. VII. POPULATION. 393

' of the poor laws proposed/

ased with regard to the rising generation, if any
an chose to many, without a prospect of being
le to Support a family, he should have the most
rfi^ liberty so to do. Though to marry, in
is case, is in my opinion clearly an immoral act,
t it is not one which society can justly take upon
elf to prevent or punish ; because the punish-
Mit provided for it by the laws of nature, falls
lectly and most severely upon the individual
lo commits the act, and through him, only more
notely and feebly, on the society. When na-
■e will govem and punish for us, it is a very
derable ambition to wish to snatch the rod from
r hands, and draw upon ourselves the odium of
ecutioner. To the punishment therefore of
ture he should be left, the punishment of want.
5 has erred in the face of a most clear and pre-
e waming, and can have no just reason to com-
lin of any person but himself, when he feels the
Qsequences of his error. All parish assibtance
ould be denied him ; and if the hand of private
arity be stretched forth in his relief, the interests
humanity imperiously requirc that it should be
ministered sparingly. He should bc taught to
low that the laws of nature, which are the laws
>L ii. ^^ e c

394 ESSAY ON £ookIV.

Plan of a gradual aboUtion

of God| liad doomcd him and his family to suflfcr
for disoljeying their rcpeatcd admonitions ; that
he had no claim of right on society for the smalkst
portion of food, bcyond tliat which his labor
would fairly purchasc ; and that if he and his 6-
mily were saved from suffering die'extremities d
liunger, he would owe it to the pity of some kind
bcnefactor, to whom, therefore, he oug^t to bt
bound by the strongest ties of gratitude.

If this System were pursued, wc need be undef'
no apprehensions that the number of pereons i
extreme want would be beyond the power
the will of the benevolent to supply. The spher^
for the exercise of private charity would, I antf
confidcnt, bc Icss than it is at prescnt ; and th^
oiily difiiculty would bc, to restrain the band uV
bcncvolence from assisting thosc in distress in scz
indiäcriminate a manncr as to cncouragc indolcnce^
;incl want of forebight in othcrs.

With regard to illcgitimatc childrcn, after thr ^
proper notice had becn givcn, they should not be
aliowcd to have any claim to parish assistancCi
but bc Icft cntircly to tlic support of private chi-
rity. If the piu"cnts dcscrt thtir child thcy ought
to l)c madc answemblc for the crime. The in-

Viap. riL POPULATION. 395

of the poor laws proposed.

tnt is, comparatively speaking, of little value to
le Society, as others will immediately supply its
lace. Its principal value is on account of its
King the object of one of the most delightful pas«
ans in human nature — parental affection. But

this value be disregarded by those who are alone
i a capacity to feel it, the society cannot be cal-
ci upon to put itself in their place ; and has no
irtfaer business in its protection, than to punish
te crime of desertion or intentional ill-treatment
i tiie persons whose duty it is to provide for it

At present the child is taken under the protec-
ofi of the parish, ' and generally dies, at least in
ondon, within the first year. The loss to the
iciety is the same ; but the crime is diluted by
le number of people concemed, and the death
isses as a Visitation of Providence, instead of
sing considered as the necessary consequence of
c conduct of its parents, for which they ou^t
s be held responsible to God and to socie^.

* I fully agree with Sir F. M. Eden, in thinking that
6 conatant public siipport which deserted children re-
ivc, 18 the cause of their very great numbers in the two
d«t opulent countries of Europe^ France and England«
ate of the Poor« vol. i. p. 339.

396 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Plan of a gradual abolition

The descrtion of both parents, howcver, is not
so common as the desertion of one. When a
scrvant or laboring man has an illegiümate childt
his running away is perfcctiy a matter of course »
and it is by no means uncommon for a man with
a wife and large family to withdraw into a distant
county, and leave diem to the parish ; indeed I
once heard a hard-working good sort of man pro--
pose to do Ulis, as the best mode of providing for
a wife and six children. ' If the simple b£X
these irequent desertions were related in
countries, a stränge inference would be diawa^
against the English character; but the wondcr^
would cease when our public institutions were^
cxplaincd.

By the laws of nature, a child is confided di- -
rectly and exclusively to the protection of it& -
parents. By the laws of nature, tlie mother of a j
child is confided almost as strongly and exclusively
to the man who is the fatlier of it If these ties

^ " That many of the poorcr classes of the communitj
<< avail theroselves of the liberality of the law, and leave
** thcir wives and childrcn on the parinh, the reader will
" find abundant proof in the subsequent part of this work.*'
Sir F. M. Eden on the State of the Poor, vol. i. p. 339.

Chap, VII. POPULATION. 397

of the poor laws proposed.

were sufiered to remain in the State in which na-
tura has left them, and the man were convinced
that the woman and the child depended solely upon
him fbr support, I scarcely believe that there are
ten men breathing so attrocious as to desert them.
But cur laws, in Opposition to the laws of nature,
sayt ^^ if ^ parents forsake their child, other
persons will undertake to support it ; or if tlic nian
forsake the woman she shall still meet with pro»
tection elsewhere; that is, we take all possiblc
paihs to weaken and render null the ties of nature,
and then say that men are unnatural. But the fact
is, that the society itself, in its body politic, is the
imnatural character, for framing laws that thus
counteract the laws of nature, and give premiums
to the violation of the best and most honorable
feelings of the human heart.

It is a common thing in most parishes, when
tbe £ither of an illegitimate child can be seized,
to endeavor to fiighten him into marriage by the
texTors of a jail ; but such a proceeding cannot
s^xrely be too strongly reprobated. In the first
place, h is a most shallow policy in the parish of-
fiocrs; for if they succeed, the effect upon the
präsent system will generally be, the having three

39» ESSAY ON Book JV.

:ss:

Plan of a gradual abolition

or four childrcn to providc for instead of
And in tlie next place, it is dii&cult to conccive a
niore gross and scaiidalous profanaticHi of a rdi^
gious ccremony. Those who believe that Ac
character of a woman is salved by such a forced
cngagcment, or that the moral worth of the man is
cnlianccd by affirming a lie before God, have, 1
confcssy very different ideas of delicacy and mo-
rality, from tliose which I have been taugfat tt»
consider as just. If a man deccive a woman inio
a connexion with him under a promise of mar--
riage, he has undoubtedly been guilty of a most
trocious act, and there are (c\v crimes which
a more severe punishmcnt ; but the last that I shouk^
choosc is tliat which will obligc him to affirm^
anothcr falschood, whicli will probably rcndcr thc*^
woman that he is to be joined to miserable, andM
will bürden the socicty witti a faniily of paupers.

The Obligation on every man to support liis-^
cliildren, whetlier legitimate or illegitimate, is so '
clcar and strong, diat it would be just to arm so-
cicty with any power to cnforce it, which wouk}
Ix! likely to answer the purpose. But I am in-
clincd to bclicvc that no cxcrcise of ihc civil
power, how tvcr rigorous, would be lialf so cffer-

>. ril, POPULATION. 399

of the poor Imws proposed«

as a knowledge generally circulated that
Iren were in future to depend solely for sup-
upon their parents, and would be left only to
lal charity if they were deserted.

may appear to be hard, that a mother and
i^hildren, who had been guilty of no particular
le themselves, should sufier for the ill conduct
be father; but tliis is one of the invariable

of nature ; and knowing this, we should
k twice upon the subject, and be very sure of
^und on which we go, before we presume
ftnatically to counteract it.
have often heard the goodness of the Deity
eached on account of that part of the deca-
te, in which he declares, that he will visit the

of the father upon the children ; but the ob-
ion has not perhaps been sufliciently consi-
!d. Without a most complete and fundamen-
change in the whole Constitution of human
ire ; without making man an angel, or at least
tething totally difierent from wliat he is at pre-
: ; it seems absolutely necessary that such a

should prevail. Would it not require a per-
lal miracle, which is perhaps, a contradiction
erms, to prevent children from being affected

400 £SSAY ON JiooklF.

Plan of a gradual aboltüon

in their moral and civil condition by the conduct
of their parents ? What man is there that bs
been brought up by his parents, who is not at tk
present moment enjoying something firom their
virtues, or sufFering something from their viocs;
who, in his moral character, has not been elevated
in some degree, by their pnidence, their justice,
their benevolence, their temperance, or deprc»ed
by the contraries ; who, in his civil condition, hs
not been raised, by their reputation, their foc-
sight, their industry, their good fortune, or VmX'
ed by their want of character, their imprudeooe,
their indolence, and their adversity ? And bo^
iniich doe*s a knowledgc of this transmission ^
blcssings coiitribute to excite and invigorate v»''
tuoiis exertion ? Proceeding upon this certxdntj''
how ardent and inccssant arc the cfforts of parei^*
to k'ivc their children a good education, and *^
providc for their futurc Situation in the world. -^
a man could ncglect or desert his wife and cl^^
dren without their suflcring any injut}-, how
individuals there are, who not being vtry fond
their wivcs, or being tired of the shacklcs of
trimony, would withdraw from household carr
and difficulties, and resume their liberty and i

Chat. rn. ' POPULATION. 401

of the poor laws proposed.

dependeoce as single mcn. But the consideration
that children may suffi^r for the faults of their parents
faas a strong hold even upon vice, and many who
are in such a State of mind as to disregard the con-
sequences of their habitual course of life, as far as
relates to themselves, are yet gready anxious that
their children should not sufier from their vices
uid foUies. In the moral govemment of the
irorld, it seems evidendy necessary that the sins of
the Äthers should be visited upon the children ;
uid if in our over-weening vanity we imagine that
ore can govem a private society better by endea-
trc»ring systematically to counteract this law, I am
ndined to believe that we shall find our^lves very
pneatly mistaken.

If the plan whieh I have proposed, were adopt-
d, the poors rates in a few years would begin very
apidly to decrease, and in no great length of time
irould be completely extinguished ; and yet, as far
s it appears to me at present, no individual would
c either deceived or injured, and consequently no
crson could have a just right to complain.

The abolition of the poor laws however, is not of
:self sufficient ; and the obvious answer to those
rho lay too much stress upon this System is, to
yoL ii. f f f

402 ESSAY ON Book U\

Plan of a gradual abolition

desirc them to look at the State of the poor in
somc other countries, where such la\vs do not
prcvail, aiid to compare it with their condition io
l'^ngland. But this comparison, it must be ao
knowlcdgcd, is in inaiiy respects unfair ; and would
by no means decide the question of the Utility or
inutilit}' of such a systcm. .England possessa
very great natural and political advantagcs, ja
which {)erhaps the countries that we should, i&
this casc, coniparc with her, would bc found to be
pal[)ably dcficicnt. The nature of her soil ani
climate is such, that those almost universal (ailures
in tlic crops of grain, which are known in soiii^
countries, never occur in England. Her insuU*^
Situation ;uid cxtcnded commerce arc peculiarV!
favorahle for iniportation. Her numerous nianu-^
faclinvs eniploy ncarly all die hands tliat arc nC^
engaj^td in agiiculture, and afford the means of
regulär distribution of the annual produce of ih^*
land and labor to the wholc of her inhabitiuits
But abovc all, throughout a ver}* laigc class of lhc::=
pcople, a decided taste for die conveniencies aiK^
comforts of life, a streng desirc of bcttering their
condition, that inaster-spring of public pruspcrity,
and in consequenee, a niost laudablc spirit of b

rhap. rn. Population. 403

of the poor laws ptx>posed.

istry and foresight are obsen^ed to prcvail
heie dispositions, so contrary to the hopeless in-
Jence remarked in despotic coiintries, are ge-
Tated by the Constitution of the English goveni-
ent, and the excellence of its laws, which secure
every individual the produce of his industr)\
Hhcn therefore, on a comparison with other
luntries, England appears to have the advantage
the State of her poor, the superiority is entirely
be attributed to these favorable circumstances,
d not to the poor laws, A woman with one bad
Lture may greatly excel in beauty some other,
10 may have this individual feature tolerably
od ; but it would be rather stränge to assert,
consequence, that the superior beauty of the for-
?r was occasioned by this particular deformit)-.
Iie poor laws have constantly tended to counter-
t Ae natural and ac<|uired advantages of this
untry. Fortunately these advantages have been
considerable that though weakened they could
»t be overcome ; and to these advantages, to-
ther with the checks to marriage, which the laws
emselves create, it is owing that England has
ÄH able to bear up so long against this penii-
ous System. Probably there is not any othci'

404 ESSAY ON BookJF.

Plan of a gradual abolition

countiy in the world, cxcept perhaps Holland be-
fore the rcvolution, which could have actcd upon
it so completely, for the same period of time widi«
out utter ruin.

It has been proposed by some to estaUish poor
laws in Ireland ; but from the wretched and d&
graded State of the common people, and the tottl
^^ant of that decent pride which in Iilngland pct«
vents so many from having rccourse to parish »
sistance, there is little reason to doubt that on diC
cstablishment of such laws, the wbole of the laoded
property would very soon be absorbed, or the tf^^
tem be given up in despair.

In Sweden, from the dearths which are not uot ^
frcquent, owing to the gcneral failure of crops i
an unpropitious climate, and the imi)ossibilit}'
great importations in a poor countr}\ an attem
to establish a system of parochial relicf such
that in England, if it were not speedily abandone^
from the physical impossibility of executing it ^
would Icvel the property of the kingdom fironr^
onc end to the othcr, and convulse the social sys-^--
tem in such a manncr as absolutcly to prtvent i
from rccovcrinp: its form^^r State on the rrtum o
plcuty.

Chap. rU. POPULATION. 40$

of the poor laws proposed»

Even in France, with all her advantages of si«
tuation and climate, the tendency to population is
so great, and the want of foresight among the low-
cr classes of the people so conspicuous, that if
pow laws were established the landed property
would söon wik under the bürden, and the wretch-
cdness of the people at the sanSe time be increased.
Qn these considerations the committee de Äfendi^
ntiy at the beginning of the revolution, very pro-
perly and judiciously rejeeted the establishment
a such a System which had been proposed.

The exception of Holland, if it were an excep-
itHi, would arise from very particular circum-
itances^^her extensive foreign trade, and her nu-
nerous colonial emigrations, coihpared with the
nnallness of her territory ; and the extreme un-
lealthiness of a great part of the country, which
locasions a much greater average mortalit}' than
s common in other stätes. These, I conceive,
verc the unobserved causes which principally
:oDtributed to render Holland so famous for the
nanagement of her poor, and able to employ and
mpport all who applied for relief.

N6 part of Germany is siifficiently rieh to sup-
?ort an extensive system of parochial rclief ; but

4ß6 ESSAY ON JhokIF.

Plan of a gradual abolidon

I am inclined to think, tliat from the absence of
it, thc lower classes of the people in some parts of
Germany are in a better Situation than thooe of
the same class in England. In Switzerland, ftr
the same reason, their condition, before the ble
troubles, Mras pcrhaps miiversally superior. And
in a journey through the dutchies of Holstein and
Sleswick bclonging to Denmark, the houscs of
the lower classes of people appeared to me to be
neater and better, and in general there were few^
indications of poverty and wretchedness amooC
them, than among the same ranks ui this countr^-
Even in Norway, notwithstanding the disa^'
vantage of a severe and uncertain climate« fro^**
the little that I saw in a few wccks residcnce
thc coiintr}% and thc Information ihat I could c
Icct from others, I am inclined to think that ll — ^
poor wcrc, on the a\cragc% bcttcr oft' than in Kn^0
Lind. Thcir houses and clothing wcre superio^^
and though thcy liad no white brcad, thcy har ^
much morc mcat, fish, and milk, tlian our lalxjr^-
crs ; and I jxarticularly rcmarkcd, tliat the farmcr^^
boys wcrc miich stouter and hcalthicr lookin^^
lads than thosi' of thc same dcscription in England^
This degrec of ha{)piness, su|x^rior to what cn\ik^

e». VII. POPULATION. 407

of the poor laws proposed*

^xpected firom the soll and climate, arises al-
I exclusively irom the degree in which the
entive check to population operates ; and the
blishment of a System of poor laws, which
Id destroy this check, would at once sink the
^ classes of the people into a State of the most
trabte poverty and wretchedness ; would di-
ish their industr}'^, -and consequently the pro-
i of the land and labor of the country ; would
ken the resources of ingenuity in times of
city ; and ultimately involve die countr)' in all
tiorrors of continual femines.
*, as in Ireland and in Spain, and many of the
bem countries« the people be in so degraded
ite as to propagate their species like brutes,
ly regardless of consequences, it matters litde
ther they have poor laws or not. Misery in
ts various forms must be the prcdominant
ik to their increase. Poor laws, indeed, wilt
lys tend to aggravate the evil, by diminishing
general resources of the country, and in such
ite of things could ex ist only for a verj' ^ort
; ; but with or without them, no strctch of
lan ingenuity and exertion could rescue the peo-
from the most extreme poverty and wTCtched-

CHAPTER VIII.

0/ the modes of eorrecting the prevaiäng opinkm

on Population.

IT is not cnough to abolish all the poshht
insütutions which encourage population ; but «t
must cndeavor at the same time, to correct ik
prevailing opinions, which have the same, or ptr-
haps even a more powerful effect. This must oc*
cessarily be a work of time ; and can only be dooe
by circubting juster notions on these subjccts, ia
writiiigs and conversation ; and by endcavoring ^^
iinprcss as strongly as possiblc on the public nund«
that it is not the duty of nian simply to propags^^
his spccies, but to propagate virtue and liappinc^'*
and that« if he has not a tolerably fair prospecC ^
doing thib, he is by no nieans called upon to Ic» ^^
descendants.

Ainong the higher ranks of society, we km- ^
not much reason to apprehend the too great Ö^
quency of marriagc. 'Fhough the circulation ^
juster notions on this subject might, even in ttr^

ESSAY ON, &?r. 409

Of thc modes of corrccting thc, b'c.

part of the Community, do much good, and pre-
vent many unhappy marriages ; yet whether wc
make particular exeitions for this purpose, or not,
we may rest assured that the degree of proper pride
and spirit of independence almost invariably con-
nected with education^ and a certain rank in life,
will secure the Operation of the prudential check
to marriage to a considerable extent. All that the
Society can reasoijably require of its members is,
that they should not have families without being
able to Support them. This may be fairly enjoin-
ed as a positive duty. Every restraint beyond
this riiust be considered as a matter of choice and
taste ; but from what we already know of the ha-
bits which prevail among the higher ranks of life,
we have reason to think that litde more is vvanted
to attain the object required, than to award a grcat- j CL^in
er degree of respect and of personal liberty to sin-
gle women, and to place them nearer upon a level
with married women ; a change, which indepen-
dendy of any particular purpose in view, the plain-
cst principles of equity seem to demand.

If among the higher classes of society, the ob-
ject of securing the Operation of the prudential
check to marriage to a sufficient degree appear to
voL li. g g g

410 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of the modes of correcting the

bc attainable without much difficuky, the obvious
mode of proceeding with die lower classes of So-
ciety, uhere the point is of the principal import-
ance, is to endeavor to uifiisc into them a portioa
of that kiiowledge and foresight, which so much
facilitates the attainment of this object in the eduoi*
ted part of the Community,

The fairest chance of accomplishing this cnd
would probably be by the establishment of a Sys-
tem of parochial education upon a plan siniilar to
that proposed by Dr. Smith« ^ In addition to tbe
usual suhjects of instniction, and those which hc
has mentioned, I should be disposed to lay coos»-
derable stress on the frcquent cxplanation of tl^
real State of the Iowcr classes of socicty, as affcctt:^
by the principlc of population, and their con!
quent dependencc on thcmselves for the chief
of their happiness or misery. It would be by
nieans necessary or proper in these explanations» ^
undcr-rate in tlie smallest degree, the desirablene "^
of marriage. It should ahvays be rcpresented
what it really is, a State peculiarly suited to the
ture of man, and calculated greatly to advance

» Wealth of Valions, vol. iii.b. v, r. i. p. 187*

Chap, VIII. POPULATION. 411

=3cr.-

prevailing opinions on population.

luppiness, and rcmove the tempüitions to vice ;
but like property or any other dcsirable object, its
advantages should be shown to be unattainable,
except under certain conditions. And a strong
conviction in a young man of thc desirablencss of
marriage, with a conviction at the same time, Üiat
the power of supporting a family was the only con-
dition which would enable him really to enjoy its
bkssings, would be the most effectual motive ima-
ginable to industry and sobriety before marriage,
and would powerfully urge him to save tliat super-
fiuity of income which single laborers nccessarily
possess, for the accomplishment of a rational and
desirable object, instead of dissipating it, as is now
usually done, in idleness and vice.

If in the course of time, a fcM' of thc simplcst
principles of political economy could be added to
the Instructions given in these schools, the bencfit
to Society would bc almost incalculablc. ' In some

^ Dr. Smith proposes that the elementary parts of geo*
metry and niechanics should be taught in these parish
schools ; and I cannot help thinking that the common
principles by which markets are regulated mightbe made
snfficiently clear to be of considerable use. It is certaiuly
a subject that, as it intercsts the lower classes of peoplc

412 ESSAY ON Booktl^.

Of the roodcft of correctin^^ the

■^T

conversations with laboring men, during the late
scarcitieSy I confcss that I was to the last degfte
disheartened« at observing their inveterate preju-
diees on the subject of grain; and I feit vaj

nearlfy would be likely to attract their attention* At tbe
same time it must be confessed, thatit is impoMiblclobe
in any degree sanguine on this point, recoUectini^ hov
very ignorant in general the educated part of the comnMli
nity is of these principles« If^ howevef , ^litical ecoiMNHf
cannot be taught to the common people^ I reaUy thiak
that it ought to form a branch of a university cducatioD.
Scotland has set us an example in this respect> which we
ought not to be so slow to imitate« It is of the very iit>
most importance that the gentlemen of the country, ind
particularly the clergy, should not, from ignorance, ag*
gravate the evils of scarcity every time that it unfortiH
nately occurs. During the late dearths, half of the gen»
tlemen and clergymen in the kingdom richly desenred lo
have been prosecuted for sedition. After inflaming tbe
tninds of the common people against the farmers and
com-deaiers« by the manner in which they talked of theiBf
or preached about them> it was but a feeble Antidote t»
the poison which they had infuscd, coldly to obsenre, that
however the poor might be oppressed or cheated« it was
their duty to keep the peace. It was little better tbaa
Anthony 's repeated declaration, that the conspirators were
all honorable men ; which did not save either their houses
or their persons from the attacks of the mob« Political
economy is perhaps the only science of which it may be
iaid, that the ignorance of it is not merely a deprivatioA
^f good, but produces great positive eril.

"hap. Vtit. POPULATION. 413

prevailing opinions on population.

rongly the almost absolute incompatibility of a
)veminent really free, with such a degree of ig-
irance. The delusions are of such a nature,
at if acted upon, they must at all events be re-
essed by förcc ; and it is extremely difficult to
VC such a power to the govemment as will bc
ifficient at all times for this purpose, without the
»k of its beitig employed improperly, and en-
ngering the liberty of th6 subject.
We have lavished immense sums on the poor,
[lieh we have every reason to think have con-
intly tended to aggravate their misery. But in
eir education, and in the circülation of those im-
Htant political truths that most neafly concem
em, which are perhaps the only means in our
)wer of really raising their condition, and of
aking them happier men and more peaceable
ibjects, we have been miserably deficient. It is
irely a great national disgrace, that tlie educa-
iQ of the lower classes of people in England
ould be left merely to a few Sunday schoob,
pported by a subscription from individuals, who
course can give to the course of instruction in
^m any kind of bias which they please. And
-n the improvement of Sunday schools, (for ob

414 ESSAY ON Boot IT.

Of thc modes of corrccüng the

jcctionablc as thcy are in some points orview,
and impcrfect in all, I canuot but considcr them
as an improvcment) is of vcry late date,

The argiimcnts which have been urged agatnst
instructing die peoplc appear to mc to be not onijr
illiberal) but to the last degrec fecblc ; and thcy
ought, on die contraiy, to be extrcmely forcible,
and to be supported by tlie most obvious and strik-
ing neccssity, to Warrant us in widiholding tbe
means of raising the condition of the lowcr dasses
of pcople, when they arc in our power. Thosc
who will not listen to any answer |to diese ar-
giiments drawn from theor}% cannot, I think«
refusc thc testimony of expericncc ; and I wouU
ask, whcUierthc advantagc of siipcrior instructiin^
which thc lowcr classcs of jK-oplc in Scotland
are knoA\'n to posscss, has appcarcd to have at^y
tendcncy towards creating a spirit of tu muh a>^
discontent amongst thcm. And yct from the n^
tural infcriority of its soil and climate» the pre:>5>ii^
of want is morc constant, and thc dcarths are i»^
only more frcqucnt, but morc drcadful than in E
land. In thc casc of Scotland, die knowlcdgi* c
cidated among the common jx-oplc, though
sufficient cssentiallv to l>cttcr their condition bv i

'Juxp. VIIL POPULATION. 415

prevailing opinions on population*

reasing, in an adequate degree, their habits of
rudence and foresight, has yet tlie effcct of ma-
ing them bear with patience the evils \vhich they
iflfer, from being aware of the foUy and inefficacy
rturbulence. The quiet and peaceable habits of
le instnicted Scotch peasant, compared with the
irbulent disposition of the ignorant Irishman,
ight not to be without efFect upon evei*}- impartial
asoner.

The principal argument that I have heaid ad-
nced against a System of national education in
ngland is, that the common people would be put
a capacity to read such works as those of Paine,
id that the consequences would probably be fatal
\ govemment. But on this subject I agrce most
ardially with Dr. Smith' in thinking, that an in-
xucted and well-informed people would Ix: much
•SS Ukely to be led away by inflammaton' writings,
:id would be much better able to detect Üie falsc
cclamation of interested and ambitious dcmago-
ucs, than an ignorant people. One or two read-
"5 in a parish are sufficient to circulate any quan -
y of sedition ; and if these be gained to the de-

* Wcalth of Nalions, vol. iii. b. v. c. i. p. 192.

416 ESSAY ON ßookII\

Of the modes of correcting the

niocratic sidr, they will probably havc the power
of doinp^ much more mischicf, by selecting the
passagcs best suited to their hearers, and choosing
ihc momcnts when their oratory is likely to ha\f
the most cfTcTt, than if each individual in the parish
had beeil in a capacity to read and judge ofthe
wliole work himself ; and at the same time to read
and judp^' oF the opposing arguments, whicb we
may suppose would also reach him.

But in addition to this, a double weight voukl
nndoiibtedly Ik addcd to tlie Observation of Dr.
Smith, if thcse schools were made the means of
instnicting the people in the real nature of their
Situation ; if thcy were taught, wliat is really truc,
that wiiUout an increase of their own industn'and
priickiMc, no changc of goveninient eould essen-
tially l)Lttcr their condition ; that thoiigh thty
miujht i^'t rid of somc partienlar grievanee, yet
that in l!u' jri cat point of supporting their familK^
thcy woukl Ix; but little, or jxrrliaps not at all bc-
nefited ; that a revolution would not alter in thcff
favor the proportion of the supply of labor to th
dcmand, or the qnantity of fo(jd to the numbcfol
the coiisuniers ; and that, if llie supply of tibof
were greater tkui the demand, and the demand
for food i^ater tlian the supply, they might suf

Ch^. Flu. POPULATION. 417

prevailing opinions on population.

er Ae utmost severity of want, iinder thc freest,
be most perfect, and best executed govemment
hat the human ima^nation could conceive.

A knowledge of these truths so obviously tends
:o promote peace and quietness, to weaken the
!&ct of inflammatory writings, and to prevent all
mreasonable and ill-directed Opposition to the con-
stituted authorities, that those who would still ob-
ect to the Instruction of the people may fairly be
uispected of a wish to encourage their ignorance,
IS a pretext for tyranny, and an opportunity of in-
a^easing the power and the influenae of the execu-
dve govemment.

Besides explaining the real Situation of the low-*
T classes of socikty, as depending principally upon
diemselves for their happiness or misery ; the pa*
rochial schools would, by early Instruction and the
judicious distribution of rewards, have the £urest
iiance of tr^ing up the rising generation in ha-
)its of sobriety, industry, independence, and pru-
jence, and in a proper discharge of their religious
lutics ; which would raise them from their pre-
lent degraded state, and approximate them, in
Kxne degree, to the middle classes of society,
vol. ii. h h h

418 ESSAY ON . MookJO'.

Of the modes of correcting Uie

wfaose habits, gencrally speakiiig, are certainly su-
perior.

In most countries among the lowtr classes of
pcople, tliere appears to be something like a Stand-
ard of wretchediiess, a point below wtüch, ibey
will not continue to many and pit^xigate tlidr
species. This Standard is diflferent in diflfeitm
countries, and is formed by various concurring
circumstances of soil, climate, govemment, degrer
of knowledge, and civilization, &c. The princi-
pal circumstances which contribute to raise it are
überty, security of property, die spread of know-
ledge, and a taste for the conveniencies and thf
comforts of life. Those which contribute princi-
pally to lower it are despotism and ignorance.

In an attempt to better the condition of the low
er ckisses of society, our objcct shouid be to raii
this stamlard as high as possible, by cultivating
spirit of independcnce, a decent pride, and a tas'
for clcanüness and comfort, The effcct of a
govenimcnt in increasing the prudentiiil habi
and i)crsonal respectability of the lovvcr classes
society has already been insisted on ; but certainl ^
tliis effect will aluays be incompiete without ^
good System of education, and indced it may

Chap.VIIL POPULATION. 419

prevailing opinions on population.

MM»

Said that no govemment can approach to perfecti(Mi
that does not provide for the instniction of the peo-
ple. The benefits derived from ediication are
among diose which may be enjoyed withoiit re-
striction of numbers, and as it is in the power of
govemments to confer these benefits, it is un-
doubtedly their duty to do it.

CHAPTER IX.

Ofthe (Breciian qfaur eharity.

AN important and interesting inquiiy yet it-
mains, relating to the mode of dbrecting cmr pii
vate eharity, so as not to interfere with die grtai
object in view, of meliorating the condition of die
lower classes of people, by prevendng the popuh-
tion from pressing too hard agsunst the limits of
the means of subsistence.

The emotion which prompts us to relieve our
feflow-creatures in distress is, like all our otfier
natural passions, general, and in some degree ia-
discriminate and blind. Our feelings of compas*
sion may be worked up to a higher pitch by a
well-wrought scene in a play, or a fictitious tale in
a novel, than by almost any events in real life ; and
if, among ten petitioners we were to listen only to
the first Impulses of our feelings, without making
fiirther inquiries, we should undoubtedly g^ve our
assistance to the bestactor ofthe par^. It iaevi-

ESSAY ON, GPr. 421

Of the direction of our charity.

nt therefore, that the ihipulse of benevolence,
e the Impulses of love, of anger, of ambition,
j desire of eating and drinking, or any other of
r natural propensities, fnust be regulated by ex-
rience, and frequently brought to the test of uti-
r, or it will defeat its intended purpose.
The apparent object of the passion between the
ces is, the continuation of the species, and the
mation of such an intimate union of views and
erets between two persons, as will best pro-
bte their happiness, and at the same tiine secure
proper degree of attention to the helplessness
in&ncy and the education of the rising genera-
Q ; but if every man were to obey at all times
: Impulses of nature in the gratification of this
»ion, without regard to consequences, the prin-
tal part of these important objects would not be
lined, and even the continuation of the species
ght be defeated by a promiscuous intercourse.
rhe apparent end of the impulse of benevolence,
to draw the whole human race together, but
ire particularly that part of it which is of our
n nation and kindred, in the bonds of brotherly
e ; and by giving men an interest in the happi-
s and misery of their fellow creatures, to prompt

422 ESSAY ON Book IK

Of the directionof ourcharity.

them, as they have poi^ifcr, to mitigate the pardal
c^ils arising from general laws, and thus to in-
crease the sum of human happiness; but if oar
benevolence be indiscriminate, and the d^;Tce of
apparent distress be made the sole measure of our
liberality, it is evident that it will be exercised d-
most exclusivcly upon common beggars, whik
modest unobtrusive merit, struggling with una-
voidable difficulties, yet still maintaining aomc
slight appearanccs of decency and cleanlinesSt wiR
l^e totally ncglected. We shall raisc the wortb-
less above the worthy ; we shall encouragc indo-
lence and check industry ; and in the most mark-
cd manncr, subtract from the sum of human luip-
pincss.

Our cxi)cricucc has indccd infornicd us ihat
the impulst^ of benevolence is not so strong a^
tlie passion between the sexes, and ihat t^ncraHj
speaking, tlierc is much less danger to Ix* apprc
hendcd from the indulgcnce of the former th^"
of the latter ; but indepcndently of this experieiiC^-
and of the moral codes founded upon it, a yoU^*
of eighteen would Ije as completcly justified i**
jiidulf^ing the sexual passion with cvery ol^jc^^
capablc of exciting it, as in foliowing indLscrin^^

Viap, IX. POPULATION. 423

Of the direction of our charity.

ately every Impulse of his benevolence. Thcy
re both natural passions which are excited by
beir ^propriate objects, and to the gratification
f which, we are prompted by the pleasurable
ensations which accompany tliem. As animals,
r tili we know their consequences, our only bu-
iness is to foUow these dictates of nature ; but as
casonable beings, we are under the strongest ob-
igations to attend to their consequences ; and if
iiey be evil to ourselves or others, we may justly
oosider it as an indication that such a mode of
sdulging these passions is not suited to our State,
«• conformable to the will of God. As moral
gents therefore, it is clearly our duty to restrain
heir indulgence in these particular directions;
ind by thus carefuUy examining the consequences
rf our natural passions, and frequently bringing
hem to the test of utility, gradually to acquire a
labit of gratify ing them, only in that waj% which
3QDg unattended with evil, will clearly add to
^e sum of human happiness, and fulfil the appa*
^'ent purpose of tlie Creator.

Though Utility therefore can never be the im-
ßtediate excitcment to the gratification of any
pasäon, it is the test bv which alone we can

424 ESSAY ON JäookJV.

Of the direction of our charity.

know, whether it ought or ought not to be in-
dulged ; and is dierefore die surest foundatioQ d
all morality which can be collected from the light
of naturc. All die moral codes which have in«
culcated the subjection of the passions to reason,
have betn, as I conceive, really built upoD this
foundation, whether the promulgators of tbem
were aware of it or not.

I remind die reader of these truths^ in order to
apply them to the habitual direqtion of our cha-
rity ; and if we keep the criterion of Utility cqd-
standy in view, we may find ample room fiv tbe
exercise of our benevolence, without interfcring
with the p*eat purpose wlüch we have to accom-
plish.

Oiic of the most valuable parts of charity, i^
its effect upon the giver. It is morc blessed l«
fjive than to rccci\'c, Supposing it to be allowcd,
that the exercise of our benevolence in acts ol
charity is not, upon die whole, really beneficial to
the poor, yet we could never sanction any endc3-
vor to extinguish an Impulse, the proper gratifica-
tion of which has so evident a tendency to purify
and exalt the human mind. But it is particulariy
satisfactory and pleasing to find that tbe mode of

Chap.IX. POPULATIOM. 425

Of the direction of our charity.

exercising our charity, which when brought to the
lest of Utility, will appear to be most beneficial to
the poor, is preciseljr that which will have the
best and most improving effect on the mind of the
donor.

The quality of charity like that of mercy,

" Is not stnuned ;
" \k droppeth u the genile rain from hcavcn
'* Upon the eanh benesth."

The immense sums distributed to the poor in this
countiy, by the parochial laws, are improperly
called charity. They want its most distinguishing
attribute ; and as it mig^t be expected from an
attempt to force that which loses its essence the
moment that it ceases to be voluntaiy» their effects
upon those from whom they are collected are as
prejudicial as on those to whom they are distri«
buted. On the side of the receivers of this mis-
called charity, instead of real relief, we find accu-
mulated distress and more extended poverty ; on
the side of the givers, instead of pleasurable sensa*-
tions, unceasing discontent and irritation.

In the great charitable institutions supported
by voluntary contributions, some of which are cer-
tainly of a prejudicial tendency^the subscriptions,
I am inc;Uned to fear, are sometimes giveti grud^^

vol. U. 111

426 ESSAY ON Jiookir.

or the direction of our charity.

ingly, and rather because they are expected by the
World from certain stations and cerUun fortuoes,
thaa because they are prompted by motives of
genuine benevolence ; and as the greater pait of
the subscribers do not interest themselves in tbc
management of the funds, or in the fate of the par*
ticular objects relieved, it is not to be expected that

this kind of charity should have any strikingly be-
neficial influence on the minds of the majority who
exercise it.

Even in the relief of common beggars, we shall
find that we are often as much influenced by the
desire of getting rid of the importunities of a dis-
gustin^ object, as by the pleasure of relieving it
Wc wish that it had not fallen in our way, rather
than rejoice in the opportunity given usof assistii^
a fellow-crcature. We feel a painful emotion at
the sight of so much apparent miser}' ; but the
pittance we givc does not relieve it. We know
that it is totally inadc<iuate to producc any essen-
tial effect. We know besidcs, that we shall bc
addressed in the same manner at the corner of the
next Street ; and we know that we are liable to
the grossest impositions. We hurry therefore
sometimes by them, and shut our ears to their im-
portunate demands. Wc give no more tluui wt

%ö/. IX. POPULATION. 427

Of the direction of our charity«

in help giving without doing actual violence to

jr feelings. Our charity is in some degree for-
■d, and like forced charity, it Icaves no satisfacto-
r Impression on the mind, and cannot therefore
äivc any very beneBcial and improving effcct on
le heart änd affections.

But it is far otherwise with that volimtarj' and
::tive charity, which makes itself acquainted with
le objects which it relieves ; which scems to feei,
id to be proud of the bond that unitcs the rieh
ith the poor ; which enters into their houses,
ifotTOS itself not only of their walits, but of their
ibits and dispositions ; checks the hopes of cla-
lorous and obtrusive poverty, with no other re-
jinmendation but rags ; and encourages with ade-
uate relief the silent and retiring süflferer, labor-
ig under unmerited difficulties. This mode of
cercising our charity presents a very dlffcrcnt
icture from that of any other ; and its contrast
ith the common mode of parish relief cannot be
etter described than in the words of Mr. Towns-
[jd, in the conclusion of his admirable disscrtation
n the Poor Laws. " Nothing in natiire can be
^more disgusting than a parish pay-table, attend-
^ ant upon which in the same objects of miserj\
* are too often found combincd, snuff, gin, rags.

428 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Of the direction of our charitjr«

vamin, insolence, and abusive laAguage ; nor in
nature can any thing be more beautUbl than
^* the mild complacency of benevolence haslening
'* to the humble cottage to relieve the wants of in-
** dustry and virtue, to feed the hungry, to clotbe
*^ the naked, and to soothe the sorrows of the wi«
^* dow with her tender orplians ; nothing can be
more pleasing, unless it be their sparkling eyes,
their bursting tears, and their uplifted hands, the
<< ardess expressions of unfeigned gratitude for un-
*^ expected bvcurs. Such scenes will frequendy
^' occur whenever men shall have power to dispose
" of their own proper^^'*

I conceive it to be almost impossibk that anr
person could be much engagcd in such scenes
without daily making advances in virtue. Noex-
ercise of our aflfections can have a more evident
tendency to purify and exalt the human mind. I^
is almost exclusively this species of charity that
blesseth him that gives ; and, in a general view,
it is almost exclusively this species of charity which
blesseth him that takes ; at least it may be asscrt-
ed, that there is hardly any other mode of exercis-
ing our charity, in which large sums can be distri-
buted, without a greatcr chance of producing cvil
than good.

Vup. IX. POPUI.ATION. 490

Of the direction of our charity.

The discretionary power of giving or withhold-
ng relief, which is, to a certain extent, vested in
Knish officers and justices, >s of a very different
ature, and will have a very different effect, from
lie discrimination which may be exercised by vo-
mtary charity. Every man in this countr) , under
lert^ circumstances, is entitled by la^v to parish
ssistance ; and unless his disquaülication be clearly
jroved, has a right to complain if it be withheld«
rhe inquiries necessary to settle this point, and
he extent of the relief to be granted, too often
yroduce evasion and lying on the part of the peti-
ioner, and afford an opening to partiality and op-
)ression in the oversecr. If the proposed relief be
jiven, it is of course received with unthankfulness ;
ind if it be denied, the party generally thinks him-
jelf severely aggrieved, and feels resentment and
Indignation at his treatment.

In the distribution of voluntary charit}', nothing
>f this kind can take place. The person who re-
;:eives it is made tlie proper subject of the plea-
surable Sensation of gratitude ; and those who do
QOt receive it cannot possibly conceive themselves
in the slightest degrce injured. Every man has a
right to do what he will with his own, and cannot,

430 £SSAY OK BooklF.

Of thedirection of our charitjr*

in justice bc callcd upon to rendcr a reason why
he gives in the one case and abstains firom it in tbc
other. This kind of despotic power, essential to
voluntaiy charity, gives the greatest facility to thc
selection of worthy objects of relief, without bemg
accompanied by any ill consequences ; and has
further a most beneiicial eflfect from the degrce of
uncertainty which must necessarily be attached to
it. It is in the highest degree important to tbc
gcneral happiness of the poor, that no man should
look to charity as a fund on which he may confi-
dently de])end. He should be taught that hb own
exertions, his own industry i^nd foresi^t, wert
his oiily just ground of dc*i)cndc nee ; that if thfsr
failcd, assistance in his distrcbscs could onlv bc
thc subjcct of rational ho|)c, and that even thc
foundation of this hope must bc in his own gtxxl
conduct, and thc consciousncss tliat hc had not
involvcd himsclf in these difficultics by his indo-
Icnce or imprudcncc.

'i'liat in thc distril)Ution of our charity, wc are
undcr a strong moral Obligation to inculcatc thb
Icsson on thc poor by a proper discriiniiiation, \s a
truth of which I cannot fcd a doubt. If all coukl
bc complctcly relicvcd, andpovcrty Ixinishcd from
thc country, even at thc cxi)ensc of threc-fourtli^

Cbap. IX. POPULATION. 431

Of tbe direction of our charity.

of ihe fortunes of the rieh, I would be the labt to
say a single syllable against relieving all, aiid mak-
ing the degree of distress alofie the measure of our
bounty. But as experience has proved, I believe
without a Single exception, that poverty and mi-
seiy have always increased in proportion to the
quantity of indiscriminate charity, are we not
bound to infer, reasoning as we usually do from
thelaws of nature, that it is an intimation that
such a mode of distribution is not the proper office
of benevolence ?

The laws of nature say, with St. Paul, " If u
^* man will not work, neither shall he eat." They
^so say, that he is not rashly to tnist to Provi-
^ence. They appear indeed to be constant and
%uifonn for the express purpose of telling him
^^hat he is to trust to, and that if he ^la^y with-
out being able to support a family, he must ex-
pea severe ^rant. These intimations appear from
^ Constitution of human nature to be absolute! v
^ttessary, and to have a strikingly beneficial ten-
^cncy. If in the direction either of our public or
^Hir private charity we say, that though a man will
not work, yet he shall eat ; and though he many
witbout being able to support a family, yet his
£tmily shall be supported ; it is evident that w e do

452 ESSAY ON BookIF.

Of the direction of our charity*

xnoi mcrely endeavor to mitigate the partial cvik
ansing from general laws, but regularly and s}*s.
texnatxcaily to counteract the obviously beneficial
c&cts of ibese general laws themselves. And wc
cumoc eoiJly conceive that the Deity should im-
fkwi any passion in the human breast for such a
puipose.

In the great course of human events, the best-
foundedexpectations will sometimes be disappoint-
cd ; and industry, prudence, and virtue, not only
fall of their just reward, but be involved in un-
merited calamities* These who are thus suffering
in spitc of the best-directed endcavors to avoiJ it,
and iVom c:uises which they could not be expected
to foresce, are the genuine objccts of charity. In
relieving ihcse ^e cxercise the appropriate offic«
of iKMievolencc, that of mitigating the partial evils
arising from general laws ; and in this direction of
our cliarit}' thereforc, we need not apprehendany
ill conseijuences. Such objects ought to bc rc-
lievcd, according to our means, liberally an 1 ade-
quatcly, even though the worthless were staning»

\\'hcn indet* d this first claim on our bencfo-

Icnce was satisfied, we might then tum our attcn-

\o the idle and improvident ; but the inttres^

in happiness most cieariy require that tk

hap, IX. POPULATION. 43S

Of the direction of our charity«

lief which we afford them should be scanty, Wc
ay perfaaps take upon ourselves, with great cau-
\ny to raitigate the punishments which they are
&ring from the laws of naturey but on no ao
unt to remove them entirely. They are de-
rvedly at the bottom in the scale of society ; and
we raise them from this Situation, we not c»ily
Ipably defeat the end of benevolence, but com«'
tt a most glaring injustice to those who are
ove them. They should on no account be ena-
lü to command so much of the necessaries of
ly as can be obtained by the worst-paid common
XM". The brownest bread, with the coarsest and
mtiest apparel, is the utmost which they sliouid
ve. the means of purchasing.
It is evident that these reasonings do not apply
those cases of urgent distress arising from dis-
3x>us accidents, uncoimected with habits of in«
»knce and improvidence. If a man break a leg
an arm, we are not to stop to inquire into his
3ral character before we lend him our assistance ;
it in this case we are perfectly consistent, and
e touchstone of utilitj'^ completely justifies our
nduct. By afibrding the most indiscriminate
sistance in this way, we are in litde danger of
/. ii. k k k

434 ESSAY ON, i^c.

Of the direction of our charity.

encouraging people to break their arms and leg&
According to the touchstone of utility, the high
approbation which Christ gave to the conduct of
Ihe good Samaritan, who foUowed the munedkle
Impulse of his benevolence in relieving a stranger
m the urgent distress of an accident, does not, in iht
smallest degree, contradict the expression of St
Paul, ^^ If a man will not work, neither shall hr
" eat"

We are not however, in any case, to lose a pc»
sent opportunity of doing good, from the mcre
supposition that we may possibly meet with a nw-
tlüer object In all doubtful cases, it may safi^
be laid down as our duty to follow the natural im-
pulse of our benevolence ; but when in fulfiUii^
our Obligation as resonable beings to attend to the
consequcnces of our actions, we have, from our
own experience and that of others, drawn the ooo-
clusion, that the exercise of our benevcdence JB
one mode is prejudicial, and in another is benefi*
cial, in its effects, we are certainly bound, as moral
agents, to check our natural propensities in the one
direction, and to encourage them and acquire tbe
Habits of exercising them, in the other.

CHAPTER X.

Öifferent plans of impraving thc condxtion qf the

Poor considered.

IN the distribution of our charlty , or in any
^orts which we may make to better the condition
>f the Iower classes of society, there is another
»oint relating to the main argument of this work,
o which we must be particularly attentive. We
nust on no account do any thing which tends di-
ectly to encourage marriage, or to remove, in any
egular and systematic manner, that inequality of
nrcumstances which ought always to ex ist between
hc Single man and the man with a family* The
HVTiters who have best understood the principle of
Population appear to me all to have fallen into very
importanterrors on thia point,

Sir James Steuart, who is fully aware of what he
cadUs vicious procreation, and of the misery that
ittends a redundant population, recommends, not-
nrithstandingy the general establishment of found-
ing hospitals ; the taking of children under certain

436 ESSAY ON Book llT.

DifTerent plans of improving the

circumstances, from their parentSy and supportiii^
them at the expense of the State ; and paiticulariy
laments the inequality of condition between the
tnarried and Single nian, so ill-proportioiied td
their respective wants. ^ He forgets, in tiiese in-
stances> that if^ without the encouragement to mul*
tiplication, of foundling hospitals, or of public sup^
port for the children of some married persons, md
Under the discouragement of great pecuniaiy dis»
advantages on the side of the married man, popub»
tion be still redundant, which is e%*inced by tbe
inabilitjr 6f the pobr to maintain all their ch3ditii|
it is a clear proof that the funds destii^ fcr dK
maintenancc of lubor cannot properly support a
greater population ; and that if further encouragc-
ments to multiplication be given and discouragc-
ments removed, the result must be, an increase
somewhere or other of that vicious procreation
which he so justly reprobates.

Mr. Townsendy who in his dtssertatibn on the
Poor Laws, has treated this subject with great
skiU and perspicuity, appears to me to condude
with a proposal which violates the principles on

^ PoUtical Economf ^ vol. i. b. u c<

C3Ä^. JL POPULATION. 43?

condition of the poor considered*

t . ■ ■ ^^

which he had reasoned so weih He wishes to
make the benefit clubs, or fricndly societies, which
aie now voluntarily establishcd in many parishes,
compulscMry and universal ; and proposes as a re-
gulatioD that an unmarried man should pay a fourth
part of his wages, and a married man with four chil-
dren, not more than a thirtieth part. '

I must first remarky that the moment these sub>
scriptions are made compulsoryy they will neces-
sarily operaic exactly like a direct tax upon labor,
which as Dr. Smith justly states, will always be
paid, and in a more expensive manner, b}' the
coosumer. The landed interest therefore, would
reoeive no relief from this plan, but would pay
äie same sum as at present, only in the advanced
price of labor and of commodities, instead of in
the parish rates. A compulsory subscription of
düs kind would have almost all the ill effecls oi*
die present System of relief, and though altered in
name would still possess the essential spirit of the
poor laws.

Dean Tucker, in some remarks on a plan of the
aame kind, proposed by Mr. Pew, observed, that

^Dissertation on the Poor Laws, p. 89« 2d. edit. 1787.

438 ESSAY ON Book IT.

Different plans of improving the

after much talk and rcflection on the subject, bt
had come to the conclusion, that they must bc
voluntary associations, and not compukoiy as-
semblies. A voluntary subscripiion is like a tax
upon a luxury, and does not necessarily raiae Ae
price of labor.
' It should be recoliected also, that in a voloa*
tar}' association of a small extcnt, over whkh cadi
individual member can exercise a superintendanoc«
it is highly probable that the original agiecuicn»
will all be strictly fulfiUed, or if they be iif)l, vtfXf
man may at least havc the redress of withdrawin^
himself from the club. But in an universal oom«'-^
pulsory subscription, which niust ncccbbarily bc
come a national couccrn, thcrc >\ould bc no stcu
rity whatcver lor the fulfilmcnt of the origiiu^v
agreements ; and whcn the funds faikd, whk^V
they certainly would do, whcn all ihe idlc anc:^
dissolute were includcd, inbtcad of some of tb«^
most industrious and providtnt, as at prcsent, d
larger subscription would probably be dcmandcd,
and no nian would liave the right to rcfuse il.
The cvil would thus go on increasing as the poor
ratesdo now. If indccd the assistance givcn werc
always specific, and on noaccount to Ix: incrcascd.

Chap. X POPULATION. 43Ö

condition of the poor considered.

as in the present voluntary associations, this would
certainly be a striking advantage ; but the same
advantage might be completely attained by a si-
miiar distribution of the sums coUected by the
paiish rates« On the whole therefore, it appears
to me that if the fnendly societies were made uni-
versal and compulsory, it would be mcrely a dif-
farent mode of collecting parish rates ; and aiiy
particular mode of distribution might be as well
adopted upon one System as upon the odier.

With regard to the proposal of making singlc

nicn pay a fourth part of their eamings weekly,

^nd married men with families only a thirtieth

pari, it would evidentiy operate as a heavy fine

upon bachelorsy and a high bounty upon children ;

and is therefore directly adverse to the general

spirit in which Mr. Townsend's exccllent disser-

tUaoQ is written. Beforc he introduccs this pro-

fOaal, he lays it down as a general principle, that

ao qrstem for the relief of the poor can be good

wlücb does not regiilale population by the de*

nand for labor ; ' but this proposal clearly tends

to encourage population without any reference to

1 Page 84.

442 ESSAY ON Book IV,

DifTerent plans of improving the

" finitely more flourishing, if she had five or six
'* millions less of inhabitants. From her too great
" population she presents in every quarter, such
" spectacles of wretchedness as are absolutely in-
'* consistent with that degree of national felicit)
" which she was capable of attaining, evcn under
** die old govemment A traveller much Icss at-
'^ tentive dian I was to objects of diis kind, must
^^ see at every turn most unequivocal signs of di9-
'^ tress* That diese should exist, no one can
'^ wonder, who considers the price of labor and of
'^ provisions, and the misery into which a small
*^ rise in the price of wheat throws the lowcr
" classes."*

" If you would see," he says, " a district wiüi
" ab little distress in it as is consistent with tht*
*' political System of the old govcmmcnt of France,
** you must assuredly go whcrc there arc no littlc
** propcrtics at all. You must visit the great
** farms in Beauce, Picardy, part of Normandy,
*' and Artois, and there you will find no more ix>
" pulation than what is regularly cmployed and
** regularly paid ; iuid if in such districts you

^ Travels m Francr, vol. i. r. xvii. p. 169.

\üp. X. POPULATION- 445

condition of the poor considered«

— — *•

diould, contrary to tliis rule, meet with much
listress, it is twenty to one but that it is in a
3arish which has some commons, which tempt
he poor to have cattle — ^to have property —
md in consequence misery. When you are
mgaged in this political tour, finish it by seeing
England, and I will show you a set of peasants
well clothed, well nourished, tolerably drunken
5rom superfluity, well lodged, and at their eas>e ;
uid yet amongst them, not one in a thousand has
^ither land or cattleJ'' A little further on, al-
fing to encouragements to marriage, he says
France ; " the predominant evil of the kingdom
is the having so great a population, that she can
neither employ nor feed it ; why then encou-
R^ marriage ? would you breed more people
because you have more already than you know
what to do with ? You have so great a compe-
tition for food, that your people are starving or
in misery ; and you would encourage the pro-
duction of more to increase that competition.
It may almost be questioned whether the con-
trary policy ought not to be embraced ; whether

Id.pa^e 471»

444 ESSAY OK Uook IfT.

Dißerent plans of improving the

" difficulties should not be laid on the marriage
of thosc who cannot makc it appear tliat thc)
have thc prospect of maintaining the chUdren
" that shall be the fruit of it ? But why encounige
*' marriages which arc sure to take place in all situ-
ations in which thcy ought to take place ? ITieic
is no instance to be found of pl^nty of regulär
employment being first cstablished where mar-
riages have not foUowcd in a proportionate de-
" gree. The policy therefore, at best, is usdess.
" and may be pemicious/'

After having once so clearly understoojd Ac

principle of popuIation as to express these and

many other sentiments on the subjcct, equally just

and important, it \^ not a littlc siirprisinp^ to find

Mr. Young in a pamphlct, cntitlcd, TV/r Question

of Scarcity plainly stated^ nnd Ifemedies considered^

[publlshed in 1800,) obscrving, that "thcmcans

' which would of all others perliaps tcnd roosl

' surcly to prcvent futurc scarcitics so opprcssive

' to tlie poor as thc prcsent, would be to securc to

' cvery country laI>orer in the kingdon^, that has

^ thrcc childrcn and upwards, half an acrc of laiid

* for potatocs, and cjass c'nr)\i}rh to frrd oiu* of

fu^. X POPULATION. 445

coDdition of the poor considered*

two cows. ' * * * * If each had his ample po-
tatoe ground and a cow, the price of wheat
would be of litde more conseqiience to them,
tban it is to their brethren in Ireland."
" Every one admits the System to be good, but
the question is how to enforce W^
I was by no means aware, that the exccllence of
e System had been so generally admitted. For
yself I strongly protest against being included in
e general term of every one^ as I should cohsider
e adoption of this System, as the most cruel and
tal blow to the happiness of the lower classes
people in this country, that they had ever re-
ived.

Mr. Young however goes on to say, that " The
magnitude of the object should make us disre-
gard any difficulties but such as are insuperable :
none such would probably occur if soniething
like the following means were resorted to.
" I. Whene there are common pastures, to give
\b a laboring man having children, a

light to demand an allotment proportioned to tlie
&mily, to be set out by the parish officers, &c.

i Pag« rr.

446 £äSAY ON ßookiy.

1 i L

DifTerent plans of improTing the

" * * * and a cow bought. Such laborcr to han-
^^ both for life, paying 40s. a year tili the pribe of
^^ the cow, &c. was reimbursed : at his death to gn
^^ to the laborer having the most numerous famfly,
^' for life, paying Shillings a week to du

widow of his predecessor.

IL Laborers thus demanding allotments b}

reason of their families to have land assigned and
" cows bou^t, tili the proportion so aDotted
'^ amounts to one of the extent of tbr

" common.

IIL In parishes where there are no commons,
and the quality of the land adequate, eveiy cot-
" tager having children, to whose cot-

*' tage therc is not within a given time land suf-
" ficicnt for a cow, and half an acre of potatocs.
" assigned at a fair averagc rcnt, subjcct to appcal
" to the scssions, to have a right to demand
** Shillings per weck of the parish for

" cvery child, tili such land be assigned ; leaviiig
" to landlords and tenants the mcans of dobigit
" Cows to bc found by the parish, under an anmial
•' rcimburscment."

^ Pajc 78.

Chap. X, POPULATION. 447

condition of the poor considered*

" The great object is, by means of milk and
" potatoesy to take the mass of the country poor
^^ from the consumption of wheat, and to give
'^ them Substitutes equally wholesome and nourish-
" ing, and as independent of scarcities, natural and
" artificial, as the providence of the Almighty
" willadmifi

Would not this plan operate in the most direct
manneTy as an encouragement to marriage and
bounty on children, which Mr. Young has with so
nuich justice reprobated in his travels in France ?
and does he seriously think that it would be an eli-
g;ible thing to feed the mass of the people in this
country on milk and potatoes, and make them as
independent of the price of corn, and of the demand
R»* labor, as their brethren in Ireland ?

Tbe specific cause of the poverty and miseiy
of tfae loiver classes of people in France and Ireland
Sj tfaat fix)m the extreme subdivision of property
ia the one country, and ^the facility of obtaining a
cabin and potatoes in the other, a population is
bcought into existence, which is not demanded by
the quantit}' of capital and employment in the

1 Page 79.

448 ESSAY ÖN Book IT.

Different plans of improiring the

coiintry; and thc conscquence of which must
therefore necessarily be, as is vciy jusdy expits-
sed in the report of die committee of mendicitj be-
fore mentioned, to lower in generai the pricc of
labor by too great competition ; firom which mast
result complete indigence to those who cannot find
employment, and an inconipletc subsistence even
to those who can.

The obvious tendency of Mr. Young^s plan is,
by encouraging marriage and furnishing a cheap
food» independcnt of the price of com, and of
course of thc demand for labor, to place the loircr
classes of people exactly in this Situation.

It may i>erliaps be said, that our poor lan-s at
prcsent regularly cncourage marriage and children,
by distributing relief in proportion to the size of
families ; and that this plan, which is proposed as
a suixstitute, would merely do the same thingina
Icss oiycctionable manner. But surely, in endea-
voring to gct rid of the evil of the poor laws, ire
ought not to retiiin their most pemicious quality:
and Mr. Young must know as well as I do, that
the principal reason why poor laws have invanablr
been found ineffectual in the relief of the poor is
that thcy tend to encourage a population which is

C^ X. POPULATION. 449

aas

condition of the poor conaidered*

•vf

not regulated by the deauuid for labon Mr. Young
himself, indeed, expressly takes notice of this effcct
Hl England, and observe9^ tfaat notwithstanding
die luirivalled prosperity of her manu&ctures, '* po-
** pulation is sometimes too active, as we see clear-
* ly by the dangerous incre^se of poor's rates in
^* country viUages." "

But the fact is, that Mr> Young*s plan would
be incomparably more powerful in encouraging
I pc^ulation beyond die demand fbr labor, than
jisT present poor laws. A laudable repugnance
70 tiic receiving of parish relief, arising partly
Srom a spirit of independence not yet extinct, and
»rtly from the disagreeable mode in which the
dief b given, undoubtedJy deters many from mar-
yii^ with a certainty of falling on the parish ; and
he Proportion of births and marriages to the whole
)opuIation, which has before been noticed, clearly
nroves that the poor laws do not encourage mar-
iage so much as might be expected from theory.
Jut the case would be very diflferent if, when a

» Travels in France, voL i. c. xvii, p. 470.

)oL ü. m m m

450 KSSAY ON Book IF.

Different plans of improving tlie

laborer had an early marriage in contemplalioo,
thc terriiic forms of workhouses and parish oflicen
which might disturb his resolution, were to be
exchanged for the fascinating visions of land and
Gows. If the love of property, as Mr. Young las
repeatedly said, will make a man do much» it would
be ratber stränge if it would not make him manjr,
an action to which it appears from experienoe,
that he is by no means dbinclined.

The population which would be thus called intD
being, would be supported by the extended culti'
vation of potatoes, and would of courae go oi^
without any reference to the demand forlabor^i«^
In the present State of things, notwithstanding thc?*
flourishing condition of our manufactures, and tlK' ""
numcrous checks to our population, thcrc is ncss
practical problem so dif&cult iis to find cmploy —
ment for the poor ; but this difficulty would cvi-
dently bc aggravated a hundred fold, undcr thc '
circumstances here supposcd.

In Irckind, or in any other countr)', where thc
common food is potatoes, and cvcry man who
wishes to marry may obtain a piece of ground
sufficient when plantcd with this root, to support

Iiap, X. POPULATION. 451

condition of the poor considered.

£unily, prizes may be ^ven tili the treasury is
Jiausted for essays on the best means of employ-
g the poor ; but tili some stop to the progress of
pulation naturally arising from this State of things
Ices place, the object in view is really a physical
ipossibility« '

Mn Young has intimated, that if the people
^re fed upon milk and potatoes, they would be
3re independent of scarcities than at present ;
t why this shoald be the case I really cannot
mprehend. Undoubtedly people who live upon
tatoes will not be much afiected by a scarcit}^ of
leat ; but is there any contradiction in the sup-
sition of a failure in the crops of potatoes? I
lieve it is generally understood that they are
>re liable to suffer damage during the winter

Dr« Crumpe's prize essay on the best means of find-
employment for the people, is an excellent treatisCf
contains much valuable informatton \ but tili the ca*

1 of the country is better proportioned to its popula-
, it is perfectly chimerical to cxpect success in any
icct of the kind. I am also strongly disposed to be*

2 that the indolent and turbulent habits of the lower
li can never be corrected, while the potatoe system
>les them to increase so much beyend the regulär de-
kd for labor.

45« ESSAY ON Book IF.

Diflerent plans of improving tlie

tiian grain. From the much greater qiumtitj of
food yielded by a given piece of land, whcn phnt-
ed with potatoes, than under any other kind of
cultivation, it would naturally happen, that fbr
Mme time after the introduction of this root »
the general food of the lower classes of people, a
greater quantity would be grown than w&sde-
manded, and they would live in plenty. Mr.
Young, in his travels through France, obaerves.
that, ^^ In districts which fcontain immense quan-
tities of waste land of a certain degree of fetti-
lity, as in the roots of the Pjrreneea, belongin^
to communities ready to seil them, economy
industry, animated with the vicws of settlin
and marrying, flourish greatly ; in such neigh^ — ■
lx>rhood9 something like an American incrtas^
takes place, and if the bind be cheap little dis--
tress is found. But as procreation goes on rapid---
ly undcr such circumstances, the least check xo
subsistence is attended with great misery : as
wastes becoming dearcr, or the best portions
l>cing sold, or difficulties arising in the acquisi-
tion ; all which circumstanccs I met with in
those mountains. The moment that anv im«

Viap, X. POPULATION. 453

cmidition of the poor considercd.

pediment happens the distress of such people

will be propOTtioned to the activity and vigor

which had animated population.'' *

This description will apply exactly to what

rould take place in this countiy, on the distribu-

on of smaU portions of land to the common peo-

le» and the introductionof potatoes as their gene-

i food. For a time the change mi^ht appear

cneficial, and of course the idea of property would

lake it, at first, highly acceptable to the poor ;

iit as Mr. Young in another place says, " You

jM^sently arrive at the limit beyond which» the

earth, culüvate it as you please, will feed no more

mouths ; yet those ^mple manners which insti-

gate to marriage still continue ; what then is the

coDsequence but the most dreadful misery ima-

ginable.'^*

When the commons Avere all divided and diffi-
uhies began to occur in procuring potatoe grounds
le habit of early marriages which had been intro-
aced, would occasion the most complicated dis-
"ess ; and when from the increasing population,

* Travels in France, vol. i. c« xvii. p. 409,

* Ibid.

454 ESSAY ON BookIF.

DifTerent plans of improving the

and diminishiiig sources of subsistcnce, the avcr-
age growth of potatocs w'as not morc than the aver*
age consumptioii, a scarcity of potatocs would be,
in every respect, as probable as a scarcit}' of wbeat
at present, and when it did arrive, it would be be-
yond all comparison more dreadfuK

Whcn the common people of a country liw

principally upon the dearest grain, as they do m

England on wheat, they have great resources int

scarcity ; and barley, oats, rice, ches^ soups, and

potatocs, all present thcmselves as less cxpensht,

yet at the same time wholesome means of nourish-

ment ; but when thcir habitual food is the loirot

in this Scale, ihcy appear to hc absolutcly withuut

resourcc, cxccpt in the l)ark of trccs, like tlicpoor

Swcdcs ; and a grcat iK)rtion of thcm miist ncces-

sarily be starvcd. W'^licatcn brcad, roast bcef, aiid

turbot, which might not fall at the same tlmc, arc

indecd in thcmselves unexccptionablc Substitute*

für potatocs, and would probably bc acccpted a^

such without murmuring by the common people ;

hut die misfortune is, that a largc population which

had Ix^en habitually supportcd b} milk and {X)-

tatoes, would fmd it difficult to obtain thcsc sul)-

stitutes in sufficicnt quantitits, cvcn if the wholc

Chap. X. POPULATION. 455

condition of the poor considered.

benevolence of the kingdom were called into actioii
fcMT the purpose.

The wages of labor will always be regulated by
the Proportion of the supply to the demand. And
as, upon the potatoe system, a supply more than
adequate to the demand would very soon take
place, and this supply might be continued at a ver)-^
cheap rate, on account of the cheapness of the food
which would fumish it, the common price of la-
bor wöuld soon be regulated principally by the
price of potatoes instead of the price of wheat, as
at present; and the rags and wretched cabins of
Irdand would foUow of course.

When the demand for labor occasionally cx-
ceeds the supply, and wages are regulated by the
price of the dearest grain, they will generally be
such as to yield something besides mere food, and
the common people may be able to cbtain decent
houses and decefit clotliing. If the contrast be-
tween the State of the French and English labor-
ere which Mr, Young has drawn, be in any degree
near the truth, the advantage on the side of Eng-
hnd has been occasioned precisely and exclusively
by these tni'o circumsta^ces ; and if by the adop-

456 ESSAY ON Book IV.

DifTerent plans of improTing the

tiou of milk and potatoes as the general food of the
common people, these circumstances ^vere tot^Oy
altered, so as to make the supply of labor constant-
]y in a great excess abpve the demand for it, and
regulate wages by tlie price of the cheapest food,
the advantage would be immediately lost, and no
efibrts of benevolence could prevent the most ge-
neral and abject poverty.

Upon the same principle it would by no meuB
be eligible that tlie cheap soups of count Rum-
ford should be adopted as the genenü food of the
common people. Thcy are excellent inventioos
for public institutions, and as occasional resources;
but if they were once universally adopted by the
poor, it would be impossible to prevent the pria
of labor from Ixring regulatcd by them ; and the
laborcr, though at first he niight have more ti
spare for othcr expenses, besides food, would ul-
timately have much less to spare than befbre.

The desirable thing» with a view to the h .pp-
ness of the common people, seems to be that thcir
habitual food should be dear, and their wages re-
gulated by it ; but that in a scarcit}% or other oc-
casional distress» the cheaper food should be itadiK

Owp. X. POPULATION. 457

condition of the poor considered*

i>i ^

and chcerfuUy adopted.' Witli a view of rendering
this transition easier, and at the same time of
making a uscful distinction between those who
are dependent on parish relief, and those who are
not, I should think that one plan which Mr.
Young psoposes would be extremely eligible.
This is " to pass an act prohibiting relief, so far
" as subsistence is concemed, in any otlier man-
" ner than by potatoes, rice, and soup, not merely
" as a measure of the moment, but permanent-
" ly."* I do not think that this plan would ne-
cessarily introduce these articles as the common
food of the lower classes ; and if it mercly madc
the. transition to them in periods of distress easier,
and at the same time, drew a more marked line
than at present, between dependence and inde-
pendence, it would have a very beneficial cffect.

■ It 18 certainly to bc "wished that cvcry cottage in Eng-
land should have a garden to it, well stocked with Tege-
t&blea. A little variety of food is in every point of view
higbly useful. Potatoes are undoubtedly a most valuable
«ssistance» though I should be very torry erer to see them
the principal dependence of our laborers.

' Question of Scarcity, &c. p. 80. This mtght be done,
at least with regard to workhouses. In assisting the poor
«t their own homei» it might be sobject to some practica!
difficulties.

voA iL n n n

458 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Diflfercnt plans of impi'ovin«; thc

As it is ackiiowlcdged that Xht introduction of
milk and potatocs, or of cheap soups, as the gene-
ral food of the lower classes of pcople^ would low-
er the price of labor, perhaps some cold politician
might propose to adopt the System, witli a view of
underselling foreigners in the markets of Europa
I should not envy the fcelings which could sug-
gest such a proposal« I really cannot conccivc
any thing much more dctestable, than the idea of
knowingly condemning thc laborers of tliis comi-
try to the rags and wretched cabins of Irelandt fo
tlie purpose of selling a few more broad dodtt
and caücocs« ' The wealth and power of ntiooft

' In this Observation I havc not thc Icast idca of alludin;
to Mr. Yoiinjf, who, I firmly bclicvc, ardently wishes tt
nicliorale the condition of thc lowcr classes of pcople^
though 1 do not think that his plan would cffcct thc ob-
jcct in vicw. Hc either did not sce thosc conscqucnccs
which I apprchend from it ; or hc has a bcttcr opiDion oC
the happincss of thc common peoplc in Ircland than I
havc. In his Irish tour hc sccmedmuch Struck with thc
plenty of potatoes which they possessed, and thc abacncc
of all apprehension of want. Had hc travclled io I80C
and 1801, his impretsions would by all accounts havc
been very different. From the facilily which has hithcrto
prcvaiied in Ircland of procuring potatoc groundst »car-
citirs havc certainly beeo rare, aod all the cffects of dre

Chap, X. POPULATION. 459

condition of the poor considered«

are, after all, only desirable as they contribute to
happiness. In this point of view, I should be
veiy far from undervaluing them, considering
them, in general, as absolutely necessary means
to att^ the end ; but if any particular case should

System have not yet been feit, though certainly enough
to make it appear very far from desirable«

Mr. Young has since pursued bis idea more in detail,
in a pampblet entitled. An Inqtäry into the Profiriety of
opftlying WoMteB to the bettet Maintenance and Sufifiort of
tkt Foor» But the impression on my mind is still the
aame ; and it appears to me calculated to assimilate the
condition of the laborers of this country to that of the lower
clastes of the Irish» Mr* Youtig seems, in a most unac«
conntable manner, to have forgotten all bis general prin-
ciples on this subject. He has treated the question of a
Provision for the poor, as if it was merely, How to pro-
Tide in the cheapest and best manner for a givcn number
of people ? If this had been the sole question, it would
ncTcr have taken so many hundred years to resolve. But
the real question is, Hpw to provide for those who are in
want, in such a manner, as to prevent a conti nual accii-
molation of their numbers ? and it yi\\\ readily occur to
the reader, that a plan of giving them land and cows can-
notpromise much success in this respect. If, aftcr all the
itomroons had been dividcd, the poor laws were still to con*
tinue in force, no good reason can be assigned vhy the
rates should not in a few years be as high as they are at
present, independently of all that had been expeo{|csl in
ihe purchase of l^d and stpcl^.

460 ESSAY ON, &?r.

DiflTerent platis of improving thc» ö'r.

occur, in which they appearcd to be in dircct op*
Position to each other, we cannot rationally doubt
which ought to be po§tponed.

Fortunately however, even on the narrowest po-
litical principlesy the adoption of such a system
would not answen It has always been observcd»
that those who work chiefly on their own proper^»
work very indolently and unwillingly when cm*
ployed for others ; and it must necessarily happcDi
when, from the general adoption of a very cbop
food, the population of a country increases coctt*
derably beyond the demand for labor, that habils
of idleness and turbulence will be generated, wot
peculiarly unfavorable to a flourishing State of im-
nufactures. In spite of the cheapness of labor in
Ireland, thcre are few manufacturcs which can bc
prepared in that country for forcign salc so chcap
as in England : and this is in great measure owing
to the want of tliosc industrious habits which can
only be produced by regulär employment.

CHAPTER XI.

thc necessity qf general principles on this sub-

ject.

IT has beenobserved by Hume, thatof all
ces, there is none where first appearances arc

deceitful than in politics. ' The remark is
ubtedly very just, and is most peculiarly ap-
ble to that department of the science which
rs to the modes of improving the condition of
>wer classes of society.
e are continually hearing declamations against
y and theorists, by men who pride themselves

the distinction of being practieal, It must
knowledged that bad tlieories are very bad
s, and the authors of them useless, and some-
i pemicious members of society. But these
sates of practice do not seem to be aware,
hey themselves very often com^ under this

* Essay xi» vol. u p. 431. 8vo.

46.2 ESSAY ON Book»

Of the necessity of general

description, and that a great part of tliem may bc
classed among the most mischievous tlieorists of
their time. AVhen a man faithfuUy relates m
facts which have come wiihin the scope of his oun
obsen-ation, however confined it may have becn
he undoubtedly adds to the sum of general knov-
ledge, and confers a benefit on society. But
when from this confined experience, from the mi-
nagement of his own little farm^ or the details of
the work-house in his neighborhood, he draws «
general inference, as is very frequently the case, hc
thcn at once erects himself into a theorist, and k
the morc dangerous, because experience being the
only just foundation for theor}', pcople are oftea
caiight merely by the sound of the word, and dt
not stop to make the distinction between that par-
tial experience which, on such subjects, is no foun-
dation whatcvcr for a just theory-, and that gene-
ral experience, on which alone a just theory can
be founded.

There are perhaps few subjects on which humai
ingenuity lias been more exerted, than in the cn-
dcavor to mcliorate the condition of the poor ; and
there is certainly no subject in which it has sD
romplctely failed. The question between the theo-

hap. XI. POPULATION. 463

principles on this subjecti

St who cails himself practical, and the genuine
leorist is, whether this should prompt us to look
ito all the holes and corncrs of work-houses, and
ontent ourselves with mulcting the parish officers
or their waste of cheese parings and candle ends,
nd with distributing more soups and popatoes ;
)r to recur to general principles which show us at
Mice the cause of the fuilure, and prove that the
System hiis been from the bcginning radically er-
"oneous. Thcrc is no subject to which general ;..-
jnrinciples h^ve bcen so seldom applied ; and yet
in the whole compass of human knowledge, I
ioubt, if there be one in which it is so dangerous
to lose sight of them ; because the partial and im-
nediate effects of a particular mode of giving as-
sistance are so often directly opposite to the gene-
ral and permanent effects.

It has been observcd in particular districts, wherc
cottagers are possessed of small pieces of land, and
are in the habit of keeping cows, that during the
iate scarcities some of them were able to support
tfaemselves without parish assistance, and others
with comparatively little. •

* See an Inquiry into the State of Cottagers in the Coun-
lieft of LiDColn and Rutland by Robert Gourlay. Annals
tf Agricalture> vol« xxxyii« p. 514.

464 ESSAY ÜN Book Il\

Of the necessity of [^neral

■^' ■ '

According to the partial view in which this bub-
ject has been always contemplatcd, a general infer-
encc has bten dravvii from such instanccs, tliat if
WC couIJ place all our laboixrs in a sinriilar Situa-
tion, they would all be equally conifurtublCy and
equally independeli^j^ tlie parish. This is an in-
ference however, that*y no means follows. The
advantage which cottagers who at present ketp
cows cnjoy, arises in a grcut mcasure from its be
ing peculiar, and would be considerably dimlnish
cd if it were made gencrol.

A £u*iner or gcnüeman has, We will suppo».-
a certain number of cottages on his farm. Beini,
a liberal man, and liking to sce ull the \ku\1
al>out him comforLiblc, hc may join a pica • '
land to his cottajjcs siifficicnt to kccp one ortu
cows, and givc bcsidcs Iiijjh w:ij:;c*s. His Ll)ori;^
will of coiirsc live in plciity, Mid l)c al)le to n-:
up largc faniilics ; but \\\^ farni m;iy not ri'c|uin
many hands ; and thoiigh hc niay choosc to pj}
thoso diat hc cniploys well, hc u il! not nniba^I}
wish to havc morc laborers on his l:»nd ihiin lii^j
work rcquircs. I!e does not llKrefore Iniild nit^r^
hüuses; and the children of Uic laborers \\\v^x\\ \\<
cmploys ninst cvidcntly emigratc and scttlt iii
o'.her cnuniries. Whilc such a systcm conlinut^

Chap.XI. POPULATION. 465

piinciples on this subject-

peculiar to certain families, or certain districts, the
emigrants would easily bc able to find work in
other places ; and it cannot be doubted that the
individual laborers employed on these fiums are
in an enviable Situation, and such as we might na-
tunüly wi^ was tlie lot of all our laborers. But
it is perfectly clear that ^wch a System could not, / ■
in the nature of things, possess the same. advan*. ,
tages, if it were made general; because there^ii'
would then be no countries to which the chiidren- * ' ' ^
could emigrate with the same prospect of finding^'
wcMrk. Population would evidendy increase be- .
yopd the demand of towns and manuiactories, and
die price of labor would universally falL

It should be observed also, that one of the rea-
sons why the laborers who at present keep cows
are so comfortable, is, that th^ are able to make
a considerable profit of the milk which they do not
uae themselves, an advantage whicK would evi-
dendy be very much diminished if the System
were universale And though they were certainly
aUe to struggle through the late scarcities with
less assistance than their neighbors, as might na-
turally be expected, from their having other re-
aources besides the drticle which in those mdivi-
v^ iL ooQ

46B ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of thc nccessitf of general

dual years was scarcc ; yet if the System weit
universal, there can be no reason assigned why
they would not be subject to suffer as much firom
a scarchy of gra^ and a mortality among cows, '
as our common laborers do now from a scarchy
of wheat. We should be extremely cautkxis
therefore of tnisting to such appearances» and of
drawing a general inference fh)m this kind of par-
tial experience.

The main principle on which the socie^ for
increasing the comforts, and bettering the condi-
tion of the poor, professes to proceed is excelknt
To give effect to that masterspring of industnr,
the desire of bettering our condition, is the truc
mode of improving the State of thc lower classes;
and we may safely agree wilh Mr. Bemard, in

* At present the loss of a cow which must now and
ihen happen, is gcnerallf remedied by a pctition and sttb-
scription, and as the event is considered as a moft seri«
ous misfortune to a laborer, these petitions are for the
most part attended to ; but if the cpw System wcre uni-
versal, losses would occur so frequently that they co«ld
not possibly be repaircd in the same way, and familics
would be continually dropping from coniparativc plentr
into want.

* Preface to vol. ii. of the Reports.

Ouip.XI, POPULATION. 467

principles on this subject.

one of his able prefaces, that whatever encourages
and promotes habits of industry, prudence, forc-
sighty virtue, and cleanliness, among the poor, is
beneficial to them and to the country ; and what-
ever removes or diminishes the incitements to
any of these qualities, is detrimental to the State,
and pemicious to ttie individual. '

Mr. Bemard indeed himself seems in general to
be fully aware of the difficulties which the society
has to contend with in the accomplishment of its
object. But still ä appears to be in some danger
of falling into the error before alluded to, of draw-
ing general inferences from insufficient experience.
Without adverting to the plans respecting cheaper
foods and parish shops, recommended by indivi-
duals, the beneficial efiects oi which depend en-
tirely upon their being peculiar to certain 'families
or certain parishes, and would be lost if they werc
general, by lowering the wages of labor ; I shaD
CHily notice one Observation of a more comprehen-
sive nature, which occurs in the preface to the
second volume of the Reports. It is there remark*

^ Prcfacc to vol. üi. of the Reports«

468 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Ofthc necessity of genenl

edy that the experience of the society seemcd (o
Warrant the conclusion, that the best mode of re-
lieVing the poor was, by assistuig them at didr
own homes, and placmg out their children as sood
as possible in diflferent emplo3rmentSy apprentioe-
sh^ &C. I really believe that this is die best,
and it b certainly the most agreeable modCi in
which occasional and discriminate asastanoe cn
be ^ven. But it is evident that it must be done
with caution, and cannot be adopted as a geneni
principle, and made the fbundation of umvtnal
practice. It is open exactly to the sanie objcc-
tion as the cow system which has just been dd-
ticed, and that part of the act of the 43d of Eliza-
beth which directs the overseers to employ ind
provide for the children of the poor, A particular
parish, where all the children, as soon as they iicre
of a proper age, were taken from their parents
and placed out in proper situations, might be vcry
comfortable ; but if the system were gencral, and
the poor saw that all their children would be thus
provided for, every employment would presenth
be overstocked with hands, and the conacquena
need not be again repeated.

Nothiugcan be more clear tlian that it is withir

Ch^, XI. POPULATION. 469

principles on this subject.

the power of money, and the exertions of the rieh,
adequately to relieve a particular fitmily, a particu-
lar parish, and even a particular district. But k
will be equally clear, if we reflect a moment on
tbe subject, that it is totaUy out of their power to
relieve the whole country in the same way ; at
käst widiout providing a regulär vent for the over-
flowing numbers in emigration, or without the
prevalenoe of a particular virtue among the poor,
which the distribution of this assistance tends
obviously to discourage.

Even industry itself is, in this respect, not ver\'
difierent from money. A man who possesses a
certain portion of it, above what is usually posses*
sed by his neighbors, will, in the actual State of
things, be almost sure of a competent livelihood ;
but if all his neighbors were to become at once as
industrious as himself, the abs<riute portion of in-
dustry which he before possessed would no longer
be a security against want, Hume feil into a stvy
great error, when he asserted, that " almost all
** the moral, as well as natural evils of human life,
" arise fix>m idleness ;" and for the eure of these
ills, required only that the whole species should
possess naturally an equal diligence with that which

470 ESSAY ON Book IK

Of the necessity of genenl

many individuak are able to attain 1^ hat»t and
reftectkuu* Itis evident thatthispvendq;rceof
industiy possesaed by the whöle apecies, if not
tombined with another virtue of which he takes
no notice, would totally &il of rescuing aocicQr
fix>m want and miaery » and would scaitxly remove
a sin^ moial or phyucal evil of all thoae to m^uch
healludea.

I am aware of an öbjection which will, wilb
great appearance of justice, be urged against titt
general tenor of theae reasonings. It will be aaid,
that to argue thus, is at once to object 10 evc^
mode of aasisting the poor, as it b impoasible, ia
the nature of things, to assist people individually,
witbout altering their relative Situation in society,
and proportionally depressing others ; and that as
those who have families, are the persons naturaHj
most subject to distress, and as we are certainly
not called upon to assist those who do not waot
our aid, we must necessarily, if we act at all, re-
licve those who have children, and thus encourage
marriage and population.

^ Dialogues on Natural Religion, Part xi. p. 319.

'Mp. XI. POPULATION. 471

principles on this subject.

I have already observed however, and I here re-
eat it again, that the general principles on these
Libjects ought not to be pushed too far, though
ley should always be kept in view ; and that ma-
Y cases may occur in which the good rcsulting
•om the relief of the present distress, may more
lan overbalance the evil to be apprehended from
le rcmote consequence.

All relief in instances of distress, not arising
•cm idle and improvident habits, clearly comes
Inder this description ; and in general it may be
bserved, that it isonly that kind of systematic2ind
TTtain relief, on which the poor can confidently
epend, whatever may be their conduct, that vio-
ites general principles in such a manner as to
lake it clear that the general consequence is wor^
lan the particular evil.

Independently of this discriminate and occasion-
l assistance, the beneficial effects bf which I have
illy allowed in a preceding chaptcr, I have before
ndeavored to show, that much might be expected
"om a better and more general system of educa-
lon. Every thing that can be done in this way,
las indeed a very peculiar value ; because educa-

472 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of theneccssity of gencral

tion is one of those advantages, ivhich not only aD
may share without interfering mth each other, but
die raising of one person may actually contribute to
the raising of otfaers. If, for instance, a man bj
education acquires that decent kind of pride, aod
those juster habits of thinking, which will prevcot
him from bufdenitijg society with a &mily of
children which he cannot support, his conduct, as
&r as an individual instance can go, tends evidcntlj
to improve the condition of his fellow laboitn;
and a contrary conduct from ignorance, would
tend as evidently to deprcss it«

I cannot help thinking also, that somethiog
might be done towards bettcring the Situation of
the poor by a general improvement of thcir coc«
tages ; if care were taken, at the same time, not
to make thein so largc as to allow of two familics
settling in them ; and not to increasc their number
faster than the demand for labor required. One
of the most salutary, and Icast pcmicious checks to
the freqiiency of early marriagcs in this countHi
"is tlic difficulty of procuring a cottagc, and tk
laudable habits which prompt a laborcr rather to
dcfcr his marriage some years in Uie expectation of

Owp. XI. POPULATION. 473

prlnciples on this subject.

a vacanc} , than to content himsdf with a wretch-
ed mud cabin, like those in Ireland.»

Even the cow sytem, upon a more confined
plan, might not be open to objection. With any
view of making it a Substitute for the Poor Laws,
and of giving laborers a right to dcmand land and
cows in propoition to their families ; or of taking
the common people from the consumption of
wheat, and feeding them on milk and potatoes, it
appears to nie, I confess, truly preposterous : but
if it were so ordered as merely to provide a com-
fortable Situation for the better and more indus-
trious class of laborers, and to supply at the same
time, a very important want among the poor hi
general, that of milk for tlieir children, I think that
it would be extremely beneficial, and might be

* Perhaps, howevcr, this is not often left to his choice^
on account of the fear which every parish has of increas-
ing its poor. There are many way» by which our poor
laws operate in counteracting their first obvious tendency
to incrtase population, and this is one of them* I have
little doubt that it is ahnost exciusively öwing to these
co'üiteracting causes, that we have been able to pcrsevero
in this System so long, and that the condition of the poor
has not been so much injured by it as might have been
expected.

VoL ii. P P P

474 ESSAY ON Book D\

Of the necessity of general

made a very powcrful incitement to habits of in-
dustry, economy, and prudence. With this view
however, it is evident, that only a certain portion
of the laborers in each parish could be embraced
in the plan ; that good conduct, and not mere dis-
tress, should have the most valid claim to prefer-
ence ; that too much attention should not be paid
to the number of childrcn ; and that universally,
those who had saved money enough for the pur-
chase of a cow, should be preferred, to those who
required to be fumished with one by the parish.'
To facilitate the saving of small sums of mone]r
for this purpose, and encourage young iaborcrs to
cconomize their carnings with a view to a provision
for marriage, it might be cxtremely useful to havc
country banks, where the smallcst sums would Ix*
rcccivcd, and a fair intercst paid for thcm. At
j)Rscnt, the fcw laborers who savc a little money,

' The act of Elizabeth which prohibited the buildingot
oyttages, unless four acres of land were annexcd to thenii
is probably impracticable in a manufacluring country likc
England ; but upon this principle, certainly the gremlcft
part of ihe poor ini^ht posscss land ; because the difficul-
ly of procurinq; such cottages would alway» operalc as ^
powcrful check to their increase. The etTect of such >
plan would be very diffcrcnt from that of Mr. Younj;.

Chap. XL POPULATION. 475

pnnciples on the subject.

are often greatly at a loss to know what to do with
it ; and under such circumstances we cannot be
much surprised that it should sometimes be ill
employed, and last but a short time. It would
pxx>bably be essential to the success of any plan of
this kind, that the laborer should be able to draw
out his money whenever he wanted it, and have
the most perfect liberty of disposing of it in even-
respect as he pleased. Though we may rcgret,
that money so hardly eamed shouid sometimes be
spent to little purpose ; yet it seems to be a case
in which we have no right to interfere ; nor if we
bad, would it in a general view, be advantageous ;
because the knowledge of posessing this libertj-
would be of more use in encouraging the practice
of saving, that any restriction of it, in prcventing
the misuse of money so saved.

One should undoubtedly be extremely unwilling
aot to make as much use as possible of that known
Stimulus to industry and economy, the desire of,
and the attachment to property : but it should be
recollected, that the good effects of this Stimulus
show themselves principally when this property is
to be procured, or preserved, by personal exer-
tions ; and that they are by no means so general

476 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Of the necessity of gcneral

under otlier circumstances. If any idlc man widi
a family could demand and obtain a cow and somc
landy I should expect to see both very often ne-
glected.

It has been observed that those cottagers who
keep cows, are more industrious and more re-
gulär in their conduct, than those who do not
This is probably true, and what might natunlly
be expected; but the inference that the way to
make all pcople industrious is to give them cows,
hiay by no means be quite so certain. Most of
those who keep cows at present have purchascd
them with the fruits of their own industry. It is
therefore more just to say, that their industry has
given them a cow, than ihat a cow has givcn them
their industry ; though I would by no means bc
undcrstood to imply, that the sudden possessiou
of property nevcr gcnerates industrious habits.

The practical good efFects which have been al-
ready cxpericnced, from cottagers kccping cows,'
iirise in fact from the systcm Ix^ing nearly such a>

' Inx'iuiry into the State of Cottagers in the countiet» ^*
Lirt(»ln ;ind Rutland, by Robert Gourlay. Annais *'
Agriculture, vol. xxxvii« p. 514.

&. XI. t>OPULATION. 477

principles on this subject.

onfined plan which I have mentioned. In the
icts where cottagcrs of this description most
nd, they do not bcar a ver}^ 'arge proportion to
jopulation of the whole parish ; they consist in
ral of the better sort of laborers, who have been
to purchase thcir o\^ti cows ; and the peculiar
"orts of their Situation arisc more from the rela-
han the positive advantages which they posscss.
om observing therefore their industry and
brts, we should be verj' cautious of inferring
\ve could give the same industry and comforts

the lower classes of people, by giving them
ame possessions. There is nothing that has
i rise to such a cloud of errors, as a confusion
een relative and positive, and between cause
rffect.
may be said however, that any plan of gcne-

improving the cottages of the poor, or of
iing more of Üiem to keep cows, would evi-
y give them the power of rearing a greater
Der of children, and by thus encouraging po-
ion, violate the principles which I liave en-
>red to establish. But if I have been suc-
ul in making the reader comprehend the priii-
bent of this work, he will be aware tlii.t the-

478 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Of the necessity of general

prccise reason why I think that more children
oiight not to be bom than the countrj- can Sup-
port is, that the greatest possible numbcr of thosf
that are bom may be supported. Wc cannot, io
. the nature of things, assist the poor in any way,
without enabling them to rear up to manhood a
greater numbcr of their children. But this is, of
all other things, the most desirable, both with it-
gard to individuals and the public. Every loss of
a child from the consequences of poverty, must
evidendy be preceded and accompanied by great
misery to individuals ; and in a public view, evcry
child that dies under ten years of age is a loss to
the nation of all that had bcen expendcd in itssub-
sistcnce tili that pcriod. Conscquently, in cvcn
point of view, a decrcasc of mortality at all agcs is
what WC ought to aiin at. WV- cannot howcvfr
t'ffect this übjcct, without first crowdiug the popu-
lation in some degrec by niaking more childan
i^ow up to manhood ; but wc sliall do no härm in
this rcsjK^ct, if, at the samc timc, we can imprcbs
thcsc children with the idca that to posscss ÜK
samc advantagcs as their parcnts, thcy must dcf<-^
niiuriagc tili thcy havc a fair prospcct of bcing
ible to maintiün a familv. And it must be caO-

>. XI. POPULATION. 479

principles on this subject.

f confessecl that if we cannot do this, all our
er efforls will have been throwa away. It is
n the nature of things that any permanent and
ral improvement in die condition of the poor
be effccted, without an increase in the preven-
check ; and unlcss this take place, eithcr with
ithout our efforts, every thing that is donc for
poor miist be temporary and partial : a dimi-
3n of mortality at present, will be balanced
n increaücd mortality in future ; and the im-
ement of their condition in one place, will pro-
ionably depress it in anothcr. This is a truth
nportant and so little understood, that it can
3ely be too oftcn insisted on. The gcnerality
laritable people and of the encouragers of mar-
% are not in tlie smallest degrce awarc of the
efFects of what they do.
n Paley, in a chapter on popuIation, provision,
in his Moral Philosophy, observcs, tliat the
iition most favorable to the popuIation of a
itry, and at the same time to its gencral hap-
ss is, " that of a laborious frugal jKoplc mi-
stering to the demands of an opulent luxt;ri*
nation."* Such a form of society has not, it

^'^ol. ü. c. xi. p, 359, From a passage in Dr. Palcy's

i8ö ESSAY ON Book IT.

Of the necessity of general

inust hc confessedy an inviting aspecL Nothing
hut thc conviction of its being absolutely neces-
sary , could reconciie us to the idea of ten millioib
üf people coademncd to incessant toil, and to the
privation of every thing biit absolute necessaries,
in Order to minister to the excessive luxuries of
the odier million. But the fact is, that sucha
form of Society is by no means necessary. It b
by no means necessary that the rieh should bc
excessively luxurious, in order to support thc
manufacturcs of a country, or that the poor shouM
be deprived of all luxuries, in order tomakethcm
siifficiently niimerous. The best and In tvtnr
poiiit ol' vicw thc niost advantagcous nianufactuas
in ihis counlrv, arc thosc wliich are consumed bv
thc givat body of thc people. The manu&ctua'!(

lale work on Natural Thcology, I am inclincd lo tbnik
that bul)se4ucnt rcflecüon has induccd hini to nv»*- «T
some ol' his Ibrmcr ideas on thc subject of popula"'»f''
He has statcd most juslly (chap. xxv, p. 53*>.) ihal •.•■*''•
Kind will in evtry country breed up to a ccrtitin poiiü i
distress. If this bc allowcd, that rountry will cviden' V
be the happiest, where the degree of distress at ihispo"'*
is the icast, and consequently, if thc spread of luxur)' f'T
producinjL^ thc check sooner, tend to diminish Ihis dcysref
»f distress, it is certainly desirable.

Chap. XI. POPULATION. 481

principles on this subject.

which are confined exclusively to the rieh, are not
onljr trivial on account of the comparative small-
ness of their quantity ; but are further liable to the
great disadvantage of producing much occasiona}
misery among those enjployed in them, from
changes of &shion. It is the spread of luxury
therefore among the mass of the people, and not
an excess of it in a few, that seems to be most ad-
vantageous, both with regard to national wealtli
and national happiness ; and what Dr. Puley con-
siders as the true evil and proper danger of luxury,
I should be disposed to consider as its true good
and peculiar advantage. If indeed, it be allowed
that in every society, not in the State of a ne w colony,
some powerful check to population must prevail ;
and if it be observed that a taste for the comforts
and conveniencies of life will prevent people from
marrying undcr the certainty of being dcprived
pf these advantages ; it must be allowed that we
can hardly expect to find any check to marriage
so little prejudicial to the happiness and viitue of
society as the general prevalence of such a taste ;
jmd consequently that the spread of hixury' in

^ In a note to the tenth chaiHer of the täKt bo^, l hav^
7'^. ii. Q 4 4

kfiL

482 ESSAY ON Book IT.

Of the neccssity of gcneral

this sense^of the term, is particularly desirable :
and one of the best means of raising that Standard
of wretchedness alluded to in the eighth chapter
of this book.

It has been generally found that the middlc
parts of Society are most favorable to virtuous and
industrious habits, and to the growth of all kinds
of talents. But it is evident that all cannot be in
the middle. Siiperior and inferior parts are in tlic
nature of things absolutely necessar)' ; and not
only necessary, but strikingly beneficial. If no
man could hope to rise, or fear to fall in society ;
if industry did not bring with it its re^^Tird, and
indolencc its punishmcnt ; we could not expect
to sec that animatcd activity in bettering our con-
dition, wlTich now forms the master-spring of pub-
lic prosperity. But in contcmplating the diffcr-
ent States of 1 ain)pe, we obscrve a very consider-
a!)le difllrcncc in the relative j)roportions of tl)e

mentioned the point at which alonc. it is probable thmt Xwl-
ury becomes really prejudicial to a coiintiy. But this
point does not dcpend upon the sprcad of luxury as dimi«
nishint^ the frecjucncy of marriaj^c amon^ the poor« but
upon the proportion which thosc einploycd in preparinfr
or procuring luxuries, bear to the funds which are to Sup-
port ihcm-

Outp. XI. POPULATION. 483

principles on this subject.

superior, the middle and the infc rior parts ; and from
the effect of these differcnces, it secms probable
that our best grounded expectations of an increasc
in the happiness of the mass oi human society,
are founded m the prospect of an increase in the
relative proportions of the middle parts. And if
the lower classes of people had acquired the habit
of proportioning the supplies of labor to a Station-
ary o^ even decreasing demand, without an increase
of misery and mortality as at present, we might
even venture to indulge a hope, that at some fu-
ture period the processes for abridging human la-
bor, the progress of which has of late years been
so rapid, might ultimately supply all the wants of
the most wealthy society widi less personal labor
than at present ; and if they did not dinuai^h the
severity of individual exertion, might» at least,
diminish the number of those employed in severe
teil. If the lowest classes of society were thus
diminished, and the middle classes mcreascd» each
laborer might indulge a more rational hope of ris»
sing by diligencc and exertion into a better Sta-
tion ; the rewards of industry and virtue would bc
increased in number ; tlie lottery of human societ)'
would appear to consist of fewer blanks and more

iki^.

484 ESSAY ON Book IV.

Ofthe necessity of gencral

prizes ; and the sum of social happiness would b(
evidcntly augmented.

To indulge however in any distant views ot
this kind, unaccompanied by the evils u^ually at-
tcndant on a stationary or decreasing demand for
kbor, we must suppose the general prevalenoe of
such prudcntial habits among the pow, as would
prevent them from maiT)'ing, when the actual pricc
of labor, joined to what they might have saved in
their single State, would not give them the prospect
of being able to support a wife and six childicn
without assistance. And in every potnt of vicw,
such a degree of prudential restraint would bc ex*
trcmely bencficial ; and would produce a very
striking melioration in the condition of the lowcr
dasscs of peoplc.

It may be said perhaps, that evcn this degree ol
prudence might not ahvays avail, as when a man
niarries he cannot teil what number of children he
shall have, and many have more than six. This
is ccrtainly true ; and in this case I do not think
tliat any cvil would result from making a certain
allowancc to evciy child above this number ; not
wiih a view of rcwarding a man for Ins large fa-
mily, but mcrely, of relicving him from a sixxics

i '"

Chap. XI. POPULATION. 485

■Ak.

principles on this subject«

of distress, which it would be unreasonable in
US to expect that he should calculate upon. And
with this view, the relief should be merely such as
to place him exactly in the same Situation as if he
had had six children. Montesquieu disapproves
of an edict of Lewis the fourteenth, which gave
certain pensions to those who had ten and twelve
cluldren, as being of no use in encouraging po-
pulation.' For the very reason that he disap-
proves of it, I should think that some law of the
kind mig^t be adopted without danger, and might
relieve particular individuals from a very pressing
and unlooked-for distress, without operating in
any respect as an encouragement to marriage.

If at some future period, any approach should
be made towards the more general prevalcnce of
prudential habits with respect to marriage among
the poor, from which alone any permanent and
general improvement of their condition can arise ;
I do not think that the narrowest politician need
be alarmed at it, from the fear of its occasioning
such an advance in the price of labor as will ena-
ble our commercial competitors to undersell us in

V— — — — _— ^ —

' Esprit des Loix^ lir« xxiii. c* xxrii^

486 ESSAY ON, &fr.

Of the necensity of generali (^r.

Foreign markets. There are four circumstanceb
that might be expected to accompany it, which
would probably either prcvent or fuUy counter-
balance aiiy effect of this kind. These are, Is^
The more equable and lower price of provi^ODS,
from the demand being less frequendy above iht
supply. 2dly, The removal of that heavy bür-
den on agriculture, and that great addition to the
present wages of labor, die poors rates. Sdlyr
The national saving of a great part of that sum
tvhich is expended without retum, in the support
of those children who die ^prematurely, fh)m die
consequences of poverty. And, lastly, The more
gcncral prcvalence of cconomical and induslrious
habits, particularly among unmarricd mcn, wliich
would prevcnt diat iiidolt:ncc, drunkcnncss, and
waste of labor, which at prcücnt are too frcquently
a consequcnce of high wagcs.

CHAPTER XII.

Of our rational expectations respectlng thefuture

improvement of Society.

IN taking a general and concluding vIew
of our rational expectations respccting the mitiga-
tion of the evils arising from the principle of po-
pulation, it may be observed, that though the in-
crease of population in a geometrical ratio l^e in-
controvertible, and the period of doubling, when
»nchecked, has l^en uniformlv stated in this work,
rather below than above t!ie truth ; vet therc are
8ome natural conseqiicnces of the progress of So-
ciety and civilization, which necessarily reprcss
its füll eficcts. llicse are, more particularh ,
great towns and manufucturcs, in which we cau
scarcely hope, and certainly not ex pect to see an}-
very materuil change. It is undoubtedly our du-
ty, and in every point of view highly desirable, to
make towns and manufacturing employments as
little injurious as possible to the duration of hu<
man life ; but, after all our efifortSy it is probable

488 ESSAY ON JiooklV.

Of our rational expectations

that they will ahvays remain less healtby tban
country situations and couiitry employments ; and
consequently operating as positive checks, wffl
diminish in some degree the necessity of the pre-
ventive check.

In every old State it is observed, that a cod-
siderable number of grown up people renudn for
a time iinmarried. The duty of practising ihc
common and acknowledged rules of morality da-
ring this period, has never been controverted ia
theory, however it may have been o{>posed ä
practice. This branch of the duty of moral ro-
traint has scarcely been touched by the reas(Xiinp
of this werk. It rests on the same foundation as
before, ncithcr strenger nor weaker. And know-
ing how incompletely this duty has hitherto bccQ
fulfillcd, it would ccrtainly be visionary to exptct
any very matcrial change for the better, in fu*
turc.

The part which has been affectcd by the rci.
sonings of this work is not therefore, that which
relates to our conduct during the period of celiba*
cy, but to the duty of extending this period tiU
\ve have a prospect of being able to maintain our
children. And it is by no means visionary to in-

Chap. XU. POPULATION. 4a9

respecting futurc improvement.

dulge a hope of some favorable change in this
respect; because it is foiind by experience,
that the prevalence of this kind of prudential res-
traint is extremely diflferent in different countries,
smd in the same coiintries at different per'ods.

It cannot be doubted, that throughout Eüropc
in general, and most particularly in the northem
States, a decided change has taken place in the
openition of this prudential restraint, since the
prevalence of thosc warlike and enterprising habits
which destroyccl so many pcople. In later times
the gradual diminution and almost total extinction
of the plagues which so frequcntly visitcd Kurone
in the seventeenth and iIk: beginning of the eigh-
teenth centnries, produced a chanjje of the same
kind. And in this countr\' it is not to he doubted
tfiat the Proportion of maniages has become smallcr
since the improvement of our towns, the less fre-
quent returns of epidemics, and the adoption of
habits of greatcr deanliness. During the late scur-
cities it appears that the nuni!:>er of marriagcs di-
minished ; and the same motives which prevcnted
many peoplc from marrying during such a period,
vvould operate precisely in the same way, if, in
future, the additional numbcr of childrea reared
f)öL ii. r r r

490 ESSAY ON ßookB'

Of our rational expectations

to manhoocl from the introduction of the cow-pox,
wcre to be such as to crowd all employments,
lower the price of labor^ and make it m(H^ difficult
to Support a family.

Universally, the practice of mankind on the
subject of marriage has been much superiorto
their theories ; and however frequent may havc
been the declamations on the duty of entering ioto
this State, and the advantage of early unions to
prevent vice, each individual has practically foiind
it necessary to consider of the means of supportiog
a family, before he ventured to take so importaal
a Step. That great vis medicatrix reipubKar^ the
desire of bettcring our condition, and the fear of
makinf^ it worsc, has been constantly in action,
and Iias been constantly dirccting pcople into the
right road in spitc of all the declamations which
tendcd to Icad thcm aside. Owing to this power-
ful spring of iiealth in everj' State, which is notliing
more than an inference from the general course
of the laws of nature irresistibly forccd on cach
man's attention, the prudcntial check to marriage
has increased in Europc ; and it cannot be unrea-
sonable to conclude that it will still make furthcr
advances. If this take place, without any markeil

Chap. Xn. POPULATION. 491

• respecting future improveroent.

and decided increase of a vicious intcrcourse with
ihe sex, the happiness of society will cvidcnüy
be promoted by it ; and with regard to the daiiger
of such increase, it is consolatory to remark, tliat
those countries in Europe where marriages are
the least frequent, are by no means particularly
distinguished by vices of tliis kind. It has ap-
peared that Norway, Switzcrland, England, and
Scotland, are above all the rest in the prevalence
of the preventive check ; and though I do not mean
to insist particularly on the virtuous habits of these
countries, yet I think that no perscm would select
diem as the countries most raarked for profligacy
of manners. Indeed, from the little that I know
of the continent, I should have been inclined to
select them as most distinguished for contrary
habits, and as rather above than below their neigh-
bors in the chastity of their women, and conse-
quendy in the virtuous habits of their men. Ex-
perience therefore seems to teach us, tliat it is
possible for moral and physical causes to counter-
act the effects that might at first hc expected from
nn increase of the check to marriage ; but allowing
all the weight to these effects which is in any de-
gree probable, it may be safely asserted, that the

492 ESSAY ON Book IF.

Ol our rational expectations

diminution of the vices arising from indigence
would fully counterbalance dicm ; and tfiat aB
the advantages of diminished mortality, and supc-
rior comforts, which would certainly result firom
an increase of die preventive check, may be placcd
entirely on die side of the gains to the cause of
happiness and virtue.

It is less the object of the present werk to pro-
pose new plans of improving society, than to inc»jl-
cate the necessity of resting contented wirh i^4
mode of improvemcnt, which is dictated bj tk
course of nature, and of not obstructing the ad-
vances which would otherwise be niade in Üß
way.

It would be undouhtedly highly advantageous
diat all our positive institutions, and the whole
tenor of our conduct to the poor, should be such
as actively to co-operate with tliat Icsson of pru-
d; ncc inculcatcd by the common course of human
ovcnts; and if we tnke upon ourselv(»s somctimes
to miiipT-ite the natural pimishments of imprudence,
thnt we should balancc it by incrcasing the re\var(is
of an opposite conduct. But much would Ix^done,
if merelv the institutions which directly tend to
cncourage marriage were gradually changed, and

Chap. SIL POPULATION. 493

rcspecting: future improvement.

WC cc iscd to circiilate opinions and inciilcate doc-
trines, which positively counteract the lessons of
nature.

Tlie limited good which it is sometitnes in our
power to eiFect, is often lost by attempting too
nniuch, and by making tlie adoption of some par-
ticular plan Asentially necessary even to a partial
degree of succtss. In the practical application of
the r^^asonings of this work, I hope that I have
avoided this error. I wish to press on the recol-
lection of the reader, that, though I may have
^ven some new vicws of old facts, and may have
indulgcd in the contemplation of a considerable
degri^e of possible improvement, that I might not
absolutely shut out that prime cheerer hope ; yet
in my expectations of probable improvement, and
in suggesting the means of accomplishing it, I
have been very cautious. The gradual abolitioa
of the poor law^s has already oftcn been proposed^
in consequence of the practical evils which have
been found to flow from them, and the danger of
their becoming a weight absolutely intolerable on
ihe landed property of the kingdom. The esta-
blishment of a more extensive system of national
cducation has neither the advantage of novelty

494 ESSAY ON BooklF.

Of our rational expectations

with some, nor its disadvantages with others, to
recommend it. The practical good eflfccts of
education have long been experienced in See-
land ; and almost every person who has bcen plac-
cd in a Situation to judge, has given his testimoof
that education appears to have a considerable ef-
fect in the prevention of crimes/ and the promo-
tion of industry, morality, and regulär conduct
Yet these are the only plans which have been of-
fered ; and though the adoption of them in the
modes suggested would very powerfuUy contri*
bute to forward the objcct of this work, and bet«
tcr the condition of the poor ; yet if notliing bc
donc in this way, I shall not absolutely despair of
some partial good cflccts from the gencral tcnor
of the rcasoning.

If the principlcs which I have endcavored to

^ Mr. Howard found fewer prisoners in Switzerland
and Scotland, than in other countries, which he attribut-
ed to a more regulär education among the lowcr clis&es
of the Swiss and the Scotch. Durlng the number of
years which ihc late Mr. Fielding prcsidcd at Bow-street,
only six Scotchmen werc hrought before him. Hc used
tu say that of the persons committcd the greater part
werc Irish. Prcface to vol. iii. of the Reports of the So-
ciety for beltering th« condition of the poor, p. 32.

r^p. XII. POPULATION. 495

respecting future improvemenU

^stablish be false, I most sincerely hope to see
htm completely refuted ; but if they be true the
mbject is so important, and interests tlie question
of human happiness so nearly, that it is impossi-
ble that they should not in time be more fuUy
cnown, and more generaUy circulated, whether
my particular efforts be made for the purpose or
aot.

Among the higher and middle classes of socie-
y, the effect of this knovvledge would, I hope, be
:o direct without relax ing their eftbrts in bcttering
he condition of the poor ; to show them what they
»n, and what they cannot do ; and that although
nuch may be done by advice and instruction, by
mcouraging habits of prudence and cleanliness,
i>y occasional and discriminate charity, and by any
mode of bettering the present condition of the
poor, which is followed by an mcrease of the pre-
yentivc check ; yet that, without this last effect,
dl the former efforts would be futile ; and that, in
iny old and well-pcopled State, to assist the poor
m such a manner as to enable them to marry as
»rty as they please, and rear up large familes, is a
>hysical impossibility/ This knowledge, by tend-
ng to prevent the rieh from destroying the good

496 ESSAY ON BookJF.

Of our rational expectations

effccts of thcir own exertions, and wasting thcirtf-
fbrts in a direction wherc success is unattainalitc,
would coiiline their attention to the proper objccts,
and thub cnablc them to do more good.

Aniong the poor theniselves, its eflfccts wouW
bc still more important. That the principal and
most i)ermancnt cause of poveriy , has littk or nö
direct relation to forms of govemment, or the un-
. equal division of property ; and tliat, as the rieh do
not in rcality possess the power of finding employ
ment and maintenance for the jxwr, the poor can-
not, in the natiire of things, possess the right todc-
mand them, are important truths flowing from the
principk: of popnlation, which, when properly ex-
plaincd, wonkl by no mcans be above the most
ordiiian coin;)ii hnisions, and it is evident» that
cverv man in the lower classes of soeietv, who bc-
camc acciuaiuiecl with th.ese truths, would be div
poe^ed to bear iIk distresscs in which he miirhl be
i:ivolved \\ ith wjax ritiencc, would feel les>> dis-
ronviit auu irriiaiion a» xV.c ir^jvtrnment and ihe
hiciicr ela>MLs ol' boruly on acc(jiint of his |X)verty,
\NouU be on all oecihion^ kss disiK • •! to insUi-"r-
diiiition anrl tur!)ukiux ; and it'he rcceivcd assiat-
\i\Y\-. ' iili'jr h'oni uny public ini>litulion, or iVom

Chap. XJL POPULATION. 497

retpectin^ future improveinent.

thc hand of private charitj-, he would receive it
widi more thankfulness, and more justly appre-
ciate its value.

If these truths werc bjr degrees more generally

known, which in die course of time does not seem

to be improbable from the natural effects of the

mutuai interchange of opinions, the lower classes

of people, as a body, would bccome more peace-

ble and orderly, would be less inclined to tumul-

tuous proceedings in seasons of scarcity, and would

at all times be less influenced by inflanunatory and

seditious publications, from knowing how little the

price of labor and the means of supporting a family

depend upon a revolutioii. The mere knowledge

of these truths, even if they did not (^rate suf-

ficiently to produce any marked change in the

prudenüal habits of the poor, with regard to mar-

nage, would still have a most beneficial effect on

their conduet in a political light ; and undoubtedly

one of the most valuable of these effects would be,

the power that would result to the higher and mid-

dle classes of society of gradually improving their

govemments, ' without the apprehension of thosc^

^ I cannot believe that the removal of all unjust j^round^
voL ü. s s s

498 ESSAY ON Book ly.

Of cur rational expcctations

rcvolutionary excesses, the fear of which, at pit-
sent, threatens to deprive Europe cvcn of thit
degree of liberty which she had before experknoed
to be practicable, and the salutaiy effects of which
she had long enjoyed.

From a review of the State of society in fonner
periods, compared with the present, I should ccr«
tainly say, that the evils resulting from the princi*
ple of population have rather diminished than in«
creased, even under the disadvantage of an aimofit
total ignorance of their real cause. And if we csm
indulge the hope that this ignorance will bc gn*
dually dissipated, it does not seem unreasonabk
to ex pect that they will be still furthcr diminished.
The increase of absolute population which will of
course take place, will evideutly tend but littlc to
wcaken this expectation, as every thing depends

of discontent against constituted authoritics would rtnder
the pcople torpid and indifferent to advantages which arc
really attainable. The blessings of civil liberty are so
greai, that thcy surely cannot nccd the aid of falsc color-
ing to make them desirable. I should be sorry tothink
that the lower classes of people could never bc animiic^i
to assert their rights but by means of such illusory pro-
mises, as will generally make the remedy of rcsistancf
much worse than the disease tljat it was intcnded to cnrr.

Cfa^. XII. POPULATION. 499

respecting future improvemeiit.

upcm the relative proportions between population
and food, and not on the absolute number of peo-
ple. In the former part of this work it appeared
that the countnes which possessed the fewest
people, often suffered the most frpm the effects of
die principle of population : and it can scarcely be
doubted, that taking Europe throughout, fewer
Bonines and fewer diseases arising from want have
prevailed in die last Century, than those which
preceded it.

On the whole therefore, though our future pros-
pects respecting the mitigation of the evils arising
from the principle of population, may not be so
bright as we could wish, yet they are far from be*
ing entirely disheartening, and by no means pre-
dude th^ gradual and progressive improvement
in human society, which before the late wild spe-
culations on the subject, was the object of rational
ezpectation. To the laws of property and mar-
nage, and to the apparently narrow principle of
self-love which prompts each individual to exert
himself in bettering his condition, we are indebted
fisr all the noblest exertions of human genius, for
every tiüng that distinguishes the civilized from
tbe savage State. A strict inquiry into the priii-

500 ESSAY ON Book Jf'.

Of our rational expectations

ciple of population obliges us to conclude, that wc
shaD never be able to throw down the ladder by
which we have risen to this eminence ; but it bj
no means proves that we may not rise higher b)
the same means. The structure of society, in ils
great features, will probably always remain un-
changed» We have every reason to beUeve, ttai
it will always consist of a class of proprietors, and
a class of laborers ; but the condition of each, and
the Proportion which they bear to each other, may
be so altered as greatly to improve the hannoQj
and beauty of the whole. It would indecd be a
melancholy reflection, thatwhile the viewsofpby*
sical sciencc are daily enlarging, so as scarcclyto
be bounded by tlie most distant horizon, the sei
ence of moral and political philosophy should be
confiued within such narrow limits, or at best bt
so fceblc in its influencc, as to be unable to coun-
teract the obstacles to human happiness arising
froni a single cause. But howevcr formidabk
these obstacles may have appeared in some part>
of this work, it is hoped that the gencral result of
the inquir)' is such, as not to make us give up the
improvcment of human society in despair. The
partial good which seems to be attainable is wor-

Ouip. XII. POPULATION. 501

respecting future improvement.

thy of all our exertions ; is sufficient to direct our
eftbrts and animate our prospects. And although
we cannot expect diat the virtue and happiness of
mankind will keep pace with the briüiant carecr
of physical discoveiy, yet if we are not wanting to
ourselves, we may confidently indulge the hope,
that to no unimportant extent, they will be influ-
enced by its progress, and will partake in its
success.

i I

APPENDIX.

IN thepreface to the last edition of this Essay, I expressed
a hope, that the detailed manner in which I had treated
the subjecty and pursued it to its consequences, though it
might open the door to many objections, and expose me to
much severity of criticism, might be subservient to the im*
portant end of bringing a subject so ncarly connected with
the happiness of society into roore general notice. Con-
fbrmably to the same views I should always have feit wil<
ling to enter into the discussion of any serious objections
that were made to my principles or conclusions, to abandon
those which appeared to be false, and to throw fiirther
lights, if I could, on those which appeared to be true. But
though the work has excited a degree of public attention
much greater than I could have presumed to expect, yet
very little has becn written to controvcrt it ; and of that
littlcy the greatest part is so füll of illiberal declamation,
and so entirely destitute of argument, as to be evidently
beneath notice. What I have to say iherefore at prcsent.
will be directed rather more to the objections which have
been urged in conversation, than to those which have ap-
peared in print. My object is to correct sonie of the mis-
representations which have gone abroad respecting two or
threeofthemost im portant pointsof the Essay ; and I should
feel greatly obliged to those who have not had leisure to
read the whole work, if they would cast their eyes over the
few foUowing pages, that they may not, from the partial
and incorrect Statements which they have heard, mistake
the import of some of my opinions, and attribute to me
others which I have never held.

504 APPENDIX.

The first g^rand objection that has been made to my
principles is, that they contradict the original commaiid of
the Creator, to increase and multiply and replenish Üic
earth. But those who have urged thls objection have cer-
tainly either not read the work, or have directed their it«
tention solely to a few detached passages, and have beco
unable to seize the bent and spirit of the whole. I am fully
of opinion, that itis the duty of man to obey this coBtinand
of his Creator, nor is there in my recoUection a Single pas*
sage in the work, which, taken with the context, can, to
any reader of intelligence, Warrant the contrary inierena.

Every express comniand given to man by his Creator
is given in Subordination to those great and uniform lawi
of nature which he had previously established ; and we are
forbidden both by reason and reiigion to expect that tbeM
iawswill be changed in order to enable us to exccute more
readily any particular precept. It is undoubtedly tniei thit
if man were enabled miraculously to live without food,tlM
eat*th would be vcry rapidly rcplenished ; but as we han
not the slightest ground of hope that such a miracle wifl
be worked for this purposc, it bccomes our positive diitj
as rcasonablr crealiires, and with a view of executing the
commands ol our Crciilor, to inquirc into the laws which
he has cslyhlislucl for the nuiltiplication of the spccic*.
And when wc tind nol only froni the spcculative contem-
plation of tlicse laws, but from the far more powerfuland
impcriou» su^j^cstions of our senses, that man cannot livf
without food, it is a folly exactly of the same kind tu »t-
tempt to obey the will of our Creator by increa&ing popu*
lution without refcrcncc to ihe means of its support, as to
litte mpt ib obtain an abundant crop of corn by sowingit on
the way side and in hcdges, whcre it cannot rccei\c U'
proper nourishment. Which is it, I would ask, ihatbe»t
scconds the benevolcnt intcntions of the Creator in covcr-
inj» the earth with esculcnt vegciables, he who wilh carf
*nd fuiijsighl duly plouj^^hs and prcpares a picce of groun<i

APPENDIX. 505

nd sows no niorc seed than hc expects will grow up to
iiaturity, or he who scatters a profusion of seed indißcr-
ntly ovcr the land, without rcfercnce to the soll on which
: falls, or any previous preparülion for its rcception ?

It is an utter misconception of my arguinent to infcr
bat I am an encmy to population. I am only an enemy to
ice and misery, and conscquently to that unfavourable
roportion betwecn population and food which produces
bese cvils. But this unfavourable proportiou has no ne-
essary connection with the quantity of absolute populati-
n which a country may contain. On the contrary, it is
nore frequently found in countiücs which are very thinly
«opled, than in those which are populous.

The bent of my argument on the subject of population
(lay be iilustrated by the instance of a pasture farm. If a
oung grazier wcre told to stock his land well, as on his
tock would depend his proRts, and the ultimate success
if his undeitaking, he would certuinly have bcen told no-
hing but what was strictly true. And he would have to
ccuse himself, not lüs advisers, if in pursuance of these
istructions he were to push the breeding of his cattle tili
hey bccame lean and half-starved. His instructor, when
le talked of the advantages of a large stocke meant un-
loubtedly stock in proper condition, and not such a stock,
s though it might be numerically greater was in valuc
nuch less. The expression of stocking a farm well does
lOt refer to particular numbers, but merely to that propor-
ion which is best adapted to the farm, whether it be a poor
•r a rieh one, whether it will carry ßfty head of cattle or
ive hundred. Ii is undoubtedly extremely desirable that
L should carry the greater number, and evcry effort should
»e made to effect this object ; but surely that iarmer could
kot be considered as an enemy to a larjge quantity of stock,
rho should insist upon the follyand improprietyof attempt-
ng to breed such a quantity, before the land was put int* a
x>ndition to bear it.

rol. ii. t t t

506 APPENDIX.

The argumenta which I have used respecüiig the iu-
crease of population are exactly of the same nature as thcie
just mentioned. I believe that it is the iutention of the
Creator that the earth snould be replenished* ; butcertain*
ly with a healthy, virtuous, and happy population, not an un-
healthy, vicious, and miserable one. And if in endearoar-
ing to obey the command to increase and niultiply,we peo-
ple it only with beings of this latter descriptionf and suffer
accordingly, we have no right toimpeach the justice of the
command, but cur irrational mode of executing it.

In the desirablenesa of a grcat and efficient populatioo,
I do not differ from the wärmest advocates of increaie« l
am perfectly ready to acknowledge with the writera of cid,
that it is not extent of territory but extent of popubtioa
that measurißs the power of states. It is only as to the
mode of obtaining a vigorous and efliicient population that
I differ from them ; and in thus difiering I conceive my-
self entirely bome out by expericncci that great test of all
human speculations.

It appears from the undoubted testimony of registerii
that a large proportion of marriages and births is by od
means nccessurily connected with a rapid increase of po-
pulutiün, but is oiten found in countries whcrc it is eithcr
stationary or incrcasing ver)' slowly. The population of
such countries is not only comparatively inelRcient from
the ^encral poverty and misery of the inhabitants, but in-
rariably contains a much langer proportion of persons in
those siages of life in which they are unable to contribute
their share to the rcsources, or the defence of the State.

This is most strikingly illustratcd in an instance which
I have quoted from M. Muret, in a chapter on Switzerland,
where it appeared that in proportion to the same populati-
on, the Lyonois produced 16 births, the Pays de Vaud 1 1*

• This opinion I have expressed, p. 491 of the 4to. edit. and p
315, vd. ii 8vo. edii

APPENDIX. 307

and a particular parish in the Alps only 8 ; but that at the
age of 20 these three very different numbers were all re-
duced to the same*. In the Lyonois nearly half of the po-
pulaüon was under the age of puberty, in the Pays de Vaud
one thirdy and in the parish of the Alps only one fburth.
The inference from such facts is unavoidable^ and of the
highest importance to society.

The power of a country to increase its resources, or de-
fend its possessions, must depend principally upon its effi-
cient population, upon that part of the popuIation which is
of an age to be employed effectually in agriculture, com-
merce, or war; but it appears with an evidence liitle short
of demonstration, that in a country the resources of which
do not naturally call fbr a larger proportJon of births, such
an increase, so fair from tending to increase t&is efficient
Population, would tend materially to diminish it. It would
undoubtedly at first increase the number of souls in Pro-
portion to the means of subsistence, and consequently cru-
elly increase the pressure of want ; but the number of per-
sona rising annually to the age of puberty might not be so
great as before, a larger part of the produce would be dis-
tributed without return to children who would never reach
inanhood ; and the additional popuIation instead of giving
addiüonal strength to the country would essentially lessen
this strength, and operate as a constant obstacle to the
creation of new resources.

We are alittle dazzled at present by the popuIation and
power of France, and it is known that she hsis always had a
large proportion of births : but if any rcliance can be plac*
ed on what are considered as the best authorities on thia
subject, it is quite certain, that the advantages whicH she
enjoys do not arise from any thing peculiar in the struc*
tute of her popuIation ; but solely from the great absolute
quantity of it, derived from her immense eztent of £ertile
territory.

• Page 271, 4to. edit. aind p 399, vol. i. 8vo. «lit

608 APPENDIX.

The cfleclivc popuIation in this country, compired
%vith the whole, is considerably greater than in France; and
England not only can, but does employ a larg^r proportioQ
of her Population in augmcnting anddefending her resoar-
ces, than her great rival. According to thc StatUtiquc ft'
iieralc et ftarticulUrc de ia France lately published, thc pro-
portion of the popuIation undcr twenty is almost /^ ; in
England it is probably not much more than ^^, Conse-
quently out of a popuIation of ten milüonsy England would
have a million more of persons above twenty than France«
and would at Icast have threc or four hundred thousand
more malcs of a militaiy agc. If our popuIation wcrc of
the same description as that of France^ it must be increas-
cd numerically by more than a million and a half in order
to cnablc us to produce from England and Wales the same
number of persons above the agc of twenty as at present ;
and if wc had only an increuse of a million, our cfl^ient
strcngth in agriculture, commerce, and war, would bc in
the most dccided manner diminished, while at the same
timc the distrcsses of the lower classes would be dreadful*
ly incrcysed. Can any rational man say that an additioniJ
pop\ilation of tbis (lescriplion would be dcsirablc eithrriu
a moral or political vicw ? And yet this is thc kind of po-
puIation which invariably rcsults from dircct encouraj^c-
mcnts to marriagc, or from that want of personal rcspccta-
bility which is occasioned by ignorance and despotism.

It may pcrhaps be truc that France fills her armies
with greater facility and Icss Interruption to the usual la-
bours of her inhabitants than England ; and it must l>c
acknowlcdgcd that poverty and want of employment «rc
powerful aids to a rccruiting serjeant ; but it would not
bc a vcry humane project, to kecp our people always in
want, for the sake of cnlisting them cheaper, nor would
it bc a vcry politic project, to diminish our wcalth ai»d
strcngth with the same cconomical view. \Ve cunnot
attain incompatiblc objccts ; if we possess the advnntage

APPENDIX. 509

of being able to keep nearly all our people constantly em-
ployed either in agriculture or comtnerce, we cannot ex-
pect to retain the opposite advantage of their being always
at leisure, and willing to enlist for a very small sum*. But
WC may rest pcrfcctiy assured, that while we have the ef-
ficient Population, we shall never want men to fill our ar-
mies if we propose to them adecjuate motives.

In raany partsof the Essay I have dweltmuch on the ad-
vantage of rcaring the requisite popuiation of any country
from the smallest number of births. I have stated exprcss-
ly, that a decrease of mortality at all agesis what we ought
chiefly to aim at; and as the bestcriterion of happiness und
good government, instcad of the largeness of the Proporti-
on of births, which was the usual mode of jndging, I have
proposed the smallness of the proportion dying undcr the
&ge of pnberty. Conscious that I had never intcntional-
ly Jeviated from these principles, I might well be rather
surprised to hear that I had been considered by some as
in enemy to the introduction of the Vaccine inoculation,
which is calculated to attain the very end which I have uni-
Porrnlv considered as so desirable. I have indeedintimat-
cd what 1 still continue most firmly to believe, that if the
rcsources of the country would not permanently admit of
I greatly accelerated rate of increase in the population
[and whether they would or not, must certainly depend
lipon other causes besides the number of livcs saved by
the Vaccine inoculationf)? onc of two things would happen,

* This subject is strikingly Ulustrated in Lord Selkirk's lucid and
nasterly observations on the present State of the Highlands, and on th«
amses and probable consequences of emigration, to which I can with
:onfidence refer the reader.

t It should be remarkcd howcver, that a young person saved from
leath is more likely to contribute to the creation of f rcsh resourccs than
inother blrth. It 'is a grcat loss of labour and food to begin over again.
Kvd universally it is true, that under similar circnmstances, that articie
irttt come the cheapest to market which is acc^^mpanied by fcwest fai!-
res.

510 APPENDIX.

either an increased mortality of some other diseases» ort
diminution in the proportion of births But I have ex-
pressed my coDvictioD that the iatter eiTect wou&d Ukc
place ; and therefore consistcntly with the opinions whkk
I have always maintained, I ought to be, and am, ooc of
the wärmest friends to the introduction of the cofr-pos.
In niaking every exertion, which I think iikely tobe eiiec-
tual} to increase the comforts and diminish the mortküif
among the poor, I act m the most exact conformity to mf
principles. Whether those are equally consistent, vh»
profess to have the same object in view, aod yet measait
the happincss of nations by the large proportion of um-
riages and births, is a point which they would do well to
consider.

It has been aaid by some, that the natural checks to p»>
pulation will always be sufficient to keep it within bomuhi
without rc sortin g to any other aids ; and one ingenioiii
Ayriter has remarked that I have not deduced a Single ori-
ginal fact from real observations to prove the inefficidicj
of the checks which already prevail*. These remarksarc
correctly true, and are truisms exactly of the same kind
as the asscrtion that man cannot live without food. For
undoubtcdly as long as this continues to be a law of bis ai-
ture, what are here called the natural checks cannot posä-
bly fail of being effectual. Besides the curious tmism
that these assertions involve, they proceed upon the very
Strange supposition that the uUimate object of my work i*
to check Population, as if any thing could be more destrt-
ble than the most rapid increase of populatioD unaccooi-
panied by vice and misery. But of course my ultiroateob*
ject is to diminish vice and misery, and any checks to po*
pulation wlüch may have been suggested, are solelj as

* I shoiild like much to know what description of facts this gratk*
man had in view when he rnade this Observation. If I could have ioatk
onc of the kind which seems here to be ailuded to, it wouki
been truly criginal.

APPENDIX. 51»

neans to accomplish this end. To a faüonal being, the
>rudeniial check to population ought to be considered as
squally natural with the check from poverty and prema-
ure mortality, which these gentltmen seem to think so
iotirely sufHcient and satisfactory ; and It will readily
»ccur to the intelligent reader, that one class of checks
nay be subsituted for another, not only without essentially
dminishing the population of a country, but even under a
:onstantly progressive increase of it*.

On the possibility of increasing very considerably the
affective population of this country, I have expressed my-
lelf in some parts of my work more sanguinely, perhaps,
han experience would Warrant. I have said that in the
:ourse of some ccnturies it might contain two or three
imes as many inhabitants as at present, and yet every per-
M>n be both better fed and better clothedf. And in the
:omparison of the increase of population and fbod at the
>eginning of the Essay, that the argument might not seem
o depend upon a diflference of opinion respecting facts, I
lave allowed the produce of the earth to be unlimited,
rhich is certainly going too far. It is not a little curious
herefore, that it should still continue to be urged agunst
ne as an argument, that this country might contain two
)r three times as many inhabitants ; and it is still more
:urious, that some persons who have allowed the different
■atios of increase on which all my principal conclusions
\re founded, have still asserted that no difficulty or distress
;ould arise from population, tili the producdons of the
^arth could not be further ihcreased. I doubt whether a
(tronger instance could readily be produced of the total ab-
lence of the power of reasoning, than this asserüon, afler

* Both Norway, and Switzerland, where the preventive check pre-
ailt the mott, are increasing with some rapidity in their population i
nd in Proportion to their means of subsistence, they can produce more
lales of a miUtary age than any other country of Europe.

t Page 512. 4to. edit. p. 350, toI. ii. 8\'o. edit.

^12 APPENDIX.

such a concession, afibrds. It involves a grcaier absurdj-
ty than the saying, that bccause a farm can by proper man-
age inent be raade to carry an addiüonal stock of ibur head
of catde every year, thi^ thercfore no difiiculty or inconve-
niencc would arise if an addiüonal forty wcrc pLiced ii
it yearly.

The power of the earth to produce subsistence is ccr-
tainly not unlimited, but it is strictly speaking indefinite«
that is, its limits are not dcfined, and the tinie will proba*
bly never arrive when wc shall be able to say, that no far-
ther labour or ing^nuity of man could make further additi-
ons to it. But the power of obtaining an additional quan-
tity of food from the carth by proper managementf and ia
a certain timc, has the most remote relation imaginabk
to the power of keeping pace with an unrestricted io-
crease of population. The knowledge and industry «hkb
would enable the nativcs of New Holland to make the bes:
use of the natural rcsourccs of thcir country, must« wUh*
out an absolute miracle, come to them gradually and ak>v-
ly ; and even then,asit has amply appeared, would be per-
fectly ineffectual as to the grand object ; but the passions
which prompt to the increasc of population are ahvays ir.
fuH vi^our, and are ready to produce their füll cflccl tnn
in a State of the most helpicss ij^norance and barbariNni. It
will be readily allowcd, that the reason why New Holland,
in Proportion to its natural powers, is not so populousü^
China, is the want of those human instiiutions which pro-
tcct propcrty and encouragc industr>' ; but the miscr\- an«i
vice which prcvail almost cqually in both countrics from
the tcndency of population toincrease fasterthan the nica»»
of subsistence, form a distuictconsideration, and arise fruni
a (Ustinct cause. They arise from theincomplctedisciplim
of the human passions ; and no person with the slighttrs*
knowlcdge of mankind has ever had the hardihood toafhrm.
that human institutions could complctely discipline all thr

APPENDIX. 515

human pa^sions. But I have alreadf treated this subject
so fully in the course of the worl^ that I am ashamed to
add anj thing farther here.

The next grand objectionwhichhas been urged against
mC) is my denial of the right ofjthe poor to support.

Those who would maintain this objection with any de«
gree of consistency are bound to show that the different
ratio« of increase with respect to population and food»
which I attempted to establish at the beginning of the Es-:
9kjf are fundamentally erroneous ; as on the supposition
of their being true, the conclusion is inev;^table. If it ap->
pear, as it must appear on these ratios being allowed, that
il is not possiUe for the industiy of man to produce sufBci-
ent fo^ for all that would be born} if every person were to
marry at the time when he was first prompted to it by in«
dination, it foUows irresistibly that all cannot have a righi
to Support. Let us for a moment suppose m equal divisi--
on of property in any country. If under these circum-
stances one half of the . society were by prudential habits
so to reg^late their increase^ that it exactly kept pace with
their increasing cultivation, it is evident that they would
always remain as rieh as at first. If the other half during
the same time married at the age of puberty, when they
ivould probably feel most inclined to it, it is as evident that
they would soon become wretchedly poor. But upon what
plea of justice or equitycould this second half of the socie-
ty Claim a right, in virtue of their poverty, to any of the
possessions of the first half. This poverty had arisen en«
tirely from their o¥m ignorance or imprudence ; and it
vould be perfectiy clear from the manner in which it had
come uponthem, that if their plea were admitted^and they
were not suffered to feel the particular evilsresulting from
their conduct, the whoie society would shortly be involved
in the same degree of wretchedness. Any volontary and
temporary assistance which might be giren as a measure
i)ol. ii. u u u

3U APPENDIX.

of charity by the richer members of thc socicty to tbf
others, while they wcre Icaming tomake a bcttcmae of thc
lessons of nature, would be quite a distinct considentkmr
and vrithout doubt mosC properly applied ; btit nothiDf^
likc a Claim of right to support can possibly bc munttinerf
tili WC dcny the premises ; tili we affirm that thc Ameri-
can increase of population is a miracle, and docs not arise
from the greater facility of obtaining the mcans of siibiiit-
fence*.

In fact) whatever we niay aay in our declamatiooi ea
this subject, almost the whole of oar conduci is ibnnded on
the non-existence of this right. If the poor had reaJlf t
Claim of right to support, I donot think thatany man could
. justify bis wearing broad cloth, or eating as much vicat as
he likcs for dinner, and those who asscrt this right, and yet
are roUing in their carriages, living erery day luxurioushri
and keeping even their horses on food of which thcir fei-
low creatures are in want, must be allowed to act vith the
greatest inconsistency. Takinganindividual inatancewhh-
out reference to consequences, it appears to me that Mr.
Godwin's argumcnt is irresistible. Can ii be prctcndcd
for a momcnt that a part of the mutton which I cxpect to
eat to day would not be much more bcneficially employcd

• It has bccn said that I havc writtcn a quano volume to prov? ihn
po{)ulation increases in a geometrical.aad food in an arithmctical mw.
but this is not quite true. The Hrst of these propositions I con^idcm)
as j)roved thc moment that the Amfhcaii increase was related, and thtf
second proposition as soon as it was euunciated. The chief t^jt»:i ci
my work wasto inquirc what effects thesc laws, which I considercJii
established in the ürst six pages had produced, and werc hkcly to pro-
duce on society ; a subject not very readily exhausted. The princi|al
fauh of my details is, that they are not suflüciently particular ; bui tUis
was a fault which it was not in my power to remedy. It wouUi be i
most curious, and to every philosophical mind a most interesting ]iiccc
of Information, to know the exact share of thc füll power of increase
TV'hich each existing check prcvenu i bui at present 1 see no mode oc
qbtaiiüog such infoniution.

APPENDIX. 545

\m some hard-workinglabourer whohas not periiaps tasted
aniraal food for the last week, or on some poor family who
cannot command sufficient food of any kind fully to sdtis-
ff the cravings of appetite ? If these instances were not
of a nature to multiply in proportion as such wants were
indiscriminately grattfted, the gratification of them, as it
would be practicabiey«would be highly beneficial ; and in
this case I should not have the smallest hcsitation in most
fuUy ailowing the right. But as it appears clearly both
from theory and experience» that if the claim were aliow-
ed it would soon increase beyond the /loasiöility of satisfy-
ingity and that the practical attcnipt todo so, would involve
the human race in the most wretchedand universal pover-
ty, it foUows necessarily that our conduct, which denies
the right, is more suited to the present State of our being^
than our declamations which allow it.

The great author of nature, indeed, with that wisdom
which is apparent in all his works, has not left this conclu-
aion to the cold and speculative consideration of gcneral
consequences. By making the passion of self-love beyond
•comparison stronger than the passion of benevolence, he
has at once impelled tis to that line of conduct which is es-
sential to the preservaüon of the human race. If all that
might be bom could be adequately supplied, we cannot
doubt that he would have made the desire of giving to
others as ardent as that of supplying ourselves. But as
under the present constituüonof thing^ this is not so, he
has enjoined every man to pursue, as his primary objecto
his own safety and happiness, and the safety and happiness
of those immediately connected with him ; and it is highly
instructive to observe, that in proportion as the sphere
contracts, and the power of giving effectual assistance in-
creflses, the desire increäses at the same time. In the
case of children who have certainly a cladm of right to the
Support and protecüon of their parents, we generaUy find

5U APPENDIX.

par^ntal affection nearly as streng as sclf-lovc ; aiid cxccp!
in d iew anomalous cases, the last morsel will bc divklcc!
into equal shares.

By tbis wisc provision the inost Ignorant arc led to pn>-
mote thcgeneral happiness9 an end which thcj wouldlitve
totullv failcd to atuln if the moving principle of thc'trcon-
duct had been benevolence*. Benevolence indeed, uthc
g^cat and constant source of action, would requirc the most
perfect knowledge of causcs and effectS} and thereforc caa
only be the attribute of the Deity. In a being so skort«
aighted as man, it would lead into the gössest errors, um!
8oon transform the fair and cultivated soil of civilized sod-
ety into a dreary scene of want aad confusion.

Hut thougb benevolence cannot in the present State d
cur bcing be the grcat movhig principle of human actioQS,
yet as the kind corrector of the evils arising &om the other
stronger passion, it is essential to human happinesS) it is
the balm and consolation and grace of human lifei tke
tource of our noblest efforts in the cause of Tirtaef and of
cur purest and most refined pleasures. Conformably to
that System of gcneral laws, according to which the Sa-
preme Being appeurs with vcry few exccptions to act, i
paüsion so strong and gencral as self-love could not prcraii
willioutpioducingniuch partialevil; andtoprcTcntthispxs-
sion from dcgenerating into the odious vice of selfishncss!«
to makc us sympathise in the pains and pleasures of oui

• In sayingthls Ict nie qot bc supposcd to givc the slightest lancti-
on to the s\ Stern of morals inculcated in the FabU oftbc Btxj, a s;s:cin
ivhich I crmsider as absoluieK false, and diivctlv conirar\ to ihc i-it
definition of virtue. The great art of Dr. Mandeville consifted m m»-
nomers.

t It secms proper to make a dccidcd distinction betwccn seif lovt
and selH&hness, betwccn that passion wlnch under proper rcgulaiioni
is the source of all honourable industry, and of all the nrcessark»» and
Gonvenienci'>s of life, and the samc (ntshion pushcd to exccvs, when h
become^ u^elcss and disgusting, and consc^ticutly vicioQs.

APPENDIX. 517

tellow-creatures, and feel the same kind of intere&t in thcir
happincss and misery as in our own, though diminished in
degree» to prompt us often to put ourseives in their placei
that we may understand thcir wants, acknowledge thcir
rights, and do them good as we Have opportunity ; anjd to
remind us continualiy, that even the passion which urges
US to procure plenty for ourselves was not implanted in us
for our own exdusive ad van tage, but as the means of pro-
curing the greatest plenty for all ; these appear to be the
objects and oilices of benevolence. In every Situation of
life there is ample room for the exercise of this virtue ;
and as each individual rises in society, as he advances in
knowledge and excellence, as his power of benefiting
others becomes greater, and the necessary attention to his
own wants less, it will naturally come in for an increasing
share among his constant motivesof action. In situations
öf high tnist and influence it ought to have a yery large
sliare, and in all public institutions be the great moVing
principle. Though we have often reason to fear that our
benevolence may not take the most beneficial directioni
we need never apprehend that there will be too much of
it in Society. The fbundations of that passion on which
our preservation depends, are fixed so deeply in our na-
iure, that noreasonings or addresses to our feelings can es-
sentially disturb it. It is just therefore» and proper, that
all the positive precepts shoold be on tlie side of the weak«
er impulse ; and we may safely endeavor to increase and
cxtend its influence at much as we are able, if at the same
time we are constantly on the watch to prevent the evil
which may arise from its misapplication.

The law which in this country entitles the poor to re-
lief is undoubtedly different from a füll acknowledgment
of the natural right ; and from this difference and the ma-
nycounteracting causes that arise from the mode of its ex-
ecution, it will not of coursc be attended with the same
consequences. But still it is an approximation to a füll

$16 APPENDIX,

acknowlcdgmcnt) and as such appears ta produce mucb
evily both with regard to tbe habils and the temper of Üie
poor. I have in consequence ventured to suggest a plan
of gradual abolition, which, as might bc expecled> has not
met with universal approbadon. I can readily undenund
any objcctions that may be madc to it, on the plea that tbe
right having been once acknowledged in this country, tbe
revocation pf it might at first cxcite discontents ; aud
should thercfore most fully concur in the propriety of pro-
cecding with the greatest caution, and of using tili possiblc
means of preventing any sudden shock to the opinions of
the poor. But I have nevcr been able to comprchcnd tbe
grounds of tbe further assertion whtch l have somctimcs
heard.made, that if the poor were reaiiy convinced tbaC
they had no claim of right to relief, they would in gencral
be more inclined to be discontented and seditious. Ol
these occasions the only way I have of judging is to put
mysclf in iniagination in the place of the poor man« and
consider how l should feei in bis Situation. If I were toki
that the rieh by the laws of nature and the laws of the land
were bound to support me» I could not, in the 6r8t place«
feel mucJi Obligation for such support ; and in the ncxi
place if I were given any food of an inferior kind, and could
not bcc the absolute necessity of the changc, which \%ould
probably bethe case, I should think thatl had good rcason
to compluin. I should fecl that the laws had been violatcd to
my injury, and that 1 had been ujijustly deprivcd of ni)
right. Undcr these circumstiuiccs, though I might bc
deterrcd by the fear of au armed forcc from committin^
any ovcrt acts of rcsistancc, yct I should consider mysclf
as pcrfcctly jusiified in so doing, if this fear were remov-
cd, and the injur}' which I beÜeved that I had suffercd might
produce the most unfavourablc effccts on my general dis-
positions towards the higher claßscs of socicty. I cannot
indcc 1 conccivc any thing niore irritating to the human
re<*iin.;s, thiui to cxpcrience that dcgree of distress which«

APPENDIX. 519

ili spite of all our poor laws and benevolencc, is not un-
frequently feit in this country ; and yet lo believe that
Üiese suflerings were not brought upon mc cither by iny
own faults, or by the Operation of those gencral iaws, \vhtch
tike the tempest, the biight, or the pesüience> are continu«
ally faHing hard on particular individuals, while otliers cn-
Urely escape, but were occasioned sölely by the avariceand
injustice of the higher classes of society.

On the contrary, if I hrrnly beiieved that by the laws
of nature, * which are the laws of God, I had no claim of
right to Support) I should, in the first place, feel myself
more strongly bound to a life of industry and frugaiity ;
but if want, notwithstanding came upon me, I should con-
üidcr it in the light of sickness, as an evil incidental to my
prescnt State of being, and which, if I could not avoid, it
was my duty to bear with fortitude and resignation. I
should know from past experience, that the best title I
could have to the assistanceof the benevolcnt would bc the
Bot having brought myself into distress by my own idle-
ness or extravagance. What I receivcd would have the
best effect on my feelings towards ihc highfcr classcs. Even
if it were much inferior to what I had been accustomed
to, it would still, instead of an injury, be an Obligation ;
and conscious that I had no claim of rights nothing but the
fear of absolute famine, which would overcome all other
eonsiderations, could morally justify rcsistance.

I cannot help believing that if the poor in this coun*
try were convinced that they had no claim of right to Sup-
port, and yet in scarcities and all cases of urgent distress,
were liberally relieved, which I think they would bc, the
hond which unites the rieh with the poor would be drawn
much closer than at present, and the lower classes of soci«
etj) at they would have less real reason fbr irritation and
discontent, would be much less subject to these uneasy
sensations.

Among those who have objected to my declaration that
the poor have no claim of right to support is Mr. Young,

5-36 APPENDIX.

who, vfith a harshness not quite becoming a candid inquir-
er after trutb> has called iny proposal fbr the j^radual abo-
lition of the poor laws a horrible plan« and assicrted that
the execution of it would be a most iniquitous procecding.
Letthis plan bowever bc compared for a moment vidi
that which he himself and others have proposedy of fixing
the sum of the poor rates which qji no account is to bc in-
creased. Under such a law, if the di&tresses of the poor
were to be ag^ravated tenfold, either by the increaae of
numbers or the recurrence of a scarcity> the same som
would invariably be appropriated to their relief. If tbe
Statute which gives the poor a right to support were to re-
main unexpunged, we sdould add to the cnielty of stanr-
ing them, theextreme injustice of still t^rofc^nng to re-
lieve them. If this Statute were expunged or altered ve
ahould Yirtually deny the right of the poor to support^ and
only retain the absurdity of saying that they had a right to
a certain sum ; an absurdity on which Mr. Young justh
comments with much severity in the case of France*. In
both cases the hardships which they would sufTer would bc

* The National Assembly of France, though they disapprc\-fd <c
the English poor laws, still adopted their priiiciple, and deciaird tu.*
the poor had a right to pecuniar>' assistance , that th« Assembly ougu*
to consider such a provision as one of its first and nio&t sacred doa»
and that with this view, an expense ought to be incurred to the aransi-
of 50 roilUons a year. Mr. Young justly observes, that he does nct ccc-
prehend how it is possible to regard the expenditure of 50 millioos ^
sacred duty, and not extend that 50 to 100 if neccssitj should dena:-J
it, the 100 to 200, the 200 to 300, and so on in the same niiserafaie pto.
gression which has taken place in England. Tnvds in Fiance, c xv
p. 439.

I should be the last man to quote Mr. Young against himself, if I
rhought he had ieft the path of error for the path of trutb, as such kird
of inconsistency I hold to be highly praiseworthy But thinking on the
contrary that he has Ieft tnith for error, it is surdy jusüfiable to rrnuod
him of his former opinions. We may recal to a vicious man his iormtx
virtuous conduct, though it would be useless and tndelicate to rcmind -
virtuons man of the vices which hc had rcUnquishcd*

*^v -

APPENDIX. 52 1

mnch more severe, and would come upon them in a much
more unprepared State, than upon thc plan proposed in
the Essay.

According to this plan, all that are already married, and
cren a)l that are enaged to marry during the course of the
year, and all their children would be relieved as usual ;
and only those whpmarry subsequently, and who of course
may be «upposed to have made better provision for con-
tingencies vrould be out of the pale of relief.

Any plan for the abolition of the poor laws must pre-
suppose a general acknowledgment that they are essen-
üally wrong, and that it is necessary to tread back our
Steps. With this acknowledgment, whatever objections
may be made to my plan, in the too frequently short-sight-
ed Views of policy, I have no fear of comparing it with any
other that has yet been advanced, in point of justice and
humanity ; and of course the terms iniquitous and horri-
ble ^^ pass by me like the idle wind which I regard not.'*

Mr. Young it would appear hasnow given up this plan.
He has pleaded for the privilege of being incondstent, and
has given such reasons for itthatlam diposedto acquiesce
in them,provided he confines the exercise of this privilege
to different publications, in the iuterval between whichf
he may have collected new facts ; but I still think it npt
quite allo wähle in the same publication ; and yeC it appears
that in the very paper in which he has so severely con-
demned my scheme, the same arguments which he
has used to reprobate it are applicable with equal force
against bis own proposal, as he has there explained it.

He allows that his plan can only provide for a certain
numberof families,andhas nothing to dowith the increase
from them* ; but in allowing this, he allows that it dees
not reach the grand difhculty attending a provision for the

• Annals of Agriculture, No, 239« p. 219.

vol. ii. XXX

523 APPENDIX.

poor. In this most csscntial point, after reprobaüng nie
for sayiiig that the poor have no claim of righi to support«
he is compelled to adopt the very same conclusiony and to
own that " it might bc prudcnt to coDsider the misery la
<< which the progressive population niight be subject,
^ w'hen therewas not a sufficient demand for them in towns
^ and manufactures, as an evil which it was absolutelf
*^ and physicaily impossiblc to prevent." New the tele
reason why I say that the poor have no clum of right to
aupporti is the physical impossibility of relieving thb pro«
gressivc population. Mr. Young expressly acknowledges
t)iis physical impossibility ; yet witb an inconsistency scarce«
ly credible, still declaims against my declaration.

The power which the society may possess of reUeving
a certain portion of the poor is a consideration perfectly
distinct from the general question ; and I anA quite sure
I have never said that it is not our duty to do all the good
that is practicable. But this limited power of assisting in-
dividuals cannot potsibly establish a general right. If the
poor have really a natural right to support, and if our pre«
sent laws be only a confirmation of this right« it ought ccr-
tainly to extend unimpaired to all whoare in distress, to the
increase from the cottagers as well as to the coitac^crs
themselvcs ; and it would be a palpable injusticc in ihc
Society to adopt Mr. Young's plan, and purchase from ihc
present gencration the disfranchisementof their posieriiy.

Mr. Young objects very strongly to that passagc of the
Essay*, in which I observe, that a man who plunges him-
self into poverty and dependcncc by marrying without any
prospect of bcing able to maintain bis family« has morc
reason to accusc himsclf, than the pricc of labour, the pa-
rish, the avarice of the rieh, the institutions of society, and
the dispcnsations of Providence ; exccpt in as far as he
has bccn dcccivcd by thosc who ought to have instructed

• Book IT. c. iii. p. 506, 4to. edit Vol. ü. p. 339. 8vi.

A>PENDnt. SK

him. In answer to this, Mr. Young says, that thc poor
fellow is justified in every one of these complaints, that
of Providencc alone excepted ; and that seeing other cot-
tagers living corafortaWy with three or four acres of land,
he has cause to accuse instituüons which deny him that
which the rieh could weil spare, and which wouid giva
him all he wants*. I would heg Mr. Young for a moment
to consider how the matter would stand, if his own plan
were completely executed. After all the commons had been
divided as he has proposed, if a labourer had more than
one son, in what respect would thisson be in a different Sit-
uation from the man that I have supposed ? Mr. Youn^
cannot possibly mean to say, that if he had the very natur-
al desire of marrying at twenty, he would still have a right
to complain that the society did not gtre him a house and
three or four acres of land. He ha^ indeed expressly de«
nied this absurd consequence, though in so doing he has
directly contradicted the declaration just quotedf. The
progressive population, he says, would, according to his
System, be cut off from the influence of the poor laws, and
the encouragement to marry would remain exactly in that
ptt)portion less than at present. Under these circumstanc'^
es, without land, without the prospect of patish relief, and
with the price of labour only sufücient to maintain two-
children, can Mr. Young seriously think that the poor
man, if he be really aware of his Situation, does not do
wrong in marrying, and ought not to accuse himself for
following what Mr. Young calls the dictates of €k>d« of na-
turc, and of revelation ? Mr. Young cannot be unaware of
the wretchedness that must inevitably foUow a marriage
under such circumstances. His plan makes no provision
whatever for altering these circumstances. He must there«
fbre totally disregardall the misery ariaing from excessi?e

• AnnaVs of Agncultare, Na 239, p 226.
t Wem, p. 2X4/

ö24 APPENDIX.

poverty, or if he allows that these supemumerary memben
must necessarily wsdty either tili a cottage with Umd be-
comes vacant in the country, or that by emigraüng to tora
they can find the means of providing for a funily, all the
declamation vhich he has urged with auch pomp against de*
ferring marriage in my System» would be equally appUci-
ble in his own System. In fact, if Mr. Young's plan realif
attained the object which it professes to have in view, that
of betteiing.the condition of the poor, and did not deleit
its intent by encouraging a too rapid multiplication» isd
consequently lowering the price of labour, it cannot be
doubted that not oniy the supemumerary members just
mentioned) but all the labouring poor must wait longer
before they could marry, than they do at present.

The following proposition may be said to be c^>ab]e of
mathematical demonstration. In a country whose resourc*
es will not permancntly admit of an increase of populatioa
more rapid than the existing rate, no improvement in the
condition of the people which would tend to diminish mor-
tality could fiosMly take place without being accompanied
by a smaller Proportion of births, supposing of course no par-
ticular increase of emigraüon*. To a person who has cod-
^dered the subject, there is no proposition in Euclid

• With regard to the resource of emigration, I refer the readcr to
the 4th chapter, Book üi. of the Essay. Nothing is more easy than to
say, that three fourths of the habitable globe are yet unpeopied, bot it
is by no means so easy to fiU these parts with' flourishing colonies. The
peculiarcircumstances which have causedthe spirit of emigration in the
Highlands, so cleariy explained in the able work of Lord Selkirk be-
fore referred to,are notofconstant recurrence; nor is it by any messs
to be wished that they should be so. And yet without some such dr-
cumstances, people are by no means very ready to leave their natire
söil, and will bear mucü distress at home, rather than venture oo these
distant regions. I am of opinion that it is both the duty and interes:
of govemments to facilitate emigration, but it would surely be onjust to
oblige people to leave theijr couatry and kindred against their ixKÜnatv
ong.

APPENDIX. s'^s

which brings home to the xnind a strenger conviction than
this, and there is no truth so invariably conBrmed by all thc
registers of births, deaths, and marriages that have ever
been collected. In this country it has appeared that accord-
ingto the returns of the populaüon act, the proportion of
births to deaths is about 4 to 3. This proportion with a
mortality of l in 40*, would double the population in 83
years and a half ; and as we cannot suppose that thc coun-
try could admit of jnore than a quadrupled population in
the next hundred and sixty-six years, we may safely say tliat
its resources will not allow of a permanent rate of increuse
greater than that which is taking place at present. Bat if
this be granted, it foUows as a dircct conclusion, that if Mr.
Young's plan, or any other, really succeeded in bcttenng
the condition of the poor, and enabling them to rear more
of their children, the vacancies in cottages in proportion to
thc nuxnber of expectants would happen slower than at
prebcnt, and the age of marriage must iiievitably be latcr.
Those therefore, who propose plans for bettering the con-
dition of the poor, and yet at the same time reprobate later
or fewer marriages, are guilty of the most puerile incon-
sistency ; and I cannot but bc perfectly astonished that Mr.
Young, who once understood the subject, should have in-
dulged himself in such a poor declamation about passions>
profligacy, buming, and ravens. It is in fact a silly, not to
say impious, declamation against the laws of nature and
the dispensatioDS of Providence.

With reg^ard to the expression oC- later marriages, it
should always be recoUected that it refers to no particular
ag^, but is enürely comparative. The marriages in En-
gland are later than in France, the natural consequcnce of
that prudence and respectability gene rated by a better gov-
emment ; and can we doubt that good has been the re-
sult ? The marriages in this country now are later than

• Table üL p. 238, 4to. cdit. and Table ii. p. SO voL ii. 8vo. cdit.

526 APPENDIX.

they were befbre the revoluüon, and I feel firmly persmd-
ed that the increased healthiness obsenred of late years
could not possibly have taken place without this accoinpa»
njring circumstance. Two or three years in the a?eragt
age of marriage) bylengthening each generation^ and tend-
ing, in a smali degree,both to diminish the prolifickness of
maniageS) and the number of born living to be manied»
maymake a considerable difference in the rate of increasct
and be adequate to allow for a considerably diminitbed
mortality. But I would on no account talk of any timits
whatever. The only piain and intelligible measure witk
regard to marriage, is the hanng a fair prospect of being
able to maint^ a family. If the posses&ion of one of Mr.
Touncr's cottages would give the laboarer this prospect»
he would be quite right to marry ; but if it did nett or if he
could only obtain a rented house without land, and the wag-
es of labour were only sufRcient to maintain two childreoi
does Mr. Young, who cuts him off front the influence of
the poor laws, presume to say that he would still be right
in marrying*?

Mr. Young has asserted that T have made perfcct chas-
tity in the single State absolutely neccssary to the succe»»5
of my plan ; but this surely is a misrepresentation. Per-
fcct virtuc is indecd absolutely necessary to enable man lo
avoid all the moral and physical evils which depend upoo
his own conduct ; but who evcr expected perfect virtuc
upon carth ? I have said what I conccive to be strictly truc,
that it is our duty to defer marriage tili we can fced cur
children, and that it is also our duty not to indulge our-
selves in vicious gratifications ; but I have never said rhat
I expected cither, much less both of these duties to be
completely fulfilled. In this and a number of other cascs,

* The lowest prospect with which a man can be josttfied in ma^
rying seems to bc, the i)ower, when in healtb, of eaming such wa^s
as at the averige price of com will maintain the average number of
living children to a marriage.

APPENDIX* 527

itmay happen» that the violation of one of Iwo duties will
enabie a man to perform the other with greater faciiity ;
bat ifth^ be really both duties, and both practicable, no
power on earth can absolve a man from tbe guilt of violat«
ing either. This can only be done by that God who can
weigh the crime against the temptation, and will temper
justice with mercy. The moralist is still bound to incul-
cate the practice of both duties^ and each individual must
be left to act under the tcroptations to which he is expesed
as hls conscience shall dictate. Whatever I may have
Said in drawing a picture profesaedly visionary) for the sake
of Illustration» in the practical application of my principles
I have taken man as he is, with all his imperfections on his
head. And thus viewing him, and knowing that some
checks to population must exist, I have not the siightest
hesitation in saying, that the prudential check to marriage
is better than premature mortality. And in this decision
I feel myself completely justified by experience.

In every instance that can be traced in which an improv-
ed govemment has givento its subjects a greater degreeof
foresight, industry, and personal dignity, these efiects, un-
der similar circumstances of increase, have invariablybeen
accompanied by a diminished proportion of marriag^s.
This is a proof that an increase of moral worth in the ge-
neral character is not at least incomfiatible with an increase
of temptations with respect to one particular vice ; and the
instances of Norway, Switzerland, England, and Scotland,
adduced in the last chapter of this Essay, show, that in
comparing different countries together, a smaller propor<*
tion of marriages and births does not necessarily imply the
greater prevalence even of this particular vice. This is
surely quite enough for the legislator. He cannot estimate
with tolerable accuracy the degree in which chastity in the
Single Stute prevails. His general conclusions must be
founded on general results, and these are cleariy in his fo^
vonr.

528 APPENDIX.

To tniich of Mr. Younf^'s plan, as hc hasat prcscut ex-
plsuned il, I shoiild by no nieans objcct. The peculidr cvil
-which I apprchcndcd Irom it, that of laking thc poor froni
thc consumption of wheat, and fecding tbem on niiik and
potatoes, niight ccrtainly be avoided by a limltaüon of Uic
number of cdltages ; and 1 enlirely ag^e with him in
thinking, that wc should not be dctcrred from niakint^
500,000 families more comfortable» because wc cannot ex-
tend the same relief to all the rest. I have indeed mysclt
▼entured to recommend a general improvement of cotta-
geS) and even the cow System on a limited scale ; and
perhaps with proper precautions a certain portion of Ium!
might be given to a considcrable body of the labouring
classes.

If the law which entitics the poor to support werc to be
repealcd, any plan, which would tend torender such repeal
more palatable on its iirst Promulgation, I should mo^t
highly approve ; and in this view, somc kind of conipaci
wilh thc poor might be very dcsirablc. A plan of Iciiin,^
land to labourers under certaiii conditions has latt>!y bctri
tricd in the parish of Long Ncwnton in Glouccsteiahirc.
and thc rcsult with a general proposal founded on it, iias
bccn subn»iltcd to thc public by Mr. Estcourt. Thr pn-
scnt siicccss has bccn very striking ; but in this, and c\tr>
othcr casc oi thc kind, wc should ahvaysbcar in mind th.'
no cxpcrimcnt rcspecting a provision for thc poor cau 1 «•
Said to hc romplctc tili siiccccding gcncrations havc arid-
en*. I doubt if thcrc cvcr has becn an instancc of any

• In any plan, jarticularly «f a distribution of lawi, a«. a cotrpf ;•
sat"H»n for ihf relief givcn by ilie poor laws, the succecding gciuniio':"»
would for.Ti the grand difflculty. All others would bc |Krl'fcir tr;\iil
in comparif.on. For a timtr evcr>' thing might go on \ery smoothl; . and
ihe raUs Ik! much diminiihed; but afterwards, they would rithir üi-
crcase again as rapidly as bcforr, or the scheine would be exposed w i;
the samc objcctions which have been made to mine, without thc Jiwf
»asticf and consibtcncy to palliate theni

APPENDIX. 529

ihing like a liberal institulion for thc poor which did not
succeed on its first cstabiishment, howcvcr it might have
faiied afterwards. But this consideration should by no
means deter us from making such experiments. when pre-
scnt good is to be obtained by thcm, and a future overba-
lance of evil not justly to be apprehended. It should only
make us less rash in drawing our inferences.

With regard to the general question of thc advantages
to the k>wer classes of possessing land, it should be recol-
lected that such possessions are by no means a novelty.
Formerly this System prevailed in almost every country
with which we are acquainted, and prevails at present in
many countries where the peasants are far from bein^^ re-
markable for their comforts, but are, on the contrary> very
poor, and particularly subject to scarcities. With respect
to this latter evil indeed, it is quite obvious that a peasant-
ry which depends principally on its possessions in land,
must bc more exposed to it, than one which depends on
the general wages of labour. When a year of deiicient
crops occurs in a country of any extent and diversity of
soil, it is always partial, and some districts are more aflect-
ed than others. But when a bad crop of grass, com, or po-
tatoes, or a mortality among cattle, falls on a poor man
whose principal dependance is on two or three acres of
land, he is in the most deplorable and helples Situation.
He is comparatively without money to purchase supplies,
and is not for a moment to be compared with the man who
depends on the wages of labour, and who will of course be
able to purchase that portion of the general crop, whatever
it may be, to which his relative Situation in the Society en-
titles him. In Sweden where the farmers" labourers are
paid principally in land, and often keep two or three cows,
it is not uncommon for the peasants of one district to be
almost starving, while their neighbours at a little distance
are living in comparative plenty. It will be found indeed

voL ü. y y y

530 APPENDIX.

«
generali}', that in almost all the countiiett wliich are pauii-

cuiarly subject to scarcitics and famlneS) either the farms
are ver>' small, or the labourers ^ve paid principally in land.
China, Indostun, and the former State of the Highlaods of
Scotlond fumish some proofs amon^ many olhers of üie
truth of this Observation ; and in refercnce to the small
properlies of France, Mr. Young himself in his tour parti-
cuiarly notices the distress arising from the least fkilure of
the crops ; and obseryes that such a deficiency as in En-
gland passes almost witliout noüce^ in France is attcnded
with dreadful calamities*.

Should any plan therefore of assisting the poor by laod
be adopted in this country, it would be absolutely essential
to its ultimate success to prevent them from making it
their principai dependance. And this might probably be
done by attending strictly to the two following rules. Not
to let the divisions of land be so grcat as to Interrupt the
cottager essentLilly in his usual labours ; and always to stop
in (he further distribution of land and cottagcs, whcn the
price of labour, independent of any astistance from land»
lü'ould not at the average price of com muintain three, or
at least two childrcn. Could the matter be so ordcrcd,
that the labourcr in %vorkini^ for olhers should still conti-
nue to tarn the s;.me reul command over the necessaiies
of life tl»at hc did bcforc, u very grcut accession ot comlort
and happincss might accrue to tho poor from the po^scb^i-
on of land, wilhout any cvil that I can forescc at prcseni.
But if thcsc points wcre not attcnded to, I should certoin-
ly fear an approximatiou to the State of the poor in France,
Sweden, and Ireland, nor do I think that any of the partLd
expcrin.ents that have yct taken place aflford the sligbicut
presuniption to the conti-ary. The rcsult of these cxperi-
nicnts is indeed exactly such as onc should havc expected.

• Travels in France, vol. i. c. xii. p. 409. That coimtr>- will pmba-
b!y Ix* the least liablc to scarcitics, in wliich agricnltur^ is lanicd on M
fh.e mc^t fionrrshing manu/acturt» of tht statc

APPENDIX. 53»

Whö could cvcr have doubted Ihat if without lowcring the
price of labour, or taking the labourer off from his usual
occupations, you could g^vc him the produceof one or two
acres of land and the benefit ofa cow, you would decided-
ly i^aise his conditlon ? But it by no raeans follows that he
would retain this advantage if the System were so cxtend-
ed as to make the land his principal dependancei to lower
the price of labour, and in the language of Mr. Young, to
take the poor from the consumption of wheat, and fecd
them on milk and potatoes. It does not appear to me sO'
marvellous as it does to Mr. Young, that the very same Sys-
tem which in Lincolnshire and Rutlandshirc may produce
now the most comfortable peasantry in the British doiiii-
nions, should in the end, if extended without proper pre-
cautions, assimilate the condition of the labourers of this
country to that of the lower classes of the Irish.

It is generally dangerous and impolitic in a gorem-
ment to take upon itself to regulate the supply of any com-
modity in request, and probably the supply 6f labourers
form no exception to the genei*al rulc. I would on no ac-
touni thercfore proi>o»e a positive law to regubte their in-
crease, but as any assistance which the society roight give
them cannot in the nature of things be unlimitcd, the line
may fairly be drawn where we please ; and with regard to
the increase from this point, every thing would be left as
before to individual exertion and individual speculation.

If any plan of this kind were adopted by the (rovem-
ment, I cannot help thinking that it miti^ht be made the
means of giving the best kind of encouragcment and re-
ward, to those who are employed in our defence. If the
period of cnlisting were only for a limited time. and
at the expiration of that time, erety person who had con*
ducted himself well wasentitled to ahouse and a small por«
tion of Und, if a country labourer, and to a tenement in a
town and a small pcnsion, if an artificer, all inalienable, a
"vcry Btrong motivc would bc held ont to young men, not

532 APPENDIXr

only to entcr into the servicc of ihcir countiy, but to bc-
have well in that servicc ; and in a short time thcrc would
be such a martial populaüon at home, as the unfortunalc
State of Europc scems in a most peculiar manner to rc-
quire. As it is only limited assistance that the aociety can
possibiy give, it seenis in evcry respect fair and proper,
that in regulating this limit some importantcnd should bc

attuined.

If the poor laws be allowed to remain exactly in ihcir
present State, we ought at Icast to be aware, to what cause
it is owing that thcir effccts have not been morc pcmici-
ous than thcy are obscrvcd tobe, that we may not complaiu
of, or alter those parts, without which we should rcally no(
havc the jwwer of continuing them. The law which obli-
ges each parish to maintain its own poor is open to many
objcctions. It keeps the ovcrseers and churchwardcns
continually on the watch to prevent new comcrs, and con-
stantly in a State of dispute with other parishes. It thu»
prcvcnts the free circulation of labour from place lo pKicc,
iincl rcndcrs its pricc vcry unccjual in difl'crcnt parts of thr
kint^clom. It disposes all landlords rather to pull doi^n
thun to buiid cottugcb on thcir cstatcs ; and this scurciu ol
hubitations in the country, by drivinij morc to the towns
than \v(juld othcrwisc have j^onc, gives a relative discour-
agcnicnt to agricuUure and a relative encouragcmcnl lo
inunufacturcs. These it must be allowed, are no inconsi-
dcrable cvils ; but if the cause which occasions ihcin wcrc
removcd, evils of much p;rcatcr magnitude \\ould fül-
low. I agrcc with Mr. Young in thinking that ihcrc i*
bcarccly a purish in the kingdom, whcrc, if morc cottaj^c»
wtr(" built, and Ict at any tolerubly modcratc ixmus, thcy
w oiild not be inimediately fillcd with new couplcs. I cvcn
ii;^rce with him in thinking that in some places this want
of habitations operates too strongly in prevcntingmarriagc.
But Ihuvc not the least doubtthat,considei-cdgeneralIy, its
Operation in the present State of things is most bencficial i

•7»

APPENDIX. 53:>

and that it is almost exclusively owin^ to this cause^
that we liave been able so long to continue the poor Uws.
If any man could build a hovel by the read side, or on the
neighbouring waste, without molestation» and yet werc sc-
cure that he and bis family would always be supplicd with
work and food by the parish, if thcy were not readily tobe
obtained elsewhere, I do not belle vc that it would be long
beforc the physical impossibility of executing the letter of
the poor laws would appear. It is of importancc thereforc
lo be aware« that it is not because this or any other society
has rcaily the power of employing and suppordng all that
might be born, that we have been able to continue the pre-
sent System ; but because by the indirect Operation of this
System^ not adverted to at the time of ils establishment,
and frequently rcprobated since, the number of births is
always very grcatly limited^ and thus reduced within tho
pale of possiblc support.

The obvious tendency of the poor laws is certainly to
cncouragc marriage, but a closer attention to all their in-
direct US well as direct effects, may make it a matter of
doubt how far thcy really do this. They clearly tend, in
ihcir gcneral Operation, to discourage sobricty and ccono-
my, to encouragc idleness and the desertion of childrcn,
and to put virtuc and vice more on a level than they othcr-
wise would be ; but I will not presume to say positively that
they tend to encourage population. It is certain that the
Proportion of births in this country comparcd with others
in similar circumstances is very small ; but this was to be
expected from the superiority of the govemment, the more
respcctable State of the people, and the more general
sprcad of a taste for cleanlincss and conveniences. And
it will readily occur to the reader, that owing to these
causeS) corabincd with the twofold Operation of the poor
laws, it must be extremely difficult to asccrtain, with any
degrce of prccision, what has been their cffcct on popula-
tien.

5J4 APPENDIX.

The only arg^ment of a general nature againaC the £•-
say which strikes me as having any considerable forcc it
the following. It is against the application of its princi-
ples, not the principles them&elves, and has not, that I
know of, bcen yet advanced in its present form. It may
be «aid that according to my own reasoning s and the £icts
atated in my work, it appears that the diminished propor-
tion of births, which I consider as absolutely necessary to
the permanent improvement of the condition of the poor«
invariably follows an improved government, and the greit«
er deg^ee of personal respectabiltty which it g^ves to the
ower classes of society. Consequently allowing the desir-
ableness of the end, it is not necessary, in order to obtain
it) to risk the Promulgation of any new opinions, which
may alarm the prejudices of the poor, and the effect of
which we cannot with ccrtainty foresee ; but we have onhr
to procecd in improving our civil polity, conferring ibe
benefits of education upon all, and removing every obsta-
de to the general exten&ion of all those Privileges and ad*
▼antages which may be enjoyed in common, and we may
be quite sure that the effect which I look forward to, and
which can alone render thesc advantages permanent, will
follow.

I acknowledgc the truth and forcc of this argumcni,
and have only to obscrve in answer to it, that it is difiicult
to conccive that we should not procecd with more cclcrity
and ccrtainty towards the cnd in vicw, if the principal
caiises which tend to promote or retard it wcre gencrally
known In particular, I cannot help looking forward toa
very decided improvement in the habits and temper of the
Iowcr classes, when their real Situation has bcen clearU
cxpluined to thcm ; and if this were Hone gradually and
rautiously, and accompanied with proper moral and rcli-
rious Instructions, I should not cxpcct any danger from ii
I am always unwilling to believc that the jj^cncral disscmi-
nation of truth is prcjudical. Cuscs of the kind are i:n

APPENDIX. jo5

doubtedly conceivablc, but thcy should be adinittcd \%ith
very grcat caution. If thc general prcsutnpüon in fuvour
ot the advantagc of truth were once essentlally shaken, all
ardoiir in its cause would share the same fale, and the in-
terests of knowledge and virtuc most decidedly sufier. It
is besides a specics of arrogance not lightly to be en*
couraged, for any man to suppose that he has penetrated
further into the laws of nature than the great Author of
them intended, further than is consistent with the good of
mankind.

Under thcse impressions I have frecly given my opini-
ons to the public. In the truth of the general principles
of the Essay, 1 confess that I feel such a confidence, that
tili something has been advanced against them very dif-
ferent indeed from any thing that has hitherto appeared,
I cannot help considering them as incontrovertible. With
rcgard to the appiication of these principles the caseis cer-
tainly different ; and as dangers of opposite kinds are to
be guarded against, the subject will of course admit of
much latitude of opinion. At all events, howeyer, it must
bc allowed, that whatever may be our determination re*
spccting the advantages or disadvantages of edeavouring
to circulate the truths on this subject among the poor, it
muftt be highly advantageous that they should be known to
all those*who have it in thcir power to influence the laws
and institutions of society. That the body of an army
should not in all cases know the particulars of their Situa-
tion may possibly be desirable ; but that the leadcrs should
be in the same State of ignorancc, will hardly I think, be
contended.

If it be really true, that without a diminishcd propor«
tion of births* we cannot attain any permanent improvc-

* It should alwavfr be recoUected that a diminishrd firoportion of
births may take place under a constant annual increase of the absolute
number. This is in fact, exactiy what has happened in England and
Scotiand dfving the last forn* vean.

536 APPENDIX.

inent in thc health and happincss of the mass of thc pec-
plc, and sccurc that description of populaüoDy whicb, by
containing a larger sharc of adults, is best calculatcdtocre-
Ute fresh resources, and conseqiicntly to cncouragc a coix-
tinucd increase of cfRcicnt population, ii is surcly of tiic
hig;hcst importance that this should be known, that if we
takc no steps directly to promote this efTecti we should noc
at Icast, under the influence of the fonner prejudices on
this subject, endeavour to counteract it*^. And if it br
thought unadviseable to abolish thc poor laws, il cannotbc

• We should bc aware, that a scarcity of mcn owing rithcr to gwat
losses, or to some particiliar and unusual demand, is liable to happcn ii
cvcry country ; and in no respect invalidates the general principle tlnr
has been advanced. Whatever may be the tendency to increaie, it ti
quite clear that an extraordinary supply of men cannot be produccd ci-
ther in six months, or six years ; but even with a view to a more thn
usual supply, causes which tend to dimmish mortality are not only tncn
certain but morc rapid in ihcir cfiVcts, than direct encoura^mcnti t»
marriage An increase of birtlis may, and often does, take ]ilace, wrrii-
out the uhimate accomplishment of ourobject ; but, supposing thc binla
to rcmainthe same, it is impossible for a diminished mortality not tobe
accompanied by an increase of eflective ]X)pulation.

We arc vcry apt to bc (.Icceived on this subject by the almost cor
stunt demand for labour wliich provails in evcrv prosjK-roub counin . hT
we sliould consitler that in countrici» which can but just kcep upt^i;:
populati'Mi, as the price of labour nnist bc sufficient to rear a fami!;. ■ *
a certain number, a single man would have a sujjerHuity, aml Li>-.!
would bc in constant demand ut the pricc of the subsistence of an lOH.
vidual. It cannot be doubted that in this counrry we could ,»>..on cm-
ploy double thc numl>er ot hibourers if .^.t- couid have tium :.t ««-i v.n
pricc; hccausc buj)plv will pr'.dii\i- dc.na.id us well as dcn;^;.d »; ;i
Thc prc^eut great e.vteiisitin of the cotton trade did not ori^ii.atc in i»
cxtnordinary incrcax of ilcmand, ai the former prices, but in an i.in.A%
cd supj)ly at a much clicapcr rate, whicli of (uurse immi-diattly pn^lu
ed an extended demand. As we cannot hüwevcr obiain mcn ut i^-.
j>ence a da;, b;, imj)iovenKnt.s in nuchmcry, we must bubmit to tht i.
cessary conditions of their rcaring, and ihcrc ib no man who ha* ih
slif;;htc^t fetling for thc happiness of the mosi numeroiii cixss of vjl t.
ty, t)r has cvcn just vicws of p(»licy on the subj«.tt, who would uo' »-
ther choost tiiat the rec|ui^;le population bhould be obcaincd b) kcc«.

APPENDIX^ 537

•

doubted tbat a knowledge of those general principles,
which render them inefiicicnt in their humane intentions,
might be applied so fiEtr to modify them and regulate their
execution^ as to remove many of the evils with which they
are accompanied, and make them less objectionable.

There is only one subject more which 1 shall notice,
and that is rather a matter of feeling than of argument.
' ManypersonS) whose understandingsare not ofthat descrip-
tion that they can regulate their belief or disbelief by their
likes or dislikes, have professed their perfect conviction of
the tnith of the general principles contained in the Essay ;
Imt at the same time have lamented this conviction, aa throw-
ing a darker shade over our views of human nature, and
tending particularly to narrow our prospects of future im-
provement. In these feelingt I cannot agree with them.
If from a revicw of the paat, I could not only believe that
a fundamental and very extraordinary improvement in hu-
man Society was possible, but feel a firm confidence that it
would take place, I should undoubtedly be grieved to find
that I had overlooked some cause, the Operation of which
would at once blast my hopes. But if the contemplation
of the past history of mankind, from which alone we can
judge of the future, renders it almost impossible to feel
auch a confidence, I confess that I had much rather believe
that some real and deeply-seated difficulty existed, the
constant struggle with which was calculated to rouse the
natural inactivity of man, to call forth hls ^ulties, and
invigorate and improve bis mind ; a species of difficulty
which it must be allowed is most eminently and peculiarly
suited to a State of probation, than that nearly all the evils

price of labour, combined with such habits, as would occasion a very
smali mortality, than from a great proportion of births, of which com-
paratively few would reacb manhood.

Vol. ii. z z z

3S8 APPENDIX.

of life TTiight vrith the mosi pcrfect facilitf be retnoTe^
but for thc pervcrscn^ss and wickcdness of those wUo in-
fluer.cc human institutions*.

A pcrson who hcld this latter opinion must necessarilf
live in a constant State of irritation and disuppointmenU
The ardent expectations with which he might begin life
MTould soon receive the most cruci check. The regiUv
propre SS of socicty, under thc most favourable circum-
stances, would to him appear slow and unsatLifactory ; but
insicad cvcn of this regulär progrcss, his eye would br
Tnorc frc';uently prescnted with retrograde moveinents,and
thc most dishcctrtening rcversc». The changes to which
he had lookcd forward with delight, would bc found big
with new and imlookcd-for cvils, and the characten on
which he had rcposcd thc most confidence« would be acea
frequcntly dcserling his fuvourite cuusci citlicr from the
lesBons of cxperience or the temptation of power. In this
sl tc of ronblanl fiisappoinlnient, he would be but too apt
to atiribi'ti' cvciv ihin^ to thc worst niotives; hc would bc
inclinc'l »o j^ivc up ihe cause of impro\cnicni in despair«
and "lU'L^iiii; of tlc wIkiIc froiu a piirt, notlüu,< buta pctu-
liar ^oodiu'ss of Ijc. rt und amiablcncss of disposition could
prcht'nc him Oüiii tlv.it sie klyand disj^ustint;- Uiisünthropy
which i> but too frctiucutly thc cnd of such chuructcrst.

)n thc contrary, a pcrson who hcld thc other opinion«
as hc wouKl sct out with morc modcratc rxpcctatiunSt
W( \il(l of courscbc Icss liablc to disuppoiiument. A com-

• Thc misery and vice arising from thc prcssurt- rf thc [>• pula'i n
100 '.-.Uli a»,arist thc limit^> of sllh.^i.stt•:^co, and thc ir.ibcn and vier r^r *-
in^ IV n^ Lromi"« in us intcrc: nrn', iva) Ix* coi.sidtrcd as 'ho Sc. lia ard
Chav lül s "f human lifo. Tha- it is p -ssibic for each indivTduaJ rd
Stctr v!t..r of h)'h thc-.c r<Kks is ccrtainly irue, and a truth uhich I
havc cnlotvc'ir.:.! stniigly to niaintain : but ihat these r:*:ks do not
form a .11 ■ • r i :l(.',>v':.dci.t of human institutions» nopcnon with an^
l.nüvi'lcdijC of ihe subjcci can vcniure to assert.

APPENDIX. 5-55

parison of thc best wiih the worst stiitcs of socicty, and
the obvious infercncc from analo« y thal thc best wcrc ca-
pable of further improvement, would constantly picscnt
to his mind a prospect sutRciently animating to Warrant his
most persevering exertions. But aware of the diflicuhics
irith which the subject was surrounded, knowing how ofl-
en in the attempt to attain oneobject somcother had been
lost, and that though socicty had made rapid advances in
some directions, it had been comparatively stationury in
others, he would be constantly prepared for failures. Tnese
faiiures, iiistead of crcating despair, would only crc.tc
knowledge ; instead of checking his ardou < would only
g^vc it a wiser and more successful direction ; and having
founded his opinion of mankind ou broad and gcncral
grounds, the disappointment of any particular views would
not change this opinion ; but even in declining agc hc
would probably be found believing as firmly in thc rcality
and general prevalence of virtue, as in the existence and
ffcquency of vice ; and to thc last, looking forward with a
just confidence to those improvements in socicty, uhich
the history of the past^ in spitc of all the revcr^es with
Which it is accompanicd, seems clearly to Warrant.

It may be true that if i^orance is bliss, 'tis folly to be
vdse ; but if ig^orancc be not bliss as in the prescnt in-
stante, if all false views of socicty must not only inipede
decidedlythe progress of improvement, but noccssarily
terminate in the most bitter disappointments to tlic indi-
yiduals who form them ; I shall always think that the fecl-
ings and prospects of those who make the justest esti-
mates of our futurc expectations, are the most consobto-
ry ; and that the characters of this description are happier
themselves, at the same time that they are beyond compa-
rison more likely to contribute to the improvement und
happiness of socicty*.

• While thc last sheet of this Appendix was printing, I heard with
^ome surprise, that an argument had been drawn from the Principle of
Population in favoor of the slave trade. As the jint conclusion from

540 APPENDIX-

that principlc appears to mc to be exactl/ thc contiary , I caufic W^
sayiug a few words on the subject.

If the only argument against the slavc trade had bcen, that tai
thc mortality it occasioned, it was ükcly to uiipeo{Jc Africa, Of aa^
guish the human race, some comfort with regard to these fean migte
indeed, be drawn from the Principle of Population ; bot aa thc
ty of the aboUtion has never, that I know of, been uiged on tlie
of these apprehensions, a reference to the lawt which regulate tfae ia-
crease of the human species was certainly most unwiae in tfae friendi
of the slave trade.

The aboiition of the slave trade is defended principally by the tva
following arguments :

Ist. That the trade to the coast of Africa for slaves, together with
their subsequcnt treatment in the West Indies, u prodoctive of to nmk
human miser)-, that its continuance is disgracefiil to us aa men and is
Christians.

2d. That the culture of the West India islands could go on wiäi
equal advantage, and miKh greater seouity, if no farther importatkm cf
slaves were to take place.

With regard to the first argument, it appears, in the Esay an the
Principle of Population, that so great is the tendency of mankind »
increase, that nothing but some physical or moral check operadng iain
exccMvc and wiiuuai degree, can permaneiitly keep the populatkmof a
country below the average means of subsistence. In the West Indt*
islands a constant rccruit of labouring ncgroes is necessary; and cor-
sequciitly the immcdiate chccks to population must ojxrratc with rar«.-
xifx and unusual force. All the chccks to populaiiuu were found rt-
solvable into mnral restraint, vice, and misery. In a State of ^läx-erii
moral restraint cannot have much influcnce ; nor in any State u ill u
cver continue j>ermancntly lo diminish the |)opulation. Thc whoic cf-
fect, therefore, is to be attributed to the excestive and umunal action ol
vice and misery ; and a reference to the facts contained in the Essur
incontrovertibly provcs that thc condiiion of the slavcs in the U ot
Indies, taken altogether, is most wretched, and that the rcprescntatioiu
of the friends of the aboiition cannot easily bc exaggcrated.

It will be Said, that the principal reason why the blavcs in the West
Indies constantly diminish, is, that the scxcs are not in equal numben,
a considerable majority of males being always imported ; but this sttj
circumstancc decides at once on the cruclty of their Situation, and must
necessurily be one jx^werful cause of their degraded mor^ condition

It may bc said also, that many towns do not kecp up their numbers»
and \L't the same objcaion is not madc to them on that accouQt. But

APPENDIX« 541

the cases will admit of no compaiison. If for the sake of )ftntT society
or higher wages, pec^le are willing to expose ihemselvei toa less pure
air, and gineater temptations to vice, no hardship is sufiered that can
reasonably be complained of. The superior mortality of towns falls
principally upon children, and is scaicely noticed by people of nuture
age. The sexes are in equal numbers, and every man after a few yeais
of industry may look forward to the happiness of domestic tife. If
during the timc that he is thus waiting, he acquires various habits
which indispose him to marriage, he lias nobody to blame except him-
2>clf. But with the negroes the case is totally different. The unequal
iiumber of the sexes shuts out at once the majority of them from all
Chance of domestic happiness. They have no hope of this kind to
sweeten their toils, and aniniate their exertions ; but ace necessarily
condemned either to unceasing privation, or to the most vicious excess-
es ; and thus shut out from every cheering prospect, we cannot be sur.
prised that they are in general ready to welcome that death which so
many meet with in the prime of life.

The second argument is no less powerfuUy supported by the Prin-
ciple of Population than the Hrst It appears, from a vcry general sur-
vcy of different countries, that under every form of govemment, howe*
ver unjust and t)-rannlcal, in every climate of the known world howe-
ver apparently unfavourablc to health, it has been found that populati-
on, with the sole exccption above alluded to, has been able to keep it-
self up to the Icvel of the means of subsistence. Conscqucntly , if by the
abclition of the trade to Africa, the slaves in the West Indies were
placed only in a tolerable Situation, if their civil condition and moral
habits were only made to approacb to those which prevail among the
mass of the human race in the worst govemed countries of the world,
it is contrary to the general laws of natiu^ to suppose, that they would
ffiot be able by procreation fuUy to supply the effective demand for la-
bour ; and it is difficult to conceive that a population so raised would
not be in every point of view prefcrable to that which exists at present.
It is perfectly dcar, therefore, that a consideration of the laws which
(ovem the increase and decrease of the human species, tends to streng^h* '
en in the most powerful manner, all the arguments in favor of the
abolition.

With regard to the State of society among the African nations, it
will readily occur to the reader, that in deschbing it the question of the
alave trade was foreign to m y purpose ; and I might naturally fear that
if I entered upon it I should be led into too long a digression. But cer-
tainly all the facts which I have mentioned, and which are taken princi-
pally from Park, if they do not absolutely ^^ore that the wars in Africa

543 APPENDIX.

wesdced 91I fcgyivitedty tlie tASe cn tte eout, tmd powcrfuUf
to confirm die tmppoütifm, The ttate of Afncm, as I have described it,
Is exactly such as we should expect in a cotmtry, where the caprun- of
|nen was consideied as a more advantageoas employment than a^ricul-
fore or mamifiictiires. Of the State of these nations some huiidred % t.-ars
igo it must be conüessed that we have little knowledge *h:it we can dr-
penduixm: but allowingthat the regulär pluiiJering excursi ms. which
p!ark describes» are of the most ancient date ; jtx it is imp^sstble to sup-
pose that any ciicumstance which, like the European traflfic, must givc
additional value to the plunder thus acquired, would not powcrfuih x^'-
gravate thepit and eflfectually prevent all progress lowards a hapnicf
oider of thingi. As long as the nations of Europe continuc barbar m:s
cnough to purchase slaves in Africa, we nia> be quiie iure that Atnca
«JU continift bvhuoua eaough.tDJUipply thena

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