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' 1 X^.V*^V4 





y^ 



BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 



COMMITTEE. 

Chairman "-The Rt Hon. LORD BROUGHAM, F.R.S., Mem. of the Nat Inat of France. 

Ftce-CAatmuxn— The Right Hon. EARL SPENCER. 

TVecMKrer— JOHN WOOD, Esq. 



W. Allen, E«q., F.R. and R.A.S. 

Captain Beaufort, R.N., F.R. and R.A.S. 

George Burrows, M.D. 

Professor Carey, A.M. 

John Conolly, M.D. 

William Coulson, Esq. 

The Rt Rev. the Bishop of St David's, D.D. 

J. F. Davis, Esq., F.R.S. 

Sir Henry De la Beche, F.R.S. 

The Right Hon. Lord Denman. 

Samuel Duckworth, Esq. 

The Rt Rev. the Bishop of Durham, D.D. 

T. F. EUis, Esq., A.M., F.R.A.S. 

John Elliotson, M.D., F.R.S. 

Thomas Falconer, Esq. 

John Forhes, M.D. and F.R.S. 

Sir I, L. Goldsmid, Bart, F.R. and R.A.S. 

Francis Henry Goldsmid, Esq. 

B. Gompertz, Esq., F.R. and R.A.S. 

Professor Graves, A.M, F.R.S. 

G. B. Greenough, Esq., F.R. and L.S. 

Sir Edmund Head, Bart, A.M. 

M. D. Hill, Esq., Q.C. 

Rowland HiU, Esq., F.R.A.S. 

The Rt Hon. Sir J. C. Hobhouse, Bart, M.P. 

Thomas Hodgkin, M.D. 

David Jardine, Esq., A.M. 

Henry B. Ker, Esq. 



Professor Key, A.M. 

Sir Denis Le Marchant, Bart. 

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart, M.P. 

George C. Lewis, Esq., A.M. 

James Loch, Esq., M.P., F.G.S. 

Professor Long, A.M. 

Professor Maiden, A.M. 

A. T. Malkin, Esq., A.M. 

Mr. Serjeant Manning. 

R. I. Murchison, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S. 

The Right Hon. Lord Nugent 

W. Smith O'Brien, Esq., M.P. 

Professor Quain. 

P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S. 

R. W. Rothman, Esq., A.M. 

Sir Martin A. Shee, P.R.A., F.R.S. 

Sir G. T. Staunton, Bart, M.P. 

John Taylor, Esq., F.R.S. 

Professor A. T. Thomson, M.D. 

Thomas Vardon, Esq. 

Jacob Waley, Esq., B.A. 

James Walker, Esq., F.R.S., Pr. Inst Civ. 

Eng. 
Henry Waymouth, Esq. 
Thomas Webster, Esq., A.M. 
Right Hon. Lord Wrottesley, A.M., F.R. A.S. 
J. A. Yates, Esq. 



THOMAS COATES, Esq., Secretary, 59. Lincoln's Inn Fields. 



Printed by A. Spottiswoodb, 
M«w - Street- Square. 



THE 



BIOGRAPHICAL 
DICTIONARY 



SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF 
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 



VOL. L PAKT IL 



LONDON: 
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 

PATERNOSTER-ROW. 

1842. 



S^ /JL- /wT 






ADVERTISEMENT 

TO 

THE FIRST VOLUME. 



In completing the First Volume of this Work, the Committee 
think it only just towards those engaged in it to express their 
satisfaction that a task so extensive and difficult as that which the 
Society has undertaken has hitherto been accomplished with a far 
greater share of success than they had reason to hope for. 

The labour of preparing a Biographical Dictionary according 
to the plan laid down in the Editor's Preface may be estimated 
by the fact that in this volume are contained 1661 Memoirs. To 
each, with scarcely an exception, are added the authorities on 
which it is founded And when it is observed that many of these 
Memoirs, whether from the inadequacy of materials or from the 
want of interest in the personal incidents of the life, occupy only 
a few lines, the preparation of which must have cost, in almost 
all cases, much research and required the exercise of discretion, 
the Committee think it not unfitting that they should express how 
deeply they feel indebted to those Gentlemen who have assisted 
them in this imdertaking, and of whose names they now give 
a list. 

By order of the Committee. 

THOMAS COATES, 

Secretary, 

59. Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
Ut November, 1848. 



y 



LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 



INITIALS. NAMES. 

S. B. Samuel Birch, British Museum. 

G. L. C. George L. Craik, A.M. 

W. B. D. William Bodham Donne. 

D. F. Duncan Forbes, A.M., M. As. Socs. London and Paris ; 

Professor of Oriental Languages, King's College, London. 
P. de G. Pascual db Gayanoos, Late Professor of Arabic at the 

Athenaeum of Madrid. 
H. G. Hunter Gordon, A.M. 
W. A. G. William Alexander Grebniiill, M.D., Trinity College, 

Oxford. 

C. P. H. C. PouLETT Harris. 

R. H. H. R. H. HoRNE, Author of Cosmo de' Medici, &c. &c. 

G. M. H. George Murray Humphry, M.R.C.S.L. 

J. H. The Reverend Joseph Hunter. 

D. J. David Jardine, A.M. 

J. W. J. J. Winter Jones, British Museum. 

B. J. Benjamin Jowett, A.B., Fellow of Baliol College, Oxford. 

C. K. Charles Knight. 

E. L. Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.L.S. 
W.H.L. W.H.Leeds. 

A. L. A. Loewy. 

G. L. George Long, A.M., Professor of Latin in University 

College, London. 
A. T. M. Arthur Thomas Malkin, A.M. 
J. C. M. The Reverend Joseph Calrow Means. 
A. De M. Augustus De Morgan, of Trinity College, Cambridge; 

Professor of Mathematics in University College, Loudon. 
J.N. John Narrien, F.R. and R.A.S. 

C. N. Charles Newton, British Museum. 

A. T. P. Rev. Alfred Tower Paget, A.M., of Caius College, 

Cambridge ; Mathematical Master of Shrewsbury School. 
J. P. James Paget, Demonstrator of Morbid Anatomy at St. 

Bartholomew 8 Hospital. 
W. P. William Plate, LL.D., M. R. Geographical Soc. of Paris. 

L. S. Leoniiard Schmitz, Ph. D., late of the University of Bonn. 



X 



viii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS. 

INITIALS. NAMES. 

P. S. The Rev. Philip Smith, A.B. 

A. S. Aloys Sprenoer, M.D. 

J. T. S. John Tatam Stanesby. 

E. T. Edward Taylor, Gresham Professor of Music. 

F. H. T. F. H. Trithen, Member of the Odessa Society for History 

and Antiquities. 
A. V. Andr£ Vieusseux, Author of History of Switzerland in 

Library of Useful Knowledge. 

G. W. The V^ery Reverend George Waddington, D.D.> Dean 

of Durham. 
J. W. Joshua Watts. 

T. W. Thomas Watts, British Museum. 
W. W. William Weir. 
C. W. Charles West, M.D. 

R.W. jun. Richard Westmacott, junior. 
R. W — n. The Reverend Robert Whiston, A.M., Fellow of Trinity 

College, Cambridge. 
W.C.W. W.C.Wimberley. 
R. N. W. Ralph Nicholson Wornum. 



AOATHOCLES. 



AOATHOCLES. 



I 



AGA'THOCLES CA7««oKX^t), a Greek 
historian. He was a native of Cyzicoa, and 
a|q;>ear8 to be the same person as the Aga- 
thocies whom Athensans m two passages calls 
a Babylonian ; for each is called the author 
ofa history of Cyzicus (Ilfpl Ku{(icov), of which 
the third book is mentioned by AtheniBus. 
Cicero and Pliny were well acquainted with 
this work, bat we now possess only a few 
ihigments of it presenred by AthensBns and 
some other writers, who are mentioned below. 
The time when Agathocles lived is uncertain. 
The scholiast on Apollonius mentions Me- 
moirs (Arofir4/uira) by one Agathocles, who 
is generally believed to be the same as the 
author of the history of Cyzicus. (Athe- 
nsras, i. 80. iz. 875. xli. 515. ziv. 649. ; 
Stephanus Byzant v. B^tfueot ; SchoL ad 
HesiocL Tkeog. 485. ; EtymoL Mag. v. Aumi; 
SchoL ad ApoUonium JRhodivm, iv. 761. ; 
Cicero, J>e Div. I 24. •, Pliny, Hitt NaU, 
Elenchns of books iv., v., and vi ; Solinos, 
Pofykist 1. ; Festus, v. Bomam.) 

There are several other ancient writers of 
the name of Agathocles, of whom nothing is 
known beyond the name and the titles of 
some of dieir works. One Agathocles, a 
native of Chios, is mentioned by Pliny and 
Yarro as a writer on agriculture ; another, of 
Miletus, wrote, aeooidmg to Plutarch, a book 
on rivers ; a third wrote a work on the con- 
stitution of Pessinus ; and a fourth, a native 
4^ Atraz, is mentioned by Suidas as the 
author of a work on fishing {iOuwrued), 
(Fabricius, Biblwth. Graca, iiL 456. 459. 
vL 354.) L. & 

AGATHOCLES CAyaBMc\ri9) wag tyrant 
of Syracuse irom b.c. 817 to 289. In this, 
as in many other cases, legends have been 
invented to embellish the humble <Higin of a 
powerfbl man. The early history of Aga- 
thocles is thus told by Diodoms. He was 
the son of Carcinus, a Khegiaa, and was bom 
in the Carthaginian town of Thermi in Sicily. 
Warned by om^s that the boy about to be 
bom would be the cause of great evils to 
Carthage and Sicily, Carcinus exposed him 
in the fields. His mother however succeeded 
in preserving his life, and intrusted him to 
an uncle, by whom he was brought up to the 
age of seven ; at which he was made known 
to, and adopted by, his fiither. Accounts 
differ as to the date of his birth : the state- 
ment of Diodorus, that he died at the age of 
seventy-two, would fix it about b.g. 860. 
After the battle on the Crimissus, b.c. 889, 
in which Timoleon defeated the Carthagi- 
luans, both father and son, with all others 
who wished, were admitted to be citizens of 
Syracuse, where they thenceforth resided, and 
where Aigathoeles was bred to the trade of a 
potter. Being remarkable for bodily strength 
and beauty, he gained the favour of a rich man 
named Damas, by whose interest he obtained 
the military rank of chiliarch. Damas dying, 
Agathocles married his widow, gained pos- 

voui. 



session of liis fortune, and thus became one 
of the wealthiest citizens of Syracuse. He 
had been remarkable as a soldier for strength • 
and skill in military exercises ; as an oflicer 
he was distinguished, not only for bravery, 
but for readiness and impudence in public 
speaking. In an expedition against Crotona, 
he quairelled with Sosistratus, who then had 
the lead in Syracuse ; and he retired in con- 
sequence to Italy. After various adventures 
as a soldier of rortune, he returned to Syra- 
cuse on the expulsion of the party of Sosis- 
tratus; and in ensuing contests with the 
exiles, who were backed by Carthage, he 
gained both credit and influence as a brave 
soldier, and one fertile in resources. During 
the generalship of Acestorides the Corinthian, 
a plot was laid against his life, as dangerous 
to the commonwodth. Having escaped how- 
ever, and fled to the interior, he raised a 
force strong enough to render himself formi- 
dable both to the Carthaginians and to his 
own countrymen : and he was in consequence 
invited to return to Syracuse ; where he had 
not long been before he destroyed, by a mili- 
tary massacre, all the men of note, and made 
himself, in the Greek phrase, tyrant (b.c. 317). 
It is observed by Polybius (ix. 28.), that 
having gained lus power most croelly, he 
was afterwards, in the use of it, most mild 
and gentle : a statement singularly at variance 
with the atrocious craelties recorded of his 
after life. See Diodorus, xix. 107. xx. 42. 
71, 72. for particulars. 

It appears, without the facts being clearly 
related, that by the year 314 Agathocles had 
extended lus power so far over the minor 
states of Sicily, as to induce Agrigentum. 
Gela, and Messene, to ally themselves against 
him. Acrotatus, the son of Cleomenes king 
of Sparta, came to help the league ; but no- 
thing of consequence was done, and peace 
was concluded by the mediation of Hamil- 
car, the Carthaginian general, on condition 
that Carthage should retain Heraclea, Seli- 
nus, and Himera, and that all other cities 
should be independent, Syracuse still retaining 
the Hegemonia (nycMOfta), a word capable 
of bein^ stretched into anything. Accord- 
ingly Diodorus adds, that Xgathocles, finding 
Sicily now clear of hostile armies, readily 
reduced most of it under lus power. At this 
time, besides the native force of citizens, he 
had of armed mercenaries 10,000 foot and 
8050 horse. In b.c. 311 the Carthaginians 
sent over a powerftil army under Hamilcar, 
to contest the supremacy. A great battle 
was fought near Gela, which Agathocles lost 
He then retired into Syracuse, finding that 
the Carthaginian force was too strong, and 
their cause too popular, to be resisted in the 
open field ; and he then conceived and exe- 
cuted the bold design of transporting the war 
into the enemy's counby, a resolution avow- 
edl}r iniitated by Scipio Africanus, when 
he' invaded Africa in tiie second Punic war. 
oo 



AOATHOCLES. 



AOATHOCLES. 



Leaving Syracuse well proyiakmed and gar- 
risoned, under his brother Antandrns, he put 
to tea with a Uu'ge army, the destination of 
which was kept profoundly secret ; and having 
baffled the pursuit of the Carthaginian fleet, 
he landed saifely in Africa. He then addressed 
the army to the effect that, while in danger 
fW>m the enemy's fleet, he had vowed to 
bum his own ships in honour of Ceres and 
Proserpine, the tutelary goddesses of Sicily, 
if by their means he might obtain delivery 
from that ur^nt peril ; and he exhorted the 
soldiers to discharge the obligation, himself 
meanwhile i4>plying the first torch. The 
example was followed with acclamations. All 
hope of retreat however being thus cut off, as 
had been the object of the general, a gloomy 
despondency ensued ; which Agathocles has- 
tened to counteract by marching through a 
rich and pleasant country towards Carthage, 
to which he laid siege after gaining a battle, 
and reducing, with little trouble, the open 
country and most of the towns. Meanwhile 
he sent an embassy to Ophelias, formerly one 
of Alexander's officers, then prince of Cyrene, 
promising to resign Africa to him as the price 
of his help. Ophelias consented, and crossed 
the deserts with an army more than 20,000 
strong: when, having been at first kindly 
received, he was unexpectedly attacked by 
Agathocles on a forged charge of treachery, 
overcome, and slain, b. c. 308. His army was 
then incorporated with that of the victor. 
Sjrracuse meanwhile held out; but of the 
other Sicilian cities, most had taken advantage 
of Agathocles' absence to assert their inde- 
pendence. Feeling his presence necessary at 
nome, he left his son Archagathus to com- 
mand in Africa ; and returning to Sicily, at 
first gained some important successes over 
the revolted cities. But Dinocrates, a Syra- 
cusan exile, collected a force too great to be 
resisted in the field ; and while fortune proved 
adverse in Sicily, things went worse in Africa, 
where the Carthaginians had recovered their 
roirit during his absence, and had defeated 
Arohagathus, enclosed him in his camp, and 
reduced him to difficulty for provisions. 
Agathocles returned to Africa ; but even his 
presence was unavailing to regain his former 
superiori^. Unable for want of a sufficient 
fleet to withdraw his army by sea, he himself 
attempted to fly ; but the intention being dis- 
covered, he was seized and put in chains by his 
troops. In the confhsion which ensued, how- 
ever, he escaped on board ship, leaving in 
the camp two of his sons, Archagathus and 
Heraclides. His sons were immediately put 
to death by the exasperated soldiers, who 
then made terms with the Carthaginians, by 
which a settlement was granted to them in 
the city of Selinus in Sicily. Here Diodorus 
remarks on the Divine vengeance, by which 
Agathocles lost both his sons and his army, 
on the same day and month in which he had 
treacherously murdered Ophelias, and got 
443 



possession of his troops, the year before, (xz. 
70.) 

He landed at Egesta (b. c. 307), where, to 
raise money, he practised such horrible bar- 
barities as wholly to depopulate the city, 
which he assigned to new-comers. At Syra^ 
cuse, to revenge himself on the citixens who 
had composed his African army, he exter- 
minated Uieir whole fiimilies and connections ; 
so that no one dared even to bury the dead, 
lest they should be suspected of friendship or 
relationship to the mutineers. Meanwhile 
Dinocrates again collected an army, and re- 
duced Agathocles to such difficulties, that he 
offered to resign the tyranny, on condition of 
having two fortresses, with the lands thereto 
attached, assigned to him. But Dinocrates 
merely attempted to gain time by the nego- 
tiation; until Agathocles, perceiving, as he 
should at first luve known, that he had no 
safety but in sovereignty, concluded peace 
with the Carthaginians, at the expense of re- 
storing to them all their Sicilian cities. He 
then marohed against Dinocrates, and with 
inferior forces (5000 foot and 800 horse) 
gained a decisive victory (b. c. 305). Of the 
defeated army, several thousand surrendered 
on promise of being dismissed to their several 
cities ; and were then slaughtered, unarmed, 
and in cold blood. Dinocrates himself, by a 
singular instance of confidence, Agathocles 
received into his friendship, and employed 
him thenceforth in the most important af- 
fairs. 

Of the rest of his life we have only scat- 
tered notices. He made war, with various 
results, on the southern nations of Italy ; and 
he meditated a second invasion of Africa, on 
the plan of raising his naval power to a height 
sufficient to ensure the dominion of the sea, 
and to stop the supplies of com which the Car- 
thaginians drew frx>m Sicily and Sardinia. His 
deaiUi cut short these schemes, and the circum- 
stances of it, as told by Diodorus, are singular. 
His grandson Arohagathus, son of him who 
was slain in Africa, a young man of courage 
and great bodily prowess, aspired to the suc- 
cession ; which, however, Agathocles destined 
to his own son, named also Agathocles. Sus- 
pecting this, Arohagathus put his uncle, the 
younger Agathocles, to death, and corrupted 
a fiivourite of his grandfather, named Msenon, 
who after supper, handing to him as usual 
a tooth-pick, ^ve him a poisoned one, by 
the use of which his mouth was incurably 
gangrened. Being past speech, he was 
placed on the fhneral pile, and burnt, yet 
alive, B. c. 289, in his seventy-second year. 
The story inclines to the marvellous, and is 
quoted by Diodorus as an instance of the 
just judgment of Heaven ; Vulcan, the fire- 
god, being a deity whom Agathocles had spe- 
cially offended by certain sacrilegious trans- 
actions in the Lipari islands. Justin gives a 
different account of the ciroumstances of his 
death. 



AOATHOCLES. 



AGATHON. 



PolybiuB (xT. 35.) has recorded that Scipio 
AlHcanus, being adced whom he considered 
to he most remiurkable for skill in the conduct 
of business (irpojcrucorr^rovr) and for mental 
daring, replied, Agathocles and Dionysios. 
(Diodoros, xix. xx. &c ; Justin, xxii.) 

A. T. M. 

AGATHOCLES. [Aoathoclea.] 

AGATHOD^MON CAyoBo^/My), 
There are several MSS. of the Geography 
of Ptolemy which are particuhirly remarkable 
for the maps which they contain : one of these 
MSS. is at Vienna, and the other at Venice. 
The MS. of Vienna is of a large form, and 
of parchment ; the maps with few excep- 
tions occupy a double leai^ with a space 
equal to about a finger's breadth between 
them. There are twenty-scTen maps : one 
is a general map, there are ten maps of 
Europe, four of Afnca, and twelve of Asia. 
The maps are coloured; the water is green, 
the mountains dark yellow, the land white, 
and the direction of the mountains is in- 
dicated by lines: the names are carefully 
written. On the east side of the margin are 
mailKed the climates, parallels, and the hours 
of the longest day ; on the north and south 
sides of the maps the meridians are marked. 
The outline of the land is rude, bat tolerably 
accurate; the writing of the names is ge- 
nerally correct At Sie end of the MS. there 
are the following words : *Eic t&v KAovSiou 
llToKtfudov rtwypapue&u fii€KUtif 6icn» r^y 
olKOVfi4yntf neuraif *AyalMai/jiuy 'AAc(ay8p€^t 
^rrimnrt (From or according to the eight 
books of geography of Claudius Ptolemsus 
the whole habitable world Agathod»mon of 
Alexandria delineated). There are said to 
be exactly the same words at the end of the 
Venice MS. ; and it is also said that the name 
of Agathodsmon occurs in other MSS. 

Nothing is known of this Agathod»mon ; 
and there is no evidence either that he was a 
contemporary of Ptolemy, as Heeren con- 
jectures, or that he was the Agathodsmon 
the grammarian to whom Isidore of Pelu- 
sium addressed certain letters that are ex- 
tant. Heeren however has some small 
foundation for his hypothesis in the &ct that 
Ptolemy appears to have had maps to accom- 
pany lus Geography, for he mentions (lib. 
viiL c 1, 2.) tables or maps (witftucts} which 
he had designed to accompany the puts that 
treat of Europe, Libya (Africa), and Asia, 
and these tables are the same in number and 
distribution as those in the MSS. (Heeren, 
-Ofrnmentatio de FontibuM Geograph. PkUaun 
TcUnJarumque its omMxarum^ ffc. ; Fabricius, 
BUAioih. Grae. v. 272.) G. L. 

A'G ATHON QKyd,9utv\ a native of Athens, 
and a distinguished tragic poet He was a 
contemporary and friend of Plato, Euripides, 
Aristophanes, and other eminent men. The 
Jast investigations of Ritschl render it highly 
probable that he was bom about 448 b. c, and 
that he died at the age of forty-seven, about 
443 



401 B.C. Agathon thus lived at the time 
when Athens reached the summit of her 
greatness, but, at the same time, sank rapidly 
in public and private morality. The sophists, 
whose doctrines were injurious to philosophy 
and poetry, had their influence upon Agathon. 
He was a handsome and wealthy man, and 
rather notorious for his luxurious mode of 
living. He was a disciple of the sophists, 
and spent much time upon the study of ora- 
tory, the consequences of which were suffi- 
ciently visible in his tragedies. Aristophanes, 
in the " Thesmophoriazuss," ridicules him 
severely for his affected grandiloquence, 
his sophistical niceties, and his fondness for 
antitheses. The justice of this censure is 
warranted by several other writers, and espe- 
cially by the manner in which he is intro- 
duced in the ** Symposium " of Plato, and by 
the words put into his mouth by the philoso- 
pher, who lays the scene of the ** S3rmposium " 
in the house of Agathon. Notwithstanding 
these defects, Agathon was a tragic writer of 
no mean order, for Plato, Aristotle, and 
Aristophanes in his ** Frogs,'* speak highly 
of him, and in 417 b.c. he gained the prise 
in tragedy at the festival of the Lensea. It 
is on this occasion that he is represented by 
Plato as having given the entertainment de- 
scribed in the ** Symposium." The time sub- 
sequent to this event he spent at the court of 
Archelaus, king of Macedonia. Aristotle and 
Plutarch mention some innovations which he 
introduced into tragedy, from which it ap- 
pears that he intended to strike into a new 
path ; but we are not able to form an exact 
idea of his innovations, as none of his pieces 
are preserved. There are only a few frag- 
ments of some of his tragedies extant, and 
the titles of five, — Aerope, Anthus, Thyestes, 
Mysi, and Telephus. His fragments are 
found in all the collections of the remains of 
the Greek dramatists. Some writers have 
thought that Agathon also wrote comedies, or( 
at least, that there was a comic writer of this 
name ; but this opinion has been refuted by 
Bentley. (Athensus, v. 187. 211. x. 445. xiLu 
584. xil 528. X. 454.; Plutarch, Sympoa, 
iii 1. ; Pkto, SympoB, 195, &c., Protag. p. 220. ; 
Aristotle, Poet 18., JRhetar, il 24.; JEHblu, 
Var, Hist xiv. 13. ; Aristophanes, Thumoph. 
58, &c. ; Ban, 83, &c ; Lucian, Rhetor. Pra- 
cqDt 11.; Fabricius, BibUoth, Gr<tc. ii. 281, 
&c ; Bentley, Dissertation upon the Epistles 
of Euripides, p. 417. ; F. A. Wolff, Prdeg. m 
Plat Stfmpos. p. xliv. &c. ; and more espe- 
cially Fr. RitschL Commentatio de Agathonis 
Vita, Arte et Tragcedianan reliquiis, Halie, 
1829, 8vo.) 

From Agathon the dramatist we must dis- 
tinguish Agathon the Samian, of whom no- 
thing else is known, except that he wrote a 
work on Scythia, and another on rivers, of 
which a few fragments are preserved in Pli:^ 
tarch and Stobsus. (Plutarch, ParcJleh, p. 
314, &c.i De Fluv. p. 1156. 1159, &c. ed. 
o a 2 .. 



AGATHON. 



AOAZZARI. 



Pnnkf. ; Stobans, FhrUeg. tit 100. 10 ed. 
Galflford.) L. S. 

A'OATHON, a native of Sicily and a 
monk, was raised to the pontificate on the 
26th of June, a. d. 679. It is asserted that 
chiefly through his inflaence the sixth gene* 
ral council, or the council in Trullo, was 
assembled by Constantine Po^natus. It is 
certain that his legates, haymg been pre- 
viously well instructed in their duties, as- 
sumed a prominent position in the conduct of 
that great meeting, and displayed the most 
ardent zeal for the purity of the orthodox 
faith. The councU met in 680, and, after 
many deliberations, pronounced its condemna- 
tion of the heresy of Eutyches. It closed in 
September, 681 ; but scarcely had the good 
pope achieved his triumph when he died, 
llie Roman church celebrates his memory 
on the 10th of January, the day of his sepul- 
ture. It appears that an agreement was made 
at that time between the emperor and the 
legates, according to which the fees due to 
the former at the ordination of a pope were 
reduced, on condition that such ordination 
should thenceforward, in every instance, be 
preceded by the imperial consent; an ar- 
rangement destructive, so long as it lasted, 
of the independence of the Roman see. 
(Fleury, Hist, Eccles, 1. 40. s. n. xxviii.) 

G. W. 

A'G ATHON, a priest of the church of St 
Sophia at Novgorod, who in the year 1540 
compiled a complete table of the times at 
which Easter would fell for 8000 years, ac- 
companied with explanations which show a 
considerable knowledge, for his time, of ma- 
thematics and ecclesiastical chronology. A 
copy of it is preserved in the library of St 
Sophia. (Grech, Opuit kratkoy Istorii Bus- 
hoy Uteraturui, p. 69.) T. W. 

AGAZZA'RI, AGOSTINO, a noble Sie- 
nese, and a musician of eminence. He stu- 
died under Viadana, at Rome, upon whose 
model his style of church music was formed. 
After visiting the court of the emperor Mat- 
thias, he returned to Rome, and was appointed 
director of the Capella Apollinaria. The 
later years of his life were spent at Siena, 
where he died about 1640. His composi- 
tions — consisting of Madrigals for five and 
six voices ; 44 Latin Motets for fbur, five, six, 
seven, and eight voices ; Masses for four, five, 
and eight voices ; and Psalms for eight voices 
— were printed at Venice, and reprinted at 
Antwerp and Frankfort on the Idain. His 
principal, probably his only, published the- 
oretical work was printed at^ Siena, in 
1638, entitled '* La Musica Ecclesiastica dove 
Si contiene la vera diffinizione della Musica 
come Scienza non pid veduta, e la sua No- 
hiltk," He was one of the first writers who 
used a figured bass in music; concerning 
which he thus speaks : — 

** It is not enough that a performer on 
a bass instrument understand counterpoint, 
444 



without he have some signs affixed to his 
part, from which he may learn the harmony 
that is to accompany it In order to indicate 
this in the simplest manner, the following 
plan may be adopted ; — place above the bass 
line, figures, whenever the chords are not 
natural to the note" [naturali del tono]. 

" The bass instrument being much used at 
Rome, in the new mode of singing called re- 
citative, a score or tablature wUl be rendered 
unnecessary if the bass be thus marked. The 
player will be freed from the necessity of 
reading a score, which often occasions his 
giving incorrect harmonies off improvieo ; and 
the use of this system will also supersede the 
necessity of multiplying the number of 
scores." (Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkunsier.) 

E.T 
AGEX ADAS CAy^Xdias, reXci8as),a sculp 
tor of Argos, especially celebrated as having 
been the master of Myron, Polycletus, and 
Phidias. His own works, several of which were 
seen by Pausanias, appear to have been held in 
high estimation, and justly place him among 
the most eminent artists of Greece. He 
seems to have worked exclusively in bronze, 
as no mention occurs of statues bv him in any 
other material. At ^gium, in Achsa, there 
were two statues by Agelaidas : one was dt 
Jupiter as a child; the other, of a beardless 
Hercules. He also made a statue of Jupiter, 
which was placed in the citadel at Ithome. 
This work was executed for the Messenians 
of Nanpactus. At Delphi, there were some 
fine statues of horses by Ageladas, which had 
been presented to the temple by the inhabit- 
ants of Tarentum ; likewise some statues of 
captive women. A muse, by this sculptor, is 
honourably mentioned in the " Greek Antho- 
logy." Ageladas is stated also to have made 
the statue of Anochus, who con<^uered in the 
games of the sixly-fifth Olympiad ; and the 
votive chariot dedicated in commemoration of 
the victory of Cleosthenes of Epidamnus, in 
the sixty-sixth Olympiad. He likewise made 
the statue of Timasitheus, a conqueror in the 
games, who was condemned to death by the 
Athenians in the second year of the sixty- 
eighth Olympiad, or B.C. 507. The date at 
which these three last-mentioned works are 
supposed to have been executed, namely, 
soon after the success of the different victors, 
and that assigned to Ageladas by Pliny, who 
places him in the eighty-seventh Olympiad, 
and by those who would attribute to hun a 
statue of Hercules after the pla^e of Athens, 
have occasioned considerable difficulty in fix- 
ing the age of Ageladas. The seemmg dis- 
crepancy has led to the supposition that there 
were, at least, two sculptors of the name, who 
were living nearly at the same time. This 
is the opinion of Thiersch, although Muller 
and others dispute it It may be urged in 
&vour of there being only one artist'SO called, 
that the three earlier works referred to. and 
which chiefly occasion the difficulty that oc- 



AGELADAS. 



AOELET. 



cnrs, may not have been executed till some 
time after the yictories they were intended to 
commemorate ; and that Ageladas may have 
been the author of them, and still Hying at 
the advanced date at which we find him men- 
tioned by Pliny. The second difficulty arises 
out of the fact of Ageladas haying made the 
statue of Hercules which, according to the 
scholiast on Aristophanes (FrogSy 504.), was 
placed in the temple at Melite, in Attica, after 
the great plague. If this work were made 
expressly for this purpose, and after, or even 
during, the plague, there cannot be any other 
way of reconciling the difficulty of date than 
by admitting a second Ageladas. But the 
statue may have been executed previously, and 
placed there either in gratitude for the ces- 
sation of the pest, or with the hope of arrest- 
ing its further progress in that part of Attica. 
From the sixty-Sth to the eighty-seventh 
Olympiad, there are at least eighty-eight 
years. If the statues of the victors were 
erected soon after their triumph, and Ageladas 
allowed to have been only twenty years old 
when he executed the first, he would be, in 
the third year of the eighty-seventh Olmypiad 
(the date of the plague at Athens), 11 1 years 
old. MiiUer suggests that Ageladas lived 
only till the eighty-second, instead of the 
eighty-seventh Olympiad. The scholiast al- 
luded to gives Eladas as the name of the 
sculptor of the Hercules of Melite (*EAi(Sov 
rov 'Afyyccov) ; but as these words "master of 
Phidias," (jmi SiScuricfiAov rov ^ciStov,) are 
added, there can be no doubt that Ageladas 
is meant (Pausanias, iv. 33. vi 10. vii. 24. 
X. 10.; Pliny, HisL Nat. xxxiv. 8.) 

R. W. jun. 
AGELET, JOSEPH PAUTE D', a 
French astronomer of talent and activity, 
who perished with La Perouse ; bom near 
Montmedy, November 25. 1751. His two 
uncles, under the name of Le Paute, (and 
the article is generally added to D'Agelet's 
baptismal name) were celebrated watch- 
makers at Paris, and the wife of one of them 
was the auxiliary of Lalande in the com- 
putations by which he assisted Clairant in 
the determination of the positions of Bailey's 
comet This lady recommended her nephew 
to Lalande as an assistant, an office which he 
commenced in February, 1768. In March, 
1 7 73, he accompanied Kerguelen in his voyage 
to the Southern Seas. He returned at the 
end of the following year, and was made 
professor of mathematics at the Ecole Mili- 
taire in 1777. From this time till 1785 he 
was fhll^ occupied with his pupils and his 
observations : according to Lalande, six hours 
a day with the former, and seven hours at night 
with the latter, was his usual allotment He 
began that immense catalogue of stars which 
Le Fran^ais Lalande (Lalande's nephew) 
completed, and which is now (1842) in course 
of reduction at the expense of the British 
Association. In 1785 he sailed with La 
445 



Perouse, and all that is known of his subse- 
quent hibours is contained in a few letters to 
Lalande.- He sent home no observations : 
La Perouse strictly forbade any communica- 
tion of the kind, and consequently his labours 
are lost This is the more to be regretted 
as Lalande had intrusted him with an inva- 
riable pendulum, which had been already 
used b^ La Condamine in America, and by 
others m Africa and Siberia. September 4. 

1787, he wrote thus to Lalande, off Kam- 
tchatka : ** Since our departure from Manilla, 
we have surveyed with exactness more than 
six hundred marine leagues of coast : all oar 
geographical points are rigorously laid down« 
We have got so accustomed to lunar distances, 
that we verify the chronometers without un- 
certainty. We are a little proud of correct- 
ing the English ; we find that the successors 
of Cook made mistakes, like other people, 
notwithstanding the ton doctoral which they 
assume." His last letter is dated March 1. 

1788, from Botany Bay, where he had made 
acquaintance with the English astronomer 
Dove. Of course neither the tune nor man- 
ner of his death can be stated. 

He was elected member of the Academy 
of Sciences in 1785, and his works consist of 
scattered papers in their Transactions, and in 
the ** Journal des Savans." Full references 
are given by Lalande (BibUograpfue Aairo^ 
nomique, pp« 708 — 713.), from whence the pre- 
ceding is taken. A. De M, 

AGELLI, or AJELLI, ANTONIO, 
bishop of Acemo, and one of the most 
learned men amongst the Theatins, was bom 
at Sorrento, in the year 1532. When nineteen 
years of age he put on the habit of his order, 
and in the following year, 1552, made his 
profession in Venice, where he had passed his 
novitiate. Having displayed singular ability 
in the study of theology and languages, he 
was sent by the supenors of his onler to 
Rome, and placed under the tuition of the 
celebrated GuUelmo Sirleto, who at that time 
superintended the theological studies of the 
young members. Here he speedily distin- 
guished himself, and became thoroughly 
versed in the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and 
Chaldee languages. On the introduction of 
his order into Genoa^ he was chosen the first 
prepoeito, in 1572, in the' Casa di S. Mad- 
dalena, which office he held for three years. 
The Council of Trent having recommended 
a revision of the Sacred Scriptures, Agelli 
was one of the learned men selected by Fius 
v. to whom this important work was confided. 
Their attention was first directed to the Septua- 
gint version, on which Agelli was principally 
employed, and for which he collated a vast 
number of Hebrew and Greek manuscripts. 
This revised version was afterwards pub- 
lished at Rome, in 1587, in folio. He like- 
wise had a great share in the Latin version 
of the Septuagint published by Flammio 
NobUi, in 1588, in folio ; and aided much in 
OG 3 



AGELLI. 



AGELLI. 



the compledon of the correction of the Vul- 
gate publiflhed in 1592, in foUo. He iras 
aIbo one of the six persons, called ** scolastici," 
who presided over the Vatican press, and 
examined the works to be printed there, by 
comparing them with good manuscripts. In 
tiie midst of these literary labours he per* 
formed the duties of visitor in Rome and 
Naples, and the other places comprised within 
this district Clement VIII. held him in such 
high esteem, that he entrusted to him the 
education of his grand nephew, Ippolito Al- 
dobrandini, made him consultore of the 
Congregazione dell' Indice, and in the year 
1593 bidbop of Acemo, in the Campagna 
Felice. This dignity he retained until the 
year 1604, when, the service of the church 
requiring his constant residence in Rome, 
he resigned his bishopric, receiving from 
the pope fbr his mamtenance an abbey, 
and apartments in the episcopal palace at 
Rome. Here he died, in the year 1608. In 
addition to hb editorial labours mentioned 
above, he wrote the following works, which 
are described by Ughelli as most accurate, 
copious, and valuable: — 1. ** Commentarium 
in Lamentationes Hieremiie ex Auctoribus 
Orascis oollectum, cum Explicatione e Catena 
Grsecorum Patrum ex ^nsdem Versione; 
Ronue," 1585, 4to. 2. «* In Habacuc Pro- 
phetam; Antverpi»," 1597, Svo. 3. "Com- 
mentarii in Psalmos et Divini Officii Can- 
tica; Roms," 1606, fol. It is said that Car- 
dinal Bellarmino, who had written upon the 
Psalms, declared, in allusion to the commen- 
taries of Apelli, that he never would have 
published his own work, unless compelled so 
to do by the general of his order, as Agelli 
had forestalled all the praise, and carried off 
the palm of honour. 4. " In Proverbia Salo- 
monis Commentarius;" published by Nova- 
rini, in his " Varia Opuscula; Veron»," 1649, 
foL Part III. p. 109. 6. ** Cyrilli Alexandrini 
Libri XVII. de Adoratione m Spiritu ct Veri- 
tate, e Grseco in Latinum translati et Scholiis 
illustrati ; Romse," 1588, folio. 6. " Cyrilli 
Alexandrini adversns Nestorii Blasphemlas 
Contradictionum Libri V., e Grseco in Latinum 
translati, cum Scholiis; Romie," 1607, foL 
This work of Cyrillus had never before 
been published. 7. ** Procli Patriarchs Con- 
stantinopolitani Epistola de Fide ad Armenos 
Antonio Agellio interprete," published in 
vol. XL of the *♦ Bibliotheca Patrum," Paris, 
1654, fol. In addition to the above, the 
following works are preserved in manuscript in 
the Qnirmal Library of the Regular Clerks : — 

1. **Opusculum de Ponderibus et Men- 
suris." 

2. ** In Isaiam Prophetam, k cap. xxL ad 
flneni/* 

3. " In Danielem Expositio." 

4. ** In Duodechn Prophetas Expositiones." 

5. ^ In Epistolas Paul! et Catholicas An- 
potationes, Gnece et Latine.*' 

6. " In Tria Priora Capita Apocalypsis." 

446 



7. ^'Selecta ex Rabbinonim Commen- 
tariis in Job." 

8. ** Rabbi Bravatellns m Habacuc, Latine." 

9. ** Scholia in Dionysium Areopagitam, 
Graece." 

10. ** Phraseologia Demosthenis et Nasi- 
anzeni, Gnece." 

He Ukewise assisted Mario Altieri in the 
correction of the Gkdlican Psalter, and by 
order of Clement VIII. made a strict criti- 
cism of the Talmud. Neither the corrections 
nor criticism have been published. The Jews 
endeavoured to induce him to abandon the 
latter work bv the offer of large pecuniary 
bribes. (Ghilmi, Theatre ^HwminiZettera^ 
ii.23.; Ughelli, IkUia Sacra, viL 450.; Maz- 
suchelli, Scrittori tTItaha.) J. W. J. 

AGEXLIO, GIUSEPPE, an Italian 
painter, bom at Sorrento, the scholar of Ron- 
calli, excelled in landscape. He lived at 
Rome in the early part of the seventeenth 
century, and worked principally as an as- 
sistant to Roncalli and others, whom he 
greatly assisted in the figures as well as the 
landscapes of their pictures. He painted also 
from hu own designs. He executed some of 
the fi-escoes in the churches of Santa Maria 
delle Grazie, and San Silvestro delle Monache; 
and Villamena has engraved a San Carlo 
Borromeo, from him. (Dominici, Vite di 
Pition, &c.) R. N. W. 

AGE'LLIUS. [Geluus, Aui^vs.] 

AGELNOTH, the twenty-ninth in the 
series of archbishops of Canterbury, lived in 
the time of King Canute, one of whose prin- 
cipal advisers he was. He appears to have 
been a popular prelate, as the epithet ^ the 
Good" has descended with his name. But 
little is known of him, and that little has 
been collected by Godwin, who is disposed to 
reject what Mahnesbury has related of him, 
that he was at one time connected with the 
monastery of Glaston. Godwin's notion of 
his-course of life is, that he was the son of a 
Saxon earl named Agelmar, and was in the 
earlier part of his life dean of the church of 
Canterbury. When elected archbishop, he 
went to Rome to obtain the pall, and while 
there he became possessed, for the sum of 
100 talents of silver, of a remarkable relic. 
It was nothing less than one of the arms 
of St. Augustine, which he brought to Eng- 
land and presented to the church of Coventry. 
He took great care in rebuilding the church 
of Canterbury, which had been burnt by the 
Danes. He was archbishop for seventeen 
years, and died on October 29. 1038. (God- 
win, De Prcf8uhbu8.^ J. H. 

AGER, NICOLAS, bom at Isentheun in 
Alsace, in 1568, was professor of medicine 
and botany at Strassburg. He was contem- 
porary and intimate witi^ the two Bauhins, 
the most celebrated botanists of that time. 
He has left the following works : — ** Theses 
Medicas de Dysenteria, Argentorati," 1593, 
4to. " Exercitatio Medioa, Argentorati," 



AGER. 



AGESANDER. 



16S4, 4to. " De InAractiboB Mesanei, Ar- 
gentoratV' 1629, 4to. These three are on 
medical subjects, and were printed as theses 
at the graduation of students of medicine. 
He published two other works, on the de- 
partment of natural history, which were also 
probably theses. These were entitled: **Dis- 
putatiode Zoophytis, Argentorati," 1625, 4to. 
** De Anima Ve^tatiTa, Argentorati," 1629, 
4to. He also edited an edition of an old Ger- 
man Pharmacopeia. He died in 1634. An ex- 
tinct genus of plants, Ptederoia, had a species 
named after hun, P. Ageria. Adanson also 
gave the name Ageria to the genus now called 
JFVtiiof, and Ageria is one of De CandoUes' 
subgeneric di-vUions of this genus. (Jocher, 
AUgem, Gdehrten-Lexiem ; Biog.Umv,) KL. 
AGESANDER, of Rhodes, a sculptor 
commemorated by Pliny as one of the three 
artists (** Ageaander, et rolydorus, et Athen- 
odorus, Rhodii,") who executed a much ad- 
mired group of Laocoon and his sons, which 
was in the palace of Titus at Rome. The 
well-knoifu group of the same sulgect now 
preserved in the museum of the Vatican, in 
Rome, corresponds so exactly with that de-; 
scribed by Pliny, that there scarcdy can be 
a doubt that they are identical The only 
difference is, that Pliny declares that the 
figure of Laoooon, the sons, and the serpents, 
are all made of a single block of marble, while 
the Vatican group is composed of yarious 
pieces. The position of the work, and the 
point from which it was viewed, may ac- 
count for this slight inaccuracy ; and, the 
other evidence considered, it need not affect 
our belief that the existing group is that which 
is recorded by the historian. Pliny states that 
it was in the house of the emperor Titua. The 
group now in the Vatican was found in the 
immediate neighbourhood of the ruins of the 
baths of Titus, at Rome. It was accidentally 
discovered, in the y^ear 1506, by some work- 
men who were digging in a vineyard which 
occupied a portion of the ground on which 
this palace formerly stood. There is a 
curious letter extant, describing the circum- 
stances attending this fortunate discovery; 
and which, from the celebrity of the artists 
mentioned in it, and the valuable testimony 
of their opinion, may with propriety be intro- 
duced here. It is from Francesco di San 
Gallo, son of the famous architect, to Monsig- 
nore Spedalengo, and is dated 1 567. ** It being 
told to the ^pe that some fine statues were 
found in a vme^ard near S. Maria Maggiore, 
he sent to desire Giovanni di San GaUo to 
go and examine them ; Michel Angelo Bona- 
rotti being often at our house, San Gallo got 
him to go also ; and so," says Francesco, "I 
mounted behind my father (in groppa a mio 
padre), and we went. We descended to 
where the statues were. My fiither imme- 
diately exclaimed, 'This is the Laocoon 
spoken of by Pliny.* " There has been much 
difference of opinion as to the date of the 
447 



artist to whom this group is attributed. Winc- 
kelman considered it to be of the time of 
Lysippus, that is, between three and four 
hundred years b.c. A much later date is 
now assigned to it ; and Agesander and his 
assistant sculptors are placed by Visconti, 
Sillig, and others, in the first century of our 
sera, and contemporary with the earlier Ro- 
man emperors. (Pliny, HiaU Nat xxxvL 5.) 

R, W. jun. 

AGE'SICLES (more correctly Hegesicles) 
('H7i|<ri«A^j), or AGASICLES (^hywucKiti), 
the son of Archidamus, was one of the kings of 
Sparta, and the fourteenth in order, including 
the first king Aristodemus. He was of the 
house of th« Proclids, and lived about b.c. 
600. Sis colleague was Leon. Pausanias 
(iiL 7. 4.) records of him that his reign was 
Qi»e of peace ; but it appears firom Herodotus, 
that during his lifetime the Lacedemonians 
waged an unsuccessful war against the people 
of Tegea in Arcadia. (Herodotus, l 65. ; 
Miiller, Dorians. Appen. IX. ; Clinton, Faat 
HtUen, vol. l p. 839.) R. W— n. 

AGflBSILATS (^AynffiXacs), » Greek his- 
torian whom Plutacch mentions among the 
writers on the early history of Italy ClToAwcrfY 
From this work a considerable fragment is 

Quoted by Plutarch iParattela, p. 312. ed. 
'rankf), and some smaller ones are pre- 
served in Stobaeus. (JFlorikg, tit ix. 27. 
liv. 49. Ixv. 10., ed. Gaisford.) L. Si 

AGESILA'US QKynalKaos), There were 
two kings of this name. AgesUaus L was the 
seventh Spartan kin^ in order, including 
Aristodemus, Little is known of him except 
that, according to Pausanias, (iiL 2, 3.) the 
legislation of Lycurgus fell within his reign. 
It is probable, however, that Pausanias con- 
founded the time of the legislation of Lycur- 
gus with that of his regency during the first 
years of the minority of Charilaus, which 
might have coincided with the close of the 
reign of Agesilaus L The legishition took 
place about 30 years afterwards (b.c. 817.), 
when Charihius. was grown up, and adminis- 
tering the government with Archelaus the 
son of Agesilaus L as his colleague. (See 
authorities quoted by Clinton, as below.) 
The same author also states that Agesilaus L 
reigned a very short time, contrary to the 
more probable account of Apollodorus, ac- 
cording to which he reigned forty-four years. 
He was of the house of the Agids, the kingly 
office at Sparta beinff in the hands of two 
persons, the successive representatives of 
the royal houses of the Agids and Proclids, 
as they were respectively called, from Agis 
and Procles, two of their members. (Pau- 
sanias, iii. 9. 4. ; Clinton, Faat Hdien, i. 143. 
336. ii. 408.) R. W— n, 

AGESILA'US II., one of the most distin- 
guished of the Spartan kings, was of the house 
of the Proclids, and the twentieth in order, in- 
cluding Aristodemus. He became king in b. c, 
398, and reigned for thirty-seven yeara in the 
GO 4 



AOESILAU& 



AGESILAUS. 



most eventful period of the histoir of Sparta. 
In the second year of his reign he waii sent 
into Asia, ostensibly for the purpose of aiding 
the Asiatic Greeks in asserting their inde- 
pendence of Persia, but in reali^r with a yiew 
of anticipating an invasion of Ureece, which 
was threatened by the Persians. The Per- 
sian satraps were completely beaten hj him 
in generalship and address ; and so satisfied 
was the Spartan government with his conduct 
that they honoui%d him with an unexampled 
mark of confidence, h^ placing a fleet at his 
disposal, and empowering him to nominate an 
officer to command it In making the appoint- 
ment, he consulted private feelings rather 
than the public interest, and nominated his 
wife's brother Pisander ; an act of which he 
afterwards had reason to repent, when the 
Spartan fleet was defeated by the Athenians 
off the ishmd of Cnidus (b. c. 892.) 

The success which Agesilaus gained over 
the Persians was so great and so easily won, 
and the influence he had obtained among 
their subjects in Asia so extensive, that he 
was induced to form the design of overthrow- 
ing the Persian empire, by marching into the 
interior of the kingdom and detaching the 
different nations on his line of march from 
their allegiance to the Persian king. He had 
already, with much address, negotiated an 
alliance with Cotys, a prince of Paphla- 
gonia at that time in rebellion against the 
Persian king, and was engaged in prepara- 
tions for carrying his plan into execution, 
when he was summoned home to fight the 
battles of his country against a hostile con- 
federacy of the Athenians, the Argives, the 
Corinthians, and the Thebans, formed at the 
instigation of Persian agents, and by the 
influence of Persian gold. His patriotism 
and fortitude were thus severely put to 
the test A most brilliant career lay before 
him in Persia: in the language (perhaps 
somewhat overstrained) of his friend and 
biographer Xenophon, who accompanied 
him, ** many nations were sending ambas- 
sadors ; many were revolting ; he was 
already ruler of many Orientals as well as 
Greeks; and everything promised success; 
still he obeyed the call of lus country, ju^t as 
if he had been at home, and in the council- 
chamber of the state." According to the same 
author, he had so won the hearts of the 
Asiatic Greeks by his courtesy and kindliness 
of dii^x»ition, that ** they parted frt>m him as 
a fkther and a friend, and some of them so- 
licited to serve under his command in Greece." 
Afrer crossing the Hellespont he marched to 
Thessaly in less than a month, by the same 
route which had taken Xerxes a year. He 
met and defeated the forces of the confede- 
racy at Coroneia in Bceotia (b. c. 394), 
where he was severely wounded in the battle. 
He offered at Delphi a tithe of his Asiatic spoils, 
amounting to no less than 100 talents, a very 
great sum for those days. From this time to 
448 



the death of Cpaminondas (b. c. 362), a period 
of thirty -two years, he continued to possess the 
chief direction of affiEurs at Lacedemon. 
Shortly after making his offering at Delphi, 
he undertook an expedition into Acamania, 
where he displayed lus usual skill, and obliged 
the people A that country to submit to his 
own terms. In b. c. 386, we find Agesilaus 
enforcing upon the Thebans the treaty of 
Antalcidas, one consequence of which was the 
restoration of Platiea. In b. c. 378 he was 
intrusted with the command of an expedition 
against Thebes, then at war with Sparta ; and 
again in b. c. 377. On both these occasions, 
he ravaged Bceotia, but neither expedition 
was followed by any remarkable results, 
A^ilaus being bafiied in his attempts to 
bnng about a regular engagement The 
Thebans, indeed, in one respect, profited by 
it They gidned military experience, and 
learned to shake off their terror of the Spar- 
tan discipline and courage, so that Agesilaus 
was even reproached by his countrymen 
for the lessons he had given them. On 
his return home fr*om the second expedi- 
tion, he ruptured a blood-vessel at Megara, 
a misfortune which laid the foundation of a 
long illness, and for some time kept him 
to his bed. After the battle of Leuctra 
(b.c. 871), in which he was not pre- 
sent, probably on aoeount of ill health, his 
services were called into request, in defence 
of his country, against the Thebans, who had 
invaded Laconia, and advanced as far as 
Sparta (b. c. 369). The Theban forces were 
much superior in number and discipline to 
any which Sparta could Inring against them, 
and the danger of the crisis was increased 
by disaffection among her citisens. In this 
emergency, all eyes were turned to Agesi- 
laus ; and his prudence and energy saved his 
country from foreign enemies and domestio 
conspiracy. When advancing years disabled 
him from service in the field, he went out as 
ambassador instead of general, and by his 
influence and address materially advanced 
her interests, both in other respects and also 
by procuring supplies of money for her use. 
It is probaUe that he was present at the 
battle of Mantineia (b. c. 862) as commander 
of the Lacedsemonian forces ; though Xeno- 
phon makes no mention of his presence there. 
(Thirlwall, HUL of Greece, v. 149.) In the 
same or early in the following year, when 
more than eighty years of age, he undertook 
an expedition to Egypt, at the request of 
Tachos, who had nuuie himself king of 
that country, and who was meditating a 
war against Persia, the direction and com- 
mand of which he promised to Agesilaus. But 
on his arrival, a rebellion broke out among 
the king's subjects : the king himself was 
obliged to fly ; and two rival candidates 
having appeared for the throne, Agesilaus 
felt himself compelled to take pert with one 
or the other. He did so; and, after aiding 



AGESILAUS. 



AGESIPOLIS. 



NectanabtB, one of the two covnpetitorB, in gain- 
ing the throne, he set out on his retam home 
in the middle of winter, and died on the 
passage, at a place called the harbonr of 
Menelaus, on the coast of Africa. 

The character of Agesilans has been made 
the subject of unqualined eulogy by his friend 
and biographer Aenophon ; but there were 
two incidents in his life to prove that he was 
not altogether deserrmg of it The first was 
his justification of the seixure and retention 
of the Cadmeia or citadel of Thebes by the 
Spartans, not on the ground that it was right 
or just, but simply because it was advan- 
tageous to Sparta. Another, and in some 
respects similar case, was his protection of 
the Spartan general Sphodrias, when accused 
of having m»ie an unauthorised attack on the 
Athenians. On this latter occasion, indeed, 
the interests of his country were sacrificed 
by him to private feelings. His own son 
Archidamus was on terms of affectionate in- 
timacy with the son of Sphodrias ; and hence 
Agesilans, whose disposition seems to have 
been more amiable than that of most of his 
countrymen, was prevailed upon to inter- 
cede on behalf of the fkther. He did so suc- 
cessfully, and Sphodrias was acquitted. 

His colleagues of the other house were 
AgesipoUs I., Cleombrotus L, Agesipolis II., 
and Cleomenes II., in the tenth year of whose 
reign he died. He was succeeded by his son 
Archidamos IIL (Xenophon, Life of Agesi- 
laiu, and HeUenica^ lib. iiL — viL ; Plutarch, 
AgetUaus ; Diodorus, xv. ; Cornelius Nepos, 
Ageaikttu; Polyesnus, iL 1. ; Pausanias, iii. 
c. 9, 10. ; Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, voL iv. 
and V. ; Clinton, Fast HeSen. ii. 213.) 

R. W— n. 

AGESIPOLIS I. CA7i?<r(iroXif ), the son of 
Pausanias, was the twenty-second king of 
Sparta of the Agidline, Aristodemus included. 
His accession to the throne took place in 
B.C. 894, when he was a minor, and he 
reigned fourteen years. The first remark- 
able event of his reign was a great victory 
gained, near Corinth (n. c. 394), by the La- 
cedaemonians and their allies, over the Argives 
and their confederates, the Thebans, the 
Athenians, and the Cormthians. Agesipolis 
being still a minor, the Spartan troops were 
commanded by his guardian, Aristodemus, 
his next of kin. On obtaining his nugority, 
B.C. 390, he was intrusted with the com- 
mand of an expedition against Argos. He 
was apprehensive that the Argives would 
avail themselves of a religious pretext to 
stop his march, and plead the celebration 
of some sacred festival (the time of which 
they could fix to suit their purpose) as a bar 
against hostile invasion. Accordingly, before 
setting out on his march, he consulted the 
oracles of Delphi and Olympia on the validity 
of such a plea. He received satis&ctory an- 
swers, and then set out on the expedition. 
On crossing the borders of Argolis, he was 
449 



met by two heralds, who announced to hiift 
the commencement of the sacred season* 
during which, as they alleged, their country 
had always been free from invasion. Being 
fortified with the answers of the oracles, Age- 
sipolis paid no attention to their demands, 
but marched on, plundering and laying waste 
the Argive territory, till he had advanced 
fhrther than Agesilans had done on a simi- 
lar expedition, and had driven the Argives 
within their walls. He had also intended to 
occupy permanently a post on the borders, 
as Agis, a former king of Sparta, had done 
at Deceleia, near Athens, but he was deterred 
by the unfkvourable appearance of the vic- 
tims, and returned home without gaining any 
other advantage than a considerable amount 
of plunder. In b.c. 381 he was appointed to 
conduct the war in which the Lacedemonians 
were then engaged against Olynthus, in Ma- 
cedonia, with a council of thirty Spartans to 
advise and assist him. He invaded the Olyn- 
thian territory, and took Torone by storm. 
But shortly afterwards he was seized with a 
violent fever, of which he died (b.c. 880) in 
seven days. His body was steeped in honey, 
and so conveyed to Sparta for a royal burial. 

Agesipolis was a colleague of the great 
Agesilans, bu{ differed much firom him in 
his views and general principles. He waa 
of a more peaceful and less enterprising dis- 
position, and averse fhnn the schemes of 
conquest by which Agesihius sought the ag- 
grandisement of his country, sometimes at 
die expense of justice. Still Agesilaus is 
reported to have sincerely regretted his death. 
Agesipolis appears to have been a man of 
considerable merit He died without issue, 
and was succeeded by his brother Cleom- 
brotus. (Diodorus, xiv. 89. xv. 19. 23. ; 
Xenophon, HeUen, iv. 7. 2. v. 3. 19.; Pau- 
sanias, ilL 5. 7. 8.; Clinton, Fast Heiien, 
ii. 212. ; Thiriwoll, HisL of Greece, iv. 429. 
V. 21. R. W— n. 

AGESIPOLIS II., the son of Cleombrotus L, 
and the twenty-fourth king of Sparta of the 
Agid house, Aristodemus included, performed 
nothing worthy of record. He reigned only 
one year, and died b.c. 370. He also was a 
colleague of the ^eat Agesilaus. (Diodorus, 
XV. 60. ; Pausanias, iii 6.) R. W— n. 

AGESIPOLIS IIL, the grandson of Cleom- 
brotus II., was the thirty-second king of Sparta 
of the Agid house, Aristodemus included. 
He was a minor when declared king (b. c. 2 19) 
by the ephors, and his uncle, of the same 
name, was appointed to act as his guardian. 
The Spartans were at that time in a state of 
anarchy; and a usurper, named Lycurgus, 
though not even of royal blood, was, through 
bribery, nominated as his colleague. He 
soon deposed Agesipolis, and drove him from 
^ftrta, and the latter prince afterwards joined 
the Roman general Quintius Flamininus 
(b.c. 195) in his attack upon Sparta, when 
under the tyranny of Nabis. Agesipolis was 



AGESIPOLIS. 



AGG£KUS. 



murdered by pintes, aboat b,c. 183, on a 
voyage to Rome, as an ambaseador on behalf 
of his brother exiles, irhen he was probably 
forty years of age. Pausaoias does not include 
him among the Agid princes of Sparta, pro- 
bably because he did not think him entitled 
to be considered as king. (Polybius, iv. 35. ; 
and Leffat 49. ; Livy, xxxiv. 26.) R. W-^i. 

AGESrSTRATE. [Aois.] 

AGE'TOR, a fiunoos mechanician of By- 
xantium, lived probably in the first centory 
before the Christian sera. Vitmvius has de- 
scribed a testudo or tortoise of extraordinary 
sise and power, which was constructed by 
Agetor. Its length was 60 feet, its widdi 
18, and it was of a great height ; it contained 
a ram 106 feet long, which was worked by 
100 men ; it contained also a floor for hi- 
lists and catapultse, and was furnished with 
a parapet and battlements for storming. This 
immense machine was supported by eight 
wooden wheels, six feet and three quarters 
in diameter, and three in thickness, protected 
by cold wrought iron ties, and could be moved 
in six directions ; it weighed 4000 talents, 
and, according to Vitruvius, was capable of 
knocking down a wall 100 feet in height 
(Vitruvius, x. 21.) R. N. W, 

AGGAS, RADULPa [Aoas.] 

AGG AS, ROBERT, commonly called Au- 
^us, an English landscape painter who lived 
m London during the reigns of James I. and 
Charles L Grahuti, in his "English School," 
terms Aggas a good landscape painter, 
both in oU and in distemper, and skilful 
in architecture, in which he pahnled many 
seenes for the playhouse in Covent Garden, 
or rather the theatre in Dorset Gardens, which 
Walpole supposes to be meant Aggas died 
in London, in 1679, aged about 60 ; he was 
probably descended from Radulph or Edward 
Aggas. Few of his works are extant ; the 
best is a landscape presented by him to the 
Painter-stuners* Company, in whose hall it 
is still preserved. (Walpole, Anecdotes of 
Painting in England,) R. N. W. 

AGGE'NUS U'RBICUS, a Latin writer 
whose works are contained in the collection 
entitled "Rei AgrarisB Auctores Legesque 
Variae, &c cura willelmi Goesii," Amster- 
dam, 1674, 4to. The works in this collection 
which are attributed to Aggenus are — ** Ag- 
geni Urbici in Julium F^ntinum Commen- 
tarium," which is a conunentary on the 
treatise " De Agrorum Qualitate," which is 
attributed to Julius Frontinus; **Coinmen- 
tariorum De Controversiis Agrorum Pars 
Prior et Altera ; " '* In Julium Frontinum 
Commentariorum Liber Secundus qui Diazo- 
graphus dicitur," which consists only of plans 
and sketches pertaining to the science of the 
agrimensor, and intended to illustrate the 
first book of his commentary on Frontinus, 
** De Agrorum Qualitate." 

It is not known when Aggenus lived. He 
mentions the emperors Vespasian and Domi- 
450 



tian, and he calls Vespasian by the appellation 
Divus, but Domitian by his name simply; 
whence one might infer that he wrote 
under Domitian. It is collected from an 
expression (" cum divino pnesidio ") in the 
Introduction to the first part of the com- 
mentary ** De Controversiis Agrorum," that 
he was a Christian. He also says that ** in 
Italy many persons, during the progress 
making by the most sacred Christian religion, 
have occupied and are cultivating prdhne 
groves or the grounds of temples (lucos pro- 
mnos sive templorum loca).*' There are 
other expresskms from which it is collected 
that Paganism and temples still existed; 
whence it is inferred that Aggenus lived 
before Theodosius L, who reined from ▲. d. 
379 to 395. If the Frontmus on whom 
Aggenus commented is Sextus Julius Fron- 
tinus, who was curator of the aquseducts in 
the reign of Nerva, Aggenus was not earlier 
than the time of that emperor (a. d. 96-98). 
But all the works which pass under the name 
of Aggenus may not be by the same hand ; 
and l£ere appears to be no certain conclusion 
as to his time. 

The commentary on Frontinus **De Agro- 
rum Qualitate " appears to be very corrupt, 
but it is not without value. The commenta- 
ries "De Controversiis Agrorum" are in a 
better state, and throw much light on the 
Roman system of fixing the boundaries of 
lands, jmd on the legal questions connected 
-with it Aggenus describes the qualities of 
a good measurer (mensor) : though his art is 
different from that of the lawyer (advocatus), 
he ought to have equal wisdom and integrity. 
His business is to ascertain fiicts by means of 
his art ; and to maintain its integrity, and the 
boundaries of the old sssignments of lands 
(ordo veteris adsignationis) : but he could 
make no assignment, except by the order of 
the emperor. It appears Uiat many questions 
were decided in a summary way by the 
mensores ; and sometimes it was a question 
whether the decision of a dispute as to 
boundaries (aUnvio, and the like matters) 
belonged to them or to the courts of law ; or 
whether it should be decided by the principles 
of the ]awyer*s or the measurer's science. 
Florentinus (Dig, 41. tit 1. s. 16.) says that 
in his time there was no ** jus alluvionis," no 
right to ac<|uire by alluvio, in the case of 
agri limitati, and that this question was 
settled by Antoninus Pius ; the lawyers, it 
may be presumed, would be in favour of the 
acquisition by alluvio, and the mensores 
against it It is supposed that this is the 
dispute to which Aggenus refers in a passage 
in the second part of his treatise ** De Con- 
troversiis ; " and as he says nothing of the 
emperor's decision, it has thence been con- 
cluded that he wrote before the time when it 
was made, which must fall somewhere be- 
tween A. D. 138 and A. d. 161. G. L. 

AGHLABITES is the name given to an 



AGHLABITES. 



AQIEIt 



African dynasty founded by Ibr^im, the 
8on of AgUab, who, having been appointed 

Srrernor of Eastern Africa hj the Khalif 
lurun Ar-rashid, made himself independent 
in A. H. 284 (a. d. 897), and transmitted his 
dominions as an inheritance to his son Abu- 
l-'abbas 'AbdoUah. [Ibea'ri'm Ibn Agh- 
LAB.] The dynasty of the Aghlabites lasted 
until A.H. 296, when Ziy&datnllah, the tenth 
prince of the race of Aghlab, was put to 
death by Abu 'Abdillah the Shiite, and their 
▼ast possessions, extending iit>m the frontiers 
of Egypt to the regency of Algiers, fell to 
the share of the Fatimites. [Abu' 'Abdil- 
LAH, the Shiite.] (Ibnn-1-athir, 'Ibratu-l- 
o6aU4'«Audr, MS. ; Casiri, Bib. Arab, Hup. 
E$e. iL 192. ; Conde, HUL de la Dfmu l 390.) 

P. de G. 

A'GIAS QKyias\ a native of Troesen and 
author of an epic poem entitled ** Nostoi" 
(N^oToi), that is, an account of the return of 
tibe Achsans from Troy, in Ave books. He 
was sometimes called Augias or Hagias. No 
particulars are known about him, but his 
work appears to have been of great import- 
ance for the mythical history of Greece ; it 
is frequently r^erred to by ancient writers, 
but in most cases without we author's name. 
Fragments of it, and seyeral statements de- 
rived from it, are contained in the ** Chresto- 
mathia" of Proclus, and in a great many 
other ancient authors. (Thiersch Acta Phi- 
Mog. Monaemuia, il 583. ; Bode, Geschichte 
der Epiachen Dicktkfmat der HeBeneny p. 388, 
&c, who has endeavoured to givem ratline 
of the contents of the N^oroi of A^ias.) 

A comic poet of the name of Agias is men- 
tioned by Pollux (iiL 15.). Athensus (xiv. 
626.) speaks of a musician of the same name, 
and in another passage (iii. 86.) he mentions 
Agias as the author of a work on the history 
of Argos (*ApyoXiir<i). L. S. 

AGIER, CHARLES GUY FRANCOIS, 
a French jurisconsult, bom in the year 1753. 
In 1789 he was elected deputy to the States 
General by the Tiers Etat of the province of 
Poitou, and distinguished himself by his 
labours in the various committees. Although 
a reformer, he earnestly endeavoured to 
maintain the monarchy, while he urged the 
abolition of those institutions only which were 
opposed to civil liberty. He voted for the 
suppression of monastic orders, and procured 
the term ** parish " to be altered to that of 
** commune.*' On the return of Louis XVL 
ftt)m Yarennes, in 1791, Ag^er successftilly 
opposed Robespierre's proposition, that the 
king should be put upon his triaL His 
public labours ended with those of the As- 
semblee Constituante. During the reign of 
terror he was thrown into prison, having 
vigorously opposed the sanguinary measures 
of the revolutionists in Poitou, but he subse- 
quently regained his liberty, and was ap- 
pointed commissary of the government at the 
civil tribunal of Niort, and afterwards pro- 
451 



cureur du roi, at the same place. He died in 
June, 1828. (Rabbe, Biographie UniveradU 
des Contemparams ! Le Mtmiteur, 1828, p. 
805). J. W. J. 

AGIER, PIERRE JEAN, president of the 
second chamber of the Cour Royale at Paris, 
was bom in that city, in the ^ear 1748, and 
was sent as one of the deputies to the Na- 
tional Assembly in 1789. In the month of 
December, 1790, he was elected judge of the 
second arrondissement of Paris ; and in Ja- 
nuary, 1795, president of the revolutionary 
tribunal Under his presidency, Fouquier- 
Tinville and his accomplices were con- 
demned to death. By a consular decree, 
dated in April, 1800, he was appointed Judge 
of the Criminal Tribunal of Paris, which 
office he declined, but accepted that of judge 
of the Tribunal of Appeal. He died on the 
24th of September, 1823. M. A^er was the 
author of several works, theolo^cal as well 
as legal ; the principid of which are — 1. 
**Le Jurisoonsuhe National; ou, Principes 
sur les Droits les plus importants de la Na- 
tion ; *' 1 789, 8vo. 2. ** Vues sur la Reforma- 
tion des Lois Civiles ; " 1793, 8vo. 3. " Du 
Manage, dans ses Rapports avec la Religion 
et avec les Lois nouveUes de la France ; " 
Paris, 1801, 8vo. 4. ** Vues sur le Second 
Avenement de Jesus Christ ; ou. Analyse de 
rOuvrage de Lacunxa, Jesuite, sur cette im- 
portante Matidre ; " Paris, 1818, 8va 5. **Les 
Propheties conceraant J^sus Christ et 
I'Eglise, ^parses dans les Livres Saints, avec 
Explication et Notes ; " Paris, 1819, 8vo. 6. 
"La France justifi6e de complicity dans 
I'Assassinat du Due de Berry;" Paris, 1820, 
8vo. 7. ** Commentaire sur I'Apocalypse ; " 
Paris, 1823, 8vo. 8. ** Les Propheties, nou- 
vellement traduites de I'Hebreu ; " Paris, 1820, 
8vo. 9. **Les Pseaumes, nonvellement tra- 
duits de THdhreu ;" Paris, 1809, 8vo. (Bio- 
graphie des Hammes vivans; Querard, La 
France Littiraire; Le Mmitevr, 1823, y. 
1136.) J. W. J. 

A'GILA, or AGILAN, one of the Gothic 
kings of Spain in the sixth century. He was 
chosen by the nobles A.i>. 549, to succeed 
Theudisel, who had been murdered at Seville 
by his nobles for his craelty and lust The 
reign of Agila, which lasted five year? and 
three months, was marked by constant revolts 
and disturbances. His first expedition was 
against the inhabitants of Cordova, who re- 
fbsed to acknowledge his authority. They 
made an unexpected sally on his camp, routed 
his army, killed his son, and were only pre- 
vented from seizing him by the rapiditpr of 
his flight to Merida. The disaster is ascribed 
not only by St. Isidore, but by Mariana, to 
his having made use of the church of St. 
Ascisclus, near Cordova, as a stable for hfs 
horses. From Cordova the rebellion spread, 
and Athanagild, who placed himself at the 
head of a party in Seville, applied for assist- 
ance to the emperor Justinian, and received 



AGILA. 



AGILULFUS. 



it on condition of putting into his hands a 
portion of Spain. The united armies of 
Athanagild and Liberius, the imperial general, 
met and defeated that of Agila on his march 
to Seville, and, to conciliate the conquerors, 
the unfortunate king iras put to death by the 
chie& of his own party immediate^ after at 
Merida, A. d. 654. (Mariana, Jaistoria de 
Espana, libro y. cap. 9. ; Masdeu, Historia 
Critica de Etpana, x. 116.) T. W. 

AGILES, RAYMOND D*, lived in the 
eleventh century. He accompanied Raymond 
de Sl OiUes, Count of Toulouse, and Adhe- 
mar, bishop of Le Puy, the pope's legate, in 
their expedition to the Holy lAud, which 
formed part of the first crusade. He was 
chaplain to the Count of Toulouse, and 
was the intimate friend of Poincede Baladun 
(Pontios de Baladuno), a man of rank, and 
one of the friends of the Count of Toulouse. 
He was one of the chosen few present at the 
discovery of the holy lance. He was ordained 
priest in the course of the expedition, and 
on his return became canon of Le Puy. He 
wrote a history of the crusade, or rather of 
that part of it with which he was connected, 
being desirous, as he says in his preface, to 
make known what God had done for them, 
and to counteract the impression of the stories 
spread by those who forsook the expedition. 
This history is inserted in the collection 
entitled "Gesta Dei per Francos," 3 vols. foL 
Hanoviee (Hanau), a. d. 1611. It is headed, 
** Raimondi de Agiles, Canonic! Podiensis 
Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iheru- 
salem," and is inscribed to the Bishop of 
Viviers. It ccnnmences with the maroh of 
the division under Count Raymond through 
Slavonia, in the winter of 1096, and ends 
with the return of the crusaders to Jeru- 
salem, after their victory near Ascalon, 12th 
Aug. 1099. The Latin of Raymond is ver^ 
good for the age in which he lived, and his 
descriptions lively and clear. (Notice of 
Raymond, in the preface to the first volume 
of Gesta Dei per Francos j and Raymond's 
own work.) J. C, M. 

AGILULFUS was the Lon^obard duke 
of Turin under the reign of lUng Autaris, 
or Autarich. He is said to have been hand- 
some, brave, and wise. After King Auta- 
rich's death (a. d. 590), the Longobard chiefs 
agreed to leave the regency in the hands of 
his young widow Theudelinda, a woman of 
great prudence, and suggested that she might 
associate with her any of the Longobard 
dukes. Theudelinda fiixed her choice upon 
Agilulfus, whom she sent for, and having 
met him at Lomello, a few miles distant firom 
Pavia,the queen ordered one of her attendants 
to pour out wine in a cup, and after sipping 
some, she gave the cup with the remainder to 
Agilulfus, signifying to him, at the same 
time, her selection of him as a husband. 
Pauliis Diaconus, in his history of the Longo- 
bards, relates in a simple but affecting manner 
452 



the particulars of this interview. Theude- 
linda was a princess of Boioaria, now Bavaria, 
and had been brought up in the Catholic or 
Nicene creed, whilst some of the Longobarda 
were Arians, and part of them still heathens, 
and she induced Agilulfus to embrace the 
Catholic fiiith. This example was followed 
by the chief men among the Longobards, and 
by degrees the greater part of the nation be- 
came Catholic Agilulfus, during his rei^ 
restored many churches and monasteries, 
which had been stripped of their property by 
his Arian predecessors, and it was under him 
that Columbanus founded the afterwards cele- 
brated monastery of Bobbio. 

About the year 694, Romanus, the Byxan- 
tine exarch of Ravenna, being intent upon 
recovering for his master some of the terri- 
tories which the Longobards had seized, pre- 
vailed upon Mauritius, Longobard duke of 
Perusia, to acknowledge the iSistem emperor, 
after which the exarch went to Rome, where he 
was received with the honours due to the lieu- 
tenant of the emperor, as the duchy of Rome 
was still under allegiance to the Byzantines. 
On his return to Ravenna, he took Sutrium, 
Orta, Tudertum, Ameria, and other towns of 
Umbria and Etruria, in the name of his 
master. 

Upon hearing this, Agilulfus commenced a 
war against both the exarch and the Romans^ 
and in the following year besieged Perusia, 
which he took, after an obstinate defence, 
when he put to death Mauritius, and ad- 
vanced towards Rome, to the great alarm of 
Pope Gregory I., who, in one of his homilies, 
forcibly describes the terror occasioned at 
Rome by the approach of the Longobards. 
However, through the intercession of his 
wife, Theudelinda, Agilulfus concluded a 
peace with the pope and the duchy of Rome. 
Paulus Diaconus gives two letters of thanks 
from the pope, one to Theudelinda, and the 
other to Agilulfus, for the restoration of 
peace.' In 699, Agilulfus concluded a truce 
with CalUnicus, exarch of Ravenna, who 
had succeeded Romanus. Zoto, first duke 
of Beneventum, having died, Agilulfhs ap- 
pointed in his place Arechis, a relative of 
Gisulfus, duke of Forum Julii, or Friuli. 
He also put to death the Duke of Verona 
and the Duke of Bergamo, who had revolted ; 
and after the death of Ewin, duke of Trent, 
he put in his place Guidobald, who was of 
the Catholic £uth. In 603, Theudelinda was 
delivered of a son, called Adaloaldus, who 
succeeded to the crown of the Longobards. 
Shortly after, Callinicus, exarch of Ravenna, 
broke the truce with the Longobards, and a 
party of his men seized a daughter of Agi- 
lulfus (probably by a former wife), and her 
husband, at Parma, and carried them off 
prisoners. The Byzantines seem to have 
retained dominion, north of the Po, over 
part of the Venetia, and as &r as Mantua 
and Cremona. Agilulfus having obtained a 



AGILUI.FUS. 



AGILULFUS. 



reinforcement of troops from his ally, the 
kakan or king of the Ayars, a Slavonian 
tribe, which had settled in Pannonia, at- 
tacked Cremona, took it, and destroyed the 
walls. He then attacked Mantua, the garri- 
son of which capitulated on condition of 
being allowed to retire to RaTcnna. Padoa 
was also taken, and partly burnt. Agilnifhs 
ravaged Istria, which belonged to the Eastern 
emperor, and he took also Brixellam, south 
of the Po, and other towns. In the year 
606, the exarch Smara^us, who had suc- 
ceeded Callinicns, receiving no assistance 
from Phocas, who had usurped the throne of 
Constantinople, concluded a truce with the 
Longobards, which was renewed yearly dur- 
ing the reign of AgilulAis, the exarch paying 
a tribute to the Longobards of 12,000 golden 
solidL Phocas himself sanctioned this agree- 
ment, and sent ambassadors to AgilulAis with 
presents. During the remainder of the reign 
of Agilulfus, there was peace between the 
Byzantines and the Longobards, and Italy 
enjoyed tranquillity, with the exception of 
an irruption of the Avars into Friuli, which 
was accompanied by fearful atrocities, ac- 
cording to the account of Paulus Diaconus ; 
but his narrative is too cOnfbsed, and his 
chronology too uncertain, to enable us to fix 
upon the precise date of this event, in which 
Agilulfus is not even mentioned. 

Theudelinda fixed her residence on the 
site of the present Monza, which was then 
called Modicia, or Modoetia, according to 
some, though Calco, the historian of Milan, 
derives the modem name of Monza from 
that of Oppidum Mognntiacum, found in an 
ancient inscription. She built there a splen- 
did church, which she dedicated to St John 
the Baptist, and a palace for herself, in which 
she caused several victories and other deeds 
of the Longobards to be painted, and it was 
from these pictures that Paulus Diaconus, 
nearly two centuries after, took his descrip- 
tion (b. iv. ch. 23.) of the costume and ap- 
pearances of his ancestors, which were in 
his tune greatly changed. The collegiate 
church of Monza, built by Theudelinda, 
remains, and forms one of the most interest- 
ing monuments of the middle a^^ In the 
treasury-room, among other curiosities, is a 
kind of toilet of Queen Theudelinda, con- 
taining her crown, her fim of red parchment, 
her cup made of sapphire, her comb, and 
other articles. In the same treasury was also 
kept the golden crown of Agilulftu, with an 
inscription, in which he was s^^ed a glorious 
prince and king of all Italy. This crown, of 
which Frisi has given a description in his 
** Memorie della Chiesa Monzese," was car- 
ried off, with other valuables, by the French 
in 1799, and placed in the cabinet of medals 
annexed to the national library at Paris ; but 
in 1804, it was stolen and melted down by 
some common thieves. The ftmous iron 
crown, however, cemams at Monza. In a 
453 



series of medallions painted round the vault 
of the church of Monza, are the portraits of 
all the kings of Italy that have worn the 
iron crown, fhim Agilulfus to Charles V., 
who was the last emperor crowned with it, 
previous to Napoleon. It woukl appear, how- 
ever, that the iron crown was introduced for 
the coronation of the I^ngobard kings, at a 
later period than the reign of Agilulfus. Fon- 
tanini has written an historical dissertation 
concerning the iron crown, ** De Corona Ferrea 
Longobardorum." Valery, in his '* Voyages 
Historiques et Litteraires en Itaiie," 1833, has 

S'ven the latest account of the church of 
[onza. 

About the year 616, King Agilulfus died, 
after a reign of twen^-five years, and his 
son Adaloaldus was proclaimed king in his 
place, but being only thirteen years of age, 
he was placed under the guardianship of his 
mother, Theudelinda. The reign of Agilulfus 
constitutes a remarkable period in the history 
of the Longobards and of Italy. The Longo- 
bards became Catholic : thev also began to ac- 
quire a certain polish of civilisation ; the resi- 
dence of their kings assumed the appearance 
of a princely court, and their administration 
a greater degree of regularity. It was then 
that they first concluded diplomatic treaties 
with the Byzantine emperors, the popes, 
and the Prankish kings ; it was then that the 
Italian populations were restored to some- 
thing like tranquillity and security, to which 
they had been strangers for more than a quar- 
ter of a century, ever since the first invasion of 
the Longobards under Alboin. It seems un- 
doubted that much of this happy change was 
due to the influence which Queen Theudelinda 
retained over the husband of her choice. 
(Paulus Diaconus, 2>e Gegtis LongcAardomm ; 
Sigonius, De Beano Itaiia,) A. V. 

AGINCOURT. [Seroux d'Agiwoourt.] 

A'OIS (''A7fs) of Argos, a Groek poet atf a 
contemporary and flatteror of Alexander the 
Great Q. Curtius says that the poems of 
Agis were, next to those of Cbon-ilus (of 
lasus), the worst extant This judgment 
however appears onl^ to refer to ihe senti- 
ments, and not to their poetic merits. Thero 
is one epigram by him in the ** Anthologia 
GrKca " (vi. 162.). (Comp. Q. Curthis, viii 
5. ; Arrian, ExpediL Alex, M, iv. p. 262.) 

Another person of the name of Agis is 
mentioned by Athenicus (xii. 516.), as the 
author of a work on cookery (^^aprvrtxcf). 

L.a 

AGIS ("Ayi*). There were four kmgs of 
this name at Sparta. Agis L was the third 
king of Sparta in order, including the first king 
Aristodemus and the second of the house A 
the Eurysthenids, or Agids as they were called 
firom him. He became king about B.c. 
1060, and is supposed by Eusebius to have 
reigned only one year ; but there are good 
reasons for assigning to him a reign of thirty- 
one years. The hi^rian Ephoms, as quoted 



AGIS. 



AGI& 



by Strabo, relates of him that he reduced the 
Achaans, the old inhabitants of Laconia, 
firom a state of political equality with the 
Spartans to the condition of yassals, de- 
priving them of their rights of citisenship, and 
making them subject to Sparta. (Clinton, 
FaaU Hellen. I 334. ; Pausanias, ill 2. 1. ; 
Strabo, viiL 364.) R. W— n. 

AGIS II. was of the younger house, or 
that of the Eurypontids, as they were some- 
times called instead of Proclids, from Eurypon 
the grandson of Procles. He was the nineteenth 
Spartan king in order, including Aristodemus, 
and became king b. c. 427. He died b. c. 399, 
after a reign of more than twenty-eight years, 
continued through nearly the whole of the 
Peloponnesian war. He commanded the 
Spartan armies on several expeditions into 
Attica ; once in b. c 426, and again in b. c. 
425. In B.C. 418 he invaded tibie territory 
of Argos, and so completely surrounded the 
Argive forces, that their situation was almost 
desperate. But instead of availing himself of 
the opportunity of reducing Argos to sub- 
jection, he made a truce on his own authority, 
and drew off his forces. This mismanage- 
ment was greatly condemned by the con- 
federates, and also by his own countrymen, 
who imposed upon him a fine, and decreed 
that his house should be pulled down. The 
execution of this sentence was in the first in- 
stance deferred, and eventually remitted, on 
the earnest entreaties of Agis, that they would 
give him an opportunity of making amends 
by future services. But they passed a law by 
which a new council of war was appointed, 
consisting of ten Spartans, without whose 
sanction and authority he was no longer per- 
mitted to take the field. Shortly afterwards 
he redeemed his character by defeating the 
Argives, and their allies the Mantineans 
and Athenians, in a pitched battle at Man- 
tinaia, one of the greatest ever fought 
between Grecian states. In b.c. 413 he 
again invaded Attica at the head of the 
Spartan forces, and, after ravaging the plain 
of Athens, proceeded to fortify Deceleia, an 
eminence about fifteen miles north-east of 
that city. Its occupation by a Spartan force 
reduced Athens to Uie situation of a besieged 
town, and materially contributed to her inti- 
mate subjection ; Agis himself, acting as 
commandant, and dir^ting the operations of 
the Spartan troops, according to his own 
judgment and discretion. ^ In fkct, his posi- 
'tion at Deceleia enabled him to exercise an 
almost independent authority, especially 
with the Borotians and other neighbouring 
states, who applied to him, in preference 
to sending so fhr as Spaita. (Thucy- 
dides, viiL 5.) From various passages 
in Thucydides and Xenophon*8 ** HeUenics," 
it appears that he remained there till the 
end of the Peloponnesian war, hiying 
waste the Athenian territory, and cutting off 
the supplies of the city, as opportunity of- 
454 



fered. Shortly afterwards (b.c. 401), die 
Lacedsemciuans were engaged in a war with 
the Eleans, which lasted three years. Agis 
was entrusted with the command of the 
Spartan forces ; and after he had made two 
expeditions into the Eleau territor^r, and 
garrisoned a strong position near Elis, the 
Eleans were glad to sue for peace (b. c. 
399). On his return from Delphi, whither he 
had gone to offer up the tithe of the spoil 
which he had taken in the war, he fell ill 
at Henea in Arcadia, and was conveyed to 
Sparta, where he died. Leotychides, who 
had previously passed for his son, was ex- 
cluded from the succession on the ground of 
illegitimacy ; Agis having once declared 
that he did not believe he was his own child. 
The general belief of his queen's infidelity 
strengthened the suspicion thus raised ; and 
although on his deathbed he had recognised 
Leotychides as his son, still Agesilaus II., 
his half brother, was declared his successor. 
(Pausanias, iil 8. ; Thucydides, iii 89. v. vii. 
and viii. ; Xenophon, HeuenA, c 1. iii 1 — 4. ; 
Plutarch, Lysander, c. 22., Agesilaus, c. 3. ; 
Diodorus, xiL 35.) R. W — ^n. 

AGIS III., the elder son of Archidamus 
III., was of the bouse of the Proclids, and the 
twenty-second king of Sparta, including Ari- 
stodemus. He was a contemporary of Alex- 
ander the Great ; b. c 338 being the year of 
his accession to the throne, and b.c. 331 of 
his death. He is chiefly known from his 
connection with the attempt which the Spar- 
tans and their allies made to overthrow the 
Macedonian supremacy in Greece, during 
the absence of Alexander in Asia. With 
this view, and for the purpose of obtaining 
supplies for the war, Agis with a single 
trireme visited the Persian commanders in 
the JEgBBtai about the time of the battle of 
Issus (B.C. 333). Two years afterwardSp 
when die Spartans took the field against the 
Macedonians, Agis was invested with the 
command, and gained a decisive victory over 
some troops which were brought against 
them by Corragus, a Macedonian generaL 
He then laid siege to Megalopolis in Arcadia, 
and was on the point of taking it, when he 
was obliged to raise the siege by the approach 
of Antipater, whom Alexander had left as 
viceroy in Macedonia, with a superior army. 
The king endeavoured to compensate for his 
deficiency in numbers by taking up an ad- 
vantageous position; but the Macedonians, 
after a hard-fought battle, were finaUy vic- 
torious. Agis himself was wounded early in 
the action, and carried out of the field ; but 
when he found that his pursuers were on the 
point of capturing hun, he gave orders that 
he should be set down, and then, resting on 
one knee, he fbught to the lafet with true 
Spartan spirit The batde of Arbela took 
place about the same time. (Diodorus, xvL 
63. 68. xviL 62. ; Arrian, ii. 13. iii. 198. ; 
JEschines, Against CUsiphon, 77 } Quintus 



AGId. 



AOI6. 



Curtitts, TL 1, 2. ; Justin, xiL 1. ; Thirlvall, 
HisL of Greece f voL vi. c 51. ; Clinton, Fast 
HeOen. vol. il p. 215. R. W— n. 

AGIS lY., son of Eudamidas II., was the 
last king of llie house of the Proclids, and the 
twenty -sixth king of Sparta, including Aristo- 
demns. He became king in b. c. 244, and 
reigned four jears^ his colleague, during the 
first part of his rei^ being Leonidas the Agid. 
He was not distinguished by any military 
achievements, though engaged in some expe- 
ditions, in one of which he was defeated by 
Aratus, the general of the Achean league, pro- 
bably in B. c. 243. Subsequently, in a war be- 
tween the Achsean league, then in alliance 
with Sparta, and the ^tolians, he joined his 
forces with Aratus, the Achaean general. His 
reign, however, was in other respects remark- 
able. The Institutions of Lycurgus, the Spar- 
tan lawgiver, had become obsolete, and were 
altogether disregarded : luxury and wealth, the 
introduction of which into Sparta he had 
studiously provided against, prevailed to a 
great extent, with the accompanying vices of 
cupidi^ and meanness. The law which had 
secured to every Spartan head of a fkmily an 
equal portion of luid had been repealed, and 
the whole landed property of the country had 
accumulated in the hands of a few indi- 
viduals, chiefly females. Agis IV. had shown 
from his very boyhood a predilection for the 
plainness and simplicity of the ancient Spar- 
tan discipline; and when he came to the 
throne he resolved to reform the evils of his 
time, in the hope of regenerating Sparta by a 
return to the institutions and habits of former 
ages. For this purpose, it was necessary to 
make very sweeping changes ; and accord- 
ingly he resolv^ upon proposing to the 
Spartan senate a plan for the abolition of all 
debts, and an equal distribution of the landed 
property of the state. This was at that time 
possessed by one hundred citizens only, and 
therefore the scheme was fiivourably received 
by the great majority of the citizens, but op- 
posed }^ the richer and older members of the 
community. Agis, however, succeeded in 
gaining over to his cause three of the most 
mfluential persons in the state, Lysander, 
Mandrocleides, and Agesilaus, the last of 
whom was a great landowner, but deeply in 
debt He then laid before ^e council of 
thirty elders, the Spartan senate, a measure 
which provided for the abolition of debts 
and the division of the Spartan territory 
into two portions, one to contain 4500 and 
the other 15,000 equal lots; the latter for the 
Periceci or provincial subjects, the former 
for the Spartim citizens, whose number was 
to be increased, by admitting into their ranks 
some of the Perioeci and respectable strangers. 
The measure was warmly contested in the 
senate, and Lysander, who, through the in- 
fluence of Agis, had been raised to the ephor- 
alty, at that time the most important office 
of the state, assembled the people and sub- 
455 



mitted it to them. After its other supporters 
had spoken in its &vour, Agis offered, in 
proof of his sincerity, to present to the state 
all his landed property, together with 600 
talents of money, and said that his mother 
and grandmother, relations and friends, the 
richest persons in Sparta, would do the 
same. His generosity was warmly ap- 
plauded by the minority ; but the ratification 
of the senate was necessary to the validity of 
the decrees of the assembly of the people ; and 
the opposite party, with Leonidas the other 
king at their head, had so much influence 
that this ratification was refused, only, how- 
ever, by one vote. Leonidas was shortly 
afterwards obliged to vacate the throne, on a 
charge brought against him by Lysander, and 
Cleombrottts, his own son-in-law, was ap- 
pointed his successor. But the ephors of the 
following year were opposed to Agis and 
his measures, and accused Lysan£r and 
his friends of attempting to overthrow the 
laws. They took the alarai ; and, seeing that 
there was no prospect of carrying their 
measures peaceably, they prevailed upon Agis 
and Cleombrotus to depose the ephors by 
force. Others were appointed in their place, 
and Leonidas fled to Tegca in Arcadia. 
Agesilaus had laid men in wait to murder 
him on the road ; but Agis, on hearing of 
this, sent a tros^ escort ^ong with him, 
which brought him safe to his journey's end. 
Agis and his party thus gained the mastery ; 
but he was persuaded by Agesilaus, that the 
most effectual means for carrying his scheme 
would be to conmience with an abolition of 
debts; that in this way the landowners 
would be conciliated, and readily consent 
afterwards to the proposed division of their 
lands. The debts accordingly were cancelled ; 
but Agesihius and the other landowners 
found pretexts ibr dehiying the division of 
their hmds till A^ was sent out at the head 
of an army, to aid the Achteans against an 
invasion of Uie^tolians. The king had no op- 
portunity of distinffuishing himseS in action ; 
but the spirit which he had inftised into his 
troops, by precept and example, their willing 
obedience, and their excellent discipline, were 
the admiration of all who witnessed them. 
On his return home, he found that Agesilaus 
had ruined all his plans. After gaining his 
point by the abolition of debts, he had thrown 
off the mask, and his insolent conduct 
in the absence of Agis, coupled with the 
non-distribution of the lands, had so disgusted 
the peoi)le that the^ acquiesced in the recall 
of Leonidas, and his restoration to the throne. 
Agis fled to the sanctuary of the Brazen 
House, a temple of Pallas; and though 
urged by the solicitation of Leonidas to re- 
sume the kingly office, he refused to quit his 
refbge. He was at last betrayed by the 
treachery of pretended fiiends, and thrown 
into prison, where the ephors and some of 
the senators of the opposite party proceeded 



AGI& 



AOIUS. 



to go through the mockery of a trial. They 
asked him whether he did not repent of what 
he had done? He replied, that though he 
should die for it, he could never repent of a 
noble and glorious enterprise. He was then 
condemned to death, and hastily executed, 
the ephora being apprehensive of a rescue.. 
He met his death with the spirit which became 
his noble character. (B.C. 240.) He observed 
one of the attendants weeping at his fate, and 
said, " Do not weep for me : thus unrighteously 
and ui^ustly dying, I am superior to my mur- 
derers.*' He was the first Spartan king who 
was put to death by the ephors. His mo- 
ther^ Agesistrate, and his grandmother, 'the 
two wealthiest persons in Sparta, who had 
supported him in his plans of reform, were 
also strangled at the same time. Pansanias 
(viii. 10. 4.) gives a dififerent account of the 
death of Agis ; according to which he fell in 
a great battle against the Achieans and Man- 
tineans. This author also repeats the as- 
sertion of his being slain in battle in another 
passage (viil 27. 9.), where he describes an 
nnsnccessful attack made by him on Aiega- 
lopolis in Arcadia. But this account of his 
death is contrary to known facts. (Plutarch, 
Agis and Cieomenes, Aratus ; Pansanias, viL 
7. 2. ; CUnton, Fast HeUen. ii. 217.) 

R. W— n. 
A'GIUS DE SOLDA'NIS, GIOVANNI 
PIETRO FRANCESCO, was bom about 
the beginning of the eighteenth century, at 
Gozo. He took orders, and became aposto- 
lic prothonotary and canon of the collegiate 
church of Goso. From the dedication to his 
Maltese gnunmar it may be gathered that he 
visited Naples in 1750, in company with Lord 
Charlemont, and, fnxa. the preface to his dis- 
sertation on the origin of the Maltese lan- 
guage, that he went to Rome in the same 
year, for the purpose of obtaining the in- 
dulgences of the jubilee. He occupied his 
leisure, while residing at Rome on this oc- 
casion, in the composition of the grammar 
already mentioned. In June, 1763, he was 
chosen librarian of the public library of 
Malta, then first established, by the liberality 
of the Bailli Tendn, who purchased the 
collection of Cardinal Portocarrero, and pre- 
sented it to the public. In Borch*s ** Lettres 
sur la Sicile," written in 1777, he is spoken 
of as having been dead for some time. The 
most important work <^ Agius is that on 
the Maltese, or, as he caUs it, the Punic lan- 
guage, ** Delia Lingua Punica presentemente 
Qsata da Maltesi;" Rome, 1750, 12mo. It 
contains two dissertations : the first on the 
origin of the hmguage, which he endeavours 
to prove to have been introduced into Malta 
by the ancient Carthaginians ; the second on 
the advantage of cultivating it These are 
followed by a grammar, and a specimen of a 
dictionary, Maltese and Italian, and Italian 
and Maltese. The grammar was the first 
attempt to reduce this language to rule, or 
456 



even to settle its orthography, and in neither 
does Ag^us appear to have been very succcss- 
fuL Vassalli, in his Maltese grammar and 
lexicon, speaks of Agiu8*s grammar as im- 
perfect, and his system of spelling as both 
imperfect and inconsistent; but it may be 
observed, that Vassalli himself, in the second 
edition of his grammar, published at Malta 
in 1827, found it necessary to make some 
alterations in his own orthography. The vo- 
cabulary ftimished by Agius is very scanty; 
but he had projected and commenced a dic- 
tionary on an extended scale, which he left 
imperfect at his death, and the manuscript of 
which is preserved in the public library of 
Malta. Another work by Agius is his ex- 
planation of the speeches, in Punic, put by 
Plautus, in his ** Pcumlus,'' into the month oi 
Hanno : " Annone Cartaginese, cioi vera 
Spiegazione della I. Scena dell' Atto V. della 
Commedia di M. A. Plauto in PobuuIo, fatta 
coUa Lingua modema Maltese o sia Fantica 
Cartaginese;" Rome, 1757, 4to. The line of 
argument mamtained by Agius on this sub- 
ject appears to be only one degree less ridi- 
culous than that of General Vallancey, who 
endeavoured to prove that the language used 
by Hanno was Irish. Gesenius observes, that 
with the same sort of reasoning by which 
Agius pretends to show that the language of 
the speeches in the " Poenulus" is Maltese, he 
would undertake to prove it was German. 
The same critic remarks, that in the compara- 
tive criticism of languages, Agius shows him- 
self utterly incompetent ; that his knowledge 
of Hebrew appears to rest on some vague and 
often quite erroneous recollections <^ early 
instruction ; and that still less value must be 
attached to his comparisons of the Maltese 
with the ancient Etrurian and *' something 
that he calls Eg^tian." Gesenius admits, 
however, that wmle his observations are of 
no value, his collections are of the utmost 
importance. Agius was also the author of a 
controversial pamphlet, ^ Discours Apolo- 
getique contre la Dissertation Historique et 
Critique sur le Naufrage de Saint Paul dans la 
Mer Adriatique," in which he attempts to 
prove, in opposition to the Abb^ Ladvocat, that 
the Melita, on which St Paul is mentioned 
as landing in the Acts, was the island of 
Malta. (Mifsud, Bibiioteca Makeae^ p. xxiv. } 
Borch, Leitrea ntr la Sicile, l 204. ; Vassalli, 
Ktyb yl Klym MalH give Liber dictionum Me- 
Utmium, p. 30. ; Gesenius, Versuch aber die 
Mcdtetiscne Sprache, p. vi. ; article by Weiss, 
in the Biographie Universale, Supp. L 95.) 

T. W. 
A'GLAOPHONCAYXao^M^y). There were 
apparently two painters of this name: the 
elder, a native of Thasos, who lived about 
B. c. 500 ; and the younger of uncertain coun- 
try, who was contemporary with Alcibiades. 
The elder Aglaophon was the father of Po- 
lygnotus and Aristophon. Quintilian is the 
only ancient writer who notices his style. 



AGLAOPHON. 



AGLIATA. 



for, in the passage adTerted to, it is Tery 
ipaprobable that he alludes to the youDger, 
"who was the contemporary of Zeuxts, Ti- 
manthes, and Parrhasius ; bat he somewhat 
indiscriminatehr couples him with his son 
Polygnotus. Quintilian says that, notwith- 
standing the simple oolonrtng of Polygnotos 
and Aglaophon, which was little more than a 
mere foundation of what was afterwards ac- 
complished, there were those who preferred 
their style to the styles of the greatest painters 
who succeeded them ; not, as he thinks, "without 
a certain degree of affectation. To this Agla- 
ophon probably should be ascribed the Winged 
Victory, spoken of b^ the scholiast on Ari- 
stophanes ; the beautiful hone mentioned by 
.£Iian was probably by the younger. The 
younger Aglaophon is conjectured by Bottiger 
to have been the grandson of the elder Agla- 
ophon, and the son of Aristophon. We learn 
from Athenaus, that Alcibiades, after his re- 
turn as Tictor fh>m Olympia, dedicated at 
Athens two allegorical pictures of himself by 
Aglaophon : the one represented him crowned 
by Olympias and Pythias ; the other, sitting 
or lying upon die knees of Nemea, with a 
fiu;e of extreme beauty. The latter picture 
is attributed by Plutarch to Aristophon, but 
this is supposed to be an error. Cicero re- 
marks that Aglaophon, Zeuxis, and Apelles, 
though all different from each other, were yet 
all perfect in their several styles. (Suidas, 
'Aykao^ ; Quintilian, ImL Orator, xii. 10. 
3. ; Athenseus, xii. 534. ; Plutarch, Alcibiades, 
16. ; Cicero, De Orat. iii. 7.) R. N. W. 

AGLIATA, BERNARDI'NUS, an ad- 
vocate, descended firom a noble fhmily in 
Palermo, where he is said, by Mongitore, to 
have practised with considerable reputation. 
An argument in defence of the right of pre- 
cedence claimed by the regular oyer the 
secular clergy, published at Palermo, in 
1690, has preserved his name : the time at 
which he lived is now known only from the 
date of this work, which is entiUed ** Alle- 
gationes in Causa Precedentifle, ad Intellec- 
tum Constitutionis LXXXIV. Gregorii XIII., 
aliorumque Apostolicorum Diplomatum ac 
8. R. C. Decretorum, super liateria de qua 
agitur emanatorum pro nR. PP. S. Marie 
Angelorum, c«terisque Regularibns contra 
Rev. Pat S. Zit». Panormi ex typographia 
Jaeobi Epiro, 1690," foL (Mongitore, Bib- 
Uotheca Sietila, Panormi, 1708-U.) W. W. 

AGLIATA, DA'ZIO, a Jesuit, of a noble 
fiunily of Palermo. He Joined the society in 
his seventeenth year, taught rhetoric at Pa^ 
lermo for several years, and was ultimately 
appointed rector of the Jesuits' college at 
Malta, where he died oa the 21st of January, 
1657. He published ** Oratio in solemn! 
Studiorum Lustratione habita in Aula Colle- 
ni Panormitani Soc Jesu. Panormi apud 
Decium Cy riUum, 1 636," 4ta " GeminsB Portus 
Sapientis ad lUustris. Senatum Pimormitii- 
nam ipsius renasccntis Anni Hterarii Feriis, 

vol* I. 



' Oratio altera. Panormi, apud Deeiom Cy» 
rillum, 1640.** (Mongitore, BihUotheca Si- 
aula,) W. W. 

I AGLIATA, GERARDO, was bom at 
' Palermo, in 1420. After obtaining his de- 
gree of Doctor of Laws, he practiMd as an 
advocate in his natire town. King Alphonso 
appointed him protonotar^ of Sicily in 1450; 
I and King John, at Aghata's request, con- 
I fSerred the reversion of the office on his son 
Mariano, in 1468. Cumia, in lus ** De Feudis,** 
I and Muta, in his ** Consuetudtnes Panormi- 
I tans," repeatedly quote the pleadings (alle- 
I gationes) of Gerardo Agliata. The year of 
his death is unknown. (Mongitore, ^tft/tb- 
iheca Sicula,) W. W. 

AGLIATA, GERARDO, son of Antonio 
Agliata, a Palermitan noble. The year ot 
his birth is unknown ; he was several times 
elected a member of the town council of 
Palermo ; and died there, on the 30th of Au- 
gust, 1590. He composed Italian verses, 
some of which are preserved in the two 
Tolnmes of the ** Rune degli Accademici 
Accesi di Palermo,** (of which society he was 
a member,) published in 8vo. at Palermo^ in 
1571 and 1573. (Mongitore, Bibiiotheea 
Sicula,) W. W. 

AGLIATA, GIOVANNI, an eminent 
lawyer, a native of Palermo, who after rising 
to be at the head of the Sicilian bar (in Sicilia 
primarius eausarum patronus), was appointed, 
successively, judge in the supreme municipal 
court of Pidermo; assessor in the royal 
court, and in the Court of Consistory ; advo- 
cate of the royal treasury ; president of the 
Court of Consistory ; and president of the 
treasury. He died at Melazzo, (to which 
city the vice-regal court had transferred itself^ 
on account of the war with France,) on the 
6th of April, 1675 ; and was buried at Pa- 
lermo, on the 29th of June following. He 
composed poems both in Italian and in the 
Sicilian dialect, some of which are printed in 
Galeano's collection. Mazzuchelli mentions 
having seen some of his verses in a MS. col- 
lection of Sicilian poetry belonging to Dr. 
Baldassarre Zamboni, professor of theology 
in the seminary of Brescia. (Mongitore, 
Biiiiotiheca Siada; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori 
dlttdia) W. W. 

AGLIATA, JA'COPO, a senator of Pa- 
lermo, who lived about the beginning of the 
seventeenth century. He compiled, with the 
assistance of Filippo Paruta, a chronological 
table of the magistrates of Palermo from 1282 
to 1626 (** Notamento di tutti Capitani Pre- 
tori, Giurati e Govematori della Tavola della 
Citt4 de Palermo, dall' Anno 1282, per tutto 
1' Anno 1626 "), which has been printed by 
Anria, at Ae end of his Chronological History 
of Sicily. When the plague ravaged Palermo, 
in 1624, Agliata was a member of the board 
of health appointed on the occamon, and was 
indefiitigable in the discharge of his duty. 
He also held for some time the office of city 

H H 



AOLIATA. 



AGNEAUX. 



treuorer (PanormitniMi tabnltt nmmmi- 
lariflB pnefdit). Neither the year of his birth 
nor that of his death is known. (Mongitore, 
BibHotheca Sicula ; Historia Cttmclogica deBi 
Signori Viceri di SicUia, daJJC Anno 1400 sino 
al 1697 presente, composta dal Dottor Don 
Vincenzo Auria Palermitanoi, in Palermo, 
per Pietro Coppola, 1697.) W. W. 

AGLIATA E PARUT A.FRANCESCO, 
a native of Palermo, bom 25th April, 1689, 
son of the Prince of Villafranca and Sala, hy 
Giovanna Lansa. He succeeded early in 
life to his father's title, but is best known by 
his Christian and surnames. He has the re- 
putation of a respectable poet in his natiye 
dialect Giuseppe Galeano has printed some 
of his verses m the second edition of his 
" Muse Siciliane orero Scelta di tutte le Can- 
xoni della Sicilia," published at Palermo, in 
1662. (Mongitore, BMiaUkeca Sicula.) 

W. W. 
AGLIO. [Coriuldi'no dall' Aglio.] 
AGNEAUX, DEVIENNE, [Deviennb.] 
AGNEAUX, ROBERT and ANTOINE 
LE CHEVALIER D*, two brothers who are 
celebrated as the first translators of Vir^l 
into French verse. They were bom at Vire 
in Normandy, in the former half of the six- 
teenth century, and studied together, the one 
law, and the other medicine, at Paris, Poic- 
tiers, Montpellier, and Toulouse. After tra- 
velling together over great part of F^rance, 
they retired to their native province, and 
gave themselves up to literature. In 1582 
tiiey produced their translation of the whole 
works of Virgil, which gained them a high 
reputation. It appeared at Paris, (4to.) with 
a dedication to Henry II L, and was shortly 
after reprinted, accompanied with the Latiu 
text Modem critics have reversed the flat- 
tering judgment of their predecessors ; but 
they attribute the defects of the work chiefly 
to the haste with which it was produced, the 
whole having occupied not more than two 
years. Vauqueltn so greatly admired it, that 
he exclaims, in his ** Art Poetique," 

'* Apollon m^me avoue 
Qu*en eux se reconnolt le Cigne 4e Muitoue." 

The success of their first production en- 
couraged the brothers to undertake a version 
of the Odes of Horace, which appeared in 
1588 (Paris, 8vo., also with a dedication to 
Henry III.) ; but their translation is distin- 
^ished only for its literal correctness, and 
IS destitute of the beauties of the original 
They must have died Shortly after this 
period, as a volume of their posthumous 
poems was published by Pierre Lucas Sal- 
liere in 1591. From this work it wpears 
that Robert the elder brother, died first, at 
the age of forty-nine, and that Antoine sur- 
vived him a very short time. The dedi- 
cation to this volume is by Andre le Cheva- 
lier, the^ son of Antoine, and the poems which 
it contuns are all originals : a passage in one 
of them, on the assassination of the poet's 
458 



patron, King Henry IIL, is spoken of by 
Goi^et as '*enerptic and fhll of fire.*' Be* 
sides their published works, the D' Agneaux 
composed a manual called ** I^ Gentiihomme 
Fran9ois,*' on the rules of behaviour to be ob- 
served at court, and other points of etiquette. 
(La Croix du Maine and Duverdier, BibUo^ 
ihequea Franfoue$, edit of Juvigny, L 32. 
ii. 380. iii. 104. v. 416. $ Goiget, Bibliotkiqme 
Franfoisey xv. 10.; Mon&lcon, (Euvng com- 
pieties cTHoracey edit Polygiotte, pre£ p. 
dxxvl) J.W. 

AGNEXLI, FEDERI'CO, a MifauMse 
engraver who lived in the beginning of th« 
seventeenth century. He engraved por- 
traits, architecture, and emblematical suIh 
jects. He oigraved the cathedral of Milan* 
on several Ifu^ plates, which he marked 

FRIDERICnS AOKELLUS SCULP. CAROLUS BU* 

TIU8 ARCHiTBCT. £DiFic. (Heiueken, Die* 
tionnaire dea Artistes, ^c.) R. N. W. 

AGNE'LLI,GIUS£PPE,an Italian Jesuit, 
the author of severe! works of ascetic theo- 
logy, was bom at Naples, in 1621. He en- 
tered the order of Jesuits in 1637, at Rome ; 
was for five years teacher of moral theo- 
logy, and was afterwards rector of the col- 
leges of Montepulciano, Macerata, and 
Ancona. In 1676, when Father Southwell 
published his corrected edition of the ^ Bib- 
Hotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu," he was 
living at Rome. Neither Mazzuchelli nor 
Afflitto was aware of the date of his death, 
but it has been stated that he died in 1706. 
His principal work is *' II Catechismo An- 
nuale,'* or " Annual Catechism," an exposition 
of the gospels, epistles, &c. read in the 
church service during the year. It was first 
published at Macereta, in two volumes, quarto, 
in 1657, and again at the same place in 1671; 
but in the third edition, which was printed at 
Rome in 1677, the title was changed to ** II 
Parrocchiano Istruttore," under which name 
it has passed through several editions. His 
other works are — ** La Settimana consecrata 
a S. Giuseppe," or " The Week consecrated 
to St Joseph," published anonymously, Ma- 
cerata, 1671, 12mo. ; four volumes on the 
" Arte di goder TOttimo," or *♦ Art of eiyoy- 
ing the better Part, contained in the Spiritual 
Exercises of St Ignatius," Rome, 1689—1695, 
4to. ; and " Verisimile finto nel Vero," or, 
** The Probable imaged in the Trae," thoughts 
suggested to a nun in her novitiate, who was 
discontented with her spiritual director, a 
work in two volumes. Rome, 1703, 4to. 
(Ribadeneira, Bihliotheca Scr^torum Societatis 
Jesu omis recognitttm a Sotvello, p. 619. j Maa- 
xuchelli, ScriUori <f ItaHa, L 193, &c ; 
Af&itto, Scrittori del Begno di NapoU, I 129, 
&C.) T. W. 

AGNELLI, JA'COPO, was bom of a 
noble family at Ferrara, in August, 1701. 
His father was Giovanni Agnelli, and his 
mother Lodovica Marchesini, of Modena. 
He was educated under the care of the 



ACNELLL 



AGNELLI. 



Jesaits, and in very early life gained great 
credit by the ability with which he sostained 
a philosophical disputation. He studied me- 
dicine, in which many of his ancestors had 
pivctised with success, and obtained the 
highest price for proficiency in his seyen- 
teenth year. By the adyice of his Mends, he 
applied himself alio to the classical languages, 
and obtained the profiissorship of Greek and 
Latin eloquence in the nniyersity of Ferrara. 
He also puUiahed a dissertation on Isocrates. 
He afterwards exchanf;ed the chair of elo- 
quence fbr that of medicine, and in both dis- 
tingiiished himself fbr the excellence of his 
official addresses. His philosophical judg- 
ment was not of the highest order ; in his 
published dissertations on the systems of 
Descartes and Newton, he gives a decided 
preference to the former. It is howcTer as 
a poet that he is most advantageously known. 
In accordance with a custom of the time, he 
wrote no less than three hundred Petrarchan 
sonnets to *' an unknown Laura," who in 
reality, as was well enough known, was the 
Marchesa Fulvia Visconti aericL To these 
he added another series, on ** the Wonders of 
Rome." EUs chief poems, however, are of a 
more serious cast, and were written as an oc- 
cupation for his mind, when recoTering from 
the blow inflicted by the death of his wife, 
Angela Paganelli, to whom he was deeply 
attached, and whom he lost in the prime of 
her life. The ^'Dio Redentore," and the 
<* Dio Gindice," (*« God the Redeemer," and 
** God the Judge,") are poems of ipeat, but 
not of the highest merit Each is in six cantos. 
Most of the Italian critics concur in praising 
them for harm<Miy of versification and dig- 
nity of tone, but they pronounce them de- 
ficient in the highest requisites of invention 
and imagination. Besides his poems, Agnelli 
published various lives of saints, and disserta- 
tions on sacred subjects ; among others, ** His- 
torical Notices of St George ;" the " Life of 
StClaraof Assisi;" " Reflections on the Holv 
Passion;" on the ''Assumption of the Virgin,^* 
the ** Beheading of St John," &c. He founded 
an academy of poetry and polite literature 
in his own house, which did much to pro- 
mote the diffusion of a taste for letters among 
the Ferrarese ; and he was also perpetual 
secretary of the Academy of the ** Intrepidi," 
and a member of several others. He con- 
tinned to practise medicine throughout his 
lift, and filled various civic oflloes with 
credit He died of fever, on the 3d of March, 
1798, having attained the age of upwards of 
nine^-six years. He had four daughters 
and one son, but lost the latter at an 
early age, thon(^ not before he had shown 
tiiat he inherited considerable poetical ta- 
lents. (Life by G. B. Baseggio, m Tipaldo, 
Biografia A^/t ItaUani luuitri dd Secclo 
XVIIL iiL 133, 134. ; Lombardi, Storia 
deBa LeOtratmu Italitma nd Stcdo XVIIL 
iiL 24S, S46.) J. W. 

459 



AGNEXLI, N., an Italian painter and' 
native of Rome, lived in Turin about the be • 
ginning of the eighteenth century, where he 
was pamter to the court His style was com- 
pounded of the styles of Pietro di Cortona 
and Maratta. A saloon which he painted in 
the palace at Turin is designated by his name. 
(Lanxi, Storia PUtorica, &c) K N. W. 

AGNEXLO, GIOVANNI DELL\amer. 
chant of Pisa, was sent, in 1363, by that re- 
public, then at war with Florence, as envoy 
to Barnabo Visconti, lord of Milan, to ask 
for assistance. Barnabo aspired to extend 
his dominion over Tuscany, and it was agreed 
between him and Agnello that Baniabo 
should assist Agnello in usurping the supreme 
power at Pisa, whilst Agnello should fiivour 
the interests of Barnabo, to whom he per- 
suaded the Pisans to give up the town of 
Pietra Santa. Having received money fh)m 
Barnabo, Agnello, on lus return to Pisa, 
being supported by the faction of the Raspanti, 
who wished to keep out the rival family of 
Gambacorti, who had been exiled as friendly 
to the Florentines, was proclaimed, in 1364, 
doge of Pisa, a new title in that state. In 
the mean time, peace was concluded at Pescia, 
through the mediation of the pope, between 
the nval republics of Pisa and Florence. 
Agnello abused his power, and became odious 
to his countrymen. When the emperor 
Charles IV. came into Italy with an 
army, in 1368, A^ello sent him envoys 
with presents, and invited him to come to 
Lucca, which was then under the dominion 
of Pisa, and he put into the emperor's hands 
the castle of L'Agosta, which commanded 
the town. Agnello repiured to liucca to 
visit the emperor; but while he was, wlUi 
others of the imperial party, on a balconv or 
scaffolding, looking at some games which 
were going on, the scaffolding gave way, and 
AgneUo broke his leg by the &1L A report 
having reached Pisa that he was killed, the 
citisens rose in arms at the cry of ** liberty," 
drove awa^ the sons of Agnello, and restored 
the republican government Shortly after, 
the emperor, by a diploma dated 8th of April, 
1369, restored Lucca to its former inde- 
pendence, on payment of a large sum by the 
citizens. In 1370, Barnabo Visconti made an 
attemjyt upon Pisa, with a view of restoring 
his friend A^ello^ and driving away the 
powerftd fiunily of Gambacorti, who were 
friendly to the Florentines, the enemies of 
the Visconti Bamabo's men scaled the walls 
of Pisa in the night, near the church of 
St Zeno i but, being discovered, they were 
driven biM^ with loss. Agnello afterwards 
died an exile from his country. (Pignotti, 
Storia deOa Toacana; Bossi, Storia ^Italia,^ 

A.V. 

AGNE'LLUS, A'NDREAS, a presbyter 
of Ravenna, and an abbot, who lived in the 
second half of the ninth century, wrote a 
chronicle of that see, which was first pub- 

H H 2 



AGNELLUS. 



AGNELLU& 



bhed hj the learned Father Baochini, a 
Benedictine, at Modena, in 1708, under the 
title ** Agnelli qui et Andreas Abbatis 8. 
MarisB ad Blachemas et S. Bartholomsei Ra- 
yennatia Liber Pontificalia, sive Vitse Ponti- 
ficom Ravennatum ; D. Benedictos Baochinus 
Abbas S. Manse de Lacroma, Congregationis 
Casinensis, ex Bibliotheca Eatenai emit, 
Dieaertationibua et Obaeryationibna, nee non 
Appendice Monumentorum, illnatraTit et 
auxit, ac Serenissimo Raynaldo Eatenai, Mn- 
tinse, Regii etc. Daci, decucavit" The see of 
Ravenna waa at the time of Agnellns, and 
had been for a long time before, in a state 
of schism from the see of Rome concerning 
points of jurisdiction. The archbishops of 
Ravenna would not acknowledge the supre- 
macy chiimed bjr the bishops of Rome, who 
asserted their right of investing with the 
''pallium" the archbiahop elect The long 
dependence of Ravenna upon the Eastern 
empire had strengthened the alienation be- 
tween it and Rome. Agnellua, in his book, 
supports the independence of his see, and 
speaks in a disparaging manner of several 
Roman pontiffs. It appears that Sergiua, 
archbishop of Ravenna, and others c^ his 
clergj, among whom was an ancestor of 
Agnellus, about the middle of the eighth 
century, were taken prisoners to Rome, and 
detained by Pope Stephen II., whoee power 
was supported by the strong arm of Pepin, 
king of the Franks, after Pepin had defeiUed 
the Longobards. Pope Paul I., who suc- 
ceeded Stephen, a.d. 757, released the arch- 
bishop of Ravenna, who returned to his see, 
where he died in 759, but the ancestor of 
Agnellus is said to have died in priaon at 
Rome. 

The Latin of Agnellus is barbaroua, and 
his credulity great Still the work ia valu- 
able, as treating of a very important and very 
obscure part of ecclesiastical as well as civil 
history. This was the opinion of Father 
Baccluni, who, having found the manuscript 
in the Este library si Modena, took great 
pains in i>reparing it for publication, by 
adding an interesting preftoe concerning the 
ancient church of Ravenna, and several his- 
torical and critical dissertations illustrative 
of the text, in which he refutes various state- 
ments and opinions of Agnellus concerning 
the Roman see. But the Inquisition of Rome, 
having heard of the intended publication, 
order^ the inquisitor at Modena to seiae 
the manuscript, aa dangerous, and likely to 
revive the ancient controversy about supre- 
macy. Eacchini was. obliged to go to Rome 
in 1705, and by showinff Pope Clement XL 
his own refutation of me obnoxioua state- 
ments of AgneUus, and his defence of the 
rights ci the Roman see, he obtained leave to 
publish his work, with some corrections. Ag- 
nellus the abbot has been often confounded 
with another Agnellus, archbishop of Ra- 
venna, who lived in the sixth century, and 
460 



who waa the author of an epistle " De Rm- 
tione Fidel" 

Muratori has inserted the " Liber Pontifi- 
calu" of Agnellus in his great collection of 
**Remm ItaiucarumScriptores," iL 1. Amadeai 
speaks at length of Agnellus and his chronicle, 
in his dissertation on the church of Ra* 
venna, published at Faenza, in 1783. {Bio^ 
gruphf ofBacchini, in Affb's Scritiori Parmi-' 
giant, vol v. ; Tiraboschi, Storia deUa Letter 
ratura ItaUana, vol iii part 1. b.3. c 2.) 

A.V. 

AGNES, a German empress, was the 
daughter of Duke William of Aquitaine, 
who appears to have given her an excellent 
education. In 1043, Chunelinde, the wife of 
King Henry IIL of Germany, died, and he 
chose Agnes for his second wife; and in 
1047 she together with her husband re- 
ceived the imperial crown at Rome finom the 
hands of Pope Clement IL By thia marriage 
she had two sons, Henry and Conrad, and 
three daughters, Judith, Matilda, and Itta. 
Henry IIL was anxious to consolidate the 
empire, for which purpose he did not fill up 
several duchies which had become vacant; 
and in 1056 he gave the duchy of Bavaria 
to his wife A^es, whereby he intended to 
make it hereditary in his own fiunily. His 
great pUns, however, were firustrated by his 
death, which happened in the same year, 
and by the consequences that followed it 
Wb son Henry, who had been appointed hia 
successor, was now only five years old, and 
his mother Agnes was intrusted by the 
princes of the empire with the regency 
during the minority of her s(m, and with the 
supermtendence of his education. The statea 
of the empire even took the oath of allegiance 
to her. Agnes is generally praised fbr the 
manner in which during several years ahe 
discharged her duties, and it cannot be de- 
nied that her intentions were good; but her 
position required more. She wished to 
settle afiairs of state by mild and gentle 
means, when nothing but manly vigour 
could prevent mischief, and maintain peace 
in the empire. For some time past, the 
bishops had exercised great influence in 
public affairs : to secure herself against their 
assumptions and usurpations, Agnes thought 
it necessary to place dukes in several duchies 
which had been left vacant by the late em- 
peror ; and she gave these duchies to men 
who had been hostile to her husband, in the 
hope of conciliatmg them. This policy of 
Agnes had important consequences ; for in 
proportion as ahe contributed to establish 
the hereditary character of the German dukes, 
she diminished the possibility of making the 
empire hereditary, an otgeet at which her 
predecessors had always been aiming, and 
towards the accomplisnment of which her 
husband had done much. The manner in 
which she acted towards Count Rudolph of 
Rheinfelden is particularly remarkable. Soon 



AGNES. 



AGNES. 



after the emperor's death, Rudolph carried 
off her daughter Matilda, then oiily eleyen 
years old, irho was receiving her education 
under the saperintendenoe of the Bishop of 
CoQstani. Agnes not only consented to the 
count marrying her daughter, but gave him 
the hereditary possession of the duch^ of 
Swabia, and Uie administration of the kmg- 
dom of Burgundy. In Carinthia, Bavaria, and 
Lorraine, dukes were likewise restored. Otho 
of Nordheim, one of the most gallant and 
distinguished Saxon princes» who had re- 
ceived the duchy of Bavaria, instead of being a 
support to the empress, formed a conspiracy 
whh Anno or Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, 
in 1062, for the purpose of getting the yomig 
king and the admmistration of the empire 
into iheir own hands. Agnes conducted the 
education of her son with great indulgence, 
and his character was spoUed fhmi his in- 
iancy. None of the lugher clergy were 
allowed to exercise any influence upon him, 
except Henry, bishop of Augsbni^, who, al- 
though he was a haughty and ambitious man, 
enjoyed the confidence of the empress. The 
weakness which she displayed in the education 
of her son, as well as in the administration of 
the empire, while several of the provinces 
were sidSeringfTom fkmine and epidemic dis- 
eases, diminished the esteem of many princes, 
and some persons even ventured to spread 
a report that she had a criminal connection 
with the bishop of Augsburg ; but this was 
done with a view to deprive this bishop of 
his influence.^ The young king himself was 
generally liked; but those who were not 
allowed to have any influence over him, such 
as Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz, Mar- 
grave Ecbert of Weimar, and Duke Gott- 
fried of Lower Lorraine, determined to take 
the young king from the hands of his mo- 
ther, and accordingly they joined the con- 
spiracy of Anna At Whitsuntide, in the year 
1U62, Agnes, with her son and the peat 
personages of the empire, was celebratmg a 
feast in an island of the Rhine, now calkd 
Kiuserswerth. Anno and his associates were 
of the party. During the dinner. Anno con- 
trived to gain the confidence of Uie boy, and 
talked to him about his beautifiil ship. Heni^ 
expressing a wish to see it. Anno and his 
friends accompanied him on board ; and no 
sooner were they there, than the rowers 
pushed from shore into the middle of the 
river. The terrified boy jumped into the 
Rhine, and would have been drowned, if 
Ecbert had not, at the risk of his own life, 
brought him back to the ship. He was con- 
veyed to Cologne. [Henrt IV. ; Anno ; 
Adaiabrt of Bremen.] On this event, 
Agnes resolved to withdraw fh>m public 
affairs ; but she yielded to the entreaties of her 
friends, and for a time she continued in the 
administration. Finding, however, that even 
the princes who had taken no part in the con- 
spiracy would not assist her in recovering the 
461 



guardianship of her son, and that Anno had 
the real power, she retired to a monastery in 
Italy, where she spent the last years of her 
life. She died in 1077. (Otto Frisingensis, 
vi 32. ; Adamus Bremensis, iv. 1, &c ; Lam- 
bertus SchaShaburgensis, ad annum 1056, 
&c. ; Pfister, Getchwhte der TeuUchen, ii 197, 
&c) L. & 

AGNES OF AUSTRIA was the daughter 
of Albert I., duke of Austria, (afterwards king 
of Germany,) and his wife Elisabeth. She 
was married to Andreas III., the last king of 
Hungary who belonged to the ancient fkmily 
of Arpad. Her husband died in 1301, and she 
continued a widow. Agnes has acquired a 
name in history only through the savage 
cruelty with which, in conjunction with her 
mother and her brother Leopold, she revenged 
the death of her fkther, who was murdered 
in 1308, by a conspiracy which was headed 
by his nephew, Johannes Parricida. [Aubert 
L; Johannes Parricida.] After the body 
of Albert L had been placed in die imperial 
tomb at Spire, in 1309, and King Henry VII., 
the successor of Albert, had put the mur- 
derers under the ban of the empire, Agnes 
and her mother proceeded to Switzerland, 
and made the most rigid search to discover 
the assassins of Albert But only one of the 
five conspirators fell into their hands, and 
was condemned to the wheeL This was 
Rudolph von Wart, the least ^ilty, who had 
himself taken no active part in the murder. 
His wife Gertrud in vain implored Agnes, on 
her knees, to inflict at least a less cruel death 
on her husband; but A^es, instead of 
having him put to death in the usual way, 
order^ his limbs to be broken on the wheel 
in such a manner as not to cause immediate 
death. The unhappy man lived for three 
whole days after this torture, during which 
his wife was kneeling by his side in prayer. 
After his death she went to Basel, where she 
soon after died of grie£ This is, however, 
only one of the innumerable instances of 
cruelty of which Agnes was guilty. The 
slightest connection which any person had 
with the conspirators or their fiunilies, and 
the slightest suspicion of havinff been accom- 
plices m the crime, was a sufficient reason for 
Agnes to inflict a cruel death. At Fahr- 
wangen, sixty-three knights, all of whom 
were probably innocent, were beheaded in 
her presence ; and during the execution, she 
is said to have exclaimed, ** Now we bathe in 
the dew of May." Above a thousand inno- 
cent persons, men, women, and children, were 
put to death by the order of Agnes $ many of 
the noblest fiunilies in Switzerland became 
extinct, their castles were burnt, and their 
property confiscated. At last, when Agnes 
was satiated with blood, she and her m<Mher 
built with the spoils of their victims the con- 
vent of Konigsrelden, on Uie spot where King 
Albert had been murdered. In this convent 
Agnes herself spent the remaining fifty years 

B H 3 



AGNE& 



AGN^ES. 



«f her life. She died m 1359. During this 
long period, she nerer ceased to lament the 
death of her iGeUher, and she constantlY tab- 
jected herself to the severest ascetic discipline. 
The monastery in irhich A^es was bnried, 
and from which her remams were snbse- 
quently removed to Vienna, still exists, hat 
it has been converted into a lunatic asylum. 
(J. Miiller, Gtschichte der Schweizeriachen 
EtdgenoaaeMchafty iL p. 18, &c. ; The Hittory 
of Switzerland^ in the Library of Useful 
Knowled^, p. 49.) L. S. 

AGNES. [Philippe Auoustb.] 

AGNES SOREL, SUREL, SOREAU, 
LA BELLE AGNES, MADEMOISELLE 
DE BEAUTE', was bom in 1409, at the 
village of Fromentean, in Touraine. Her 
father was the Seigneur de St G^rand, a gen- 
tleman attached to the house of the Count 
de Clermont At the age of fifteen, ahe was 
placed as maid of honour to Isabel of 
. Lorraine, duchess of Aigon, and accom- 
panied this princess when she went to Paris 
in 1431. 

At this period, Agnes Sorel was consi- 
dered to be the most beautifbl woman of her 
day. Her conversation and wit were equal to 
her beauty. In the " Histoire des Favorites" 
(part L y. 103.) she is said to have been 
noble-mmded, ftdl of ^erosity, with sweet- 
ness of manners, and smceri^ of heart The 
same writer adds, that everybody fell in love 
with her, from the king to the humblest officers. 
Charles VIL became passionately attached to 
her ; and in order to insure her constant pre- 
sence at court, he placed her as maid of honour 
to the queen. The amour was conducted with 
secrecy ; but the fact became manifest by the 
favours which the king lavished upon the 
relations of Agnes, while she herself lived in 
great magnificence amidst a very poor court 
She was fond of splendour, and has been 
quaintly described by Monstrelet as ** having 
ei^oyed all the pleasures of life, in wearing 
rich clothes, furred robes, and golden chains 
of precious stones, and whatever else she 
desired." When she visited Paris, in at- 
tendance upon the queen, the splendour and 
expense of Agnes were so excessive that 
the people murmured greatly ; whereupon 
the proud beauty exclaimed against the 
Parisians as churls. 

During the time that the English were ac- 
tually in possession of a great part of France, 
it was in vain that the queen (Mary of Aqjou) 
endeavoured to rouse her husband from his 
lethargy. That the king was not deficient in 
energy and phjrsical courage is evident from 
the manner in which he signalised himself on 
various occasions. At the siege of Monte- 
reau in 1437, (according to the Chronicle de 
Charles VIL par M. Alain Chartier, Nevers, 
1594X he rushed to the assault, now thrust- 
ing with the lance, now assisting the artillery, 
now superintending the various military 
engines for heaving masses of stone or wood : 
462 



but during the period above mentioned he 
was lost to all sense of royal glor^» and had 
given himself up eolarely to hnnting and all 
sorts of pkiiiires. 

He was recalled bj Agnes to a sense of 
what was due to his kingdom. She told him, 
one day, says Brantome, that when she waa 
a girl, an astrologer had predicted that she 
would be loved by one ot the most valiant 
kings of Christendom; that when His Migesty 
Charles VII. had done her this honour, she 
thought, of course, he was the valiant king 
who had been predicted ; but now, finding he 
was so weak, and had so little care as to 
what became of himself and his affiurs, she 
saw that the had made a mistake, and that 
this valiant prince could not be Charles, but 
the King of England. Saying these words, 
Agnes rose, and, bowing reverentially to the 
king, asked leave to retire to the court of the 
English king, since the i>rophecy pointed at 
him. ^ Charles," she said, ** was about to 
lose his crown, and Henry to unite it to his." 
By this rebuke the king was much af- 
fected. He gave up his hunting, left his 
prdens for the field of battle, and succeeded 
in driving the English out of France. This 
ciroumstance occasioned Francis L to make 
the following verses, which it is said he wrote 
under a portrait of Agnes : — 

" Plus de looiuige et d'bonneur tu mirite. 
La oiute etant de France recourrer. 
Que ce que peut dedans un cluttre ourrer. 
Close noiinain, ou bien d^tot hennite.** 

The king lavished gifts and honours upon 
Agnes. He built a chateau for her at Loches; 
he gave her, besides the comte de Penthiftvre, 
in Bretagne, the lordships of Roche Servicre, 
of Issoudun, in Berri, and the Chateau de 
Beaute, at the extremity of the wood of 
Vincennes, that she might be, as he said, 
" in deed and in name the Queen of Beauty." 
It is believed that she never made a bad use 
of her influence with the king for any political 
purposes or unkind private feelings ; never- 
theless the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XL) 
conceived an implacable Jealousy against her, 
and carried his resentment so far, on one 
occasion, as to give her a blow. 

She retired, in 1445, to Loches, and for 
nearly five years declined appearing at court ; 
but the king's love for her sull continued, and 
he took many journeys into Touraine to visit 
her. But eventaally the queen, who had never 
for^tten her noble counsels to the king, 
which had roused him from his lethargy, 
persuaded her to return to court 

The queen appears to have felt no jealousy, 
but to have had a regard for her. It seems, 
also, that Agnes had become very popular, 
partly from her beauty and wit, partly be- 
cause she was considered in a great measure 
to have saved France, and partly because she 
distributed large sums in alms to the poor, 
and to repair decayed churches. 

After Ate taking of Rouen, and the entire 
expulsion of the English firom France, the 



AGNEa 



AGNE& 



kiiw tookvphit winter qvarten in the Abbey 
ofJanii^ge. Agnes hastened to the Chs- 
tean de Masnal la BeUe,a leagne distant from 
this abbey, Ibr the purpose of warning the 
king of a conspiracy. The king only langhed 
at ue intelligence ; but the death of A^es 
Sorel, which inunediately followed, giyes 
some grounds for crediting the truth of the 
information which she communicated. At 
this place Agnes, still beautiAil, and in per- 
fect health, was suddenly attacked by a dy- 
sentery, which carried her ofll It is be- 
lieved that she was poisoned. Some affirm 
that it was effected by direction of the Dau- 
phin ; others accuse Jacques Ccenr, the king's 
goldnnith (as the master of the treasuir was 
then called), and others attribute it to &male 
jealousy. 

The account given of her death by Mon- 
strelet is to the following effect : Agnes was 
suddenly attacked by a d]raentery, which 
could not be cured. She lingered long, and 
employed the time in prayer and repentance: 
she often, as he relates, called upon Jkfuy Mag- 
dalen, who had aUo been a sinner, and upon 
God and the blessed Virgin, Ibr aid. After 
receiving the sacrament, die desired the book 
of prayers to be brought her, in which she had 
written with her own hand the verses of Sl 
Bernard, and these she repeated. She then 
made many gifts, which were put down in 
writing ; and these, including alms and the 
payment of her servants, amounted to 60,000 
crowns. The fair Agnes, the once proud 
beauty, perceiving her end approaching, and 
now feeling a di^ust to life proportioned to 
the ftilness of her past ei]joyment of all its 
gaieties, vanities, and pleasures, said to the 
Lord de la Tremouille and others, and in the 
presence of all her damsels, that our insecure 
and worldly life was but a fbul ordure. She 
then requested her confessor to give her ab- 
solution, accordilig to a form she herself dic- 
tated, with whicn he complied. After this, she 
uttered a loud shriek, and gave up the ghost 
She died on Monday, the 9th day of February, 
1449, about six o*clock in the afternoon, m 
the fortieth year of her age. 

This account, though bearing every ap- 
pearance of probability, is ^et open to some 
doubts, from the manifestation of a tendency, 
on the part of Monstrelet, to give a colouring 
to the event, and to ths character of Agnes 
SoreL He even attempts to throw a doubt 
upon her having been the king's mistress, 
treating the fiict as a mere scandaL He says 
that the affection of the kin^ was attributable 
to her good sense, her wit, her agreeable 
manners, and gaiety, quite as much as to her 
beauty. This was, no doubt, the case ; but it 
hardly helps the argument of the historian. 
Monstrelet finds it difficult, however, to dis- 
pose of the children that she had bv the king : 
he admits that Agnes had a daughter, which 
she said was the king's, but that he denied it 
The compilation by Denys Godefroy takes the 
463 



same view, but nearly the whole aeoount 
is copied verbatim from Monstrelet, without 
acknowledgment 

The heut and intestines of Agnes were 
buried at Jumi^ge. Her body was placed 
in the centre of the choir of the odlegiate 
church of the Chateau de Loches, which she 
had greatly enriched. 

Her tomb was in existence, at Loches, in 
179S. It was of black marble. The figure 
of Agnes was in white marble; her head 
resting upon a loxenge, supported by angels, 
and two lambs were at her feet 

The writer of the life of Agnes Sorel in 
the ** Biographic UniverBelle " having access 
to printed books and MSS. of French histoij 
which are not in the public libraries of this 
oonntnr, the following statements are taken 
from that work : the writer does not give his 
authorities. 

The canons of the church pretended to be 
scandalised at having the tomb of Agnes 
placed in their choir, and begged permis* 
sion of Louis XL to have it removed. ** I 
consent," replied the king, ** provided you 
give up all you have received firom her 
bounty." 

The poets of the day were profuse in their 
praises of the memory of Agnes. One of the 
most memorable of these is a poem by Baif, 
printed at Paris in 1573. In 1789 the librarv 
of the chapter of Loches possessed a manu- 
script containing nearly a thousand Latin 
sonnets in praise of Agnes, all acrostichs, and 
made by a canon of that city. 

A marble bust of her was long preserved 
at the Chateau de Chinon, and is now placed 
in the Museum des Augustins. 

Agnes Sorel had three daughters by 
Charles VIL, who all received dowries, and 
were married at the expense of the crown. 
They received the title of daughters of 
France, the name given at that time to the 
natural daughters of the kings. An ac- 
count of the noble families into which they 
married, together with the honours bestowed 
upon the brother of Agnes, will be found in Mo- 
reri*B*'Dictionnaire Historiqne." (Monstrelet, 
Chrtmiquet, vol. iii p. 25. Paris, 1595 ; Bran- 
tome, M^m, des Vies desDamea Ga/iaiites, t iL 
p. dia ; HigL <2e Charlea VIL Roy de France, 
par Jean Chartier, sous-chantre de St Denys, 
et autres Auteurs du temps ; mise en lumiere 
par Denys Godefroy, pp. 191. 349. 859, 860. 
Paris, 1661 ; Biog. UniverteUe ; ABgmeine 
Etuyclopddie^ von Ersch und Gruber ; ifif- 
toire dee FavorUee, Amsterdam, 1700, par. i. 
pp. 103. 167. R.H. H. 

AGNES, ST., is said to have been a 
Roman vir^ of noble flimiil^r, who was put 
to death in the great persecution under Dio- 
cletian, A. D. 303 or 804. Her l^end makes 
her to have been only thirteen when she suf- 
fered, but to have already by her beauty 
attracted numerous suitors, all of whom she 
rqected that she might devote herself to 

BH 4 



AGNES. 



AGNESL 



ivligioiL On her reftual to offer eacrifloe to 
the ancient gods, she was condemned in the 
first instance to suffer prostitatioa ; bat her 
demeanour overawed all who i^proached her, 
with the exception of one audacious young 
man, designated the son of Simphronius, 
whose rudeness was punished by his being 
instantly struck blind and stretched half dead 
at her feet She was prevailed upon, how- 
ever, by the intercessions of his companions 
to restore him both to life and to the use of 
his eyes, which she did by praying to Heaven 
to have mercy on him. This incident has 
furnished the subject of a celebrated picture 
by Tintoretto, as her subsequent execution 
by being stabbed through the heart has that 
of another by Domenichino. There are two 
churches at Rome dedicated to St Agnes ; 
one without the walls, where she was buried, 
on the site of one originally erected by Con- 
stantine ; the other in the place where she is 
said to have been prostituted, built in the time 
of Innocent X. St Agnes is repeatedly 
mentioned by St Ambrose, who was bom 
within thirty years after her martyrdom ; but 
a life of her which used to be attributed to 
Ambrose, and which is printed under the 
title of " Acta Sanctae Agnetis," in most of 
the collections of lives of the saints, appears 
to be the work of a later writer. Her passion 
is celebrated by Prudentius (of the same age 
with Ambrose) in a poem of about 130 lines, 
written in Alcaic verse, being the fourteenth 
and last hymn of his " Peristephanion Liber." 
The old Latin martyrologies assign to St 
Agnes both the 21st and 28th of January ; 
the Greek, the 14th and 21st of January, and 
also the 5th of July. The 21st of January is 
now reckoned her day in the Roman church. 
(BoUandi et aliorum Acta Sanctorum Januarii, 
torn. ii. (Antwerp, 1 643), pp. 350 — 364. ; Sancti 
Ambrosii Mediolanensis Episoopi Opera, 8 
torn. 4to. Venice, 1781-2, p. 10, &c and viii. 
192, &c ; Aurelii Prudentii Opera, 2 tom. 
4to. Parmse 1788, L 296., where references 
are given to several ad^tional sources.) 

G.L.C. 
AGNE'SE, abbess of Quedlinburg, was 
one of the most distinguished artists of her 
time, both in miniature painting and in em- 
broidery. Some of her works are still extant 
In one of her pieces of tapestry she worked 
the foUowmg Latin verses : — 

Gloria Pontlflcum, funulamm suscipe totum?" 
She died a. p. 1205. (FioriUo, Gtachichte 
der Zetchnenden Kunstein Deutschland,) 

R N W 
AGNE'SI, MARFA G AETA'NA,' one of 
those prodigies of whom an owimary biogra- 
phical ^count « hardly credible. ThePre- 

(where he travelled about 1740,) gives ^ 
^"^i^w •^rvo^^"*^^?^*«^i'» the "Sonth^ 
•S^ S^LdSn« ""^^^ *">* ^^^^ copied into 
the transla^on presently noticed, to the fol- 



lowing effect : — At Biilan, he met a yovng 
lady, about eighteen or twenty years of age, 
the Signorina Agnesi,who understood a larg« 
number of languages, and would maintain a 
thesis in any one of the sciences against any 
one who would dispute with her. At a con- 
versazione to which the traveller was invited, 
he found about thirty persons of di£ferent 
countries, and the young lady, with her sister, 
seated under a canopy. She was not hand- 
some, but had a fine complexion, and an air 
of great simplicity, softness, and feminine 
delicacy. " I had conceived," says De 
Brosses, *' when I went to this conversation 
party, that it was only to converse with this 
young lady in the usual way, though on 
learned subjects ; but instead it this, my in- 
troducer made a fine harangue to the lady in 
Latin, with the formality of a college decla- 
mation. She answered with great readinesa 
in the same language." Several disputations 
then took place on subjects of philosophy 
and mathematics ; and the conversation after- 
wards becoming general, she spoke to every 
one in the language of his own country. 
** She is much attached to the philosophy of 
Sir Isaac Newton ; and it is marvellous to 
see a person of her age so conversant with 
such abstruse subjects ; yet I have been 
much more amazed to hear her speak Latin 
with such purity, ease, and accuracy, that I 
do not recollect to have read any book in 
modem Latin that was written in so classical 
a style as that in which she pronounced these 
discourses." 

Maria Agnesi was bom at Milan, March 
16. 1718. Her fiither, though sometimes 
stated to have been a tradesman at Milan, 
(which may have been the case when she 
was bom,) was in 1750 a professor at Bo- 
logna. His daughter certainly acquired 
something like the knowledge which might, 
without much magnifying, produce the pre- 
cedmg account ; for in 1738, when she was 
twenty years of age, appeared at Milan her 
" Propositiones Philosophies, quas crebris dis- 
putationibus domi habitis coram clarissimis 
viris explicabat extempore et ab objectis 
vindicabat M. C. de Agnesiis." This work 
contains 191 heads of theses, on every branch 
of science, natural and moral ; and, from the 
first words of the preface, it appears that 
much of the contents had been for some time 
in circulation. In point of rarity of early 
attainment, and sufficiency of evidence for 
it, this instance may rank with that of 
Clairaut In 1748, Maria Agnesi published, 
at Bologna, her " Instituzioni Analitiche 
ad uso della Gioventii Italiana," (2 vols. 
4to.), a well-matured treatise on algebra and 
the differential and integral calculus, inferior 
to none of its da^ in knowledge and arrange- 
ment, and showing marks of great leanung 
and some originality. This work was partly 
translated into French in 1775, (by D'An- 
telmy, with notes by Bossut, says the *' Bio- 



AGNESI. 



AGNODICE. 



graphic UniyeTseUe," Imt neither party is 
named in the translation,) and a complete 
English translation iras made by Colson (died 
1760), and was published in 1801 by Hellins, 
at the expense of Baron Maseres. Long as 
was the interral from 1748 to 1801, the 
authoress nearly snrriYed it In 1750 she 
obtained permission, dmring the illness of her 
fkther, to occupy his chair in the university 
of Bologna ; and hence she is sometimes 
staled professor at that place. Shortly after 
tlus, but when we do not find, she retired into 
a convent of Blue Nuns, at Milan, in which 
she passed the rest of her life : in pur- 
suance, apparently, of an early wish for such 
a life, for De Brasses says, in the letters above 
quoted, ** I was sorry to hear that she was 
determined to go into a convent and take the 
veil, which was not from want of fortune (for 
she is rich), but from a religious and devout 
turn of mind." She died January 9. 1799. 
In the "Biographic Universelle*^ is men- 
tioned an ^loge of her by Frisi, translated 
by M. Boulard, which we have never seen. 
(Biogn^hie Univeradle; FreSuse to (Olson's 
translation of the AnahfHcai Lutitutiotu,) 

Perhaps some of our readers may wish to 
Judge of the Latin style of Maria Agnesi for 
themselves, and the following (Thesis Na 3.) 
will be an appropriate specmien : ** Optime 
etiam de universa philoeophia infimuorem 
sezum meruisse nullus inficiabitnr; nam 
prater septuaginta fere ernditissimas muli- 
eres, quas recenset Menagius, compluies alias 
qnovis tempore floruisse novimus, qu» in 
philosophicis disciptinis maximam ingenii lau- 
dem sunt assecutte. Ad onmem igitnr doctri- 
nam, eruditionemque etiam muliebres animos 
Natnra comparavit: quare paulo iiquriosius 
cum fieminis a^pnt <fni eis bonamm artium 
cultn omnino mterdieunt, eo vd maxime, 
quod hsec illarum ftudia privatis, publicis- 
qne rebus non modo baud noxia fhtura sint, 
verum edam perutilia.'' A. De M. 

AONCyDICE CAT^oSdni), an Athenian 
woman, who, if we may trust a very suspi- 
cious-looking story in Hyginns, (Fa6. c. 274. 
p. 301.) was the earliest midwife among the 
Greeks. He tells us that the ancients had at 
first no midwives, and that the Athenians 
had passed a law forbidding slaves or women 
to study medicine. Agnodice, however, 
having disguised herself in man's clothes, and 
studied under a physician named Hierophilus, 
got so much practice in this branch of the 
profession, that the other practitioners ac- 
cused her before the Areopagus of being a 
corrupter of the morals of her patients. The 
discovery of her own sex refuted this charge ; 
upon which she was accused of having violated 
the law, but she escaped this second danger 
by the wives of the principal persons in 
Athens, whom she had attended, coming 
forward to assist her, and procuring the re- 
peal of the law. This story is (as ikr as the 
writer is aware) mentioned by no other 
465 



ancient author, and bears evident marks of 
being fabulous. It has also no date attached 
to it ; for though it seems at first sight easy 
to alter Hierophilus into Herophilus, (as 
Sprengel has done,) yet Hyginus would hardly 
have called that celebrated anatomist **a 
certain Herophilus" (Herophilus quidam); 
besides, thero does not seem to be any reason 
for supposing that Herophilus was ever at 
Athens, or Agnodice at Alexandria. 

W. A. G. 
A'GNOLO ANIEXLO FIGURE, a Nea- 
politan sculptor of the fifteenth century. He 
was very superior to most sculptors of his 
period ; his works are not numerous, but 
thero are two of considerable pretensions in 
design, in San Domenico Maggioro at Naples ; 
a basso rilievo, with the date 1470, of the 
Annunciation, in the chapel of St Thomas 
Aquinas, with the following inscription: 

**HinC yiBTUS GLOBIAM GLORIA IMJfORTA- 

UTATBM COMPARAVIT. Mcxxxxxx."; and One 
on the monument of Mariano Alaneo, count 
of Buchianigo, representing the Virgin and 
Child with two angels, which aro well 
drawn. (Cicognara, Storia ddia SeultMrtu) 

A'GNGLG, B ACCIO D', bom at Florence 
in 1460 or 1461, was originally a carver in 
wood, in which branch <n art he' displayed 
great ability, and some of his productions of 
that kind, including the stalls of the choir of 
Santa Maria Novella, are spoken of by Vasari 
in terms of high commendation. The precise 
time of his visiting Rome is not known ; but 
while there, he applied himself chiefiy, if not 
entirely, to the study of arohitecture, and re- 
turned to his native city with such reputation 
for skill that he soon began to be employed 
on various important occasions. One of the 
first was the erection of several temporary 
triumphal arohes to adorn the public entry of 
Leo X. into Florence. When Piero Soderini 
was gonfkloniere, Baccio was consulted, to- 
gether with Cronaca, Giuliano da Sangp&llo, 
and other eminent ardiitects, as to improving 
the great hall of the Palaxso Vecchio, but it 
does not appear that he did more than exe- 
cute some of the carved work and embellish- 
ments, Cronaca*s design (afterwards greatly 
altered by Vasari) being the one carried 
into execution. Among the private mansions 
erected hj him at Florence, are the Palaxzi 
Taddei, Lanfredini, Borgherini, and Cocchi. 
But his most celebrated production of the 
kind is that which he built in 1520 for Gio- 
vanni Bartolini, in the Piaaza Santa Trinita, 
and which was greatly criticised at the time, 
on account of what was then considered a 
very bold innovation, namely, the tabernacle 
windows ; that is, windows composed after 
the manner of small altars or tabernacles, with 
columns supporting an entablature and pedi- 
ment So far, that fo^ade is now not at all 
remarkable; while in other respects it ex- 
hibits nearly at many blemishes as beauties > 



AGNOLO. 



AGNOLO. 



if the niches and panela between the windowi 
of the upper floors had not been so large, 
there would hare been, with the same degree 
of variety and richness, more elegance and 
simplicity in the design. The oomicione, or 
principal cornice, on the contrary, notwith- 
standing that it is censored by Milixia, as 
extravagant in sixe, is hardly of sufficient im- 
portance, when compared with the two sub- 
ordinate ones, or small entablatures, which 
divide the principal floors. 

Baccio began the campanile of Santo 
Spirito, but left it unfinished. It was completed 
according to his designs, and is esteemed a 
masterpiece of its kind. He also began that 
of S. Miniato di Monte. He was employed 
to finish Brunelleschi's cup<^ of the Duomo, 
or Santa Maria del Fiore, by adding a gallery 
to its tambour ; but in consequence of an- 
other design being made by Miehael Angelo, 
who severely censured that of Baccio, and 
of the disputes and perplexities which took 
place, the work was discontinued altogether. 
Baccio was generally esteemed for hu abili- 
ties, and his house was for a long time the 
rendezvous of the most eminent artists who 
either resided at or visited Florence. He died 
in 1543, with his Acuities still unimpaired, 
though he had nearly completed his eighty- 
third year. He left three sons, Filippo, 
Giuliano, and Dominico, the last of whom 
died young. (Vasari, Vite d^ Pittori ; Mi- 
lizia, ViU degli Architetti; Famin et Grand- 
jean, V Architecture Toacane). W. H. L. 

AGNOLO, GIULIANO D', son of 
Baccio d*Agnolo, followed his fiEtther's pro- 
fession, both as carver, or sculptor in wood, 
and architect, and succeeded him in carry- 
ing on various buildings which Baccio had 
commenced. The principal architectural 
works designed by himself were — a house 
built for Francesco Campana, at Montughi, 
near Florence ; another for the same indi- 
vidual, at Colle ; a palace at San Miniato, for 
Monsignor Grifoni ; and one at Florence, for 
Giovanni Conti, which last is censured by 
Vasari, as partaking of ** la maniera Tedesca," 
on account of the multiplicity of parts, and 
the manner in which they are crowded to- 
gether. He was engaged by Baccio Bandi- 
nelli, to assist him in £e alterations and em- 
bellishments which, on his return from Rome, 
he had prevailed upon the young Duke Co- 
simo to make in the great hall of the Pa- 
lazzo Vecchio ; but, owing to a defect in the 
original structure, one of the ends being out 
of square, a fiiult for which Giuliano did 
not propose any remedy, the work did not 
give -satisfaction, and was left incomplete, 
after being in hand many years. It was also 
at the instance of BandineUi that he made a 
model and other designs for the principal 
altar and choir of Santa Maria del Fiore. He 
executed a great deal of carving and orna- 
mental work of different kinds in many 
churches and convents^ aad a very mag* 
466 



nificent eiborium for the high altar of Santa 
Nunziata, which last he completed just before 
his death, in 1555. (Vasari, VUe d/i PiUori^ 
frc.) W. H. L. 

A'GNOLO of Siena. fAooflmro.] 
AGNO'NIDES QKyimnb^), an Attic ora^ 
tor, who was a contemporary with Phocion. 
The earliest event of his life on record ia, 
that he brought a charge of impiety against 
the philosopher Theophrastus ; Imt he was so 
unsuccessful in this attempt, that he veiy 
nearly drew the same charge upon himsel£ 
When Alexander, son of Polysperchon, took 
possession of Athens* Agnonidei, who had 
been opposed to the Macedonian interest, and 
had called Phocion a traitor, was expelled ; but, 
through the mediation of Phocion himself, 
he afterwards obtained fhmi Antipater per- 
mission to return to his country. Agnonides, 
however, still continued to pursue the same 
course as before in regard to the Macedo- 
nians and Phocion, and at last he induced 
the Athenians to pass a measure by which 
Phocion and his friends were condemned to 
death, and executed, for having delivered 
Pineus into the hands of Nicanor. (b.c. 317.) 
But the Athenians repented of the death of - 
Phocion, and condenmed Agnonides, and put 
him to death also. Quintilian, adopting a 
variation in the name not unconunon among 
the ancient writers, calls this orator Agnon, 
and ascribes to him a work against rhetoric 
(** Rhetorices Accusatio**), of which, however, 
nothing is now extant (Diogenes Laertius, 
V. § 37. ; Plutarch, PhxxMm^ 33, 34, &c 33. ; 
Cornelius Nepos, Phocion^ iii. ; Quintilian, ii. 
17. s. 15. ; compare Hisloria Critica Oratortan 
Grcecontm, in Rhunken*s edition of Rutilius 
Lupus, p. Ixxxix.; Fabricins, BiHioih. Cfraca, 
il 873. vL 121.) L. S. 

AGOBARD, ST., archbishop of Lyon 
in the ninth century. The year 'and country 
of his birth are unknown. On the abdica- 
tion of the see of Lyon, by Leidrade, ▲. d. 614, 
A^bard, who was at that time a chor- 
episcopus, or rural bishop, in that diocese, 
was appointed to succeed him. In the revolt 
of the sons of Louis le Debonnaire against 
their ftither, Agobard warmly embraced the 
cause of the young princes, and addressed to 
Louis a letter, in which he exhorted him to 
abide by the arrangement which he had made 
when he divided his territories among his 
three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, and 
associated Lothaire, the eldest, with himself 
in the imperial dignity. Dupin assigns this 
letter, which is commonly entitled ^ the 
moumfU letter" ("flebilis epistola"), to 
the year 833, in which year Louis was de- 
posed by his sons, at an assembly held at 
Compiegne, and compelled to make public 
acknowledgment of his sin& Agobard wrote 
a brief account and justification of the trans- 
actions at this assembly ; he also drew up a 
** Defence of the Sons of the Emperor Louis" 
<'* Liber Apologeticus pro Filiis Ludovici Im* 



AOOBARD. 



AOOCCHL 



peratoris**) ; and a short tract on the relation 
of the ciyil and ecclesiastical powers (** Liber 
de Comparatione utriusque Regimmis [*), in 
reply to the summons which, before his de* 
position, Lonis had issoed, enjoining the 
nobility and higher ecclesiastics to support 
his canse. 

When the deposed emperor, soon after- 
wards, regained his power, Agobard was 
summoned to answer for his conduct in an 
assembly at ThJonyille, a.d. 835 ; and, delay- 
ing to appear, was deposed. Another assem- 
bly was held, rery shortly after, at Cremieu, 
near Lyon, at which the yacancy in his see, 
as well as in the neighbouring see of Vienne, 
(the archbishop of which, having been con- 
cerned in the revolt, had fied,) was brought 
under consideration. Nothing, however, was 
done, ** owing to the absence c^ the bishops ; ** 
an expression which some understand of the 
absence of the accused ; others, of the absence 
of the prelates genendly, to whom the con- 
sideration of such matters properly belonged. 

On the reconciliation of the emperor and 
his sons, Agobard, who had fled mto Italy 
to Lothaire, was restored to his see, and 
•assisted (a. d. 838) at an assembly at Kiersy, 
near Aix-la-Chapelle. He died in a.d. 840, 
at Saintes, where he appears to have been 
engaged in some afihirs of state, about a fort- 
night before the death of Louis le Debon- 
naire, near Mentz. 

The writings of Agobard are numerous, 
but none of tibem are very long. Those on 
the political events of his day have some his- 
torical value. Of his theological writings 
the principal is the ** Liber adversum Dogma 
Felicis." It was designed to reftite the errors 
of FeUx, bishop of Ur^l in Spain, who died 
in exile at Lyon, dunng the episcopate of 
Agobard. In another of his writings (" Liber 
de Lnaginibus '*) he attacked the worship of 
images, and even their use in the services of 
religion. He remonstrated against Judicial 
combats and the employment of the ordeal. 
He wrote several letters and other pieces 
against the Jews, desiring to procure more 
stringent laws and enactments agamst ihem. 
Others of his works have relation to the per- 
formance of public worship, or to the fhne- 
tions, rights, and propert}r of the clergy. 
Agobard*s style is characterised by Dupin as 
" simple, intelligible, and natural ; but with 
little elevation, and no ornament.*' His works 
were first published by Papirius Masson, at 
Paris, A.D. 1605, in one vol 8vo.; and again 
by Bahue^ with some additional pieces by 
Agobard, and some by Leidrade his pre- 
decessor and Amnion his successor in the 
see of Lyon, in two vols. 8vo. Paris, a.d. 1666. 
(Bouquet, Recueil de» Bistoiien* des Gaules et 
de la France, voL vi. ; Dupin, Bibiiothkpte det 
Auteurs EccksiasHguess Masson and Baluze, 
Sancti Agobardi Opera,) J. C. M. 

AGOCCHI, or AGU'CCHIO, GIOVANNI 
BATISTA, titnhir archbishop of Amasia, 
467 



\ was bom at Bologna, of a noble fkmily, on 
the 20th of November, 1570. His progress 
in learning was remarkably rapid* and on Uie 
election c? his uncle. Cardinal Sega, to the 

I bishopric of Piacenxa, Agocohi was taken 
under his care. In the space of nine months 
he had displayed so much ability in ecdesiaa- 
tical affairs, that when at the end of that 
period the cardinal was sent as vice-legate to 
France, he confided his bishopric to his ne- 
phew's care. On the cardinal's return fhnn a 
second mission to France, during which Agoc- 
chi had watched over his interests at ^e court 
of Rome, he conferred upon him a canonry in 
Piaoenza, and made hun his vicar in that 
city. In 1600 Cardinal Aldobrandini, being 
deputed to assist at the marriage contract 
entered into at Florence between Henry IV. 
of France and Maria de' Medici, chose 
Agoochi for his secretary, and likewise car- 
ried him into France in a similar capacity on 
his being sent there to settle the disable- 
ments between the French king and the Duke 
of Savoy. His conduct on these several occa- 
sions had been so satisfoetory to the pope, 
that during the seven following years he 
was constantly employed in public duties, 
and during a part of that time served the 
Cardinal Aldobrandini as maggiordomo and 
secretario delle lettere di complimenta In 
1607 he obtained permission to retire from 
the court, and lived in privacy until 1615, 
when, at the earnest solicitation of Aldobran- 
dini, he accompanied him on a mission to 
Naples, and afterwards continued about him 
during six years, when, the cardmal dying, 
Gregory X V. made him secretary De' Brevi, 
and principal minister to his nephew. Cardi- 
nal Lodovico LodovicL Urban VIII. ap- 
pointed him his nuncio to Venice, with the 
title of Archbishop of Amatia. Id this capa- 
city he took up his residence at Venice in 
1624, and continued there, to the mutual satis- 
ihction of the pope and the republic, until 
his death, in the year 1632. The following 
is a list of his printed works : — 1. ** L'antica 
Fondazione e Dominio ddla Citt^ di Bologna ; " 
Bologna, 1638, 4to. 2. ** Orazione di Nerone 
per la Colonia Bolognese abbrucciata . . . 
Volgarizzata da Graziadio Maoeati " (a feigned 
name assumed by Agoechi^; Bologna, 1640, 
4to. 8. ** Relazione del Viaggio in Francia 
del Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini Legato ; " 
mentioned by Vincenzio Armanni in his 
^ Apendice alia Storia Capisueca," p. 147., 
No. 233. 4. ** Lettere," inserted in various 
works. He also left behind him several works 
in MS., a list of whidi, amounting to twenty- 
six, is given b^ Fantuszi, who mentions five 

! of them, principally of a diplomatic nature, 
as preserved in the librair of the Institute of 
Bologna. (Tomasini, Etagia Vironan lUvs- 
trivm, p. 14 — 28. ; Erythrasus, Pinaeotheca, 
p. 734 — 737.; Orlandi, Notizie degli Scrition 
Bohgnen; Fantuzzi, Notizit degli ScriUori 
BotagnesL) J. W. J. 



AGOP- 



AGORACRITU& 



AGOP, JOANNES, an Armenian writer 
of the latter half of the seventeenth cen- 
tary, of whom little ia known. In the 
title-page to his Latin Granunar, in Arme- 
nian, he calls himself an Armenian priest 
and of Constantinople, and he appears to have 
resided at Rome ; bat no farther particulars 
of him are famished, eren by anthors who 
haye written expressly on Armenian litera- 
ture. His works are — 1. A Grammar of 
Armenian, in that language; Rome, 1674, 
4to. 2. A Latin translation of the preceding 
work, entitled ** Puritas Hi^gica;" Rome, 
1675, 4to. 3. A Granunar of Latin, explained 
in Armenian; Rome, 1675, 4to. 4. An 
Italian translation of the Correspondence of 
Constantine ihe Great and Pope Sylvester 
with Tiridates, king of Armenia, and St 
Gregory the illuminator of the Armenian 
nation ; Venice, 1683, 4ta (Adelung, Fort- 
aetzung zu Jodier's OMtrten-Lexico, i. 316. ; 
Agop's Grammara,) T. W. 

AGORA'CRITUS CATo^iepiTOf), a cele- 
brated sculptor, a native of Paros, who lived 
in the fifth century b. a He was a scholar 
of Phidias, by whom he was so much be- 
loved that it is said the master allowed many 
of his own works to appear as the produc- 
tions of his fkvourite pupiL Agoracritus 
practised his art both in bronae and niarble. 
Among the works executed in bronze, 
Pausanias mentions two statues which were 
in the temple ot Athena Itonia in Boeotia: 
one represented the goddess, and the other 
Jupiter. He also made a statue, probably of 
Cybele, which stood in her temple ("matris 
magus delubro") at Athens. Anodier and 
more celebrated work by Agoracritus was 
the statue of Nemesis, which was at Rham- 
nus, and respecting which the following 
anecdote is recorded by Pliny. Agoracritus 
and Alcamenes, likewise a scholar of Phidias, 
executed two statues of Venus, which were 
submitted to the judgment of the Athenians. 
That by Alcamenes obtained the preference ; 
not, as it is said, for its superior merit, but 
from the favour and partiality shown to the 
sculptor, who was an Athenian. Agoracritus, 
feelmg indignant at this treatment, sold his 
work on the condition that it should not 
remain in Athens ; and, in revenge, changed 
its title fh>m Venus to Nemesis. It was 
taken to Rhamnus, a small town of Attica. 
It obtained great celebrity, and was con- 
sidered one of the finest productions of art 
Pausanias says the statue of the Rhamnusian 
Nemesis was by Phidias, and repeats the 
tradition that it was made out of a block of 
Parian marble brought into Attica by the 
Persians, on their landing at Marathon, with 
the intention of erecting it as a trophy. 
Strabo says the statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus 
was by some attributed to a sculptor called 
Diodotus, and by others to Agoracritus; but 
the opinion of its being the work of Dio- 
4ota8 is unsapported by any ancient testi- 
468 



mony. (Pausanias, L 33. ix. 34. ; Plinj, 
Hi$t, Nat xxxvL 5. ; Strabo, ix. 296. ed. 
Casaub.) R.W.J1111. 

AGOSTI, GIULIO, a dramatic poet, 
was bom at Reggio, in the duchy of Mo- 
dena, in the latter half of the seven- 
teenth century. The notices respecting him 
are very slight, owing, probably, to hia 
having died young, as appears from the 
letters of Apostolo Zeno, who speaks of him 
as "snatched away by Heaven too soon." 
He died in the year 1704. Hia works are — 

1. ** Artaserse, tragedia;" Reggio, 1700, 8vo. 

2. ** Cianippe, tragedia ; opera posthuma, in 
verse;** R^gio, 1709, 12mo. There can 
be little doubt but that the first act only of 
this tragedy is b^ Agosti. Zeno, in a l^ler 
to Antonio Vallisnieri, dated 24th of No- 
vember, 1704, says, ^ I shall see with pleasure 
that work of Agoeti's ;" and in the fbllowing 
letter, dated 16th of December, he says, '* I 
have read that first act of Agosti's tragedy, 
which really is written very well, promises 
much, and leaves a great desire for the con- 
clusion. .... For two reasons I would not 
venture to put my hand to it: first, on ac- 
count of my many occupations; and secondly, 
becanse, in finishing it, I should have the 
greater part of the labour and reap the least 
of the glory." 3. *' Le Lagrime di Maria 
nella Passione di Cristo, oratorio per mu- 
sica.** (Tiraboschi, BibUoteca ModeHese ; 
Zeno, Lettere, 1786, i. 297. 300.) J. W. J. 

AGOSTI'NI, GIOVANNI PAOLO. A 
picture bearing this name, with the date A.D. 
1400, is mentioned by Rosetti as fbrmiug part 
of the collection of the Counts Obizzi at 
Padua. This painter is otherwise unknown. 
iFuBslu Allgem. Kwuder Lexuxm,) R.N.W. 

AGOSTI'NI, LIONARDO, was bom at 
Siena, and early ei^oyed the patronage of 
the ducal house of Tuscany, which he ex- 
changed for that of the popes. From the 
commencement of the pontificate of Ur- 
ban VIII. in 1623, he resided at Rome, in 
the service of the Cardinal Francesco Bar- 
berini, nephew of the pontiff, and was en- 
gaged in collecting statues^ pictures, medals, 
and gems for the Barberini palace. Alex- 
ander VIL, who had a high esteem for him, 
i^pointed him pontifical antiquarian and 
conimissary of the antiquities of Rome and 
Latium. In a dedication, dated in November, 
1669, he speaks of himself as of very ad- 
vanced age ; and from the manner in which 
his death is alluded to in the edition of his 
"Genmie Antiche," published in 1686, it 
may be supposed that he did not long survive 
the date of the dedication. 

Agostini is connected with two works of 
great merit The first is, "La Sicilia di 
Filippo Parata, con la Gionta di Lionardo 
Agostini," (Rome, 1649, foL) a new edition 
of an excellent work on the medals of 
Sicily, published at Palermo in 1 6 1 2. Parata, 
the original collector, had promised a second 



AG08TINI. 



AGOSTINI. 



Tolmnet with explanations, which never ap- 
peared. Agostini in his edition added repre- 
sentations of about 400 medals, bnt without 
a word of illustration. The impressions of the 
original series are taken fVom the plates used 
by Paruta, which Agostini had purchased at 
BUime. In a subsequent edition, b^ Mare 
Id^or, or Maler, published at Lyon m 1697, 
annotations were added ; but Hayercamp 
meaks of them with the utmost contempt, in 
the pre&ce to his excellent Latin edition, which 
has superseded all the preceding, published at 
Leyden, 1723, folio, both separately and in the 
great collection entitled '* Thesaurus Antiqui- 
tatum Sicilite." The second work of Agoetini 
is entitled ** Oemme Antiche Figurate," and 
consists at a description of his collection of 
ancient gems, illustrated with admirable en- 
grsTings. It has often been said that the 
first e£tion of the first part was published 
in 1636 ; but this is probably a mistake, as in 
the preikoe by Marinelli to the edition of 
1686, Rome, S yoIs. 4to., it is distinctly stated 
that the first edition was of the date of 1657; 
and Apostini, in his own pre&ce, alludes to 
his edition of the Sicily of Paruta as a pre- 
vious publication. The annotations, which 
are of value, have often been attributed to 
Agostini, but in his preikoe he allows Gio- 
vanni Pietro Bellori a great share in their 
composition ; and in MarinelU*s prefiuse, pub- 
lished after Agostini's death, Bellori is directly 
mentioned as the author. The engravings 
are attributed to Agostini by Gandellini, but 
this also appears a mistake ; so ftr ^m lay- 
ing claim to the exercise of that art, Agostini, 
in his publications, repeatedly speaks of the 
trouble he had experienced m getting the 
engravings executed. Agostini*s share of 
the work appears to have consisted in form- 
ing the collection of gems which is its basis ; 
and it is singular enough that this, the only 
merit he appears to have had, is the only one 
which has been denied him. While Mari- 
nelli speaks of him as having " perpetuated 
. his iSunous cabinet by the wofk on gems,** 
Boss! tidLes occasion to observe, incorrectly, 
that ** Agostini and Causeo collected antiques 
with diligence, and composed very useflil 
works, but they took from various cabinets 
and from printed books; and thus their 
series, besides being out of order, and but 
scantily illustrated, can never be held in 
the same esteem as private individual caiL- 
lections.** Both parts of Agostini's work on 
^ems (the second of which was first published 
m 1670) were reprinted at Rome in 1686, in 
two volumes, with improvements in the ar- 
rangement ; but this edition is in less esteem 
than the former, on aoconnt of the plates 
having been unskilftilly retouched. The same 
olgection applies to the much angmented 
edition publidied in 1707, at Rome, in four 
vohimes quarto^ by Domenico de Rossi, with 
annotations by Paolo Alessandro Maffei, and 
to the Latin translation by Gronoriiiiy pab- 
469 



lished at Amsterdam, in two parts, quarto, in 
1685. (Prefiuses, &o. to the works of Agos- 
tini ; Gimdellini, NoHzit Istoriche tkgh Inia^ 
ffUatorit i. 2. ; Bossi, Spiegazione di una Hete* 
coUa di Gemme incise^ L p. ix. ; Massuchelli, 
Scrittori d'ltaUa, I 214.) T. W. 

AGOSTINI, NICCOLC DEGLI, bom 
at Venice, about the end of the fifteendi cen- 
tury, was an Italian poet of some note in his 
time. He wrote a romantic poem entitled 
** Lo Innamoramento di Lancilotto e di Gine- 
vra, nel quale si trattano le orribili Pro- 
desxe e le strane Venture di tutti i Cavalieri 
erranti,*' Venice, 1521-6. He also wrote 
an historical poem on the Italian wars of his 
own time, ^ I Successi beUid nell' Italia 
dal Fatto d' Anne di Ghieradadda (1509) 
fino al Presente ** (1521), published at Venice, 
in 1521. His Italian verse translation of the 
«« Metamorphoses *' of Ovid was soon after 
superseded by the superior translation of 
Angttillara. Agostini aUo wrote a continnaF 
tion of Bcjaido*s poem, '* Orlando Innamo- 
rato,** in three books, containing thirty-three 
cantos. The first book was printed at Venice 
in 1506, the second in 1514, and the third in 
1515, and the three were afterwards reprinted 
several times, conjointly with Bqjardo*s text. 
(Zeno, Note aUa Bibboteca ddf Eloquenza 
ItaUana di FcntaniMt; Tiraboschi, Storia ddla 
Letteratura Jtaliana.) A. V. 

AGOSTI'NO and A'GNOLO of Siena. 
These were two brothers, distinguished in their 
time as sculptors, architects, and engineers. 
They were descended from ancestors who 
also were artists, and by whom the famous 
fountain called La Fontebranda, in the public 
piaxza in Siena, was executed, in or about 
119a Agostino, the most celebrated of the 
brothers, was bom at Siena, in the middle 
of the thirteenth century. At the early age 
of fifteen he began to show a strong dis- 
position finr sculpture, and Giovanni da Pisa, 
being^ then emploved at Siena upon the de- 
coration of the n^ade of the Duomo, or 
cathedral, young Agostino was placed under 
him, in order to leam the rudiments of his 
art His progress was so satLedbctory, that 
Giovanni, after some time, allowed his pupil 
to work with him. Agnolo appears to ha^ 
joined his brother at this period, ssid he 
afterwards was associated with lum in almost 
every work on which he was employed. 
Among their productions in sculpture were 
some statues of prophets at Ormto, with 
which Giotto was so much strack, that he 
declared their anthers to be the most ac- 
complished sculptors of the time, and imme- 
diately recommended them to be employed 
to execute a design he had made £>r a 
sepolcro, or tomb, which was to be erected 
in the church of the S. Sacramento in 
Aresxo, in memory of Guide, lord and 
bishop of that city. In this elaborate work, 
which occupied the sculptors three years, 
there were, m addition to other enriefamentsp 



AGOSTINO. 



AG08TINO. 



sixteen compartments iUnstrating the life and 
most important acts of the deceased. The 
subjects of these reliefis are described by 
Vasari ; and H affords a curious picture of 
the times, and of the occupations of a dig- 
nitary of the church, that, with two or three 
exceptions, representing his presentation, 
coronation, and his fhneral procession, all 
these sculptures represented battles, sieges, 
sacking of towns, and other scenes of war 
and violence. When finished, it was thus 
inscribed : hoc . opts . fbcit . maoisteb 

. AYGYSTINTB . ET . MAOISTEB . ANGELYS . 
DE . 8ENI8 . 

The brothers afterwards decorated the 
table of the high altar of S. Francesco 
in Bologna with figures and ornaments. 
Among these was a group of Christ crown- 
ing the Virgin ; with smsll statues of saints, 
and bassi rmeyi illustrating their Uycs. One 
writer says that this was the performance of 
Jacopo and Pietro, Veneziani While in 
Bologna, they were engaged upon various 
public works of importance, .^onong these 
was the construction of a castle, or fortress, 
which was built in accordance with a con- 
dition made by the pope, who promised, if 
such a place of securitjp' were provided for 
him, to visit snd reside in Bologna, with his 
court This was soon completed ; but in con- 
sequence of the pope notftilfilling his promise, 
the Bolognese razed to the ground what had 
cost them so much pains and money. Agos- 
tino and Agnolo also showed themselves 
able enffineers, by the skill which they ex- 
hibited m reducmg, and confining within its 
proper limits, the river Po, which had burst 
its banks, and, besides overflowing and doing 
the greatest damage to the country for many 
miles, caused, it is said, the deadi of more 
than 10,000 persons. In addition to other ad- 
vantages which they acquired, the sovereigns 
of Mantua and D*£ste, whose territories had 
suffered considerably by the inundation, 
honoured them with the most distinguished 
marks of their approbation. From Bo- 
logna, it appears they returned, in 1338, to 
their native city, where they had long be- 
fore established so high a reputation by the 
erection of the Palazzo de' Novi, that they 
had been appointed public architects, or 
rather, architects to the state. 

In noticing the two brothers as sculptors 
first, we have been led away from the chro- 
nological series of their architectural de- 
signs, to which it will now be proper to re- 
vert In 1308 Agostino designed the palaee 
above alluded to, of the Novi, in Malbor- 
ghetto. In 1317 the brothers were employed 
upon the north front of the cathedral of 
Siena. From 1321 to 1326 they were engaged 
upon two of the great gates of the city ; 
one called the Porta Romana, and the other 
Tnfi. In the latter year thev began to erect 
the church and convent of S. Francesco. 
Their ficst.work at Siena, after their return 
470 



hem Bologna, in 1338, was a church dedi- 
cated to S. Maria. Upon the successful 
completion of this, the Sienese determined to 
carry into effect a desire that had long beoi 
entertained, to erect a handsome fimntain 
in the gr^t piazza opposite the public 
palace. This work was confided to A^^ostino 
and his brother. Vasari tells us it was 
finished in 1343, ** to the great satis&ction of 
the whole city, as well as to the honour of 
the two artists." About the same time ibej 
completed the grand staircase in die puhlw 
palace ; and in 1344 they finished the tower 
of the same edifice. Agnolo now went alone 
to Assisi, to execute the sculpture for a tomb 
to be erected in the church of S. Francesco 
there, in memory of one of the Orsini 
family, a cardinal, who was also a brother 
of the Order of S. Francis. From this time 
nothing further is known of Agnolo. 

Agostino remained at Siena, being occupied 
in making designs for the decoration of the 
fountain above mentioned. The precise year 
of his decease is not stated ; but this event 
occurred at Siena, and he was buried, with 
great honour, in the cathedraL (Vasari, 
Vite dei PUtari, Scuhoru ed Architetti, ^. g 
Serie degli Uomini t piu iUustri in Pitiurctt 
Scvhura, ed ArchUettura ; and supplement 
of 1776.) R.W.jun. 

AGOSTINO, GASPARE D', a painter 
and sculptor employed in the cathedral of 
Siena in 1450. (Recci, Ristretto deJle Cobb 
piu notahUi ddla CtUa di Siena; Fiissli, AUae" 
meinea Kibuder-Lexicon.) R. N. W. 

AGOSTI'NO, LUDOVrCO, originaUy 
educated for the priesthood, was bom at Fer- 
rara in 1534. His musical acquirements re- 
commended him to the notice of Alphonso IL, 
duke of Este, who first appointed him his 
own maestro di capella, snd afterwards gave 
him the same office in the cathedral of Fer- 
rara. He died in 1590. Besides his ** Discorsi 
sopra il Santo Sacramento dell' Eucaristia,** 
twice printed at Venice after his death, he 
published at Ancona a set of madrigals as 
well as some compositions for the church. 

E T 

AGOSTI'NO, PA'OLO, an eminent dis^ 
ciple of the school of Palestrina at Rome, 
and successively organist of Santa Maria 
Trastevere, Santo Laurentio in Daraaso, and 
St Peter's ; finally he suceeeded Soriano 
in his office of maestro # capella. Liberati 
speaks of him as a. musician of high attain- 
mento and profound knowledge, and Padre 
Martini has inserted in his work on Har- 
mony a composition by Agostino, which he 
justly styles a wonder of art Here three 
canons are united, each so free and melodious, 
that the consummate art by which so intricate 
a texture of harmony is woven is scarcely 
recognised by the ear. According to La- 
borde, he died about 1660. (Laboi^ Eseai 
aur la Muaiquef Martini, Saggio di Conira" 
puntoi Liberati, LeUera ecriUOj ffc.) £. T. 



A608TIK0. 



AGCM3TINO. 



AGOSTrNO DALLE PROSPETTI'VE, 

an Italian painter, noticed by Masini in his 
** Bolopna perlustrata," who was so skiliol in 
both lineal and aeriid perspective, that he 
could deceive men and animals by his imi- 
tations of ste^ doors, windows, and the like. 
He painted m Bologna aboat 1525, bat is 
supposed by Lansi to have been a native of 
Milan, and the same person as the Agostino 
di Bramantino of Milan, mentioned by Lo- 
maazo^ who was distinguished for his great 
skill in perspective and foreshortening. Lo- 
mazzo mentions a painting in the church 
Del Carmine by this punter, which, with 
respect to foreshortening, he compares with 
the celebrated cupola at Parma, by Cor- 
reggio. Agostino was the scholar of Bar- 
tolommeo Suardi, called Bramantino, from 
having been the &vourite scholar ot Bra- 
mante, whence his own surname Di Bra- 
mantino. (Lomaaio, Trattato ddC Arte ddla 
PUiura$ Lanzi, 8iona Pittorica, Sec.) 

R.N. W. 

AGOSTINO DI 8ANT AGOSTI'NO, 
an Italian engraver of uncertain age. He 
engraved, in folio, the Virgin and Child, by 
Coireggio, which is known as the Gipsy, or 
La Zingara, of Correggio $ he engraved also, 
by the same master, £e St John the Evan- 
gelist which is in the church of St. John at 
Parma. (Heineken, Dictionnaire dea Artisies, 
Ayj ^ H. N TV 

AGOSTI'NO VENEZIA'NO, or AU- 
GUSTINUS DE MUSIS, a Venetian, and 
one of the most celebrated of the early Italian 
en^vers. He was the pupil of Marcantonio 
Raimondi, for whom he principally worked 
at Rome, in conjunction with Marco di Ra- 
venna, until the death of Raphael, in 1520, 
when they separated. There are prints 
bearing Agostino's initials, A. V., with dates 
from 1509 until 1536. Vasari says that 
Agostino and Marco di Ravenna engraved 
nearly all the designs of Raphael After the 
death of Raphael, Agostino went to Florence, 
and applied to Andrea del Sarto for employ- 
ment, bat that painter was so dissatisfied 
with a plate of a dead Christ supported by 
angels which Agostino had engraved for 
him in 1516, that he had resolved not to 
allow any more of his pictures to be engraved. 
Any one who has seen this engraving will 
approve of Andrea's deoisioD, for it is ex- 
tremely hard in the outline , and perfectly 
flat : there is an impression of it in the 
Britirii Museum print-room. Vasari savs 
that this plate was engraved after Raphaers 
death, but the date is four years before it 
Agostino engraved much in the style of his 
master, but he was very inferior to him in 

Wii his outiine is also generally very 
and his chiaroscuro bad : he was sur- 
passed also b^ Marco di Ravenna in design, 
and was inferior to Bonasoni in chiaroscuro. 
Original prints by Agostino are very scarce : 
his plates were often copied and retouched* 
471 



Stmtt terms him the inventor of stipple en- 
graving. The years of his birth and death 
are unknown. His portraits are superior 
to his other pieces. The following prints, 
many of which are in the British Museum, 
are among his best works. Portraits: — A 
large portrait of pope Paul III., marked 

*♦ PAULUS m. FONT. MAX. MDXXXIV. — A. V. ; " 

drawing correct, character grand. One also 
of Francis I. of France, marked ** fran- 

CI8CUS OALLORUM KBX CHBISTIAMIBSIM US. — 

A. V. 1536,** in which the character of the 
head is remarkably fine. Also a large portrait 
of Barbaroesa with a turban, marked ** aria- 

PENUS BARBARU88A CIRTELfi TUNETIQ. REX. 
OTOMAiaCJB CLASSI8 PK£F. ; " the COUUtC- 

nance is singularly savage: sud one of 
Charles V. after Titian ; and some others. 
Scriptural subjects and other pieces : — The 
Benediction of Isaac, after Raphael, 1523; 
there is one also, dated 1584, with some al- 
terations in the chiaroscuro^ badly drawn: 
the Sacrifice of Abraham ; the Israelites ga- 
thering the Manna, after Raphael, a grand 
composition, on the whole finely drawn, but the 
chiuxiscuro is bad, and tiie prmt is quite flat ; 
some have supposed that this plate was com- 
menced by Marcantonio : the Four Evange- 
lists, after Julio Romano ; a Nativity after tiie 
same, dated 1581, in which an effect of light 
and shade is attempted with some success, 
but the drawing is bad: the Last Supper, 
after a woodcut by Albert Durer, dated 
1514; the copy is faithful to the original in 
feeling, bat superior to it in execution : he 
engraved also ttom Durer, a Nativity, and 
a Christ bound to a Pillar : Elymas the sor- 
cerer, after Raphael's cartoon, very indif- 
ferent ; Hercules strangling the Serpents, 
after Julio Romano, finely drawn; a large 
and admirably executed plate of the *' Skele- 
tons, or Bttrymg-place," after Baccio Bandi- 
nellif containing many emaciated figures, two 
skeletons, and the figure of Death holding a 
book, marked with his name in ftdl, ** au- 

OnmNUS VSlfBTUS DE MUSIS. FACISRAT 

1518; also a Cleopatra, and a Massacre of 
the Innocents, very large, after Bandi- . 
nelli ; Vasari terms it the largest plate that 
had been then engraved. A very interesting 
plate of the school of Baccio Bandinelli at 
Rome, marked ^^acaj^exia di baochio 

BRANSIN. IN ROMA. IN LUOOO DETTO BEL- 

VEDEBB. M.D.XXXI. — A. V. ; '' the Battic of 
the Sabre, a large plate, badly drawn ; part of 
the ** Cartoon of Pisa,*' by Michelangelo, 
caUed "the Climbers," dated 1523, very 
hard: a large plate of a group from the 
School of Athens by Raphael in which there 
is some fine character ; a Bacchanalian dance, 
consisting of six figures after drawings from 
the antique by Raphael, finely drawn, dated 
1516 ; the benefit of Raphael^ inspection is 
here very apparent, especially in the first 
group : he made also a copy of Marcantonio's 
print of the Slaughter of the Innocents, after 



AG08TIN0. 



AOOUB. 



Raphael ; and many others. Heinekeb and 
Bartsch have given very copious lists of 
Agostino's works. (Vasari, Vite de* Pittorij 
Av. in the Life of MarcanUmio} Heineken, 
iHctiimnaire des Artistea, ^e. ; Bartoeh, Le 
Peintrt Graveur.) R. N. W. 

AGOSTI'NO, ZOPPO, a good Italian 
sculptor of the sixteenth century. He was 
employed with others, in 1555, on the monu- 
ment to Alessandro Contarini, general of the 
republic, in the church of &mt Antonio at 
Padua. (Cicognara, Storia ikUa SevUura.) 

R. N. W. 

AGOTY. [Gautieb d'Aoott.] 

AGOUB, JOSEPH, was bom at Old 
Cairo, on the SOth of March, 1795, of an 
Arab fiuher and a Syrian mother. His 
parents having given assistance to the French 
army during the invasion of Egypt, found it 
expedient to emigrate when the French were 
driven out of me country, and settled at 
Marseille in 1802. Agoub remained in that 
city, pursuing his studies, till 182U, when he 
removed to Paris, where, by frequent con- 
tributions to the periodionl publications, he 
acquired some reputation as an orientalist 
and a poet He was appointed by the go- 
vernment professor of modem Arabic at the 
college of Louis le Grand, where, under the 
direction of Jomaid, he took an important 
part in the education of several young 
Egyptians who were sent to France for in- 
struction by Mohammed Ali, the Pasha of 
Egypt Of this professorship he was ufkex- 
pectedly deprived in 1831, by the then minis- 
ter for foreign affairs. General Sebastiani, 
and, being unable to bear up against the de- 
stmction of his prospects, he died on the 
3d of October, 1832, of a broken heart, at 
Marseille, at the house of his brother, a 
merchant of that city. 

Agoub was in person remarkably small 
and delicate, and in disposition very sensitive. 
His writings show much more enthusiasm 
than Judgment ; his eulogies of the Arabic 
language, and of the ** glory of France," his 
two favourite subjects, are extravagant, and 
expressed in inflated language. His writings 
are numerous, but small m amount Almost 
all of any interest were collected after his 
death, in a single volume, entitled ** Melanges 
de Litterature Orientale et Fran^aise, par J. 
Agoub," Paris, 1835, 8vo. Tliis trolmne 
comprises '*Maouals Arabes," a series of 
spirited translations of a class of short poetical 
composition peculiar to the Arabic language; 
" The wise Heycar," an Arabian tale, which 
had previously appeared in a translation of 
the ** Thousand and One Nights," published 
by E. Gautier ; an ** Historical Discourse 
on Egypt," originally prefixed to Mengin's 
History of Egypt under Mohammed Ali ; 
a ♦• View of Ancient and Modem Egypt," 
first published m the "Revue Encyclop^- 
diqne," as a criticism on the second edition of 
tlie great French work on that country ; and 
472 



several short pieces of poetry. One of these, 
the "Broken Lyre" ("La Lyre bris^"X 
is of striking merit, and was translated into 
Arabic verse b^ the Sheikh Refidia, <Mie of 
Agoub*s Egyptian pupils at the college of 
Louis le Grand. The remainder of Agoub's 
writing must be sought for in the numerous 
periodicals to which he was a contributor, in 
the " Revue Encydopedique," the " Journal 
Asiatique," and Ferussac's "Bulletin Uni- 
verseL" He had completed a translation of 
the fkUes of Bidpay, which has not yet been 
published. (Notice by M. de Pongerville, pre- 
fixed to the Mikmgesi article by Fortia 
d*Urban and Villenave, in BiograMe Uni- 
vendle^ suppL L 99 ; Rabbe, &c BiographU 
de$ Contenqtoraitu, v. 6.) T. W. 

AGOULT, CHARLES CONSTANCE 
CE'SAR LOUP JOSEPH MATTHIEU, 
bishop of Pamiera, was bom at Grenoble, in 
the year 1749. He became bishop dT Pamiers 
in 1787, having previously filled the office of 
grand vicar of Rouen, with the title of arch- 
deacon of the French Vexin. In 1789 he 
emigrated ttom France to Switserland, but 
retumed secretly fbr a short time, towards 
the end of the following year, by order of 
the king, Louis XVL, whose confidence he 
enjoyed. He again retired, before the king's 
flight, and took up his residence in England, 
where he became acquainted with Echnund 
Burke. He retumed to France in the year 
1801, and, having resig|ned his bishopric, at 
the request of Pope fins VII^ lived in pri- 
vacy until his death, which took place at 
Pans, in the month of July, 1824. The fol- 
lowing is a list of his printed works, whidi 
are on matters religious and political : — 
1. " Avertissement Pastoral an Clergg et anx 
Fiddles pour les premunir contre le Sehisme," 
1791. 2. "Ouvrei done les Yeux," 1798, 
8vo. 3. "Ordonnance sur TElection de 
Bernard Font, Cure de Serres au Sidge de 
TArridge," 1791. 4. "Conversation avee 
E. Burke, sur I'lnt^r^t des Puissances de 
I'Europe," Paris, 1814, 8vo. 5. " Pwget 
d'une Banque Nationale," Paris, 1815, 4to. 
6. " Eclaircissement sur le Projet de Banque 
Nationale," Paris, 1816, 4to. 7. "Letties i 
un Jacobin ; on. Reflexions sur la Constitu- 
tion d'Angleterre et la Charte Royale," 
Paris, 1815, 8V0. 8. " Principes et Re- 
flexions sur la Constitution Fran9aise," 8vo. 
9. " Essai sur la I/^gislation de la Prease," 
Paris, 1817, 4to. 10. " Des Impots indirects 
et Droits de Consommation," Paris, 1817, 8vo. 
Agoult took an active part in politics during 
the reign of Louis XVL, and assisted at the 
deliberations which ended in the flight of the 
royal fkmily to Varennes and its subsequent 
destruction. {Biographie UniverstUe, en six 
volumes, 1838; LeMcniteur, 1824, p. 1039. ; 
Rabbe, Bioaraphiedes Cantemporains, voL v.; 
Qnerard, La Prance LUteraire.) J. W. J. 

AGOULT, GUILLAUME D', a poetwho 
Uved in the fifteenth century, but whether a 



AGOULT. 



AGRATE. 



native of Proyence or Toulouse is not cer- 
tain. His real name was Montagnagont ; and 
Millot, in his *' Histoire Litteraire des Trou- 
badours,** supposes that he may have pos- 
sessed the fief of Puiagout in Provence, and 
hence the name of Montagnagout, "pui" 
signifying, in the dialect of that district, 
** mountam." He is described as " excellent 
in wisdom and conduct," as the chief and 
father of troubadours, and was snmametd 
L'Heureux, firom the circumstance of his 
uniting virtue with the possession of wealth. 
He composed < several poems in honour of 
Jansserande de Lunel, a lady of whom he 
was deeply enamoured, which he addressed 
to Alphonso X., king of Castile, of whose 
household he was ** premier et principal 
gentilhomme." His pieces are twelve in 
number ; four referring to the political events 
of his time, and the others prmcipall^ of an 
amatory character. They are not pnnted in 
a collected form, but specimens are ^ven by 
Raynouard ; and there is an analysis of the 
principal of them in Millot's work. The 
time of his death is differently stated. Ac- 
cordingto Nostradamus, it took place in 1181 ; 
but the subjects of several of his poems, par- 
tici^ly that of the league effected by Ra]r- 
mond VIL, count of Toulouse, against Louis 
IX^ which took place in 1241, and the 
panegyric on Alphonso X., who ascended 
the throne of Castile in 1252, show indis- 
putably that he most have lived nearly a 
century later. Everic David, in his article 
upon him, in the ^ Histoire Litteraire de la 
France,** places it about the year 1260. 
(Millot, HuUnre LUtiraire det TVtntbadours, 
iil 92 — 106. ; Nostradamus, Viea det plus 
cilebret et aneiens Pontes Proveneaux, y, 35.; 
Raynouard, Choix det Potties originalet des 
Troubadours, iv. 212. 333--d36. v. 202.; 
Histoire LitUraire de la France^ xiz. 486—- 
492., 1838.) J. W. J. 

AOR^'CIUa [AoiUE'cius.] 
AOR A^TE, ANTONIO, a Mihinese ar- 
chitectural painter, of the latter half of the 
last century. He painted one of the chapels 
of the church of Santa Maria del Carmine, 
at Milan, and the architectural* decorations of 
the church' of Santa Maria, of the Augustine 
nunnery at Brescia, for which Carlo Carloni 
painted the figures. (Latoada, JDeserizione 
deUa CiUd di MOano,) R. N. W. 

AGRATE. MARCO FERRE'RIO, called 
Agrate, an Italian sculptor who lived towards 
the end of the fifteenth century. He made 
the celebrated statue of St Bartholomew 
flayed which is in the cathedral of Milan : it 
is worked in marble with extreme care and 
anatomical precision, but is devoid of taste. 
Cicognara calls it a mere anatomy, with- 
out mind or action. Its base bears the 
inscription, ** non mb pbulzitbles bed mar- 
cub YiMXiT AORATBB." There are some 
works in the chapel del Albero of the same 
cathedral, also by Agrate ; and others in the 



Certosa di Pavia, executed about 1480. He 
was certainly a distinguished sculptor for his 
age; he is commonly called Agrate, but 
Torre, in the ** Ritratto di Milano,** calls him 
Ferrerio. (Cicognara, Storia ddla Scultura.) 

AGRAZ, ANTO^NIO, a noble Sicilian,' 
of Spanish parentage, was bom at Palermo, 
on the 25th of May, 1640. He was distin- 
guished as a writer of Latin and Italian 
poetry, and for his knowledge of civil and 
canon law. Having entered the church, he 
became Abbot of San Salvatore della Placa 
in Sicily, in 1653, at the age of thirteen ; and 
in 1658, at the age of eighteen, he was chosen 
one of Uie deputies of the kingdom. In 167 1 
he accompanied to Rome Don Pedro de 
Aragon, ambassador from Charles II. <^ 
Spain to Pope Clement X. The fiivour he 
eigoyed with this and the preceding pope, 
to both of whom he was appointed one of ihe 
honorary chamberlains, raised a general ex- 
pectation that he would be created cardinal ; 
but his hopes were suddenly extinguished 
by death, on the 27th of May, 1672, at 
Naples, in the thirty-second year of his age, 
and, it was generally reported, by poison. His 
published works were — " Oratio Caroli II. 
Regis nomine ad Clementem X. habita 
Romse 4 kaL Februarii, 1671;*' a Latin 
oration to the pope, delivered in the name of 
Charles IL of Spain, and published at Rome, 
in 4to. in the same year ; and ** Donativum 
voluntarium PoUticum, Diatribe'* (" The 
voluntarv Political Donation"), published 
also at Rome, in 4to. in 1672. The projects 
of Agraz were much more extensive. Nico- 
las Antonio, who inserted him in his cata- 
logue of Spanish writers, on the ground of his 
parentage, mentioned that he had in prepara- 
tion a new edition of Panvinio's ** History of 
the Popes and Cardinals," with notes and 
illustrations ; a ** Musieum Siculnm," or ac- 
count of the ancient authors of Sicily ; a col- 
lection of the Sicilian chroniclers, and other 
works, none of which have ever appeared. 
(N. Antonius, Bihliotheca Hitpaiia Nova, foL 
1672. Appendix, p. 316. The same notice is 
reprinted in the edition of 1783, vol. L p. 94., 
with no mention of Agras's death, &c 
Mongitore, BibUoiheea Sicula, L 53. ; Pirro, 
Siciua Sacra, edit of Mongitore, p. 1056. ; 
Mazzuchelli, Scrittari tT ItaSa, I 220.) 

T. W. 

AGRE'DA, MARIA DE, or MARIA 
DE JESU, a Spanish nun, bonr at Agreda, 
in Old Castile, near the Aragonese fh>ntier, 
A.D. 1602. Her fiather, Francis Coronel, and 
her mother, Catherine of Arena, in conse- 
quence of a supposed direction from Heaven, 
founded in their house, a.d. 1619, a Fran- 
ciscan nunnery, called the Convent of the 
Tmmaculftte Conception, which Biaria, her 
mother, and sister immediately entered. 
Bfaria and her mother made their profession 
both on the tame day, ▲. d. 1620 ; but the pro- 
1 1 



AOREDA. 



AGRESTI. 



fession of the jounger lister wm deferred <m 
account of her ;f oath. Her father took the 
monastic habit in another conrent of the 
same order, in which two of his sons were 
already monks. The whole family thus em- 
braced the monastic life. In a. d. 1 627, Maria 
became superior of the convent ; and, ac- 
cording to her own account, received, in the 
coune of the following ten years, from God 
and the Virgin llary, repeated command- 
ments to write the life of the latter, which, 
after long resistance, she began, a.d. 1637. 
After having finished it, she burned it by 
the direction of a confessor who had charge 
of her conscience during the absence of her 
ordinary confessor ; but, by the direction of 
the latter and of her ecclesiastical superiors, 
as well as in consequence of reiterated in- 
junctions, as she supposed, fVom Heaven, the 
work was resumed a.d. 1655, and finished 
in three parts. It was entitled "Mystiea 
Ciudad de Dios" (" Mystical City of God "), 
and was published, a.d. 1670, at Madrid, 
in three vols, folio, with notes by Juan 
Ximenes Samaniego, afterwards general of 
the Franciscans. It was reprinted at Lisbon, 
Perpignan, and Antwerp ; and the first part 
was translated into French by Thomas Cro- 
set, a French Recollet friar, and published 
at Marseille, a.d. 1695, in one voL 8va : 
this translation incurred the censure of the 
flu:ulty of theology at Paris ; several pro- 
positions taken from the work were con- 
demned by the faculty as &lse, rash, scan- 
dalous, erroneous, contrary to the doctrine 
of the Scriptures, and to the rules of the 
church. Croset's translation has been re- 
peatedly reprinted. The work of Maria 
had been previously censured in Rome, but 
the censure was suspended in Spain. She 
wrote two or three other works. Maria 
died A.D. 1665 ; her canonisation was warmly 
but vainly solicited at Rome. (JounuU dia 
SavcoM, 1696 ; Bayle, Dictiormaire Critique; 
Moreri, Dictionnaire Historigue ; Nicolas An- 
tonius, Bibliotheca Hispana Nova,) J. C. M. 
AGRE'STI, LI'VIO, an Italian painter of 
great merit, of the sixteenth century, called 
da Forli, from the town of Forli, in the 
Roman states, the place of his birth. He 
became the scholar of Perino del Va^ and 
assisted that master in his works m the 
Castel Sant' Angelo, and in other places in 
Rome, in the pontificate of Paul IIL Agresti 
fbund a patron in the Cardinal d' Augusta, 
and accompanied that dignitary into Germany. 
He returned afterwards to Rome, and was 
employed on many great works in fresco by 
Gregorv XIIL He painted also many altar- 
pieces m oil. The ceilings and altar-pieces 
of three chapels of the church of Santo 
Spirito were painted by him : they consist 
exclusively of stories frx>m the Scriptures, 
were his last works, and obtained him great 
reputation. Lanzi, however, says that his 
best works, which he terms Raffaellesque, 
474 



are those which he painted at Forli, < 
ing of some stories from the book of Qenesis, 
in the town-hall, and a Last Supper, in a 
chi4>el of the cathedraL There is an <Higi- 
nal drawing of the last sutgect, by Agresti, 
in the British Museum, in the ** Crac^rode 
Collection of Italian Drawings," vol. i He 
died about 1580. Both Vasari and Baglione, 
who mention several of his works, speak of 
the style of Agresti as grand and universal, 
and term him a bold and a masterly designer. 
Many of his works have been engraved. 
The Last Supper was one of the last plates 
engraved by Cornelius Cort ; it bears the 
date of the year of his death, 1578. The 
following were engraved by Cavalleriis : — 
The Elevation of the Cross ; the Resurrec* 
tion of Christ ; the Virgin and Child, sur- 
rounded by Angels, of the church of the 
Consolazione $ the Discovery of the Cross 
by St Helena ; and the Martyrdom CMf Ql 
Catherine. (Baclione, Vitede* Pitiori, jrv.; 
Orlandi, Abecedario PiUorico; Heineken, 
Dictionnaire des Artistes domt turns awans des 
Eatampes,) R. N. W. 

AGRFCOLA, ALEXANDER, an emi- 
nent composer of the Flemish school, during 
the period of its highest elevation. That he 
studied under Ockenheim may be infiared 
from the following lines of Crespel, a con<- 
temporary : — 

** Agricola, Verbonnet, Prlorit 
Joaquin de Prdt, GMpur, Brumel, Compdra^ 
Ne paries plus de Joyeulx chsatx ne ri«, 
Mais compotes un * Ne recorderis,' 
Poor lamenter noftre bozi maJstre et boo pdra.** 

His epitaph thus records the principal 
events of his life : — 

** Muslca quid defies ? Periit tneA can decuique. 
Ettne Alexander is meus Agricola ? 
Die age. quails erat ? Clanu Tocum manuomque. 

Quis locus hunc rapuit ? Valdoleianus ager. 
Quis Belgam hunc traxit ? Magnus Rex ipee FU- 
lippus. 
Quo mortx) Interiit ? Febre ftirente obilt 
iBtas qnse Aierat ? Jam sexagesimus annus. 
Sol ubi tunc sUbat ? Virginis in capite." 

(VerhandeUngen over de Vraag; Kiesewetter 
and Fetis.) E. T. 

AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG, 
an excellent Grerman landscape painter, bom 
of a good £unily in Augsburg, in 1667, or, 
according to another account, in Regensburg. 
He lived long in Naples, and painted many 
fine landscapes there, from the beautiful 
scenery of the vicinity. He painted also 
portraits, and etched a landscape of Aetseon 
and Diana. His works are very much scat- 
tered ; there are some of his finest in the 
gallery of Salzdahlum. Zingg has engraved 
some beautiful plates after the works of 
Agricola. He died in Augsburg, in 1719. 
(Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes, ^c.j 
Fiissli, AUgemeines KOnsder Lexicon; FionUo, 
Geachichte der ZeichnendenKOnste in Deutach- 
land, (fc. ; Nagler, Neues AUgemeines KUnsder 
Lexicon,) R. N. W. 

AGRFCOLA, CNiEUS JUXIUS, was 



AGRICOLA. 



AORICOLA. 



born on the IStli of Jane, a.d. 37, at the 
ancient colony of Fonun Julii (Fr^jns), on 
the Gulf of Lyon in France. His father, 
Jnlins Gnecinus, a senator, fiuned for his 
learning and eloquence, iras pat to death by 
the emperor Caligula, for refosing to conduct 
the proeecntion c^ Marcus Silanus. Agricola 
was brought up under the immediate care of 
his mother, Julia Procilla, a woman of excel- 
lent character, and from his early years he 
had the advantage of studying at Massilia 
(Marseille), a city distinguished for its learn- 
ing and the orderly habits of the people. In 
his youth he entered with great ardour on 
the study of philosophy, but his mother's 
prudence prerented him fh>m devoting him- 
self to this pursuit more than was con- 
sidered suitable to a Roman and a man of 
senatorial rank. He received his military 
education in Britain, under Suetonius Pauli- 
nus, whose tent he had the honour to share. 
It is most probable that he accompanied Pau- 
linus to Britain, as military tribune, in the 
year a.d. 60, and remained there till that 
general's recall; in the year 62. He now re- 
turned to Rome to become a candidate for 
the usual honours, and married Domitia De- 
cidiana, a bdy of high rank, with whom he 
tived in great harmony. In the next year 
(A.D. 63) he went as quaestor to Asia, under 
the proconsul Salvius Titianns, and gained 
the praise of resisting the temptations to cor- 
ruption which were presented by the wealth 
of the province and the rapacity of the pro- 
consuL Here he had a daughter, and lost a 
son who had been bom before he went to 
Asia. As tribune of the people (a.d. 65), 
and prsetor (a.d. 67), and in the interval be- 
tween his magistracies, he remained quiet, 
that he might not incur the suspicion of 
Nera He was appointed by Galba (a.d. 68) 
to inquire into the state of the treasures of 
the temples, which had been plundered to a 
great extent in the reign of Nero, and he 
succeeded in recovering much of what had 
been seized by other persons than Nero him- 
self. In March of the following year (69), 
his mother was murdered on her estate 
at Intemelii (Vintimiglia) in Liguria, by a 
predatory party from Otho*s fleet On his 
road to peribnn her funeral rites, he received 
news of Vespasian's claiming the empire, and 
at once joined his party. He was appointed 
by him to raise levies ; and, in the beginning 
of the year 70, he received the command of 
the 20th legion, then stationed at Deva 
(Chester) in Britain, which had been slow 
in taking the military oath. On his arriving 
io Britam, he secured the obedience of the 
legion. Vettius Bolanus was then governor 
of Britain, a man of no enterprise } and Api- 
cola, being in command under him, had litUe 
opportunity of exercising his great abilities. 
The appointment of Petilius Cerealis, who 
was an active general, to the government of 
Britain (a.d. 71), gave Agricola an oppor- 
475 



tunity to display his military talents, and to 
gain considerable reputation. 

On his return to Rome (a. i>. 73), Vespa- 
sian raised him to the patrician rank, and 
gave him the government of Aquitania, which 
he administered with distinguished ability 
for somewhat less than three years (a. d. 74 
• — 77). At the end of that period he was 
recalled to Rome, to receive the consulship, 
on which office he entered, as Consul Suf- 
fectus, with the future Emperor Domitian for 
his colleague, on the 1st of July, a. d. 77, and 
held it for three months. Soon after the 
expiration of his consulate, he was appointed 
to the government of Britain, and received 
the honour of the pontificate. At the same 
time he gave his daughter in marriage to 
the historian Tacitus, to whom he had be- 
trothed her while consuL 

By this time the successive Roman go- 
vernors of Britain (from the expedition of 
Claudius, in the vear a. d. 43, when Vespa- 
sian and Aulus Pututius subdued most dT the 
nations south of the Thames and Severn) 
had reduced to sul:jection almost the whole 
of the island south of the Solway Firth, with 
the exception of North Wales. The people 
of this district, the Ordovices, just before the 
arrival of Agricola, had cut off a division of 
Roman cavalry, and other tribes were ready 
to revolt Agricola had the opportunity of 
commencing his government by a decisive 
blow, and upon his arrival, in the middle of the 
summer of the year 78, when the campaign 
of the season was supposed to be at an end, 
he led his army into the mountains of North 
Wales, and almost destroyed the Ordovices. 
He followed up his success by invading 
Mona (the Isle of Anglesey), the people m 
which, in alarm at the energy of his move- 
ments, sued for peace, and surrendered the 
island. This great success he modestiy ab- 
stained from magnifying in his letter to the 
senate and emperor. 

He now applied himself to eradicate the 
causes of the war, by checking the excesses 
of the Romans, who had oppressed the in- 
habitants, especially by compelling them to 
sell their com at less than its value, and to 
buy it again at a high price ; and he promoted 
Roman civilisation, arts, and letters among the 
conquered people. The winters of this and the 
following year were spent in the reform of his 
own retinue, the enforcement of military dis- 
cipline and of strict obedience to the laws, and 
in encouraging the natives to erect temples, 
forums, and houses, to educate their children 
in Roman learning, and to wear the Roman 
dress. From the government of Agricola we 
may date the destraction of the military 
spirit of the ancient Britons, and the com- 
mencement of that improvement in the arts 
of peace which they attained under the Ro- 
man government 

In the mean time Agricola advanced the 
Roman arms to the Firtib of Taj. (a. d. 80.) 
XI 2 



AGRICOLA. 



AGRICOLA. 



The fourth sammer of his oommand (a.d. 81) 
Iras spent in securmg the conquered territory 
by the erection of forts, some of which still 
exist, and especially by a chain of forts across 
the isthmus between the Firths of Clyde and 
Forth, on the line of which the Vallum An- 
tonini (Graham's Dyke) was afterwards built 
by Lollius, in the reign of Antoninus Pios. 

In the next summer (a. d. 82) Agricola 
crossed the Firth of Clyde, and subdued the 
tribes in that part of Britain opposite to Ire- 
land (Carrick, Galloway, &c.) with a view to 
a future expedition to Ireland, which, how- 
ever, he never accomplished. 

The people of that part of the island called 
Caledonia, north of the Firth of Forth, now 
began to take the alarm. Anticipating their 
expected attack, Agricola opened his sixth 
campaign (a.d. 83) by advancing into their 
country, while his fleet sailed along the 
eastern coast to examine the harbours, and 
to support the army ; and at the close of 
the next campaign (a. d. 84) he completely 
defeated the forces of the Caledonians under 
Galgacus, at the foot of the Grampian moun- 
tains. The season being too far advanced 
to allow of his following up this suc- 
cess, Agricola led back his army into Fife- 
shire, while he sent his fleet to circumnavi- 
gate the island, an enterprise which had been 
accomplished for the first time the year be- 
fore, by a body of deserters. (Tacitus, Agri- 
cola, 28.) 

Domitian, who had succeeded Titus a.d. 
81, received these tidings with apparent 
pleasure, but real pain, or, in the striking 
words of Tacitus, " fronte Isetus, pectore 
anxius." His jealousy was heightened by 
the contrast between the exploits of Agri- 
cola and his own recent mock triumph over 
the Germans. While he recalled Agri- 
cola from Britain, he ordered the senate to 
decree to him all the honours which, under 
the emperors, were substituted for a triumph, 
and held out a hope that he would be re- 
appointed to the administration of the pro- 
vince of Syria, the accomplishment of which, 
however, he contrived by a manceuvre to 
evade. (Tacitus, Agricola, 40.) Agricola re- 
turned to Rome, which, by the emperor's 
command, he entered in the night ; and hav- 
ing been received at the palace with a slight 
welcome, resigned himself to a quiet life, and 
thus escaped falling a victim to the frequent 
accusations which were brought against him 
by the ministers of Domitian's cruelty. 

On the arrival of the time (probably about 
89 or 90) when the government either of 
Asia or of Afi*ica would have fallen to him, 
according to custom, he was induced by 
those who knew the emperor to petition to 
be excused. Domitian granted his prayer 
with affected reluctance, but withheld from 
him the usual proconsular salary. In the 
mean time, however, disasters had befallen 
the Roman arms in Moesia, Dacia, Germany, 
476 



and Pannonia, and the popular voice called 
for the services of Agricola. The effect of 
such a state of things on the jealous tem- 
per of Domitian cannot be doubted ; and 
other groundswere not wanting for suspecting 
that the emperor had a share in Agricola's 
death. (Tacitus, Agricola, 43.) Tacitus, 
though he expresses himself with caution, 
evidently believed the conmion rumour, that 
Domitian had caused poison to be adminis- 
tered to his suspected rivaL Agricola died 
at the age of fif^-six, on the 23d of August, 
A.D. 93. 

It had been his policy to conciliate the 
tyrant Domitian, and carerall^ to avoid doing 
anything that might give him offence. To 
secure his wife and daughter in the posses- 
sion of his property, he gave one third of it 
by his testament to Domitian, who appeared 
pleased at this mark of Agricola's good opin- 
ion of him ; not seeing, says Tacitus, that 
a good father never bequeaths his property 
to any but a bad prince. 

His person was rather pleasing than ma- 
jestic. " You would easUy," says Tacitus. 
*' have taken him fbr a good man, wUlingly 
for a great man.** 

He left one daughter, the wife of Tacitua 
the historian, who wrote his life, and has 
commemorated his virtues in terms of the 
strongest affection. (Tacitus, JuL AgricoUe 
Vita,) P. S. 

AGRI'COLA. FRANCISCUS, (the Iji- 
tinised form of his name), an ecclesiastical 
writer of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
turies. He was bom near Aldenhoven, in 
the duchy of Juliers, between Juliers and 
Aix-la-Chapelle, and was canon and parish 
priest of Rodinen, and afterwards of Sit- 
tard in the same duchy, and arch- presbyter 
or president of the council of the adjacent 
district of Susteren. Sweerts describes him 
as ** a man of eminent piety, uprightness, 
faith, wisdom, and kindness, and the scourge 
of heretics," a^nst whom his principal 
writings were directed. He died at Sittard, 
** worn out with age and by his labours in 
the cause of religion," a.d. 1621. His works 
are numerous : the " Bibliotheca Belgica " 
of Valerius Andreas, enumerates eighteen, 
chiefly in Latin ; and the list given by 
Sweerts in the " Athens Belgicse " includes 
a work not given by Andreas. Some few of 
his works are of a practical character ; but 
most are polemical. He wrote in defence of 
Scripture and tradition, or, as he expresses it, 
"the word of God, written and unwritten ;" 
of the celibacy of the clergy ; of the worship 
of saints and of images ; of relics ; of the de 
scent of Christ into hell ; and of St Peter's 
claim to be the apostle and first bishop of the 
church at Rome : he also wrote against the 
Anabaptists and the Calvinists. His works, 
so far as our authorities give the dates, were 
published between a. D. 1575 and a.d. 1616. 
(Valerius Andreas, Bibliotheca Belgica; Jo. Fr. 



AGRICOLA. 



AGRICOLA. 



Foppens, Bihliotheca BMca ; Franc. Sweer- 
tius (Sweerte), AthetuB Bdgica.) J. C. M. 

AGRFCOLA, GEORG, was bom at Glau- 
cha in Meissen, on the 24th of March, 1490. 
He studied medicine at Leipzig, and in 1522 
left that place to finish his studies in Italy. 
In 1529 he returned to his native country, 
and commenced the practice of his profession 
at Joachimsthal in Bohemia. He had, how- 
ever, during his travels in Germany and 
Italy, contracted a taste for the study o( geo- 
logy and mineralogy, and spent his leisure in 
writing on these subjects ; but finding that 
his sphere of observation was too contracted, 
he removed in 1531 to the mining district of 
Chemnitz in Saxony. Here he diligentlv 
availed himself of Uie opportunities which 
the mines afforded, of pursuing his &vorite 
sciences, and for this purpose he almost en- 
tirely lived with the miners in their subter- 
ranean abodes. From a study of the rocks 
of Saxony, and the existing veins of metal, 
he became convinced that it possessed fiuiher 
mineral treasures, and proposed to Maurice, 
the then reigning duke of Saxony, a plan for 
opening other mines. To this Maurice did 
not ac^e, but gave Agricola permission to 
take up his residence at Chemnitz, and 
granted him also a pension. This he spent, 
and likewise the greater part of his own pro- 
perty, in following his mineralogical studies. 
He was afterwards made physician to the 
city, and a biirgermeister. 

Previous to his removing to Chemnitz he 
gave to the world a little work on metals and 
minerals with the title ** Georgii AgricoliB 
Medici Bermannus sive de re Metallica. 
BasileflB, 1530." 8vo. 

In 1546 he published the result of his flir- 
ther study and observation, at Chemnitz, 
with the title *'I>e Ortu et Causis Snbter- 
raneorum. Basileie." folio. In this work, 
the formation of rocks and minerals, through 
the agency of water and fire, is ftilly con- 
siderMl; ihe various theories then existing 
are examined ; and principles are laid down 
very much in advance of previous writers on 
these subjects. This work was accompanied 
by two others relating to the same subjects, 
llie one entitled "De Nature eorum qusB 
effluunt e Terra," treats of those bodies 
which pass from the internal parts of the 
earth to its surfiice, whether as waters im- 
pregnated with various agents, as semi-fluid 
matters, or as hardened masses once fluid 
through the agency of heat The other wQrk, 
" De Nature Fossilium,*' is a description of 
the various mineral bodies foimd in the earth. 
These works are written in elegant Latin, 
and display a great acquaintance, not only 
with the writings of the Greeks, but also with 
the labours of the alchemists. There is a 
great amount of original observation in them, 
and they entitled Agricola, not only to be 
considered as the first mineralogist of his day, 
but as the first who appeared after the dark- 
477 



ness of the middle agrs to draw attention to 
mineralogy as a science. " What Conrad 
Gesner," says Cuvier, " was to zoology, Agri- 
cola was to mineralogy." 

In 1549 he published a book on animated 
beings that inhabit the earth, entitled ** De 
Animantibus Subterraneis," 8vo. Basle, 1549. 
He enumerates here the various animaJs that 
live in or take up their abode in the earth, 
as well as the fossil remains of animals he 
had found. The descripdons of the charactera 
and habits of the animals are frequently 
minute and accurate ; but it is worthy of re- 
mark, that he devotes a chapter to the 
daemons of the mines, and describes with an 
evident conviction of the reality of their 
existence the "Daemon subterranovs tru- 
culentus " or Bergteufel, and the " Dsmon 
subterraneus mitis" or Bergeneulen, Kobel 
or Guttel of the Germans. 

This latter work appeared Sjgain at Basle 
in 1556, in folio, with the addition of another 
on metallurgy, " De Re Metallica." In this 
book is given a very accurate account of all 
that concerns the art of mining. The posi- 
tion of the various metallic vems, the modes 
of working, with the machinery used, and 
the subsequent processes of the prepara- 
tion of the metal, are described, and the 
whole is copiously illustrated with engravings 
on wood. This work has been translated 
into Italian, and with the previous works 
has also apipeared in German. The latest 
edition of his mineralogical works in Ger- 
man is by K Lehmann, entitled "Agri- 
cola's Mineralogische Schriften. Freyberg, 
1806-10." 3 vols. 8vo. 

Previous to the publication of any of his 
works on metallurgy or mineralogy, Agri- 
cola had turned his attention to classical 
literature, and in 1533 published a work on 
the weights and measures of the Greeks and 
Romans, with the title "Libri Quinque de 
Mensuris et Ponderibus," 8vo. Paris. In this 
work he opposed the views and statements of 
Budaeus, Fortius, and Alciati ; the last of 
whom defended himself, but was not equal 
to his antagonist, who replied in a small 
work, " Ad ea, quaa Andreas Alciatus denuo 
disputavit de Mensuris et Ponderibus brevis 
Defensio." This, with some other smaller 
works on weights and measures and moneys, 
and the fint work, was published in folio at 
Basle in 1550. All these works have gone 
through many editions, the principal of which 
have appeared at Basle. He did not how- 
ever confine himself to mineralogical writings. 
A work entitled " De bello Turcis in- 
ferendo," published at Basle in 1538, is at- 
tributed to him. He also wrote a treatise 
on the plague, " De Peste Libri tres. Ba- 
silies, 1554," 8vo. Melchior Adam also says 
that he wrote on the controversial subjects 
of his day. 

Agricola, though protected by a Protestant 
prince, died in the Roman Catholic faith* 
II 3 



AGRICOLA. 



AGBICOLA. 



Whtiii young his tendencies were thought 
to be towards the Reformed religion, and he 
was the author of a well-known epigram 
reflecting on the practices of the Roman 
Catholic church. The misdirected zeal and 
intemperance of the Protestant party, and 
his attachment to the pompous service of the 
^urch of Rome, were, according to M. Adam, 
the causes of his not joining the Protestants. 
He was however quite alive to a sense of his 
duty as a citizen, and when Maurice the 
elector of Saxony went to join Charles V. in 
Bohemia, Agricola insisted on joining his 
orince, leaving behind him his wife, who was 
It the time pregnant, and his family. He died 
H a fever said to have been brought on by a 
dispute on divinity, in the sixty-first year of 
his age. On his body being carried to the 
church of Chemnitz, on account of his attach- 
ment to the Catholic fiuth it was denied the 
rite of Christian burial for upwards of five 
days, when it was removed to 2«eitz, a village 
in the neighbourhood, where it was allowed 
to be deposited. (Adam, M., Vita Medicorum 
Germanorum ; B&yle, IHcL Gen. ; Jocher, 
AUgem, Gel Lexicont and Adelung's Supple- 
ment; Ersch & Gruber, AUgem. Encyc.) E. L. 
AGRICOLA, GEORO ANDREAS, was 
a physician at Ratisbon in the beginning of the 
eighteenth century. He became generally 
known by having pretended to have discovered 
a plan by which plants mi^ht be much more 
rapidly grown than ordinarily. He an- 
nounced this discovery with great pomp, and 
required 4000 gilders for making known the 
process. Not succeeding with this, he offered 
to sell it to 160 persons, at 25 guilders each. 
Whether he obtained the money does not 
appear; but he shortly after published a work, 
in which he made known hu plan, under the 
title " Versuch der Universal- Vermehrung 
aller Baume Stauden und Blumen Gewachse. 
Regensburg, folio. 1716-17, 2Bande." In 
this work there was really much interesting 
and valuable matter with regard to the culture 
and propagation of trees, but nothing to sup- 
port many of the previous statements of the 
author. The principal merit of the book 
consists in its pointing out a variety of ways 
in which the operations of layering, budding, 
&c may be effected. For these purposes he 
always had recourse to a compost of gum 
copal and other things, which he called p&nt- 
wax or mummy. The book is written in a 
very inflated style, and in many places is 
evidently at variance with facts. It was 
translated into English by Richard Bradley, 
F.R.S., in 1721, under the title " A Philo- 
sophical Treatise of Husbandry and Gar- 
dening, &c. London, 4to.** A translation into 
French appeared at Amsterdam, in 1720, 
under the title " L' Agriculture Parfiiite.** In 
addition to this volume, he published the fol- 
lowing works on the same subject: — " Nach- 
richt von seiner Universal- Vermehrung. 
Leipzig, 1716, 4ta" *' Erdfiaetes Geheunniss 
478 



Ton der Univ^sal- Vermehrung, Regensburg, 
1716, 4to." '* Neu erfUndene Kunst von der 
Universal- Vermehrung, Th. 1 — 3. Regens> 
burg, 1716, 4to.'* He also published the f(^ow- 
ing treatises on medical subg^^^* — ** Disser- 
tatio de Salubritate fluxus Haemorrhoidalia, 
HalsB Magdeburgicie,1708,4to." *«De Sucei 
Nutricii per Nervos Transitu, Vitembergie, 
1695, 4to." The last was the thesis which he 
presented on the occasion of his graduating. 
These works possess little merit. 

Although die name of Agricola will be 
handed down to posterity as connected with 
the improvement of horticulture, his evident 
misrepresentation of many of the results of 
his researches, for the sake of gain, must 
always subject him to just censure. (Ersch 
& Gruber, AUgem, JEncyc.; G. A. Agricola's 
Works.) R L. 

AGRICOLA, GEORO LUDWIG, ka- 
pell-meister to the Duke of Saxe Gotha, was 
bom at Grossen Furra, a village near Son- 
dershansen, Oct 25. 1643. His &ther, who 
was the minister of this place, sent him first 
to school at Eisenach, and afterwards to the 
universities of Leipzig and Wittenberg ; in 
the latter he graduated. Here he also studied 
the works of the best Italian musicians, and 
qualified himself for the situation above men- 
tioned, which he obtained in 1670. His 
promise of musical excellence was terminated 
b^ his early deal^ in 1676. His prin- 
cipal published compositions are — 1. Pe- 
nitential and Sacramental Hymns for five or 
more voices. Gotha, 1675. 2. Sonatas, Pre- 
ludes, Allemands, &c 1675. 3. ** Musical 
Leisure Hours," consisting of a collection 
of similar pieces, with accompaniment for 
stringed instruments. Miihlhausen. 4. Ger- 
man Sacred Melodies, for two and six voices. 
Gotha, 1675. (Oerber, Lexicon der ToiMnst- 
ler.) E. T. 

AGRICOLA, JOHANN. His real name 
was Johann Schnitter, Schneider, or Sneider, 
which, according to the general custom of the 
time, he changed into Agricola. He was bom 
on the 20th of April, 1492, at Eisleben, in 
the county of Mansfeld, whence he after- 
wards sometimes called himself **magister 
Eisleben," or, in Latin, " magister Islebins.'* 
He studied theology and philosophy at Wit- 
tenberg, where he formed an intimate friend- 
ship with Luther, who found in Agricola a 
most active and powerful supporter. It is 
probable that at the time when Luther pub- 
lished his theses against indulgences, Agri- 
cola was a lecturer m the university of Wit- 
tenberg, and held the same opinions as Luther, 
who, m 1519, took him to Leipzig, to the 
great meeting of German divines, which is 
known by the name of the *'Leipziger Re- 
ligionsgesprach." Agricola acted as secre- 
tary of the meeting, and on that occasion the 
umversity of Leipzig conferred upon him and 
Melanchthon, who was likewise present, tlie 
degree of baocalanreus. Henceforth he ex- 



AORICOUL 



AGRICOLA. 



erted hxmaelf for leTeral years, and in perfect 
hannony with Luther, to accomplish the work 
which they had undertaken. In 1525 the 
city of Frankftirt on the Main requested 
Luther to send over an able man to assist 
them in settling their ecclesiastical affairs. 
Luther sent Agricola, but he does not appear 
to have stayed there more than one month. 
On his return from Frankfbrt, he went to his 
native place, Eisleben, where he was ap- 
pointed preacher to the Nicolai Kirche, and 
to some extent also intmsted with the ma- 
nagement of the gymnasium, while his wife 
employed herself in instructing young females 
in the principles of the reformed religion. 
Soon after his arriyal at Eisleben he was 
made court preacher to John, Elector of 
Saxony, and it was in this capacity that, in 
1526, he was present at the diet of Spire, 
and took a part in the presentation of the 
Augsburg Confession. In the year 1530 he 
was appomted court preacher to Count Albert 
of MansfekL Agricola was also one of the 
divines who signed the Schmalkalden articles 
of fiuth. In 1537 he again went to Wit- 
tenberg, but he now b^an to differ Arom 
Luther and Melanchthon, and commenced 
the well-known antinomian disputes. He 
asserted, against his former friends, that 
obedience to the Mosaic law was not ne- 
cessary for the salvation pf man, which 
solely depended upon the Gospel, penitence, 
and fiiith, while Luther contended for the 
necessity of obeying the Ten Command- 
ments. The former friendship between him 
and Luther now became chan^ into bitter 
animosity, and Luther in his indignation 
usual] V called him ^ magister Grickel." Agri- 
cola found many supporters of his views 
among the Protestant divines, who, from 
their opposition to the law of Moses, were 
called Antinomians; but these disputes in- 
volved him in such troubles, that at last 
he was obliged to fly to Berlin, where he 
found protection. The Elector (it Branden- 
burg conferred upon him the offices of 
court preacher and superintendent general, 
(archdeacon), which he held until his death 
on the 22d of September, 1566. During 
his residence at Berlin, Agricola changed 
his opinions respecting the Mosaic law, but 
his enemies said that he had done so against 
his conscience. These changes of opinion 
have drawn upon Agricola very severe 
censure, and some have even charged him 
with a design to overthrow Protestantism, 
and to return to the church of Rome. These 
accusations, however, are wholly unfounded, 
and are unwarranted constructions put upon 
his words and actions by implacable enemies. 
John Agricola is the author of a great 
number of theological works, some of which 
are in Latin, but the greater pert are in 
German. They are partly of an exegetical 
and partly of a dogmatical or controversial 
character, and among them are also several 
479 



sermons, some catechisms, and several Ger- 
man hymns. Most of them are now only 
literary curiosities, and his theological works 
have been thrown into the shade by what he 
has done for the German language and 
literature. In this respect his merits are 
second only to those of Luther. He was the 
first who made a collection of German pro- 
verbs. This collection contains 750 speci- 
mens, to which he added a commentary, and 
various illustrations by way of examples. 
His introduction shows that he knew the 
value of the proverbial sayings of a nation, 
and that they indicate its character better 
than anything else. Agricola, moreover, 
intended, by these examples of the practical 
wisdom of the earlier Germans, to rouse the 
national spirit of his countrymen, and to in- 
duce them to abandon their imitation of every 
thing foreign ; a weakness which has been 
peculiar to the Germans at all times. His 
commentary also merits high praise: his 
remarks are always rational and ingenious, 
and are expressed in a lively and very con- 
cise manner. He breathes a truly national 
spirit Some strange expressions, which to 
us appear coarse and vulgar, were common 
to him and the greatest writers of his time. 
These proverbs appeared in two difiPerent 
collections ; the first was published in Low 
German, and a few months after in High 
German also. The Low German edition, 
which is extremely scarce, has the title 
** Dre hundert gemener Sprekworde, der wy 
Dudschen uns gebmken, tmde doch nicht 
wetten wohar se kamen, dorch D. Johann 
Agricolam von Islewe," Ma^eburg, 1528, 
8vo. The High German edition appeared at 
Eisleben, 1528, 8vo. The second collection, 
which contains 450 proverbs, appeared with- 
out the name of the place of publication, in 
the year 1529, 8vo., under the following 
title : " Das ander Teyl gemeiner deutscher 
Sprichworter mityhrer Auslegung, hat fiinfft- 
halbhundert newer Worter." These two col- 
lections were afterwards ft^quently printed 
together, as at Hagenau, in 1537 and 1584 ; 
at Eisleben, 1548 ; at Wittenberg 1582. The 
most correct edition is that of Wittenberg in 
1592, under the title ** Siebenhundert und 
ftmffzig deutscher Spruchworter, emewert 
und gebessert durch Johann Agricola. Mit 
vielen schonen, lustigen und niitxlichen His- 
torien und Exempeln erkleret und ausgelegt" 
(Bi. Adami,Fifte T^eofo^orum, in the collection 
of Vita Eruditontm^ p. 195, &c ed. 3. Frank£ 
1 706, fol. ; J. G. Unger, Dissertatio de J, Agri- 
coloj aniesignano Antinomorumt Leipzig, 1732. 
4ta All the earlier works on Agricola, 
however, have been superseded by Berend 
Kordes " J. Agricola aua Eideben, SchrifUn 
mOgUchstvoBMtSndig verzeichnet, zvrdankbaren 
Ermnerungan daadritte Jvhdfest der Lutker- 
ischen Kirche," Altona, 1817, 8vo. The com- 
plete list of all the works of Agricola, given 
in this work, is reprinted in Mohnike*s article 
114 



AGRICOLA. 



AGRIGOLA. 



'^Johaan Agricola,** in Ersch & Qruber't 
AUgem. Encyc. For a general account see 
Meister's Beitrage zur Geack. der deutachen 
Sprache und NationaUUeraiurj L 303 — 307. ; 
Characteristtk deutscher Dichter, L 103. ; 
Jorden's Lexikon DaUacher Dichter, L 25 — 
28.; the Dictionanr of Jocher with Adelong's 
snpplements; and Mohnike, in Ench and 
Gruber.) L. S. 

AGRFCOLA, JOHANN, a Gennan com- 
pofler of the 16th century, and musical pro- 
fessor in the Augustine college at Erfiirt He 
published a set of Motets for four, five, siZf 
and eight voices, 1601, and a collection of 
" Cantiones de pnecipuis Festisper totum An- 
num,*' both printed at Niimbeig. (Draudius, 
Bibliotheca Ckusica.) E. T. 

AGRICOLA, JOHANN, a native of 
Naumburg, where he was bom in 1589. He 
styles himself doctor of medicine and philo- 
sophy, and professor of medicine and surgery, 
but his further history is unknown. ^ 

He wrote some medical dissertations, and 
likewise *'Deutliche und wohl gegriindete 
Anmerkung ueber die Chymische Arzneyen 
Johannis Fopii," Niimberg, 1686, 4to. ("A 
plain and careAil Commentary on Popius on 
Chemical Remedies,") 1686, 4to. It contains 
a great number of chemical processes, and 
many medical observations. He is reproached, 
however, with giving too pompous titles to 
his remedies, with speaking of very trivial 
preparations as though there were something 
in ^em exceedingly mysterious, and his me- 
dical formulsB are overloaded with ingredients. 
(Mangetus, Bibliolheca Scriptorum Medu 
corunu) C. W. 

AGRFCOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, 
a German composer in the employ of Frede- 
rick the Great, for whose theatre at Potsdam 
he composed several Italian operas. He 
published a translation of Tosi's celebrated 
work on Florid Song, and was a contributor 
to Adlung*s ** Musica Mechanlca." He pub- 
lished a set of ehorals. He was bom in 1 720, 
and died in 1774. (Gerber, Lexicon der 
Tonkunsder$ Rellstab^ State of Music in 

Tiprlin ^ V T 

AGRFCOLA, JOHANNES AMMa- 
NIUS, a professor of medicine and of the 
Greek language, at In^ldstadt, and a man 
of great learning. He died in 1 570. He wrote 
principally commentaries on Hippocrates and 
Galen. His chief works are — 1, " Hippo- 
cratis Coi Medicmas et Medicorum omnium 
Principis, Aphorismorum et Sententiarum Me- 
dicoram Libri Sex." Ingoldstadt, 1537. 4to. 
In this book, the aphorisms of Hippocrates 
arc arranged according to their subjects ; and 
to the whole is appended a Latin translation 
of the sixth book of epidemics, by Leonard 
Fuchs, with original notes and observations. 
2. ** MedicinsB Herbaris Libri Duo." Ba- 
sel, 1539, 12mo. The first book contains an 
account of the plants used by the ancient 
physicians, the second of those employed by 
4«0 



the modems. (Mangetus, BiUioikeea Ser^ 
Medic., where a caialogne of his works is 
given ; and Biographie MtdicaU,) C. W. 

AGRFCOLA, LUIGI, a Roman painter, 
and the keeper of the academy of St. Luke 
at Rome. He died in 1821. 

There was another painter of the name of 
Agricola, who lived at Berlin about the 
middle of the eighteenth century. He 
painted landscapes, battles, birds, fruit, and 
flowers, in water colours. (Nagler, Aoies 
AUgemeines Kibuder Lexicon ; Fussli, AJfye^ 
meinea KUnatUr Lexicon.) R. N. W. 

AGRFCOLA, MARTIN, professor of 
music and cantor in the college of Magdeburg^ 
was bom at Sorau in Silesia about 1486. His 
parents were poor, and he owed the pro- 
flciency he attained as a scholar and a 
musician principally to his own love of the 
art and his unwearied industry. He went to 
Magdeburg in 1510, and supported himself 
by giving private lessons in munc and lan- 
guage. In 1524 he received his collegiate 
appointment ; but even this scarcely afforded 
him a maintenance. Inoneofhispublicaticms 
he thus addresses his pupils : ** I have now 
been an instractor in Magdeburg for twenty- 
five years, living in poverty that I might 
promote your knowledge of music Will 
you request of ^our parents and those who 
manage the affairs or the school some aug- 
mentation of my means, for it is written, 
• The labourer is worthy of his hire.'" He 
continued to labour in his avocation with 
unceasing diligence to the end of his lifie, his 
last work bemg published less than three 
years before its termination. He died June 
10. 1556. 

George Rhaw, of Magdeburg, a learned 
printer, and the most profound musical critic 
that Germany had produced, in his ** Enchi- 
ridium " speaks of Imn as ** a learned musician 
and his especial friend, who wrote most 
elegantly on music ;" and he adds, '* that if 
his works were written in German, as they 
are in Latin, nothing further on the sutgect 
could reasonably be required." (** Libellos qui, 
si sic, in Latino sermone ut sunt, Germanice 
scripti extarent," &c., which seems to be the 
proper punctuation of the passage.) Rhaw 
printed all Agricola's works, which may be 
reckoned the first of their kind that appeared 
in Germany. They also form an epoch in the 
history of music in that country, from the 
substitution of notes for the tablature before 
in use. But the principal feature of his 
character was that unshaken devotion to his 
art which no difficulties could daunt and 
no discouragement subdue. His works, of 
which the following is a list, were written in 
Latin, and for the use of his pupils: — 
1. " Melodise Scholastics sub Horarum Inter- 
vallis decantandie, 1512." 2. ** A Collection of 
Songs, in four parts. 1528." 3. ** Musica In<» 
strumentalis. 1529." This curious work con- 
tains a wood engraving of every instrument 



AGRICOLA. 



AGRICOLA. 



then in ns^ with a dfiwription in yene. The 
list i8 inserted here as containing the best in- 
fonnation that we possess on this point. ^ It 
comprises the Ante, comet, shawm, reedpipe, 
bagpipe, bomhart, trumpet, trombone, clarion, 
tiirmer horn (the horn sounded by watchmen 
from the church towers), organ (fixed and 
portable), regal, cUiyichord, clavicembalo, 
▼irginal, lyre, keyed cittern, keyed yiolin, 
lute, quintem; treble, alto, tenor, and bass 
▼iolins; dulcimer, harp, psaltery, drum. An- 
other, much altered, edition of this work was 
published in 1545. 4. ** Musica Figuralis. 
1532." 5. *< De Proportionibos Musids." 6. 
** Rudimenta Musices, quibus canendi Arti- 
ficium compendiosissime oomplexum, Pueris 
una cum Monochordi Dimensione traditur, 
&C. 1539." 7. *' QuflBstiones Tulgariores in 
Musicam. 1543.'* 8. ** Scholia in Musicam 
planam Wenceslai Philomatis de nova Domo 
ex variis Musicorum Scriptis, &c 1540.*' 9. 
Libellns de Octo Tonorum regularium Com- 
positione.** 10. Cantiones cum Melodiis Mar- 
tini Agricols. 1553.** This work gives its 
author a place among the earliest German 
cQpiposers for the church. After his death 
his friend Rhaw published (1561) ** Duo Libri 
Musices, continentes Compendium Artis, et 
iUustria Exempla.** (Forkel, Litteratur der 
Musik; Mattheson, Ephorus; Gerber, Lexicon 
der TonhtneOer.) £. T. 

AGRICOLA, MICHAEL, one of the 
early Swedish reformers. He was bom at 
the village of Torsby, in the parish of PeraA, 
in Nyland, about the beginning of the six- 
teenth centuxT. He had already imbibed the 
doctrines of the reformation from the preach- 
ing of Peter Serkilax, when, in 1529, the last 
Roman Catholic prior of Sigtuna and first 
Protestant bishop of Abo, Miulin Skytte, re- 
nounced his obedience to the pope, and swore 
allegiance to King Gustavus Yasa, receiving 
in return all the revenues of the bishopric 
unimpaired, except by the condition of main- 
taining eight Finnish students at foreign uni- 
versiues, especially at Wittenberg. Agricola 
was one of die eight students, and was sent to 
Wittenberg, whence he returned in 1539, with 
a letter of recommendation fhmi Martin Lu- 
ther, in which he was spoken of as a youth 
of excellent learning, manners, and capacity, 
who might be made of great use. In the 
same year he was appointed rector of the 
school at Abo ; and it is stated by Rhyselius 
that, shortly afterwards, but in what year is 
not known, he was sent by the king as mis- 
sionary to Lapland. This disagrees, how- 
ever, with the statement of Justen, who had 
the best opportunities of knowing, and says 
that he remained master of the school at Abo 
for ten years, and resigned the charge un- 
willingly, at the royal command, in 1548. He 
was at the same time appointed assistant to 
Bishop Skytte, whose innrmities disabled him 
from the performance of his duties. The 
bishop died in 1554, and the king summoned 
481 



the members of the ancient chapter to Stock- 
holm, where he informed them that he had 
resolved on dividing the bishopric into two^ 
Abo and Wiborg. Agricola was appointed 
to Abo, and Justen to &e other, not much to 
the satis&ction of Agricola, as Justen informs 
us. The king delivered them an exhortation 
on the duty of obedience to the crown, which 
was the more necessary as at the time it was 
gradually absorbing the revenues of all the 
canonries, as the old occupants died off. Gus- 
tavus was highly indignant at hearing that 
Agricola celebraied ^vme service at Abo, on 
his return, with Romish ceremonies, and sent 
him sharp messages on the subject In the 
year 1556, Agricola accompanied the arch- 
bishop of Upsal, Lanrentius Petri, [Petri] 
on an embassy to the grand duke of Mus- 
covy, Ivan Yassilevich, who was at war with 
Sweden ; and on his way home, after con- 
cluding a peace, sickened and died, in the 
village of Kyroniem, in the parish of Vikyr- 
kio, on the 7th of April, 1557. 

Agricola translated into Finnish the New 
Testament, m the pre&ce to which he states 
that the version was made fh>m the original 
Greek, with the assistance of the Latin 
Vulgate and the German and Swedish trans- 
lations. It was printed at Stockholm, in 
quarto, in 1548, at which time, according to 
Henderson, Agricola was bishop of Abo ; 
but this is evidently a mistake. He is stated 
by Justen to have published a Finnish prayer- 
book, and by Gezelius, a Finnish psalm- 
book ; but as Justen does not mention the 
psalm-book, nor Geselius the prayers, the 
same work is probably intended. He is also 
sometimes mentioned as the translator of 
David's Psalms into Finnish ; but Justen in- 
forms us that the version had a difierent 
origin. **The rector Justen," he says, speak- 
ing of himself in the third person, ** com- 
manded that the scholars in the school of 
Abo," where Justen succeeded Agricola, 
" should translate the Psalms by way of ex- 
ercising their style, and corrected and im- 
proved the version himself, when their exer- 
cises were brought up to be examined in 
school horn's, or oftentimes in his own room, 
after dinner." The work was, however, 
revised by Agricola, and published by him at 
Stockholm, in the year 1551. It contains a 
rhyming address to the reader, in which a 
description is given of the pagan idolatry of 
the Fmns, and this is supposed to be the 
oldest printed specimen of Finnish poetry. 
In the course of the same year, several por- 
tions of the Old Testament were published 
by Agricola, who promised to proceed with 
the translation of &e remaining books, if he 
met with sufficient encouragement This 
desideratum was not, however, supplied to 
the Finns till the year 1646, when an entirely 
new version was issued. Agricola also 
transUited into Swedish the ** S^ Laws." or 
maritime code, of Wisby ; but the work was 



AOBICOLA. 



AGRICOLA. 



not published till 1689» when it appeared at 
Stockholm, under the editonhip of John 
Hadorph. (Rhyzelina, Epiacfjpoaeopia Svkh 
gothica, eOer en Sweagdtkisk SHekt och Bis- 
Tuma-Chrdnika, I 344, &c ; Jnaten, Ca- 
tmogus Episcoporvm Finlandensium, in Net- 
telblad's Schwediscke Bibliotkec, L 86, &c. ; 
Geseliiu, Bwgraphukt Lexicon 6fver Svenske 
MSn, I 10, &c. ; Henderson, BUfUcal Re- 
eearches in Russia, p. 7.) T. W. 

AGRICOLA, RUDOLPH, (properly Ro- 
lef Haysmann,) sometimes with the addition 
Frisios, in order to distinguish him from 
other persons of the same name ; sometimes 
he is also called Rudolphus a Groningen. 
He was bom at Baffle (Latinised Bafflo), a 
village near Groningen, in Friesland, in the 
month of August, 1443. When a youth he 
studied under Thomas k KemptB, in the 
gymnasium of Zwoll, and thence went to 
liouyain, where he commenced the study of 
philosophy and theology. After spending 
some time at Lonvain, where he made him- 
self master of the French language, he went 
to Paris. From France he proc»eeded to 
Italy, where letters were then reviving, and 
where he hoped to gratify his taste and his 
love of sound philosophy. He spent the 
years 1476 and 1477 partly at Ferrara and 
partly at Pavia, and became acquainted with 
the most distinguished men of the time, 
among whom was Theodorus Gaza. In Italy, 
Agricola became acquainted with Greek. 
He devoted himself chiefly to die study of 
Greek philosophy, and soon saw how far the 
scholastic philosophy had degenerated from 
the ancient model. Agricola equalled the 
best Italian scholars in his knowledge of 
antiquity and philosophy, a fact which they 
themselves acknowledged. He also distin- 

guished himself as a painter and a musician : 
e composed several songs, which he used 
to sing, and which were &vourites even of 
the Italians. It is said that the Italians, who 
hitherto had looked on the Germans as barba- 
rians, were struck with admiration at the learn- 
ing and elegant accomplishments of Agricola. 
AAer his return to Friesland, he is said to 
have been appointed syndic of Groningen ; 
but the fact is very doubtfrd : thus much only 
is certain, that on one occasion the city of 
Groningen sent him on a mission to the 
court of the Emperor Maximilian I. Here 
he remained for about six months, and several 
very honourable offers were made to him, 
but he could not be prevailed upon to change 
his independent position for the brilliant 
ofiBices at the court of the emperor, for he 
was very fond of ease and independence, and 
he never accepted any office (though many 
were offered to him) which might in the 
least disturb his studies. This was probably 
also the reason why he never married. 
However, he exerted all his powers, especially 
through the influence which he exercised 
over his former fellow students, to raise 
482 



philoeophy, eloquence, and learning in Gei^ 
many to the same level which they had 
I attained in Italy ; and G^ermany justly re* 
I gards him as the reviver of a genuine philo- 
i sophy, and as having introduced a taste for 
Greek literature and the fine arts. During 
, his residence in Italy, Agrieohi formed an 
' intimate IHendship with John von Dalberg, 
I who subsequently became bishop of Worms, 
I and chancellor a£ the elector palatine. In 
1483, Dalberg invited Agricola to live with 
him. Agricola accepted die offer, and hence- 
forth he passed his time with his fHend, 
partly at Heidelberg, and pardy at Worms, 
in the former place he occasionally delivered 
a course of lectures on philosophy, ancient 
history, and on the study of tiie ancients. 
The elector palatine, Philip, himself attended 
several of his lectures, and it was at his re- 
quest that Agricola wrote a book called 
** De Qnatnor Monarchiis," or an abridgment 
of oniversal history, interspersed with various 
political reflections. His influence upon the 
study of Greek, which was then just com- 
mencing in Germany, was so great that 
Vossius jnsdy remarks that he diffused a 
taste for Greek learning all through Ger- 
many (Gr»cas literas tota Germania exci- 
tavit), and that in fact the study of Greek 
among the Germans may be dated fix>m 
his time. In the year 1483 he also began 
the study of Hebrew, under the tuition of 
a Jew, whom Dalberg kept for this pur- 
pose in his house ; but Agricola does not 
appear to have made any great progress in 
this langvage. He had at all times a great 
partiality for Italy, and in 1484, when Dal- 
berg was sent on a mission to Rome, Agri- 
cola accompanied him ; shortly after his 
return he died, at Heidelberg, on the 28th of 
October, 1485, and was at his express wish 
buried there, in the dress of a Franciscan 
monk, in the church of the Minorites. 

Agricola was considered by the best judges 
of the time, such as P. Bembo and Erasmus, 
a profound and elegant scholar. His works 
are all written in Latin. That by which he 
gained most reputation as a philosopher, and 
in which he explained the method of reason- 
ing according to the principles of Aristode, 
is his *' De Inventione Dialectica," Cologne, . 
1474, 4to. : it has often been reprinted. He 
also wrote a life of Petrarch, and another, in 
verse, of St Anna. With the view of pro- 
moting the study of the Greek writers, he 
translauted several works into Latin, such as the 
** Axiochus,*' incorrectly attributed to Plato, 
Isocrates' ^ Exhortation to Demonicus," 
some works of Lucian, the ** Progymnas- 
mata** of Aphthonius, and the work of 
Dionysius Areopagita. The last of these, 
however, was not completed, the work 
being interrupted by his death. He also 
wrote a commentary on Boethius " De Con- 
solatione Philosophise,** and on some de- 
clamations of Seneca. His other works con- 



AGRICOLA. 



AGRIPPA. 



ftist of ontiouB, epistles, and poems. All his 
works, with the exception of a few of little 
importance, were collected hy Alardns of 
Amsterdam, in ** Rudolphi Apicola Lncn- 
brationes aUquot nosquam pnns editsB, &c. 
ceteraque eiusdem Viri omnia, Colonise, 
1539, 2 yols. 4ta'' (P. Melanchthonis, Oratio 
de Vitd R. Agricoke ; Snicker's Ehreniamd 
der ieuUehen GeUhrumiAeit ; Heeren, Ge- 
achichte dea Studntma der dasauchen Ltteratur, 
IL 147. 152, &C. and 277. ; Yossios, De Hist, 
LqL p. 566. ; Jocher, ABgem, Gdehrt Lexic, 
TOC. ** Agricola," and Adelong's supplement, 
p. SS2. ; Saxius, OnomasL Lit ii 270, &c. ; 
F. Molter in Ersch und Gruber's ABgem. 
Emeydopttd, toc *« AgTiooU.") L. S. 

AGRI'COLA, ST., Bishop of ChAlons sor 
Saone, in the sixth centory, according to 
Gregory of Tours, bestowed much attention 
upon architecture and the embellishment of 
the churches within his diocese. The ca- 
thedral of Chilons, which was built hy him, 
was one of the handsomest buildings of its 
period, and was equally remarkable for its 
beauty and its solidity. It was richly orna- 
mented in the interior with columns, marble 
fecings, mosaic work, and paintings. ^Feli- 
bien, De la Vie, (fc. dea plue eiUbres Archi- 
teetes,) R. N. W. 

AGRIPPA (*A7y>^«vaf), a sceptic of whom 
we know nothing more than that he lived 
after JEnesidemus and before Sextus Em- 
pirieus. iEnesidemus is sometimes considered 
as the inventor or discoverer of the ten 
grounds of doubting ; but these grounds of 
doubting were aclmowledged by the older 
sceptics, and iEnesidemus must be regarded 
only as the first person who enumerated 
them. Agrippa went a step further : he re- 
duced the number of ten to five. Diogenes 
Laertius mistakes the matter when he speaks 
of Agrippa or his followers as simply adding 
five to the ten gprounds of doubting. Two of 
the grounds of doubting enumerated by 
Agrippa relate to the matter ; the other three 
are formal Of the first two, one is founded 
on the fiBCt of the different judgments which 
men make about the same thing; and the 
second on the &ct of the conti«dictions m 
our sensuous perceptions, and the impossibility 
of oondudinff from appearances what is the 
real nature of things ; and these two in fact 
comprehend the ten old gprounds of doubt 
The other three seem to be original, and they 
are these : It is objected to those who main- 
tain that they can prove a thing from certain 
fundamental principles, that those principles 
must be proved ; f6r tf not proved, they are 
mere hypotheses. But if an attempt is made 
to prove these fdndamental principles, then it 
IS objected that they can onlj be proved by 
the assumption of other principles, and so on 
indefinitely (Wf Arttpop) ; and thus proof is 
impossible. These are two of the three 
formal grounds of doubt The third ground 
of doubt (^ 8<<(\Xi|Xo9 Tp6iros), the vicious 
483 



circle, ocean when the thing which is in- 
tended to prove a proposition requires to be 
proved ftcm the thing which is proposed to 
be proved ; and thus, as we cannot use either 
thing for the confirmation of the other, we 
must doubt about both. The later sceptics, 
among whom are Menodotus and his school, 
simplified the grounds of doubt still fiirther 
by rejecting those which related to the mat- 
ter, and reducing to two those which related 
to the form. For they argued correctly that 
as a thing cannot be comprehended by itself, 
it must he comprehended by means of some 
other thing ; and consequently the proof, or 
in other words the ground of doubt, may 
belong either to the indefinite class of doubts 
or to the vicious circle ; but these two are 
one. 

The foundation of the sceptical system 
rests on the assumption or the admission of the 
universal necessity of proof; and it originates 
in not discriminating the differences in the 
nature of the evidence which is applicable to 
different things. (Ritter, GeaMckte der 
PhOoeopkie, 4er Theil, 2d ed. ; Ritter & 
Preller, Hist Phihsopk Grttco-Romanet, ffc. 
p. 453, &c ; Diogenes Laertius, ix., I)frrho.) 

G. L. 

AGRIPPA. An astronomer of this name 
is known to have been alive a.i>. 92, by an 
observation of that date made in Bithynia, 
which Ptolemy makes use of. (^Syntax. 
lib. vii. cap. 3.) Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, 
the son-in-law of Augustus, is sometimes put 
down in lists of astronomers, we know not 
for what reason (by Riccioll and Lalande, 
for instance). A. De M. 

AGRIPPA, GAMILLO, an Italian ar- 
chitect of the sixteenth century, respecting 
whom so few particulars have been recorded, 
that neither the year of his birdi nor tiiat of 
his death can now be ascertained. He is 
not even mentioned by Miliiia, and Kagl» 
also omits him, notwithstanding that Tira- 
boschi speaks of him, not only as a philosopher 
and mathematician, but a distipguished ar- 
chitect, ** architetto insigne ; " and as he also 
calls him a Milanese, we may conclude him 
to have been a native, if not (^ the ci^ itself, 
of the territory of Milan. For his mme as 
an architect, however, he would seem to be 
more indebted to his theoretical knowledge, 
and practical skill in construction and en- 
gineering, than to anv architectural work 
properly so called. No building is known 
as having been designed or erected by him ; 
but he is spoken of, chiefly, as having directed 
the operations of removing, in the pontificate of 
Gregory XIIL, the obelisk afterwards erected 
in front of St Peter's, by Domenico Fontana, 
in that of Sixtns V. ; an undertaking of which 
he published an account, entitled ** Trattato 
di trasportar la Guglia in su la Piazza di 
S. Pietro, Roma, 1583, 410." The only other 
known instance of his being professionally 
employed, is that of his conveying the stream 



AGRIPPA- 



AGRIPPA. 



of the Acqua Vergine to the summit of the 
Placian Hill. Hib writings were numeroufl ; 
a list of them is giyen by Mazzuchelli, and 
we may here mention that which has for its 
title, ** Nuove Invenzioni sopra 11 Modo di 
Navigare, Roma, 1595." 4to. All his works 
are now exceedingly rare. (Tiraboschi, 
Sioria deUa Letteratttra Ital,) W. H« L. 

AGRIPPA, FONTEIUS. [Fonteius.] 
AGRIPPA, HATE'RIUS. [Hate'rius.] 
AGRIPPA, HEINRICH CORNELIUS, 
was bom at Cologne, in 1486, of a noble &• 
mily, which bore the title of Von Nettesheym. 
Following the example of his ancestors, who 
had for several generations served with ho- 
nour under the princes and emperors of the 
house of Austria, he early entered the service 
of the Emperor Maximilian as one of his 
secretaries. From this time to the year 
1513, his life was spent in so irregular a 
pursuit of honour in science, literature, the- 
ology, war, and diplomacy, that it is im- 
possible to aflfix the dates to many of the 
services in which, according to his letters, he 
was occupied. In 1507 and 1508 he was 
engaged in France and Spain; and in 1509 
he delivered public lectures at Dole in Bur- 
gundy, on Reuchlin*s treatise ** De Verbo 
Mirinco," which, though they gained him 
great reputation, embroued him in a quarrel 
with the monks, which continued to his 
death. In 1510 he was sent on some secret 
mission to London, where his time was chiefly 
occupied in studying the Epistle of St Paul 
to the Romans, under Dean Colet, and in 
writing a commentary on it From England 
he went to Colore, and lectured on various 
theological questions : but he soon after joined 
the Austrian army in Venice, and was engaged 
in active military service till 1513, when he 
was summoned, as a theologian, by the Cardinal 
di Santa Croce to a council at Pisa. At this 
time he had been knighted for his gallantry 
in the field, had received a letter from Leo 
X. commending him for his zeal and skill in 
the service of the church, had taken the 
degrees of doctor of laws and doctor of medi- 
cine, was thoroughly conversant with eight 
languages, and with all the sciences of his 
day, and was equally notorious as a theo- 
logical disputant, an astrologer, and a searcher 
after the secret of the mutation of gold. 

But the same correspondence between him* 
self and his friends, from which we derive 
this account of his learning and reputation, 
proves that in pursuing them he had spent 
nearly all his money. After having lectured, 
for the two years following the council at 
Pisa, upon theology and the works of Mer- 
curius Trismegistus, at Turin and Pavia, he 
was obliged, by the troubled state of the 
country, to quit Pavia, and leave behind him 
a great part of his small property. He re- 
mamed without employment, hardly main- 
taining himself and his wife, to whom he had 
been recently married, till 1518, when his 
484 



friends obtained him the appointment of 
advocate and orator of Metz. He held this 
office for about two years ; and during all 
the time was engaged in a quarrel with his old 
enemies the Dominican monks, who perse- 
cuted him, he says, for maintaining that 
Anna, the mother of the Virgin Mary, was 
only once married, and had only one child, 
and for defending a poor peasant woman whom 
they wished to put to the torture because her 
mother had been burnt for sorcery. They 
obliged him at last to quit Metz, upon which 
he went to Geneva, and thence to Freiburg, 
practising as a physician, but with little 
pecuniary advantage. In 1524 he went to 
Lyon and was appointed physician to Louisa 
of Savoy, the mother of Francis I. of France ; 
but in the following year she left him without 
paying him his stipend. She was offended at 
him, partly because he had expressed his dis- 
like of being constantly employed in what he 
deemed the unworthy task of calculating by 
astrology the course of events in France, and 
partly because she found out that, fh>m the 
calculations which he did make, he had prophe- 
sied the triumph of her enemy, the constable 
Charles de Bourbon. Enraged at being thus 
treated, and deep in debt, he wrote virulent 
letters against the princess to some of his 
friends, the contents of which were indiscreetly 
divulged. The consequence was, that when be 
wished to go from Lyon to Antwerp, his 
passport was refused at Paris, the Due de Ven- 
dome declaring he would never sign one for a 
diviner ; and he did not arrive at his destina- 
tion till 1 528. In the following year, how- 
ever, fortune seemed once more to favour 
him, and he received ruvitations to four dif- 
ferent European courts, among which was 
one from Henry VIII. of England. He ac- 
cepted that of Margaret of Austria, regent of 
the Low Countries ; and she appointed him 
historiographer to the Emperor Charles V. 
In this capacity he wrote an account of the 
emperor's coronation, and was engaged in 
other works, when, at the close of 1530, the 
regent died. Her death, he says, was as good 
as the preservation of his own life, so much 
had both she and the emperor been prejudiced 
against him by the slanders of those about 
their courts, who were now more than ever 
enraged at him, because of the recent pub- 
lication of his treatises, on the vanity of the 
sciences, and on occult philosophy. Thus, 
his seeming good fortune had only reduced 
him to greater poverty, for the emperor re- 
fused him even a pittance of his salary as 
historiographer, and he was put in prison at 
Brussels. On his liberation he went, iu 1532, 
to Cologne, where, though harassed by pe- 
cuniary difficulties, he again engaged m an 
an^ry dispute with the monks and the in- 
quisitors, who strove hard, but unsuccessfully, 
to prevent his publishing a second edition of 
his "Occult Philosophy." From 1533 to 
1535 he lived in poverty, at Bonn. In the 



AGRIPPA. 



AGRIPPA. 



latter year, aa he was on his way to Lyon, he 
was imprisoned for what he had written 
against the Princess Louisa, and soon after, 
being liberated on the petition of some friends, 
be died at Grenoble, in deep distress. 

The fortunes of Agrippa were not more 
Taried than his reputation. Sucoessire bio> 
graphers have described him as a man of 
consummate learning, as one of the brightest 
ornaments of his age, as a mere impostor 
and magician, as a heretic and a dealer 
with fiuniliar spirits. The truth is, he de- 
serves neither so much praise. nor so much 
abuse as he has received. 

The stories that were current both before 
and for some tame after his death, to prove 
that he practised sorcery, were of the most 
absurd kind. None of them were more rea- 
sonable than that which Paul Jovius re- 
cords, and which has become popular, namely, 
that a favourite black dog, which Agrippa 
always led about with him, was his fiuniliar 
spirit, and that on his death-bed, having taken 
the collar, which was covered with cabbalistic 
signs, from the dog's neck, and cursed it, as 
the author of all his evil lot, it fled, leaped 
into the Saone, and was never seen again. 
But in rejecting the slanders of Agrippa^s 
enemies, and the popular evidences of his 
having committed these impossible sins of 
sorcery, it is necessary to avoid the error into 
which M. Naud^ and some others of his de- 
fenders have fallen, of trying to prove that 
he denied or despised the arts of which he 
was accused. There is ample proof, in 
several parts of his writings, that he believed 
in, and, as fiir as he could, practised astro- 
logy and the various forms of magic, and 
that he used both to gain fiivour by promising 
to make gold, and to excite fear by threaten- 
ing to obtain the aid of evil spirits. During 
the early part at least of his life he was 
at the head of a secret society, (^EpisL 
lib. 1. L il) of which the members were scat-, 
tered in every country, and were bound by 
an oath to assist each other in acquiring for- 
tunes by promising to aid kings and nobles, 
by sending messages for them with the speed 
of magic, by transmuting metals, 'and by 
various occult arts. It was no doubt by 
means of this society that Agrippa gained 
the reputation, which he always had, of know- 
ing what was going on in other parts of 
Europe ; a knowledge which, to the ordinary 
observers of those days, was inexplicable, 
except on the supposition that his familiar 
spirits conveyed it to him. Nor was he 
careful to undeceive them ; for his profevions 
were often much greater than without super- 
natural aid he could fulfiL He says, for in- 
stance, in his ** Occult Philosophy," that he 
could make others, at the greatest distances, 
acquainted with his most secret thoughts in 
twenty -four hours ; and admits, as if with 
some regret at the narrow limit of his art, 
that it is not possible to convert any mass of 
485 



metal into a larger mass of gold. It is true that 
in his ** Vanity of the Sciences " he declaims 
against all the arts of magic ; but he does so 
in a milder tone than that which he assumes 
against the study of many genuine sciences ; 
and the evidence which even this might 
afford of his having seen his errors, is com- 
pletely neutralised by his saying, in 1531, 
of his ** Occult Philosophy," (a work contain- 
ing the whole doctrine and practice of magic,) 
that it is " the work not so much of our youib. 
as of our present days." 

But there may be much deserving of praise 
in the intellectual character of Agrippa, al- 
though he did notdiBcem the fiillacy of these, 
the ordinary errors of the time in which he 
lived. His profession of these arts was no 
proof of unusual ignorance, for the perse- 
cution which they brought upon him was 
excited, not by his credulity, but by his sus- 
pected criminality in practising what his 
enemies were convinced was possible. In all 
his works there is abundant evidence of ex- 
tensive learning, and of a very powerful and 
unfettered intellect His greatest fiiults were 
in his temper : he was rash, vain, and arro- 
gant; he delighted in being embroiled in 
quarrels ; he generally chose a subject for 
his lectures, or for his pen, which was sure to 
bring trouble on him ; and he rarely wrote 
without courting persecution, either by pic- 
turing beforehand the rage of those whom he 
opposed, or by uttering some virulent in- 
vective against them. 

The "Vanity of the Sciences," the work 
by which Agrippa is now chiefly remem- 
bered, is just such a book as might be ex- 
pected from a conceited, clever man, who 
having studied all kinds of learning, found 
himself unable to earn his bread 1^ any of 
them. Its professed object is to prove the 
** rashness and arrogant presumption of pre- 
ferring the schools of the philosophers to the 
church of Christ, and of putting the opinion 
of men before or on a level with the word of 
God." But this is only one of its subordi- 
nate purposes ; the main scope is to throw 
bitter reflections upon every art and science, 
from dancing to astronomy. There is very 
rarely any attempt at a scientific refutation 
of error ; but each subject is taken in suc- 
cession, and both the study of it, and those 
who profess to teach it, are placed in the 
most odious light. The satire, however, 
though too violent, is marked by a character 
of truth, which could only be attained by a 
man like Agrippa, who had experience and 
a clear knowledge of every suligect on which 
he wrote. 

All Agrippa's writings, though devoid of 
charity, show a remarkable earnestness in 
the defence of religion ; and it could only be 
by the most indefinite use of the term that, 
after writing his ** Vanity of the Sciences" 
and his " Occult Philosophy," he was pro- 
scribed as a heretic. He lived in communion 



AGRIPPA. 



AGRIPPA. 



with the church of Rome, but, aa might be 
expected firom the temper which he showed 
in other matten, he was opposed to both the 
Roman Catholic and the Protestant parties. 
He calk Luther an obstinate heretic; the 
inquiaitoTB, bloodthirsty vultures ; the theo- 
logians of the schools, depraved hypocrites 
and rash sophists ; and he ridicules the cur- 
rent popish legends, and the notion of the in- 
fallibility of the pope. 

Of his knowled^ of medicine there is no 
evidence beyond his own assertion of having 
practised with great success, and an unim- 
portant account of the means of preventing 
the contagion of plague. The essays cited 
by Carrere (fiibliothique de Mideciney, 
Eloy (^IHctiomnaire HitL d* la Mideeimey, 
and oUiers, as his medical works, are his 
satires upon the several classes of medical 
practitioners, in the ** Vanity of the Sciences.** 
They are, perhaps, the best of all his satirical 
works. 

All the works of Agrippa were published 
at Lyon, in 1600, with the title *' Henrid 
Comelii Agrippe ab Nettesheym . . . Opera in 
duos Tomos concinne gesta. .... Lugduni ; 
per Beringos Fratres;" and in subsequent 
editions at other places. The first volume 
includes the following essays : — ** De Oc- 
culta Philosophia Libri Tres," written in 
1510, and first published at Antwerp, in 
1531. **In (Jeomanticam Disciplinam Lec- 
tura :" **De Occulta Philosophia Liber Quar- 
tus;** an essay which first appeared about 
for^ vears aner Agrippa's death, and of 
which he was certainly not the author ( Wier, 
De Magis, p. 108.) : some essays on magic 
and similar subjects, by Pietro di Abano and 
others. The second volume contains scarcely 
any writings but those of Agrippa himself^ and 
includes the following: — **De Incertitudine 
et Yanitate Scientiarum at<^ue Artium Decla- 
matio invectiva, ceu cjmica." "Apologia 
pro Defensione Declamationis,'* &c. "In 
Artem brevem Raymundi Lullii Commen- 
taria.** " Querela super Calumnia ob editsm 
Declamationem de Yanitate Scientiarum." 
" Tabula abbreviata Comment in Artem bre- 
vem R. LulliL** " De Triplici Ratione cognos- 
cendi Deum." "Dehortatio Grentilis Theo- 
logis.** " Declamatio de Nobilitate et Pr»- 
cellentia Fceminei Sexus ;" an essay written at 
Dole, in 1509, to gain the flEivour of the 
Princess Margaret of Austria. He was pre- 
vented from publishing it at that time by his 
quarrel with the monks, and especially with 
one named Catilinetus ; and it was not printed 
till' 1529. **De Sacramento Matrimonii" 
"De Orimali Peccato." "De Yita Monas- 
tica." " De Inventione Reliquiarum B. An- 
tonii Heremitie." "Contra Pestem Antidota." 
" De beatissims Annas Mono^mia ao unico 
Puerperio Propositiones." " Defensio Pro- 
posiUonum." " Epistolarum ad Familiares, et 
eorum ad ipsum, Libri Septem.'* " Orationes 
Decem *," these are on various subjects, and 
486 



were for the most part delivered while he 
was orator of Meta. " HistorioU de dupliei 
Coronatione Carol! V." " Epigrammata non- 
nuUa." (All the circumstances of Agrippa** 
life may be collected from, the EpiioliEt^ 
they are discussed at great length by 
Bayle, Dtctumnaire Historique et Critiqme, 
Schelhom, Amcmitatea Literaria, ii. 513., 
and Goulon, Enctfclopidie Mithodique, " Medi- 
cine,** 1 L, fhmish much information respect- 
ing the several editions of his " Yanity of the 
Sciences,** and other works.) J. P. 

AGRITPA, HERO^DES C^fkiin* 'Aypht^ 
iras) L, called b^ Joeephus "the Giisat,'* 
(Jewish Axtiq. xvu. c. 2. s. 2.) was the grand- 
son of Herod t^e Great, and the son of Aris- 
tobulus and Berenice. The early part of his 
life was a series of changes and dangers^ 
He was living at Rome Portly before the 
death of Herod the Great, and was intimate 
with Drusns, son of the Emperor Tiberius. 
In consequence of his extravagance in pre- 
sents and entertainments, he was compelled 
to leave RfNne, and he retired to a tower at 
Malatha in Idumna. By the intercession of his 
wife Cypres, he obtained from Herod Anti- 
pas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Penea, a 
residence at Tiberias, where he was supported 
by Herod, till, shortly afterwards, they quar- 
relled at a fieast at Tyre, and Agrippa betook 
himself to Flaccus, the proconsul of Syria, 
whose fieivour he again lost in consequence of 
an act of corruption, which was made known 
to Flaccus by Agrippa's own brother Aris- 
tobulus. Soon after this, Agrippa went to 
Italy, having more than once been almost 
prevented from sailing by pecuniary diffi- 
culties. Having landed at Puteoli, he was 
received with great fkvour by Tiberius, who 
was then at Capree, and who gave him the 
charge of educating his grandson Tiberius. 
He soon formed an intimacy with Caius, the 
son of Germanicus (afterwards the emperor 
Caligula), in whose presence he one day- 
prayed that Tiberius might soon die and be 
succeeded by Caius. These words were re- 
peated to Tiberius, who committed Agrippa 
to prison, whero he remained till the em- 
peror's death. 

Yery soon after the accession of Caligula 
(a.d. 38), he set Agrippa at liberty, and 
gave him the tetrarohy of Philip (who 
had died in the year S3), which included 
Bataniea, Trachonitis, and Aunmitis, with 
the tide of king, and also that of Lysa- 
nias, consisting of the district of Abilene, 
which, however, though nominally conferred 
on him now, he did not actually obtain till 
the reign of Claudius. In the next year 
Ap;rippa took possession of his kingdom. 
His rise excited the envy of Herodias, the 
wife of Herod Antipas, and, at her instigation, 
Herod proceeded to Rome to petition the 
emperor to convert his tetrarohy into a kiog- 
douL He was quickly followed by a letter 
from Agrippa, accusing him of troasonable 



AGRIPPA. 



AGRIPPA. 



designs ; apon reeeiying which, Caligula de- 
posed Herod, banished him to Lyon, and 
added his tetrarchy of Galilee and Per»a to 
the kingdom of Agrippa. 

At the time of Caligula's death Agrippa 
happened to be at Rome ; and it was in a 
gfeat degree to his advice and management 
that ClMidius owed his succession to the 
empire. His services were rewarded by the 
addition of Judsea and Samaria to his king- 
dom, which now extended over the whole of 
Palestine, and included somewhat more than 
all the dominions of his grandfiUher, Herod 
tiie Great With Judsea and Samaria, which 
at the time when they were given to him 
formed the Roman province of Judsa,^ he 
received also the consular dignity. Besides 
this, Claudius made a public league with 
Agrippa in the forum, and bestowed on him 
other marks of his favour. He also gave the 
kingdom of Chakis to his brother Herod, 
and published an edict in fiivour of the 
Jews. 

Agrippa now proceeded to Jerusalem, and 
having offered sacrifices, and suspended in 
the treasury of the temple a golden chain 
which had been given him by Caius, and 
which was of the same weight as the iron 
chain with whidi he had been bound by 
Tiberius, he applied himself with vigour to 
the settlement of the religious and civil af- 
fkirs of his kingdom. He began to surround 
Jerusalem wilh fortifications, which, in the 
opinion of Josephns, would have been im- 
pregnable, had not their completion been 
prevented by his death. He showed especial 
favour to Berytus, where he built a theatre 
and amphitheatre, and exhibited contests of 
gladiators. His fk'iendship was courted by 
Sie neighbouring kings of Commagene^ 
Emesa, and Lesser Armenia, as well as by the 
Roman proconsul of Syria, all of whom were 
at one time assembled at Tiberias as his 
guests. To increase his popularity with the 
Jews, he persecuted the Christians, patting 
to death the apostle James (the bro&er (rf 
John), and imprisoning Peter, who was, how- 
ever, miraculously released. (Acts, xiL, where 
he is called Herod.) This was about the 
time of the Passover, in the year a. d. 44. In 
the same year he was exhibiting games at 
CsBsarea in honour of the emperor, and on 
the second day of the festival he had shown 
himself to the people in a robe made of silver, 
and pronounced an oration to them, when the 
rays of the sun fell on his silver robe, and 
the people shouted that he was a god, and not 
a man. In the same hour he was seized with 
a loathsome disease, which St Luke and 
Josephus both ascribe to the immediate ven- 
geance of God for his impious acceptance of 
Uie people's flattery. The former says that 
** immediately the angel of the Lord smote him, 
because he gave not God the glory ; and he 
was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost" 
(Acts, xii. S3.) Josephus repeats the words 
487 



of Agrippa himself; acknowledging the 
justice of his punishment {Jaoitk Antiq.jLVL 
c 8. a 2.) He lingered fbr five days, and died 
(a. d. 44) in the &ty-fourth year of his age, 
and the third of his reign over all Palestine. 

He left by his wife Cypros a son, named 
Agrippa, and three daughter^ Berenice, 
Mariamne, and Drusilla. Berenice was the 
wife of her ihther's brother, Herod, king of 
Chalcis. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq, xviL c. 1, 
2. ; xviii. c 5. a 4., c 6, 7, 8. xix. c. 4 — 8 ; 
Jewish War,l c28. al.,iL c9. a 5,6., c. II.; 
Dion Cassius, Ix. 8. ; Eusebius, Hist Eccles. 
ii. 10.) P. S. 

AGRIPPA, HERODES IL, son of 
Agrippa Herodes L, was only in his seven- 
teenth year when his firther died. He was 
then at Rome, under the care of the Emperor 
Claudius, who, on account of the youth of 
Agrippa, kept him with himself; and sent 
Cuspius Fadus to act as procurator of the 
kingdom, which thus again became the 
Roman province of Judsea. 

Upon the death of Herod, king of Chalcis 
(A.D. 48X Claudius gave his dominions to 
Agrippa, and with them the privilege which 
Herod had possessed, of appointing the high- 
priest, and managing the business and treasures 
of the temple. In the year 53 this kingdom 
was exclumged by Claudius for another, com- 
posed of the tetrarchies formerly held by Phi- 
lip and Lysanias, to which Nero added a part 
of Galilee, inclndmg Tiberias and Tarichese, 
together with Julias, a city of Penea, and 
fourteen villages in its neighbourhood, (a. d. 
55.) A^rq>pa did not succeed in pleasing 
either his own subjects or the Jews. The 
fbrmer were displeased at his transferring his 
residence and the wealth of his kingdom to 
Berytus ; and he offended the Jews by his 
fHendshlp for the Romans, as well as by the 
erection of rooms in the royal palace at Jeru- 
salem in such a position as to overlook the 
temple. Just before the Jewish war com- 
menced, Agrippa made a vain attempt to dis- 
suade the Jews from rebellion, in a q>eech 
which is preserved by Josephus. When the 
war broke out, he took the side of the 
Romans, and was wounded at the siege of 
Gamala. At the close of the war he retired 
to Rome, with his sister Berenice, where he 
died, at the age of nearly seventy, in the third 
year of Tngan's reign. 

This Agrippa was the king before whom 
the Apostle Paul made his celebrated defence 
in A. D. 60. (Acts, zxv. xxvi) 

He was on terms of intimacy with the his- 
torian Josephus, who asserts that the king 
wrote him sixty-two letters, of which he has 
preserved two, which speak highly of his 
history of the wars. This fiust will account 
for the evident partiality which Josephus 
displavs for both the Agrippas. (Josephus, 
Jewish Antiq, xvii c. 5. a 4., xix. c. 9. a 2., 
xz. c 1. aS., a5. a 2., c 7. a 1., c8. a 4. 11., 
c 9. a 4, ; Jewish Watj iL c. U. a 6., c. 12, 



AGRIPPA, 



AGRIPPA. 



8. 1., C 16, 17. 8. 1. iv. c 1. 8. S. ; Zi/e, s. 64. ; 
PhotiuB, Myriobibl cod. 33.) P. S. 

AGRIPPA, M. ASrNIUS. [AsfiouB.] 

AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSA'NIUS, 
the son of Lucius, was of mean parentage. 
He was bom in b. c. 63, the same year as 
Octavius, afterwards the Emperor Augustus, 
with whose career the eyents of Agrippa's 
life are inseparably connected. The Gens 
Vipsania, to which Agrippa belonged, was 
obscure, and he generally dropped this de- 
signation, and simply called himself the son 
of Lucius. 

At the time when Julius Csesar was assas- 
sinated (b. c 44), Octavius was studying 
oratory at ApoUonia in Dlyricum under 
ApoUodoms, and also waiting with the forces 
there for the arrival of Csesar to prosecute the 
war against the Dacians and Parthians. 
Salvidienus Rufus, and Agrippa, who were 
then also at Apollonia^ and the intimate 
friends of Octavius, advised him to proceed 
immediately to Italy. Octavius came to 
Rome, probably accompanied by Agrippa, 
and took possession of the property be- 
queathed to him by his uncle the Dictator, 
and assumed the name of C. Julius Csesar 
Octavianus. [Augustus,] In the year b. c. 
43, Csesar, now in the twentieth year of his 
age, was elected .consul, and his colleague 
Pedius proposed and carried a law for the trial 
of the assassins of his uncle, most of whom, 
however, had escaped from the city. Csssar 
named A^ppaas the prosecutor of C. Cassius, 
a measure which was well calculated to secure 
him to the party of Csesar, if he was not already 
mclined to embrace his cause. 

The next occasion on which we hear of 
Agrippa is during the war between Csesar 
and Lucius, the brother of Marcos Antonius, 
in which Agrippa commanded a force as a 
legatus of Csesar. Agrippa succeeded in 
frustrating the design of Lucius Antonius, 
who was attempting to prevent a junction 
between Csesar and his legate Salvidienus ; 
and with Salvidienus, Agrippa blockaded 
L. Antonius in Perusia, to which he had re- 
treated, in the hope of being able to join his 
legates Ventidius and Asinius Pollio (b. c. 4 1). 
Perusia was taken in the following year ; 
and Agrippa brought over to his side two 
of the legions which L. Plancus had left at 
Cameria. About the end of b.c. 40, Agrippa 
was sent bv Csesar to Sipontum in Southern 
Italy, which had fallen into the hands of M. 
Antonius. The old soldiers who had ob- 
tained grants of lands in Italy joined Agrippa 
in this expedition ; but on discovering that it 
was designed against M. Antonius as well as 
Sextus Pompeius, with whom Antonius had 
then allied himself^ many of them left 
Agrippa and returned to their homes. Csesar, 
however, persuaded these veterans to follow 
him to Brundisium, where Antonius had 
fortified himself ; but in the mean time 
Agrippa succeeded in recovering Sipontum, 
488 



and' peace was made between Caesar and 
Antonius. In the year b. c. 39, Csesar and 
Antonius came to terms of peace with Sextos 
Pompeius. 

Agrippa is not mentioned in the war of 
the year b. c. 38 between Csesar and Sextos 
Pompeius, in which Caesar's fleet was twice 
defeated. In b.c. 37 he was consul with 
L. Caninius Gallus : he suppressed a rising 
in Gaul, led an army across the Rhine, bein^ 
the first Roman, except Julius Csesar, who 
had ventured into the countir of the Ger- 
mans, and he defeated the AquitanL He 
was recalled by Caesar, who offered him the 
triumphal honours, which he declined ; but he 
accepted the commission to form a fleet and 
train the men to naval manoeuvres, for the 
purpose of opposing the maritime force of 
Sextus Pompeius, who now commanded the 
seas. The western coast of Italy was defi- 
cient in good harbours : Agrippa obviated 
this difficulty by constructing a new port 
The Lucrine lake on the coast of Campania 
was separated firom the Tuscan sea by a 
narrow embankment, about a Roman mile in 
length, the work of Hercules. Agrippa re- 
paii^ed the embankment, and connected it 
with the sea by two cuts, and by other cuts 
he connected the Lucrine with the neigh- 
bouring lake of Avemus. Thus, as Virgil 
says, Uie waves of the Tuscan sea were 
let into the Avemus. (Georg. ii. 163, and the 
commentators on the various passages relat- 
ing to the work of Agrippa). With that 
pnidence which characterised Agrippa daring 
all his connection with Csesar, he gave the 
honour of this great work to his master, and 
called the new harbour the Julian port By 
cutting down the sacred woods in Uie neigh- 
bourhood of the lakes, for the purpose of 
giving more easy access to them, he showed 
that he despised old superstitions when they 
interfered with his plans. Agrippa exercised 
his troops during the whole winter in all the 
necessary manoeuvres in the Julian harbour. 
About this time he married Pomponia, the 
daughter of T. Pomponius Atticus, the friend 
of Cicero ; and Csesar gave him the com- 
mand of all his naval forces, in place of 
Sabinus, with whose conduct he was dissa- 
tisfied. 

Agrippa commanded the fleet of Csesar in 
the ^Attle of Mylse on the coast of Sicily, in 
which Sextus Pompeius lost thirty ships 
(b.c. 36) ; and in the same year he defeated 
Pompey in a decisive naval battle near 
Naulochus on the coast of Sicily. This 
blow destroyed the par^ of Pompey, and 
freed Csesar fh>m one of his most dangerous 



Csesar did not grudge his general the re- 
wards that were due to his signal services ; 
and though not particularly mentioned, it 
must be assumed that Agrippa was enriched 
by his master out of the confiscated property 
which was at his disposal He also received 



AGRIPPA. 



AGRIPPA. 



ihe honour of a naval CT<>wn, a distinction 
for the first time conferred on him ; or, ac- 
cording to some anthorities, it was first given 
by Pompey the Great to M. Varro. ( VeUeios 
-Paterculus, ii 81. ; PliAy* HisL Nat xvi. 4.) 
Agrippa accompaiiied Ciesar as his legates 
in the expedition into Dlyricum (b. c. 35) 
a^nst the lapyds, DalTnatians, and Panno- 
nians. 

In the year B.C. 33, in the second consul- 
ship of CsBsar, Agrippa, thoogh he had been 
consul, voluntarily accepted the ssdlleship, 
and his munificent expenditure in that office 
was long remembered by the Romans : he 
repaired roads and public buildings at his 
own expense ; he restored the aqueducts 
called the Appian, Marcian, and Anienian, 
which were greatly dilapidated; and he 
brought to Rome a new supply of water from 
the Tepula by an aqueduct fifteen miles in 
length, to wluch, with his usual prudence, he 
gave the name of Julian. He made seven 
hundred reservoirs (lacus), one hundred and 
iive running conduits (salientes), and one 
hundred and thirty great heads of water (cas- 
tella). This abundant supply was still fhr- 
ther increased under the early emperors, and 
Pliny might justly say that there was no- 
thing in the world more worthy of admiration 
than the hydraulic works of Rome. Agrippa 
also swept away the rubbish that had ac- 
cumulated in the great CloacsB of Tarquinius 
Priscus, by driying seven streams of water 
through them ; and he himself ventured to 
navigate these subterraneous channels, and 
to penetrate from beneath the foundations of 
the city into the stream of the Tiber. (Fron- 
tiaus, De Aqmaduct, c. 9. ; Pliny, HtMt Nat 
xxxvL 15). Agrippa was a man of taste as 
well as of grand conceptions : he adorned 
his great works with numerous statnes and 
marble columns, and his sdileship was the 
beginning of the splendour of imperial 
Rome, in addition to these works of public 
utility, the ^ople were gratified with ochibi- 
tions of various kinds for fifty-nine days, and 
one hundred and seventy baths were open 
gratuitously during the year of his edileship. 

When the war broke out between Cesar 
and M. Antonins (b.c. 82), Agrippa was 

r'n employed in the command of the fleet 
took Methone in the Peloponnesus, 
which contained a garrison on Antony's side ; 
and he afterwards captured Lencas with the 
ships of the enemy which were stationed 
there, and Patne and Corinth. At the battle of 
Actium (b.c. 31), Agrippa conmianded the 
fleet of Cffisar, with M. Luriusand L. Arrun- 
tins under him. Cesar himself had no par- 
ticular post, but went about where his 
presence might seem necessary. The victory 
was due to the skill of Aip-ippa and the 
discipline of his troops, for in number and 
magnitude of vessels the fleet of Antony 
had the advantage. Shortly after the battle 
the army of Antony surrexidercd to Cesar, 



whom from this time we maj designate by 
the name of Augustus, a title which the 
senate conferred on bun four years later, 
during the third consulship of Agrippa. 
After the battle of Actium, Agrippa was sent 
to. Italy to keep things quiet, while Augustus 
made a progress through Greece, and he does 
not appear to have been 'm Egypt in the year 
A.l>. 30, when the triumph of Augustus was 
completed by the death of Antony and Cleo- 
patra. 

In B. c. 28 Agrippa was the colleague of 
Augustus in his sixth consulship, during 
which a census was made. About this time 
also he received in marriage Marcella, the 
niece of Augustus and the daughter of his 
sister Octavia. It does not appear whether 
Pom^nia was dead or was divorced on the 
occasion. In b.c. 27 Augustus had again 
Agrippa for his colleague in the consulship. 
The third consulship of Agrippa was sig- 
nalised by other works of ornament or utility, 
among which the Pantheon still bears the 
inscription which commemorates its muni- 
ficent founder : ** M. Agrippa L. F. Cos. 
Tertium fecit** A statue of the dictator 
Cesar was placed in the temple, and statues 
of Augustus and Agrippa in the portica The 
construction of the piazza (porticus) in com- 
memoration of hiB naval victories, which was 
adorned with a picture of the Argonauts, be- 
longs probably to the same period. Lepi- 
dus had erected a place in the Campus 
Martins with piazzas for the convenience of 
holding the comitia : Agrippa cased it with 
marble, or perhaps stucco, and adorned it 
with statues and painting : he bestowed on 
it the name of Septa Julia, still adhering to 
his old caution of giving all the honour of 
his works to Augustus. 

Agrippa was with Augustus in the Can- 
tabrian war (b.c 25), but he was not always 
absent from Rome ; for, on the occasion of 
Julia the emperor's daughter being married 
to her cousm Marcellus, Agrippa represented 
the emperor, who was not present That 
Agrippa might now aspire to succeed Au- 
gustus, seems not improbable, for the Julian 
house had nothing of the character of here- 
ditary title, and Augustus had never a£Pected 
to exercise any powers, except with the con- 
sent of the senate. But Marcellus, the son 
of Octavia, by his proximity of blood and 
his recent marriage with Julia, seemed desig- 
nated as his successor, and a jealousy arose 
between him and Agrippa. This jealousy 
was increased by the circumstance that Au- 
gustus, in a severe illness, when he was 
exi>ecied to die, had given Agrippa his rmg, 
which at least was a token of confidence in 
his fiuthfhl friend. On the recovery of Au- 
gustus, Agrippa was sent to the government 
of Syria, which he considered only as an 
honourable exile ; but he went no ftirther 
than Mitylene in Lesbos, and administered 
the province by his legate. The death of 

ILK 



AORIPPA. 



AQRIPPA. 



BbroeUiity which toon followed (b.c 23^ 
and the difficoltj which Augoftiis felt in 
keeping things qniet at Rome while he wat 
aheent in the prorinoes, led to the recall of 
Agrippa, and to his nearer alliance with 
Augustus. Agrippa divorced his wife Bfar^ 
cells, a matter to which the Romui law 
gave CTery facility, and married Jnlia, the 
widow of MaroeUos (b.c. 91), who was then 
about nineteen jrears of age. It is said that 
Aujpistus was induced, by the advice of 
Mfecenas, to ally himself Uins closely with 
Agrippa : he had made Agrippa so power- 
Ail, observed Macenas, that he must be 
either the emperor's son-in-law, or must be 
removed. Octavia, the mother of Marcella, 
who was said to have advised or to have 
consented to this match, soon found a new 
husband for her dan^ter. Agrippa was also 
made prsfectus urbi, in which capacity he 
set himself aboat restoring tranquillity with 
his usual promptitude and success. 

In the year b.c. 19 Agrippa was sent into 
Gaul, where he speedily settled the disputes 
among the leaders of the ftctions, and checked 
the incursions c^ the Germans. An out- 
break of the Cantabrians next required his 
presence in Spain, and it demanded all the 
activity and skill of the general to crush this 
dangerous enemy. After slaughtering nearly 
all their young men, deprivmg the rest of 
their arms, and bringing them from the 
mountains to the plains, Agrippa restored 
tranquillity to Spain. But he still persevered 
in his cautious policy : he sent no letters to 
the senate to announce his victories, and he 
refused the honour of a triumph. The aque- 
duct, called the Aqua Virgo, now the Acqua 
Vergine, and the best aqueduct of modem 
Rome, was constructed in this year by 
Agrippa, and received Arom him the name 
of Augusta. Pliny refers this work to the 
fedileship of Agrippa, in which he differs 
from Frontinus and Dion Cassius. 

In the followinj^ year (b. c. 18) Agrippa 
was associated with Augustus in the tri- 
bunitian power for five years ; and with the 
assistance of his fluthfol adviser Augustus 
accomplished the olgect which he had kmg 
designed, of purgins the senate, which he 
reduced to the number of six hundred. In 
the year b. o. 17 Augustus and Agrippa 
celebrated the secular games with great nag- 
nifioenoe. Julia had already brought her 
husband a son. Gains, and another was bom 
in this year and received the name of Lu- 
cius. Both the boys were now adopted by 
Augustus, who had no children by Livia, 
and hence they are known in history by the 
names of Cams and Lucius Caesar. The 
legal effect of this adoption was to give the 
two children of Agnppa the same rights 
that a natural-bom son of An^;ustns would 
have, and consequently from this time Cains 
and Lucius Gmar were (in the Roman 
sense) heirs of whatever Augustus might 
490 



have to dispose o£ At the dose of this Tear 
Agrippa was sent by Augustus into Asia, 
while he himself went into GanL Herod 
the Great, king of Judoa, had experienced 
the good oAoes of Agrippa on several oeca^ 
sions, and on hearing of his arrival in Ionia, 
he came and invited him to visit hu kingdom 
of Judsea. Agrippa accepted the invitation, 
and was entertained with £[reat magnificence. 
He visited the sacred city of Jerasalem, 
where he offered a hecatomb to the Deity, 
(r^ ;^«^, as Josephus expresses it,) and 
feasted the people. It was probably during 
this visit to Syria that Agrippa settled the 
military colony of Berytus (Beyrout) in 
Phcenicia, as appears from his medals. 
Agrippa returned to Ionia, and in the fol- 
lowing spring his friend Herod pwl him 
another visit Herod expected to find 
Agrippa m Lesbos, bat he had sailed into 
the Black Sea to setUe the war between Pole- 
mon and the Bosporani, and Herod found 
hun at Sinope. Agrippa compelled the Bos- 
porani to restore the Roman standards taken 
by Bfithridates, and to accept Polemon for 
their king, upon which he and Herod re- 
turned to Ionia by land. On two occasions 
Herod exerted his influence with Agrippa in 
a manner that was honourable to bo£L Julia, 
who had accompanied Agrippa into Asia, 
had ran some risk of being drowned in ford- 
ing the Scamander by night, on her way to 
Ilium, the river being swollen by the winter 
rains. Agrippa imposed a heavy fine on the 
people of Dium for their alleged neglect in 
this matter, bat it was remitted at the inter- 
cession of Herod. There were at this time 
many Jews settled in the Ionian cities, who 
complained that they were not allowed by 
the Greeks to follow their own usages ; that 
they were obliged to attend the courts on 
their sacred days, and were plondered of the 
money which they saved to send to Jerasa- 
lem ; and that they were compelled to serve 
in the army and discharge various duties, 
from which they claimed exemption, as the 
Romans had given them permission to live 
according to their own usages. Nicolaus of 
Damascus, a friend of Herod, pleaded the 
cause of the Jews before Agrippa, who de- 
clared that in respect of Herod*6 friendship, 
he would grant the Jews anything, that 
their demands were Jnst, and that he woold 
grant even more, if it could be done wtthoot 

Sr^udioe to the Roman state ; but now the 
ews only asked for the confirmation of what 
had been already given, and accordingly he 
confirmed their privileges, (Josephus, 
Jewish Antiq, xvi 2.) 

Agrippa returned from Asia in the same 
year in which Cttsar returned to Rome from 
Gaul (a c. IS). As a reward for his ser- 
vices, Agrippa's tribunitian power was pro- 
longed for five years. He was sent in the 
winter season to put down some disturbances 
in Pannonia, which he easily effected. After 



AGRIPPA. 

his retnni, he Tinted Campanm, where he 
died after a short iUneas, in the month of 
March, B.C. 12, m the fifty-first year of his 
age. Augustus, who was celebrating the 
games called Qiunquatria at Rome in honour 
of his two adopted sons, hastened to see him, 
but Agrippa died before he arrived. 

The body of Agrippa was carried to Rome, 
and a funeral oration was pronounced over 
it in the forum by Augustus. His remains 
were placed in the tomb which Augustus had 
built for himself, and which already con- 
tained the ashes of Maroellus. Agrippa be- 
queathed to the people ibr their use the baths 
which were called after his name, and to 
Augustus certain estates for the purpose of 
keeping them in repair. Of his immense 
possessions the Thracian Chersonese came 
to Augustus, but how Agrippa had become 
possessed of this extensive tract is not dearly 
explained. 

Agrippa had by his first wife a dan|^h- 
ter, Vipsania, who was married to Tibenus 
Nero Ccesar, the successor of Augustus ; on 
being divorced ftom Tiberius, she married 
Asinius Oallus. Suetonius says that he had 
children by his second wife Bfarcella, but no 
names are mentioned. By Julia he had 
three sons, Caius and Lucius, and Agrippa 
Postumns, bom after his death ; and two 
daughters, Julia and Agrippina. Julia mar- 
ried lb .^milius Paulus, and Agrippina mar- 
ried Germanicus. 

There are numerous medals of A^ippa ; 
sometimes he is represented with his head 
bare, sometimes adorned with a corona ros- 
trata, and sometimes both with a mural and 
naval crown. Neptune and the dolphin ap- 
pear on some of his medals, a symbol of his 
success by seiy On some of the coins of 
Nimes (Nemansus) his head and that of Au- 
gustus are on the same fiuse of the^ medaL 
One of his medals commemorates his third 
consulship, and his tribunitian power. A 
medal of Alabanda in Caria bears the heads 
of his sons Gains and Lucius, and that of 
Agrippa decorated with a corona rostrata. 
•Agrippa is mentioned several times by 
Horace, and in the sixth ode of the first 
book, which is addressed to him, the name 
of Agrippa is associated with that of Caesar. 

If we possessed a life of Agrippa, like that 
of Agricola by Tacitus, we might have the 
means of estimating his character with more 
certainty and less labour. But the events of 
Agrippa's active life of thirty years must be 
ooUected f^-om numerous scattered passages, 
and it is only bv putting them together and 
viewing them m relation to Augustus that 
we can form a Just judgment A Agrippa. 
To his fidelity, energy, and ^reat abiliues, 
both military and administrative, Augustus 
imdonbtedly owed in a great degree the 
establishment and the consolidation of his 
power. The two youths began their career 
'together at the age of twen ty ^ and their 
491 



AGRIPPA, 

friendship never sustained any material in^ 
terruptioD. Agrippa and Cesar well under- 
stood each ouer. Csesar valued him for 
his fidelity and abilities ; and Agrippa was 
apparently attached to Caesar by motives 
stronger than his own personal aggrandise- 
ment But he well knew his jealous temper, 
that he would bear no rival near him ; and, 
content with the real advantages of his posi- 
tion, he avoided all cause of offence. Dion 
Cassius (lib. 51.), in a long rhetorical hft- 
nngue, makes Agrippa recommend Augustus 
to restore the commonwealth, while Maece- 
nas argues against it These speeches are 
worthless as materials for history ; but it may- 
be admitted that there is at least so much 
fbundation for them as a belief that Agrippa 
had reoonmaended this policy. But we luive 
not the slightest indication that Agrippa ever 
thought of attempting a restoration of the 
commonwealth, or ^ing the fortune of his 
obscure fimiily against that of the Julian 
house. The close alliance which Augustus 
ultimately formed with him probably ftilly 
satisfied the hopes and wishes of Agrippa, 
whose blood thus became mingled with that 
of the Caesars. All his sons died childless ; 
but his daughter Agrippina became the mo- 
ther of another Agrippina, who was the 
mother of the emperor Nero, and in him the 
fiunil^ of the Dictator became extinct If 
we view Agrippa with reference to his active 
life, the circumstances of the times, and his 
relation to the imperial ihmily of the Caesars, 
his must be admitted to be one of the most 
illustrious niqnes in the annals of Rome. No 
vice is imputed to him. His great works 
attest his unbounded liberality and his en- 
larged and magnificent conceptions, for which 
we have the further testimony of Pliny 
(Hist Nat, zxxv. 4.), who says that he re- 
commended that all statues and paintings 
should be thrown open to the public, instead 
of being shut up in the obscurity of country 
residences. The rusticity of his manners, 
which Pliny speaks o^ is not inconsistent 
with a refined taste in the arts and a love of 
splendour. 

The assertion that Agrippa published a 
statistical survey of the empire is not 
founded on sufficient authority. It is proba- 
ble that he may have taken an active part in 
the survey commenced in the time of Julius 
Caesar, and completed under Angustus[iETHi- 
cus] ; and we are informed that he designed 
to inake a representation of the world on a 
portico, which was completed by Augustus 
and his sister in the portico called Octavia. 
This matter is fiulher discussed under Am- 
TONiMns. (Dion Cassius, lib. 45 — 54. ; Livy, 
Epitome, 117— 136.? Velleius Paterculus, ii* ; 
Tacitus, Annul, I ; Appian, Civil War»^ 

AGRIPPA, MENETJIUS LANA'TUS^ 
was consul in b. c' 503, in which year he ob- 
tained a brilliant victory over the 8abines» and 

KK 2 



AGRIPPA, 



A6RIPPA« 



his trimnph was remarkable for the distmc- 
tiom. made between hit colleague Poatomimi 
Tubertus and himaelt Tuberto^ who bad 
nearly sacrificed his armj by a rash pursuit 
of the enemy, was allowed only an ovation, 
while Agrippa enjoyed the fiiU honours of 
a successfhl generaL Agrippa is, howeyer, 
better remembered from the part he took in 
reconciling the commons to the patricians ; 
when the former, to avoid their debts and 
the harshness of their creditors, had retired 
to the Sacred Hill, and fortified the Aventme. 
He was acceptable to the commons for his 
lenient and liberal temper, the simplicity of 
his life, and his abstinence from usury. 
As the delegate of the senate he related to 
the seceders the fkble of the belly and the 
members. The members, dissatisfied with 
the apparent indolence of the belly, refused 
to contribute any longer to its nourishment 
and motion. But when they felt hunger and 
exhaustion, they found that if the^ assisted 
the belly, the belly was no less serviceable to 
themselves in distributing aliment and warmth 
to all parts of the body. The conmions were 
the members, the senate the belly. The 
commons, however, whatever may have been 
the effects of A^ippa's persuasions, gained 
by their secession something more sub- 
stantial than an apologue, since from this 
period they had magistrates of their own, 
the tribunes, whose persons were inviolable, 
and whose restrictive and protective powers 
were extensive. Agrippa died in b.c. 493, 
and, according to the common account, in 
such poverty, that the patricians and plebeians 
vied with one another in defraying the cost 
of his funeraL But a public ftmeral was 
sometimes assigned as a recompence for 
illustrious actions, or for eminent private vir- 
tues, and does not necessarily imply the in- 
digence of the deceased. (Dionysius Halicar- 
nassus, v. 44. ; vL 83 — 89. 96. ; Livy, ii. 16. 
32, 33. ; Floras, L 23.; Aurelius Victor, De Viris 
IllusL 18. ; Valerius Maximus, viiL 9. 1.) 

The origin and meaninff of the surname 
Agrippa are explained, &ough with some 
discrepancies, by Pliny, Solinus, and Aulus 
Oellius. It signified a false presentation at 
birth. In the mythical portion of Roman 
history it occurs as the surname of an Alban 
king, and in the later periods is annexed to the 
gentile names, Furius, Menenins, Postnmus, 
&c Cicero speaks of a Menenian tribe. 
(Ad DivcTMos, xiii. 9. 2.) W. B. D. 

AGRIPPA PO'STUMUS was a pos- 
thumous son, as the name Postnmus imports, 
of M. Vipsanius Agrippa, by his third wife, 
Julia, the daughter of Augustus. His ikther 
Agrippa died b.c. 12. Agrippa Postumus 
was adopted by his grandftther Augustus 
on the same day wiUi his step-son Tiberius, 
the fhture emperor. Agrippa afterwards 
incurred the displeasure of Aug^nstus, and he 
was banished by him, under the authority of 
ft Senatusconsultnm, to the island Planasia. 
492 



Tabitiu attributes his banishment to the In- 
fluence of Livia over the aged emfemt : k 
is true that he was a youth of uncultivated 
tastes, and prided himself absurdly on his 
great bodily strength, but he had been guilty 
of no flagrant offence. For his vicious pro- 

gsnsities we have the doubtfU evidence of 
aterculus. There was a report that Au- 
gustus secretly paid a visit a few months 
before his death to Agrippa, now his only 
remaining grandson^ and that the emperor 
and Agrippa were both deeply affected at 
the interview. This circumstance led to 
some expectation of his being recalled ; and 
the tBiCt of the visit became known to Livia. 
On the death of Augustus (a.i>. 14), the 
first act of his successor, Tiberius, was to 
order Agrippa to be put to death. Agrippa 
was executed by a centurion, who despatebed 
him, not without difficulty, though he was 
unarmed. Tiberius alleged that Augustus 
left orders to the tribune who had mm in 
custody to put him to death as soon as he 
himself expired ; and on the centurion (or 
the tribune, according to Suetonius) report- 
ing to Tiberius, in &e usual form, that he 
had executed his commands, the emperor 
replied that He had given no orders for his 
execution, and that the centurion most 
answer for it to the senate. But it was the 
opinion of Tacitus that the death of Agrippa 
was due to the fears of Tiberius, and the 
jealousy of his mother Livia. (Tacitus, An^ 
noL L 3, &c. ; Velleius Patenmlus, ii. 104. 
112. ; Suetonius, Augustus^ 64,65., Tiberiuti 
22. ; Dion Cassius, lib. 54, 55. 57.) 

About two years after the death at Agrippa, 
an impostor appeared under his name. A slave 
of Agrippa, called Clemens, on hearing of 
the death of Augustus, had sailed to Planssia 
with the intention of carrying off Agrippa to 
the German armies ; but he came too late. 
As he resembled Agrippa in person, and was 
about the same age, he formed the design of 
passing himself off as the grandson of Au- 
gustus. With the aid of some associates he 
spread about a report that Agrippa was alive, 
and he contrived to strengthen ibe popular 
belief by showing himself occasionally and 
never staying long in a place. At laiBt he 
landed at Ostia, where he was received by 
preat crowds, and there were secret meetings 
m Rome of his adherents. Tiberius, after 
some hesitation how he should deal wiUi such 
a pretender, at last thought it wiser to employ 
artifice than force. Clemens was seised by 
two persons who had insinuated themselves 
into his confidence, and carried into the 
presence of Tiberius. On being asked by Ti- 
berius how he came to be Agrippa, he an- 
swered, •• In the same way that you became 
Cflesar." Torture fiiiled to extract firom him 
the names of his associates. The emperor 
ordered him to be put to death in the palace, 
and his body to be secretlv disposed of. 
Though many persons of high rank were 



AORIPPA. 



AGRIPPtNA; 



9aid to be implicated in the afEur of Clemens, 
DO ftirther mquiry was made. Tiberius 
judged it prudent to let the whole matter be 
forgotten ; and his conduct on this occasion, 
and on the death of Agrippa, makes it pro- 
bable that he was guilty of the crime which 
Tacitus imputes to him. 

The name of Agrippa Cesar occurs on a 
medal of Corinth. (Tacitus, Annal iL 39. ; 
Dion Cassius, lib. 57.) G. L. 

AGRIPPrNA L, the daughter of M. Vip- 
sanius Agrippa and of Julia, was bom some 
time before b. c. 12. [ Agbippa.] She mar- 
ried Cesar Germamcus, the son of Drusus 
Nero Germanicus, and the nephew of Tibe- 
rius, afterwards emperor. At the time of the 
death of Augustus (a. d. 14) she had already 
several children. 

Augustus brought up his daughter and 
grand-daughters with great strictness, and 
even had them taught to spin wooL He re- 
quired a register to be kept of all that they 
did and said, and they only saw the members 
of his own fiunily. Agrippina appears to have 
been a fitvourite wi£ Augustus ; an affec- 
tionate letter written to her a few months 
before his death is preserved in Suetonins 
(^CaUgula, c. 8.) ; and in another, written at 
some earlier date, in which he praises her 
natural talents, he bids her be carefiil to avoid 
obscurity and circumlocution both in writing 
and speaking. 

Agrippina was with her husband on the 
Rhine when the German legions mutinied on 
hearing of the death of Augustus (a. d. 14), 
and wished to raise C^rmanicns to the im- 
perial power. In these trying circumstances, 
Agrippina showed herself worthy of her 
Ulustrious descent ; and in the followine year 
her heroic spirit saved the honour of Rome. 
A Roman force under Cacina, which Ger- 
manicus had left behind him in an incursion 
into Germany, fell in with Arminius, and 
defeated him, but not without loss. A rumour 
spread that the Roman army was surrounded, 
and that the Germans were marching upon 
Gaul. In the alarm it was proposed to 
destroy the bridge over the Rhine, which 
would have cut off the retreat of the Romans, 
who were on the east side of the river. In 
the absence of her husband, Agrippina per- 
formed the duties of the commander-in-chief. 
She took her station at the head of the bridge, 
and thanked the returning legions as they 
crossed it ; and she distributed clothing and 
dressings for their wounds among the soldiers. 
The suspicious temper of Tiberius took alarm 
at the influence which such a woman might 
exercise over the legions ; but he concealed 
his fears and Jealousy, and wrote both to 
Agrippina and her husband in friendly 
terms. Germanicus was shortly after re- 
moved fh>m the command of the German 
army, and sent Into the East (a. d. 17), where 
his wife accompanied him. 

Germanicus died at Antioch (a. d. 19). 
493 



The hnaiediate Cause of hia death is oncef- 
tain, but he and his friends believed that he 
fell a victim to thetreachery of Piso. On his 
deathbed he reconlmended to the Roman 
people his wifb and his six children ; and he 
entreated Agrippina to tame her haughty 
temper, to subinit to her fortune, and not to 
irritate her powerfhl enemies at Rome. He 
alluded particQlarly to Livia, the emperor's 
mother, who could not brook the proud bear- 
ing of Agrippina. 

On her return from the East, Agrippina, 
with two of her children, landed at Brun- 
disium in the sight of a great concourse 
of spectators, holding in her arms the urn 
which contained the ashes ot her husband. 
Tacitus (^Ann. iL 1.) has made the landing of 
Agrippina and the fhneral procession to 
Rotic the sutgect of one of his historical 
pictures. The jealous emperor ordered all 
due honours to be paid to the remains of 
Germanicus, and he sent two pnetorian 
cohorts to accompany them from Brundisium 
to Rome. Drusus the son of Tiberius, and 
Claudius the brother of Germanicus, with 
the children of Germanicus who had remained 
at Rome, met the procession at Tarracina ; 
and the consuls, the senate, and the Roman 
people crowded the approach to Rome. The 
remains of Germanicus were placed in the 
mausoleum of Augustus. Tiberius and his 
mother did not show themselves during the 
ceremony ; and the emperor, who is suspected 
of being pleased to see Germanicus removed, 
found fresh causes of jealousy in the occur- 
rences of the fVmeraL The people addressed 
Agrippina as the ornament of their country, 
the sole remaining descendant of Augustus, 
the only true model of an ancient Roman 
matron ; they prayed that her children might 
live and escape all dangers. 

Tiberius for a time concealed his hatred of 
Agrippina. On the occasion of Nero, the 
eldest son of Agrippina, attaining the age of 
puberty (fourteen years), the emperor went 
through the form of asking permission of the 
senate to allow Nero to become a candidate 
for the questorship five years before the legal 
time. Nero was uso made a member of the 
college of pontifices. On the first day of his 
appearing m the forum, one of the usual 
ceremonies on assuming the toga virilis, the 
people received presents, and were delighted 
to see the son of Germanicus arrived at man's 
estate. Their satisfhction was increased by his 
marriage with Julia, the daughter of Drusus, 
though they looked with displeasure on the 
intended marriage between a daughter of 
Sejanus and Drusus the son of Claudius, the 
brother of Germanicus. Drusus, the second 
son of Agrippina, assumed the toga virilis 
(a. d. 23), and received the same honours as 
his brother. On this occasion, the emperor, 
in his address to the senate, commended the 
fhitemal care which his own son Drusus 
showed to the children of Germanicus, hia 
XK 3 



aorii>pina: 

brother by adoption ; and it is said that 
Dnxsus was in &ct well disposed to his 
nephews. 

The first attack on Agrippina was made 
through her cousin Claudia Fulcra, who was 
accused of adultery and of a design against 
the life of Tiberius. Domitius Afer was the 
accuser. [Afer.] Agrippina told the em- 
peror that the rc»l gndt of Fulcra was her 
mtimacy with herself. Tiberius, though ac- 
customed to dissemble, retorted by a Greek 
Terse, the import of which was, that he sus- 
pected Agrippina of aiming at his power. 
Fulcra and Fumius, the alleged adulterer, 
were convicted. In a subsequent interview 
with the emperor, Agrippina complained 
of her lonely situation, and asked the em- 
peror to give her a husband, which was 
equivalent to asking his permission to marry; 
but Tiberius feared to give the grand-daughter 
of Augustus another husband, and he left her 
wiUiout making a reply. Sejanus widened 
the breach by persuading Agrippina that 
Tiberius had a design to poison her ; and 
Agrippina, who never concealed anything, 
showed her suspicions by refbsing some apples 
at the table of Tiberius which the emperor 
offered her with his own hand. Tiberius 
remarked to his mother that it could not be 
surprising if he took severe measures against 
a woman who treated him as a poisoner ; and 
it was soon rumoured that he designed to get 
rid of her privately. Suetonius (77ieriitf, 
c. 53.) says that the whole was a scheme of 
the emperor's to give him some handle against 
her ; that he had contrived that she should be 
warned of the danger of taking anything at 
his table. 

By the death of Livia, both Sejanus and 
Tiberius were freed from the restraint which 
that haughty woman exercised over them. 
Tiberius addressed a letter to the senate, in 
which he complained bitterly of Nero and his 
mother Agrippina. He oould not accuse the 
youth of any rebellious designs ; the char^ 
against him was his dissolute life. He did 
not venture to attack the character of Agrip- 
pina ; he accused her of pride and obstiniacy. 
The senate house was surrounded on the 
occasion bv the populace, who carried the 
effigies of Agrippma and Nero, and called out 
that the letter addressed to the senate was 
a forgery, and that the emperor was no party 
to this conspiracy against his own fiunily. 
Agrippina, however, was banished to the 
island of Pandataria, where her mother, Julia, 
had died in exile. Suetonius adds, that as 
she was heaping abuse on Tiberius, a cen- 
turion gave her a blow and struck out one of 
her eyes. Nero was banished by a Senatus- 
consultum to the island of Fontia, where he 
died either of starvation or by his own hand. 
He had long been an object of hatred to 
S^anus and Tiberius ; he had been provoked 
to utter some indiscreet expressions, which 
bad been carefully reported to th9 emperor, 
494 



AORtPPlKA. 

and his own wife and hiis brother thtisas imi 
betrayed him. Dmsus had none of the 
virtues of his father or mother; he was 
Jealous of his elder brother, and glad to see 
him removed out of the way of his ambition. 
But Dmsus himself was imprisoned shortly 
after in the palace, apparently before the 
death of Sejanus, and in the year ▲. d. 33 he 
was starved to death. All his actions and 
expressions had for many years been re- 
ported aad registered, and the emperor did 
not scruple to make publie this record of his 
own infiuny, and with it the particulars of the 
insults to which his dyiag gnmdson had beoi 
sul^ected. Agrippina survived both her sons. 
After the down&il of S^anns (a.]>. 91)» 
Tiberius did not relent, and Agrippina either 
put an end to her life or was starved to deadk 
by order of the emperor. Tiberius accused 
her of adultery with Asinins Gallus; but 
^ Agrippina," observes Tacitus, **• who could 
not bear an equal, and was most ambitious 
of power, had divested herself of all the 
vices of a woman when she assumed the 
character of a man." The emperor took 
credit for not itrangliag her and publicly 
exposing her body ; wad the senate made an 
order that the day of her death, which was 
also the anniversary of the downfidl of Se- 
janus, should be samd to Jupiter. 

Agrippina had nine children by Germani- 
cus. Two died in their infancy. A third died 
in his boyhood, a youth of singular beauty ; 
his great-f^randmother Livia dedicated a 
statue of lum in the character of a cupid in 
the temple of the Capitoline Venus, and Au- 

Cis had another statue in his bed-chamber, 
other six children were, Nero ; Dmsus ; 
Cains, afterwards the Emperor Caligula; 
Agrippina, the mother of the Emperor Nero ; 
Drasilla, who married L. Cassius, and after- 
wards M. ^milins Lepidus ; and Livia, or 
Livilla, whom Tacitus calls Julia, who mar- 
ried M. Vinicius. 

When Caligula became emperor, he brouffht 
the ashes of his mother Agrippina and nia 
brother Nero to Rome. He also struck 
medals in honour of her memory (Memorias 
Aobifpinae). On some medals of the time of 
Caligula the head of Agrippina and her son 
are on the opposite sides of the same medal ; 
and, what seems rather singular, we find also 
the heads of Tiberius and Agrippina simi- 
larly placed on the same medal. On some 
Greek medals, which also belong to the reign 
of Caligula, Agrippina appears with the in- 
scription, OEA (Diva). (Tacitus, AnnaL L — 
vL ; Suetonius, ^i^itf^ Tiberiys, Califfuh,) 

G. L. 
AGRIFPI'NA II. was the daughter of 
Agrippina and Germanicus. She was bom 
in the Oppidum Ubiorum (now Cologne) 
while her fother had the command of the 
legions there ; and accordingly the year of 
her birth is before A. n. 17. [ Agrippina.] 
She married Cueius DoniitiDS Ahenobarbus, 



AGRIPPINA. 



AGRIPPINA. 



•who was of a noUe ftmily and allied to the 
Ciesan, in the year a. d. 28, according to 
Tacitus. Acoot^ing to Snetonins, their son 
Doinititts (sfterwards Nero) was not bom till 
the close of a.d. 87, or the beginning of a.d. 
88, and the date of Nero's birth is confirmed 
b^ Taoitns. Domitios, who was an nnprin- 
eipled man, ez]pressed a just judgment of him- 
self and his wife, when he said that nothing 
good could come from him and Agrippina. 
Domitius died when his son was three years 
old, and Agrippina, after attempting to get for 
her husband Galba (the foture emperor), who 
was then a widower, married Cnspus Pas- 
sienns, who had been twice consul, uid was a 
distinguished orator. It has been sometimes 
doubted if Crispus was the first or the seo(»d 
husband of Agrippina; but if Suetonius is 
correct in calling Crispus the step-father of 
Nero, he must have been her second husband ; 
and this is consistent with the fad stated br 
Suetonius, that Nero recovered his fiither^i 
property after Claadius became emperor, and 
that he was also enriched by the inheritance 
of Passienus, whom Agrippina is accused of 
poisoning. Agrippina is said to have com- 
mitted adultery with M. JEmilius Lepidus, 
the husband of her sister I>rusilla, and to 
have had an incestuous interoourM with her 
brother Caius Caligula, the emperor. Ca- 
ligula afterwards bwaished his sisters Livilla 
(Julia) and Agrippina to P<mtia, on the 
ground of their criminal intercourse with 
Lepidus ; and when Lepidus was put to death 
by the order of Caligula, he compdled 
Agrippina to come to Rome, and to carry all 
the way the urn which contained the ashes of 
Lepidus. Agrippina was recalled fh>m exile 
in the begximinf^ of the rei^ of Claudius. 
Messalina, the wife of Claudius, hated Agrip- 
pina, but she was too much occupied with 
her passion for C. Silius to work Agrippina's 
ruin. The death of Messalina opened the 
way to the ambition of Agrippina, and, with 
the assistance of Pallas, the favourite fireed- 
man of Claudius, she persuaded her unde 
Claudius to marry her. Lollia Paullina was 
her chief rii^ for the hand of the emperor, 
but the influence of Pallas and the arts of 
Agrippina, whose relationship to the emperor 
allowed her ready access to him, preyed 
over all other competitors. (▲. d. 50.) 

Claudius and Agrippina had no scruples 
about cohabiting, hoi they did not venture 
to aolemniae their marriage, for there had 
never yet been an example at Rome of an 
uncle marrying his niece. Vitellius under- 
took to manage the matter. He addressed 
the senate on Uie proposed marriage, to which 
that body gave their sanction. The aenate 
•ven jpretended that they would compel 
Claudius to a union so advantageous to the 
state ; and the emperor affected to yield : he 
only required a legal sanction to his marriage. 
Aooordingly a Senatnsconsultnm was passed, 
by which marriagea between lodea and their 
495 



brothers' danghters were declared legal. 
Only one Roman at the time followed the 
example, to please Agrippina, as it was said ; 
and the Emperor Domitian afterwards mar- 
ried Julia, the daughter of his brother Titus. 
But the Romans looked on such unions as 
incestuous ; and, keeping to the letter of the 
law, their jurists never acknowledged the 
validity of a marriage even between an uncle 
and his sister's daughter. (Tacit, ^aii. xiL 5. ; 
Gaius, L 63.) 

Agrippina's rapadty and ambition were 
unrestrained by any scruples. She first 
effected the ruin of L. Silanus, to whom Oc- 
tavia, the daughter of Claudius, had been 
betrothed, and Octavia was then betrothed to 
Agrippina's son Dcmiitius. She obtained the 
recall of Seneca fkt>m exile, and his elevation 
to the prsDtorship, a measure which she sup- 
posed that the hterary repuiauon of Seneca 
would make popular : she also made him the 
preceptor of Domitius. But her real object 
was to attach Seneca to her, and to use him 
as her instrument in obtaining the empire for 
her son. LoUia, her old rival, was accused 
of treason to the emperor ; she was con- 
demned by the senate to be banished firom 
Italy, and the greater part of her property 
was confiscated. Agrippina sent a tnbune to 
her, who compelled her to commit suicide. 
By the intrigues of Pallas, with whom 
Agrippina carried on an adulterous inter- 
course, Claudius was induced to adopt Do- 
mitius as his son (▲. ix 51X to the prejudice 
of his own son Britannicus. The adoption 
was effected in the usual legal mode by a 
lex curiata. Domitius wss received into the 
Clandian house, and took the name of Nero ; 
Agrippina was at the same time honoured 
wHh ihe title of Augusta. To gratify her 
pride, as Tacitus suggests, or from some other 
motive, she obtained the establishment of a 
colony of veterans at her birth-place, which 
was thencefbrth called Colonia Agrippina 
(Cologne), fWnn the name of the empress. 
She steadily persevered in her design of 
supplanting Britannicus by her son Nero. 
Accordingly, some short time before the le^ 
age of fourteen, she obtained the toga vinlis 
for Nera This was no idle ceremony, for 
Nero wss thus freed firom all the legal in- 
capacities which by the Roman law were 
attached to minority. During the games of 
the circus, which were celebrated on the 
occasion, Britannicus, the emperor's son, ap- 
peared in the pnetexta, the proper dress of 
those youths who had not attamed the age of 
puberty, and Nero in a triumphal dress, an 
indication of his future elevation. Agrip- 
pina's next measure was to secure the 
soldiers. She prevailed on Claudius to de- 
prive Lusius Geta and Rufius Crispinui^ who 
were supposed to be attached to the children 
of Messalina, of the command of the pr»- 
torian soldiers, and to give it to Burma 
Afranius, a man of high military reputation, 
KX 4 



AGRIPPINA* 



^GRIPPI^A. 



but well aware to whoee inflnenoe he owed 
his promotion. In the year a. d. 54, Nero, 
being now sixteen years of age, celebrated his 
marriage with Octavia. There was still one 
obstacle in the way of Agripplna*8 ambition, 
who aspired to exercise the supreme power 
under the name of her son. This was Do- 
mltia Lepida, her first husband's sister, a 
woman of great wealth, and as licentious as 
Agrippina, between whom and Agrippina 
there was a contest for the first place in Nero's 
affections. Domitia was condemned to death 
on a charge of conspiring against the em-^ 
peror's wife, and disturbmg the peace of' 
Italy. Agrippina was now determined to 
rid herself of her husband, as the only means 
of securing her own safety ; for Claudius, in 
his drunkenness, had let drop expressions 
which showed that he was aware of his wife's 
irregularities, and was disposed to pnnish her. 
She took advantage of the opportunity of his 
retiring to Sinuessa for his health, where, 
with the assistance of Locusta, a woman 
experienced in such crimes, and dT Xenophon 
a physician, she poisoned Claudius. ^ The 
death of the emperor was not immediately 
made known, and public prayers were offered 
up for his recovery. Agrippina, in the 
mean time, professed the greatest affection 
for Britannicus and his sisters Antonia and 
Octavia, but she kept them in the palace and 
guarded the approaches. When all was pre- 
pared, the doors of the palace were thrown 
open, and Nero came out accompanied by 
Burrus. The guards, at the word of com- 
mand from their officer, received Nero with 
favourable expressions, and he was placed in 
a litter. Being carried into the camp, he 
addressed the soldiers in a manner suitable to 
the occasion, and promised them the usual 
bounties ; on which he was saluted emperor. 
The senators confirmed the choice of the 
soldiers, and the provinces acquiesced. Thus ' 
by a long train of enormities Agrippina at 
last plac^ her son on the seat of the Cfiesars, 
(A. D. 55.) 

The first act of Agrippina after her son's 
accession was to poison Junius Silanus, pro- 
consul of Asia, who, she feared, might avenge 
the death of his brother L. Silanus. Silanus 
was a descendant of Augustus, being the 
grandson of Julia, the sister of the first 
Agrippina : this was his crime. Narcissus 
also was removed out of the way, and other 
murders would have followed, if Burrus and 
Seneca, who now combined to resist the as- 
sumptions of Agrippina, had not checked her 
violence. The emperor still paid her external 
tokens of respect, and the senate gave her 
two lictors. Her ambition was shown by her 
interfering with the legislation of the senate, 
and her attempting to mount the imperial 
seat to assist at the audience to the am- 
bassadors of Armenia. Seneca, who perceived 
what\8hc was going to do, had presence of 
mind to tell Nero to prevent it Nero's 
496 ■ 



passion for Acte, a freedwoman, prepai«tf 
the way for Agrippina's ruin. She was in* 
dignant at having such a rival in her son*« 
affections, in whi& she forenw the down&U 
of her own influence. Finding that Nero 
had now thrown aside all respect for her, she 
resorted to other means, and even solicited 
him to an incestuous interooune. But his 
friends, among whom were Burms and 
Seneca, warned Nero against his mother's. 
artifices. This drove her to fresh acts of 
violence. She threatened to raise up Bri- 
tannicus as a rival to her son, and to appeal 
to the soldiers against the vile aits of Burms 
and Seneca. But Nero anticipated her 
schemes by poisoning Britannicus at a ban- 
quet where Agrippma was present Nero, 
now discovering that his mother was trying 
to make a party against him, deprived her of 
her guards and removed her from the palace. 
She was immediately deserted by all her ad- 
herents except a few women ; and her ene- 
mies accused her to the emperor of a design 
to marry Rubellius Plantus, asd to raise him 
to the supreme power. Nero, who well knew 
his mother's character, was so alarmed that 
he would have put her to death immediately, 
if Burrus had not urged the justice of hearing 
her defence, and promised that she should die 
if she was guilty. Burrus was appointed to 
charge her with the treasonable design, and 
Seneca was present She repelled Uie ac- 
cusation with haughty indignation, and with 
arguments sufficient to satisfy Burrus and 
Seneca ; at least they affected to be satisfied; 
and Agrippina, in an interview with her son, 
prevailed on him to punish her accusers. 

Nero was now captivated with Poppsea, 
who, seeing no hope of his divorcing Octavia 
and marrymg her, while Agrippina lived, 
used all her arts to irritate him against his 
mother. Agrippina's death was at last re- 
solved on ; the only, difficulty was the mode 
of accomplishing it, and treachery was thought 
to be more prudent than violence. Attempts 
were made to poison her, and to despatch 
her in various ways. At last, Nero af- 
fected a wish to be reconciled to his mother, 
whom he invited to Baise on the coast of 
Campania, and received at an entertunment 
A handsome vessel had been prepared to 
convey Agrippma back, wbich was so con- 
trived that part of it could be detached from 
the rest, and thus Agrippina might be thrown 
into the water. As she left the entertain- 
ment, Nero kissed and embraced her. The 
night was clear and tranquiL The vessel had 
not gone far, when the signal was given, and 
a heavy weight fell from above; but the 
vessel did not break in pieces, and it was then 
heaved on one side, and Agrippina with her 
attendant Acerronia was plunged into the 
sea. Acerronia was killed by blows aimed 
at her fnm the vessel, but Agrippina, though 
she received a wound on the shoulder, swam 
till she got ahoBt, in which the made her w&y 



AORIPPINA. 



AGRIPPINA.' 



fiito the Lncrme lake^ and thence to her yilla. 
Her only chance of safety noir was to pretend 
to know nothing of her Bon*t treachery, and 
she sent Agerinua to Nero to inform him of 
the accident and her lucky escape. Nero was 
struck with terror at the news : he feared that 
his mother would make some desperate 
movement, and he sent for Seneca and Burrus. 
Dion Cassius states that Seneca was priyy to 
the plot against Agrippina's life : Tacitus 
leaves the matter doubtftil. Seneca asked 
Burrus if the pnetorian soldiers could be 
Afely intrusted with the execution of Agrip- 
pina? Burrus replied that they could not, 
and suggested that Anicetus should be em- 
ployed, who had contrived the plot of the 
shipb Anicetus readily undertook the busi- 
ness, and Nero, oveijoyed, told him to do it 
promiytly. Agerinus in the mean time came 
with his message, and while he was deliver- 
ing it, a dagger was dropped at his feet He 
was seized on the charge of being sent by 
Agrippina to murder Nero, and thus a kind 
of pretext was got for the murder. Anicetus 
having surrounded Agrippina's villa with a 
guard, broke open the doors and entered the 
chamber. It was dimly lighted, and A^p* 
pina was lying on a bed attended by a smgle 
female slave, who attempted to leave W. 
** Will you too desert me?*' she said ; then 
looking at the assassins, she told them that if 
thej had come to murder her, she did not 
beheve that it was by her son's orders. Que 
of them struck her on the head, and when 
she saw the centurion drawing his sword, she 
bid him plunge it into a mortal piut — 
*" Ventrem feri." It is said that Nero came 
to see his mother's corpse and admired her 
beauty ; but the story was not universally 
believed, and it is inconsistent with other 
facts as to which there is no dispute. Her 
body was burnt the same evening without 
the usual ceremonies. So long as her son 
lived she had no tomb^ A small mound 
was afterwards raised to her memory near 
the road to Misenum and the villa of Oesar 
the Dictator, on an eminence which com- 
manded a view of the sea. It is said that 
Agrippina had been forewarned by the for- 
tune-tellers that her son would one day 
become emperor and would murder her : her 
answer was, ** Let hhn be my murderer ; only 
let him reign." 

. The circumstances of Agrippina's death 
(which occurred ▲.p. 60) are told b^ Dion 
Cassius with some additions of rhetoncal or* 
nament 

. The events of Agrippina's life form an 
important part of the history of the latter 
part of the reign of Claudiua and the first part 
of Nero's reign. It cannot be doubted that 
she really aspired to the supreme power, 
which she expected to exercise by her in- 
fluence over her son ; and there is good 
ground to believe that if Burrus and Seneca 
Ji^ not supported the feeble resolves of 
497 



Nero, she would have wielded all the power 
in his name, or given it to some new husband 
of her choice. The historians impute to her 
every vice. She had no virtues, unless we 
reckon as such the indomitable spirit of her 
noble house. But she was a woman of 
abilities and of literary tastes. She left com- 
mentaries which Tacitus consulted, and ^ in 
which she ncorded for posterity her own 
life and the history of her fiunily ;" from which 
expression of Tacitus and the passage in 
which it occurs {AxiutL iv. 53.), it appears 
that her commentaries contained the life of 
her mother Agrippina 

The medals of the younger Agrippina are. 
distinguishable fh>m those of her mother by 
the ime of Augusta, which never appears on 
the medals of Agrippina the wife <^ Genua-, 
nicus. On some medals, the younger A grip-, 
pina appears with her husband Claudius, and 
on others with her son Nero. One medal 
represents a quadriga of elephants with Nero 
and Agrippina seated ; and on the other side 
are the heads of Nero and his mother, face 
to ihce. (Tacitus, Annal ; Dion Cassius, lib. 
59-^1.) 0. L. 

AOR<£'CIUS,or AGRCETIUS, a Ro-^ 
man grammarian who is supposed to have 
lived about the middle of the fifth century of 
our sera. He is the author of a work " De 
Orthographia, et differentia Sermonis," which 
is still extant It was designed to be a sup- 
plement to a similar work written by another 
grammarian. Flavins Caper. It is dedicated 
to a bishop Encherius. 

The work of Agroecius is printed in Puts- 
chins' Collection of the Latin Grammarians, 
p. 2266 — ^2275.$ comp. Fabricius, BibiioUu 
Lot iii 414» ; Saxius, Oiumuut Lit, L 508. 

L.8. 

AGUA'DO, FRANCISCO DE, a dis- 
tinguished Spanish Jesuit, was bom at Tor- 
r^on de Aidoz, near Madrid, in the year 
1572. His biographer, Andrade, takes up 
the story of his Ufe rather earlier than usual, 
gravelv informing us that his mother was . 
overtaken by the pains of labour while at 
mass, having been induced to go to church 
that day by an irresistible impulse, which he 
as gravely attributes to the innate piety of 
the infigmt in her womb. The circumstance 
had great influence in determining Aguado's 
parents to devote him to the churdi, for 
which he was educated accordingly, at the 
universitjr of Alcala de Henares. He was 
received into the society of Jesuits at the 
age of seventeen, on the I2lli of April, 1589, 
and soon acquired a high reputation for 
learning, piety, humility, and self-mortifica- 
tion. He is said to have been constant in 
prayer ; to have abased himself so much 
that he denied his high birth, although, 
as his Spanish biographers are careful to 
record, he came of the best blood in Biscay ; 
and to have carried his self-bnposed pe- 
nances to such a height, that no part of 



AGUADO. 



AGUEBa 



Ma body eactifed the most cruet tortnres. 
He was held in great eateem by hia bre- 
thren, who elected him, at the early age 
of twenty-aiz, to the maaterahip of the no- 
vioea in the noviciate of Viilarejo. He 
twice travelled to Rome on special miaaions 
from the aociety, the second time in order 
to take part in the election of a anperior ; 
he twice presided as rector over the college 
of Alcala ; he acted as secretary nnder thiree 
provincials, and was himself twice provincial 
of Toledo. Notwithstanding we are told that 
his exceeding homility led him to avoid pro- 
motion if poaaible, he was compelled to be- 
come confeaaor to the Connt-Doke of Oli- 
varez, which appointment he held fbr four- 
teen yeara, and waa alao forced by Philip 
IV. to accept the office of one of hia preach- 
era. After a long aeriea of aervicea to hia 
order, in whoae behalf he waa always inde- 
fiuigable, he died on the 15th of January, 
1 654, at the age of eighty-twa Agnado waa 
a voluminoua author ; he left b^iind him 
twenty-five volumes of MSS^, beaidea which 
he wrote the following publiahed worka : — 
1. " Del Perfecto Religioso," (" On the Per- 
fect Religioua Character,*') foL 1619. 2. 
** Chriatiano Sabio," (** The Chriatian Philoao- 
pher,**) fol. 1638 ; aecond edition, 1658. 8. 
** Sumo Sacramento de la Fe, Teaoro del 
Nombre Chriatiano," (** The highest Sacra- 
ment of Faith, Treaaure of the Chriatian 
Name,**) a treatiae on the Euchariat, foL 1640. 
4. ** Miaterios de la Fe," (** Myateriea of 
Faith,") fol. 1646. 5. ** Ezortacionea variaa 
Doctrinalea," (** Doctrinal Exhoilationa,") foL 
1641. 6. «* AiMaUtoy Quareama," (** Ad- 
vent nd Lent,") foL 1653. 7. ** Carta a los 
Superiotes de la Provinda de Toledo, en que 
refiere la Vida j Muerte del P. Juan Gon- 
dino de la misma Compania de Jesus," 
(** Letter to the Superiora of the Province of 
Toledo, contaming the Life and Death of 
Father Juan Gondino, of the Socie^ of 
Jesus,") 8vo. 1643. 8. <« Apologos Morales," 
(** Moral Apologues,") a translation from the 
J^atin of Cyril of Alexandria or Jemaalem, 
8vo. 1643. All these works were printed at 
Madrid, and aQ are highlv spoken of by 
Roman Catholic writers. (Ribadeneira, Bib- 
lioiheca ScHptorum Soeietatia Jent, opua 
Av. recogmium d SotveUo, p. 209, &c. ; 
N. Antonius, Bibliotheca Hupana Ncva^ 
edit of 1783, 1397.; Nieremberg and An- 
drade, Vartmet liustrtB de la Oonqxtiiia de 
Jeaus, vL 33 — 63.) J. W. 

AGU'CCHIA, GIOVANNI, a Milanese 
engraver, of the nineteenth century. He en- 
graved a ]ar^ view of the eiOhedral of 
Milan, to which he put his name in fblL 
(Heineken, Dictumnaire dea ArUatea^ iccS) 

R.N.W. 

AGU'CCHIO. [Aooochl] 

AgOeRO, BENITO MANUEL HE, a 
Spanish painter, bom in Madrid, in 1626>/ 
fie was the scholar of the celebrated Mazo 
498 



Martineg, pafaHer to Philip IV. Agitenv 
painted battles, but principally landacay in 
the atyle of hia master, whom he imitalifd 
with forest sucoeaa. He had the aatiaihrriim 
of aeeing aome of his own pieoea placed by 
the aide of thoae of the great maatera in the 
palaoea of Araiguef and Buen-Retira. He 
attempted abo aome hiatorical pieoea; bat, 
except in dw oolooring, he feiled. He waa 
a wit, and well stored with anecdotes ; and 
Philip IV., during his visits to the studio of 
Bfaao, delighted to converse with Aguero. 
He died at Bfadrid in 1670. (Bermudeit; 
Diccumario Hiatorieot jpe.) R. N. W. 

AOtTERO, MIGUEL DE, a Spaamh 
sculptor. He executed in 1699, jointly with 
Fernando de Maaas, for Fray Sebastian de 
Arevalo y Torres, bishop of Osma, the atone 
statues of St Augustine, St Francis, and St. 
Sebastian, which are placed at the principal 
gate of the Hospital of St Augustine at 
Osma, in tluiprovmce of Soria, Old Castile. 
(Bermudes, iJieeiimario JSTtatertoo, See,) 

R.N.W. 

AGUESSEAU, HENRI D", was the son 
of Antoine d' Agnesseau, first president of the 
parliament of Bordeaux, and was bora 
m that city about the year 1634. He was 
bred to the bar; but having attracted the 
notice of Colbert, and acquired the esteem of 
that minister, he was appointed by him in- 
tendantof the province of Limousin, and after- 
wards of Languedoc The latter office he 
held during the construction of the canal ; 
and he had a principal part in the execution 
of that great enterprise. D*Aguenean was 
intendant of Languedoc at the period of the 
expulsion of the Protestants, who were nu- 
merous in that province ; and his clemency 
softened in some measure the cruelties exer- 
cised on that body, when the revocation of 
the edict of Nantes stripped them of their 
privileges. He surviveid Louis XIV. and 
became a member of the council of the re- 
gency. He died m 1715. H. G. 

AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D*, 
the celebrated clumcellor of France, and son 
of Henri D'Aguessean, was bom at Limoges 
in 1668. D'Aguessean received the principal 
part of his education from hia father, under 
whose tuition he made great proficiency in 
the authors of antiquity, and laid the found- 
ation of his extensive knowledge of modem 
languages and literature. His fether was 
also the guide of his legal studies ; and his son 
aecompimied him in his fluent and toil- 
some Journeys to Languedoc The edn- 
cation of IV Agnesseau was very extensive. 
He applied himself to mathematics, and to 
the writings of Des Cartes. Boileau, ori- 
ginally bred to the bar, and Racine, were his 
companions ; and he himself composed both 
Latin and French verses, which he called the 
passion of his youth. Next to the knowledge 
of his profession, he most aaaiduoualy culti- 
vated the study of eloquence. The rapid 



AOUESSEAU. 



AGUESSEAU. 



torogress of the famguftge and litenture of 
France, during the latter half of the aeren- 
teenth century, had hitherto acted leis sensibly 
on the oratory of the bar than on that of the 
pulpit, then adorned by the greatest preachers 
of modem times ; but still it had already pro- 
duced a visible effect on forensic eloquence. 
Patru, hitherto the most distinguished ad- 
vocate of Louis XIV.'s rei^ though he had 
very limited practice, had mtrodnced a better 
style of oratory, which formed a remarkable 
contrast to the ambitions and rhetorical style 
of the fragments which have descended to us 
fhim the legal oratoiT of the French in 
the age of Cwdinal Richelieu. D' Agnesseau, 
endowed with a fertile imagination and great 
sensibility to the beauties of literatare, had 
laboured with unceasing industry to master 
his own language, as well as to elevate it. 
Of his modeto, and even of his pro g re ss in this 
■It, he has ^iven som« aoooont in hisseeond 
and third discouses delivered at the opemng 
of the parliament of Paris. He very early 
acijpred a style, in some reapeets new, in 
which declamation, which r^ected no em- 
bellishment derived from recent Hteratnre, 
nor any aid supplied by a fertile imagina- 
tion, was subdued to the practical purposes 
of the bar. lyAgnesseaa began his profes- 
sional career in 1690, when twenty-one years 
of age. The elw^uenoe of his first essays 
attracted the attention of the counsellors of 
the parliament of Paris; and being sup- 
ported by learning and argument, and by 
halnts of severe application, he secured the 
honours and emohunents of the law from the 
commencement of his course, in January, 
1 69 1 , when Louis XIV. created a third avocat- 
royal, he conferred that ofllce on IV Aguessean. 
For this preferment he was indebted to his 
fether's influence. 

The most critieal and conspienous events of 
D'Aguessean's official life arose out of those 
disputes between the GalUean church and the 
pope, which had their origin in the papal 
censure of Jansen's doctrines, which were 
partially revived by the condemnation of 
Pension, in 1699, and which, bursting forth 
again with augmented Airy upon the pub- 
lication of the bull Uni^nitus, threw the 
whole nation into combustion, and caused the 
first great breach between the king and the 
parliament of Paris. The occasion of this 
fierce contest was the pope's censure of certain 
publications of some French divines ; but the 
real question was the limit of the papal power 
and oif the liberties of the Galtican dinreh — 
the right of the pope to issue constitutions, 
as his promulgated acts were called, within 
the reahn of Fruice. The parliament of 
Paris was the legal guardian of the French 
ehureh : by the constitutional law of the 
luagdom, no bull was of authority until 
mistered by the parliament ; and the eri- 
tenott which that tribunal applied to the papal 

' — ' lots wa% their coqusteDcy with those 

499 



Ifarts of the canon law received and acknow- 
ledged in France. Hence the delicate and 
difficult Jurisdiction exercised by this secular 
court in the case of the papal clauns ; and 
hence a ci4>ital branch of constitutional law, 
which, under the arbitrary monarchy of 
France, divided the nation into the partisans 
and antagonists of the papal power. F^n^lon, 
in a work entitled ** Explication des Maximes," 
had revived certain mystical doctrines of 
inward illumination, first broached by Mo- 
lina ; and, after an acrimonious co n troversy 
with Bosnict, had incurred the papal censure, 
which arrived in Psris from Innocent XIL in 
March, 1699. Pension, who had resolutely 
maintained his tenets against Bossuet, sub- 
mitted to the sentence of the pope ; but the 
registration of the yml brief was necessary 
to its validity. The jealousy entertained 1^^ 
the pariiameBt of the apostalie see rendend 
every luterpusitMm of tte pope extremdy 
faasardons ; and ^boafjti the dispute between 
the Quietists, or partisans of Fenelon and his 
brother prelate, had been free firom the vio* 
lent rancour wliich envenomed the Jansenist 
controversy, the peace of the church was not 
without dan^ from the possible resistance 
of the parliament. On D' Aguessean, as 
advocate-general, devolved the duty of 
moving the parliament of Paris to register 
the brief of Innocent ; the first occasion of 
his handling the uncertain and undefined 
limits of papal power in France. In August, 
1699, he pronounced that femous discourse 
which Henault declares to be an immortal 
monument of the solidity of the maxims of 
the Oallioan church. In this stately harangue, 
wordiY of Bossuet, IVAgnesseau expounded, 
in a luminous manner, the relation of the 
church and realm of France to the court of 
Rome; and while he enforced their sub- 
mission in points of doctrine, he tacitly 
guarded the temporal power of the crown 
from the spiritual jurisdiction of the pope. 
The papal censure, of which he appeared as 
the minister at the bar of the parliament, he 
generously tempered by insisting on the duti- 
fhl submission of F^n^lon $ and he secured 
the liberties of the Galilean church from 
fhture encroachments by founding his prayer 
for the registration of the papal brief on the 
unanimous assent of the French bishops. 
His praise of Innocent XIL is a model of 
judicious panegyric^ The brief was registered 
without opposition, though not without inward 
discontent ; and this success on tiie part of 
the court of Rome stimulated it to encroach- 
ments, in which D' Aguessean was to act and 
to suffer. In the year 1700 he was advanced 
to the office of procureur-g^n^ral, being then 
in his thirtv-second ^ear, on the recommend- 
ation of De Hariai, first president of the 
parliament of ParisL The multiplied fonc- 
tions of this high office, added to Uie pro- 
fessional labours of D* Aguessean, but opoied 
a new scene for his abilities. The care of 



AOUESSEAU. 



AGUESSEAir. 



the royal domaiiu, a tast and peculiar bnmoh 
of feudal jurisprudence ; the recovery of fieft 
and of jurisdictions ; the explanation of local 
records and monuments, chiefly belonging to 
that period when a great part of France lay 
under the dominion of the Anglo-Norman 
kings; these were employments for -which 
D'Aguessean was w^ prepared by his pro- 
found knowledge of history and antiquity. 
Of his inexhaustible labours in this field, the 
numerous memoirs respecting the royal 
domains contained in his published works 
exhibit a remarkable evidence. His office of 
procureur placed him in communication with 
every branch of the government In 1709 
France was visited by a consuming fiunine, 
which, concurring with a disastrous war and 
exhausted treasury, spread misery through 
the provinces. D'Aguesseau, who attended 
the council during that critical emergency, 
had previously advised Des Marets, the con- 
troller of the finances, to promote the ad- 
mission of foreign grain ; and he made great 
efforts to alleviate ue sufferings of the people, 
by bringing to light the com which had been 
collected by forestallers. This measure will 
scarce surprise us in a lawyer bred in the 
school of Colbert, and menaced by an insur- 
rection fVom the starving population. 

In 1713 the ra^ of theological &ction 
renewed the questions of the pKpel powers, 
and exposed D'Aguesseau to trials in which 
hiM integrity and resolution shone with ^at 
lustre. The Jesuits had acquired an irre- 
sistible sway during the latter part of the 
life of Louis XIV. i and being elated both 
by the expulsion of the Hugonots and the 
exaltation of the papal power in the censure 
of Fenelon, they resolved to obtain ih>m 
Rome a final denunciation of their ancient 
rivals the Jansenists. Upon the first pro- 
mulgation of Jansen's doctrines, they had 
been condemned by the then pope. Quesnel 
had succeeded the celebrated Jansenist writer 
Antoine Arnauld as the leader of that body, 
and had reproduced, in a mitigated form, the 
dogmas of Jansen with respect to g^race and 
predestination, which had been denounced 
from Rome seventy years before. The Je- 
suits, while they trampled on the other re- 
ligious orders, groaned at this time under 
the yoke of Le Tellier, the confessor of 
Louis, whose furious intolerance rendered 
him the terror of his own provincials. This 
man's first exploit was the demolition of Port 
Royal, with every circumstance of cruelty. 
Encouraged by this success, he ventured on 
a bolder measure. The Jansenists, who held 
the principles of Quesnel, were numerous in 
France ; his doctrines were prevalent among 
the reguUur clergy, and sealously embraced 
by some of the monastic orders ; they had 
■even been imbibed by several dignitaries of 
the French church ; and the parliament of 
Paris, from maxims of ecclesiastical policy, 
M weU as regard to the law of the landi were 
500 



jealous bf papal interposition. Regardlesa at 
all consequences, Le Tellier pressed the 
Court of Rome to launch its anathema against 
the doctrines of Quesnel ; and Clement XI., 
being also urgently entreated by Louis him- 
self at length issued that fiumoos bull called 
Unigenitas, 1713, which, under colour of 
condemning 101 speculative propositions of 
Quesnel, aimed a Ihtal blow at the temporal 
power of princes, and at the fimdamental 
maxims of the church and monarchy in 
France. This instrument no sooner arrived 
in Paris than Louis and Le Tellier prened 
its registration in the parliament ; and 
D'Aguesseau, on whom, as procureur-ge- 
n6ral, the duty of moving this devolved, was 
placed in a situation of unexampled difficulty 
and danger. Resolute to resist tiie dangerous 
principles of the bull, of which the direct 
effect was to reduce France under the do- 
minion of the Jesuits, he found himself op- 
posed at once to pi^ claims and royal 
prerogative, and compelled to brave the fierce 
ihction which then ruled France with absolute 
sway. When the bull was promulgated, it 
canaed the utmost agitation among all ranks 
of men, who regarded it not merely as a 
flagrant usurpation on the part of Clement, 
but as an instrument of vengeance flung into 
the hands of Le Tellier, the object <? ge- 
neral detestation. The parliament of Paris, 
on which the eyes of the nation were turned, 
was not exempt firom the general contagion : 
but the magistrates and lawyers were divided 
on the question of constitutional law'involved 
in the registration of the bull ; and such was 
the power of Le Tellier and the reigning 
fiustion, that, notwithstanding the danger ^ 
the innovation, some oi the leading jurists, 
especially two of the advocates^genenJ, were 
unwilling to expose themselves to the Auy 
of the Jesuits by resisting its registration. 
These fiithers, remembenng the eloquence 
with which D'Aguesseau had maintained the 
papal censure of Pension, were inflamed with 
resentment against this strenuous champion 
of the Oallican church, who now directed 
the same energies against their usurpation. 
A deputation from the magistrates and law- 
yers of the parliament, consisting of Des 
Mesmes, first president, D'Aguesseau, Fleury, 
and the three advocates-general, proceeded 
to Versailles, and D'Aguesseau propounded 
to Louis his insuperable objections to the 
bull. The selection of the propositions ftxnA 
the work of Quesnel, condemned by this in- 
strument, was such as gave great scandal to 
all men of discernment ; and nothing shocked 
the laity more than the censure of the ninety- 
i first proposition, which was, ** The fear of an 
I unjust excommunication ought not to deter 
I us from doing our duty." In vain did 
i D'Aguesseau insist on the difference between 
such principles and the censure of Fenelon. 
In despite of the remonstrances of the jurists 
and the canonists, the royal authority piQ- 



AOUESSEAX^. 



AOUKSSEAir, 



TaQed ; fhe bull was registered both hj the 
parliament and the Sorbonne ; and the vin* 
dictive confessor endeavoured to pemade 
LoaLs to deprive lyAgneflsean of his office. 
Upon the death of Loois, irhich for a time 
overthrew the aathority of the Jesnita, and 
freed I^A^esaeau from the dangers which 
menaced hmi from that order, the chief power 
frU into the hands of Dn Bois, the tutor of 
the regent Orleans ; and under the adminis- 
tration of that profligate statesman, D* Agoes- 
sean continued in his office of procnrenr-g£- 
n^ral till the death of Voisin the chancellor, 
when he received the seals from the regent 
Orleans, in 1717. In this his new dignity 
his repose was of short duration. The rage 
of speculation excited by the Bank and the 
Mississippi schemes of Law had absorbed 
•very other passion : and Du Bois, who was 
pressed by a dilapidated revenue and by his 
own rapacity, had hearkened to the plans of 
Law, and had adopted both of his schemes, 
the stock bank and the company. IVAgnes- 
seau had resisted Law*8 first solicitations 
while he was procureur; and he continued 
his opposition with his usual constancy and 
with more authority as chancellor. The arbi- 
trary temper of Du Bois could ill brook HIub 
resistance from a man in whose promotion 
he had acquiesced, at a moment when his 
power was uncontn^ed; and he not only 
deprived D*Aguesseau of the seals, but 
banished him firom tiie capitaL B' Apuessean 
retired to Fresnes. He was now in his fiftieth 
year ; and, for the first time in a life of con- 
tinned action, found leisure and tranquillity. 
In this retreat he continued for two years ; 
and, retnminff to the studies of his youth, 
devoted himself with ardour to those literary 
pursuits which he had never abandoned. 
Meanwhile the general impoverishment which 
followed the explosion of Law's bubbles, with 
the embarrassment of the finances, had raised 
a storm about Dn Bois; and the regent, 
when he perceived that the issue of these 
projects had verified the predictiona of 
D* Aguesseau, invited him to resume the seals 
in 1720. Law himself was despatohed to 
Fresnes to request his return. New troubles 
awaited him, and a fresh contest on that 
question of long continuance, the papal power, 
in which his name, hitherto unsullied, did 
not escape reproach. When Du Bois con- 
cluded the treatjT of peace with Spain, in 
1719, he entered into a close correspondence 
with Cardinal Alberoni, the Spanish minister, 
and with Anbenton, the Jesuit confessor of 
Philip V. ; and parUy through their in- 
fluence, chieflv by the prospect of a car- 
dinal's hat held out to him hj the court of 
Home, he had reinstated the Jesuits in their 
former credit at the court of Versailles. 
Meanwhile, the bull Unigenitus, which had 
never ceased to cause a festering discontent, 
bred daily new inquietude in the nation. In 
1717, seven eminent members of the Sor- 
501 



boone attempted, by a solenm act of appeal 
against it, to annul the registration of the 
bnlL The Jesuits took fire upon this pro- 
ceeding; Du Bois, who now acted in the 
temper and spirit of Le Teliier, insisted on 
the registration of a royal declaration in 
fiivour of the bull, in oi^er to nullify the 
appeal ; the parliament of Paris, fortified by 
the actrre minority in the Sorbonne, was 
resolute to resist, and the constitutional 
struggle was recommenced. Such was the 
situation of affairs when DAguessean re- 
sumed the seals in 1720. He found the na- 
tion in a high forment, and the parliaments 
in the several provinces on the verge of in* 
surrection, by reason of apostolic letters 
issued by Clement, commandingthe French 
clergy to receive the bull. He saw the 
hierarchy torn with a new schism, which the 
disputed right of appeal had created, and in 
which the appellants were led by the Car^ 
dinal de Noailles, archbishop of Paris, the an- 
cient rival of Le Teliier, and his own ally ; 
and as this great question of ecclesiastical 
policy, as well as the former, respecting the 
new registration of the bull, though not sub* 
ject to his jurisdiction, were yet much go- 
veined b^ Itis authority, the nation awaited 
with anxietv the issue of his deliberations. 
The part which D' Aguesseau acted on this 
occasion exposed him to the charge of cor- 
rupt compliance with the court He con- 
sidered that thbngh the constitution of the 
Unigenitus was contrary to the established 
maxims of the French law, and had en- 
countered his own strenuous opposition, yet 
being once roistered, it had been mcorporated 
with the French law ; and he exerted all his 
mfluence to procure the registration of the 
royal declaration in ikvour of the bulL He 
negotiated between Du Bois and the coun- 
sellors of the parliament ; but no reasons 
could allay the inflexible jealousy ot the 
comiseUors; they answered D' Aguesseau with 
the arguments which he had addressed to 
Louis XIV. Much popular clamour was 
nused against D' Aguesseau ; and he incurred 
the reproaches of tne counsellors, who, when 
he aaked them where they found their argn^ 
ments, answered, ** In the speeches of the late 
M. D' Aguesseau.** 

The contest between the parliament and 
Du Bois ran hi^ ; and during the stormy 
scenes which preceded the close of his admi- 
nistration, the affairs of France assumed the 
complexion of the Fronde. Du Bois banished 
the contumacious parliament to Pontoise ; .a 
blow which he struck with such secrecy, 
that the musqueteeis appeared before the 
counsellors were apprised of his intention, 
ly Aguesseau, unable to control the intem* 
perate zeal oi Du Bois, and sharing all the 
obloquy of his violent measures, was desirous 
of resigning the seals. In this second 
struggle, the court was again ultimately tri- 
um^ant ; the declaration m fitvour of the 



AGUESSEAU. 

bull Unigenitiu, wis regiitered; and Da 
BoiB reoeiTed a cardixial*8 hat as hit recom- 
pence. No sooner waa the atorm over, than 
a rupture took place between D*Aguea- 
aeau and Du Boia, proceeding from a dispute 
with .respect to the right of the cardinal to 
take precedence of Uie chancellor in the 
council of the regency. Dn Boii^ in imxt*- 
tion of Cardinal Richelieu, who insisted oq 
taking precedence of the constable Leadi- 
guidres, claimed precedence of D'AgueaseaxL 
The chancellor, resolute as well aa mildt con- 
tested the right, and this quarrel ended in 
D'Agueaseau being deprived of hia high of- 
fice, and in a second banishment (a. d. 1722). 
He returned to Fresnes and to literary leisure, 
which he now exgoyed fbr fiye years. In 
1727, Cardinal Fleury, who on the death of 
Du Boia came into power, drew him again 
from his retreat He waa invited to retom 
to Paris, but several years elapsed before 
the seala were restored to him. Under the 
pacific administration of Cardinal Fleury, 
the controversy between the Jesuits and 
Janseniats again broke out When the Je- 
suits withheld the sacraments from the ex- 
piring Jansenists, all France was thrown 
into convulsion : and the contest between the 
Jesuits and parliament was revived fbr the 
third time. 

Cardinal Fleury was a prelate of an excel- 
lent judgment ; and diaceming the merits of 
D'Aguesseau, he sought hia assistance in al- 
laying the dissensions which again menaced 
the temporal power of the French kin^. 
D'Agueaseau, who had already seen the spirit 
of the nation finiitlesaly wasted in an obstinate 
struggle, resolved to withdraw altogether 
from these disputes ; and though the Jesuits 
now began to enforce the bull in a manner 
which had not been foreseen by their most 
sealous partisans, he had no longer either 
influence or authority to temper their vio- 
lence. Receding from eeclesiaatical disputes, 
he devoted himself to legal and literal^ spe- 
culations, of which his published works are 
an ample monument In 1737 the seals were 
again delivered to him by Fleury ; he waa then 
aeventy years of age, but in the vigour of his 
capacity. So much of lyAguesseau's life 
had been passed amid theological fiustions, 
which exposed him alternately to the ftt>wna 
of the court and rage of the people, that he 
betook himself exclusively to the assiduous 
and peaceAil discbarge of his judicial duties } 
and although the parliament of Paris again 
appeared in the ft^t of the reviving contro- 
versy, and aa the champion of the Jansenists, 
henow kept aloof from uese disputes. During 
the absolute monarchy of France, a princi{ml 
part of the chancellor s ftmctiona consisted in 
reducing to form the ordonnanoea, which at 
that period derived all the force d law fix>m 
the will of the king ; and as the chancellor 
was also the adviser of the king, he had a 
kind of legislative power. Among other plans 
502 



AOUESSEAU, 

of legal Inform oontemplated by D' Agoeaseao. 
in the exercise of thia authority, was that 
of an assimilation of the diverained lawa of 
France, and their oonadidation. The dif- 
ferent laws prevalent in the two great legal 
divisions of France, ♦• Paya de* droit ecrit* 
and ** Pays de coAtomea," with the diveraxty 
of local cuatoms in the northern portion of 
the kingdom, had fitnn time immemorial 
produced conflicta of laws, and by con- 
tinually raiaifig questions of jurisdiction, had 
superadded, to the ordinary subjects of liti- 
gation, points in the nature of international 
disputes. As fiur back aa the reign of 
Henry III., Brisson, then one of the avocata 
royaux, had formed a like project D'Aguea- 
seau entered on thia gigantic enterprise by 
issuing circulars to each dT the jiarliaments, in 
which he propounded the leadmg parts of his 
scheme of reform. The memoirs returned to 
him by these learned bodies were analyaed by 
the most eminent lawyers of Paris, and their 
anbstance extracted and submitted to the 
chancellor. These reports D* Aguessean sub- 
mitted to the masters of requests and coun- 
sellors of the parliament, and with their ad- 
vice moulded the various projects of law as 
they arose, with a view to the general and 
uniform system which he contemplated. 
When he had made aome progreas m his 
arduoua task, the magnitude of the under- 
taking, and still more the hazard of subvert- 
ing foundations so deeply laid, appalled the 
circumspection which is the result of pro- 
found knowledge and experience in the de- 
cline of lifo. But his materiala were not 
useless : they were the foundation of a series 
of ordonnances which throw lustre on the 
inactive administration of Cardinal fleury, 
and form the last great sera of legialation 
under the absolute monarchy of France. Of 
these celebrated ordonnances, the most im- 
portant reUte to the limitation and definition 
of the power of teatators with respect to the 
substitution of heirs, a fruitful source of 
litigation in France, and the simplification of 
judicial procedure by dispensing with useless 
forms. D'Agueaseau continued in the ex- 
ercise of his functions as chancellor till the 
year 1750. He had reached hia ejgh^- 
second year when the infirmities of agecom- 
pelled him to resign. Ix>uis XV. granted 
hun a pension of 100,000 livres a year. He 
died in 1751, and waa buried at Auteuil. 
D'Agueaseau married, in 1694, Mademoiselle 
d'Ormesson, who died in 1735, leaving several 
children, of whom one rose to conuderable 
eminence in the law. 

D' Agnesaeau waa not only the most learned 
of French lawyers, but he added to a con- 
summate knowledge of his profession, acquire- 
ments more extensive and various than it 
often &lla to the lot of unbroken leisure to 
attain. His powerful capaci^ had grasped 
the immense system of French law, fnmi the 
customaries of the ancient Norman jurists, to 



A0UE8SEAU 



AOUESSEAU. 



the most recent criminal procedure ; and, 
haying been severely exercised in the im- 
portant qoestionB of canon and oonstitational 
law agitated during his judicial administra- 
tion, he had pushed his researches into re- 
gions fiur heyond the common sphere of pro- 
fesstonal knowled^. His career, which was 
crowned with distinguished snccess while he 
was still a youth, may be traced in his 
** Plaidoyers," the monument of his extras 
ordinary talents and early erudition. He is 
venerated in France as the fiither of her 
forensic eloquence. His oratory, holding a 
middle course between the severe and arid 
simplici^ of Patru, and the florid luxuriance 
of Le Maistre, for the first time exhibited 
in the lay tribunals of France that rich and 
harmonious strain to which the great pulpit 
orators of the seventeenth century had formed 
the ears of that people. In his judicial ca- 
pacity, his impartiality and penetration were 
equal to his enlarged knowledge; but his 
despatch was inferior to his discernment, and 
he is said not to have been exempt from that 
infirmity of doubt and indecision which has 
frequently attended profound learning. No 
reproach has ever stained the memory of 
lyAguesBeaii, except his concession to the 
court on the second registration of the buU 
Unigenitus ; and when the animosities of 
that fierce contest subsided, fiM^ion admitted 
that he had legal grounds, as well as reasons 
of state, on his side. While procureur-gen£- 
ral, he opposed superstition and bigotry in 
the person of Le Tellier, who was supported 
by all the power of Louis XIV. His copious 
writings, embracing all the business and 
knowledge of his age, attest the prodigious 
activity of his mind when exile relieved him 
fhmi official labours. He was master of the 
Greek, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, English, 
Hebrew, and Arabic languages. D'Aguessean 
was a pious man, and he held a middle course 
amid the various extremes of religious fimati- 
cism which present so singular a spectacle in 
the domestic history of France at that juried. 
The harmless enthusiasm of the Quietists he 
seldom mentions without a gentle sneer. The 
violence of the contention between the Jesuits 
and Jansenists, which during his administra- 
tion tore in pieces the Oallican church, ex- 
ceeded aaythmg which we can now imagine; 
and when the court of Rome, by the fiumous 
bull Unigenitus, denounced one party as 
heretic and schismatic, the peace of the realm 
was exposed to imminent hazard. The na- 
tural goodness of D'Aguesseau's temper was 
never soured, nor lus serenity clouded, by 
the persecution and obloquy with which he 
was continually assailed ; nor was the ardour 
of his application relaxed by his misfortunes. 
Though employed for sixty years in the first 
offices of the state, he did not amass a large 
fortune. 

All the writings of D'Aguessean were 
published by his fiHnily, fttom fis manuscripts, 
508 



after his death, except two essays on trade^ 
occasioned by Law*s scheme, and some fhig- 
ments of his orations, which found their way 
into the controversial tracts of the day. 01 
the sixteen volumes whidi his writings fill, 
more than one half are occupied by legal 
arguments delivered by him in the exercise 
of his profbwion, and li^ his official corre- 
spondence while he held the seals. These 
are followed by law tracts on the royal 
domains and jurisdictions, of which the Rnr- 
mer had been encroached on in many pro- 
vinces of France, the latter much obscured 
by time m all parts. Some of the most 
curious of these tracts relate to the devolution 
of the royal domains of France from the 
house of Plantagenet to that of Valois, upon 
the final expulsion of the English from the 
Continent The other volumes contain dis- 
courses on eloquence, meditations on Des 
Cartes and Malebranche, and a comparison 
between the systems of Cudworth and New- 
ton and that of Lucretius, probably sug* 
gested by the "Anti-Lucretius'* of Polignac, 
There are several smaller tracts, relating 
to the canon law and the limits of papal 
power, which he treats with a grace and 
penpicuity which adorn that ruggeid science, 
and in the spirit of our great canonist Selden 
in his dissertation on Fleta. His style is 
evidently formed on the model of Pascal and 
Bourdalone, his ikvourite authors, as he in- 
forms US; but without the nerve of the Jesuit; 
or the inimitable measures of the Jansenist 
It is deficient in vivacity ; and we sometimes 
meet with that languor which Voltaire thought 
he could discover in the later writings of 
Cicero. Of his forensic efforts, the earliest 
are the best His ** Memoires sur les Affaires 
de TE^lise," containing a foil detail of the 
great civil and ecclesiastical controversy, both 
as regards Pension and the bull Unigenitus, 
in which D'Aguessean was the principal 
actor, ig the most valuable record extant of 
that celebrated dispute. His delineations of 
the two popes, Innocent XIL and Clement XL, 
and of the leading statesmen and churchmen 
of France at the close of Louis XIV.'s reign, 
together with his account of lus interviews 
with that king; and of his character and 
court, are foil of historical inteiest, though 
litUe known even to French writem St. 
Simon, M^m, torn, vl ; Bausset, Vie de i'4- 
niUms MHn, pwr eervir aVffiei, EecUnaeL} 
D'Aguessean, M4nL swrUeAffairee de rEffiee; 
D'Alembert, Sttr (a Veetmctum dee Jeeuiteef 
Dudos, 3f^m. de la JUgence i NoUe Hie- 
loriquee evr VEloge de Tkomae ; (Ewree de 
XyAffueeeeau,^ H. Q 

AGUIAR, DON TOMAS DE, a Spanish 
portrait painter, and a scholar of Yelaaquea, 
enjoyed a good reputation at Madrid, about 
the middle of the seventeenth century. He 
painted small portraits in oil, which were 
equally conspicuous for their strong re* 
sembl tiace, and their correct and masterly 



AOUIAR. 



AOUILAR. 



execution. Hie poet Antonio Sdlis, whose 
portrait Agoiar painted, wrote a sonnet upon 
the occasion, highly flattering to the painter ; 
Bermadex has inserted it in his notice of 
Aguiar, in his "Diccionario Historico" of 
the principal artists of Spain. R. N. W. 

AGUIAR I ACUSA, RODRIGO DE, a 
senator of the supreme council of the Indies. 
He died on the 5th of October, 1628, at an 
advanced age, haying held his i^pointment 
upwards of twenty y^ean. Antonio de Leon 
giyes him the credit of having introduced 
greater order and precision into the pro- 
ceedings of the council than had previously 
characterised them. He had been commis- 
sioned to prepare a collection of the laws 
relating to the Spanish colonies. The first 
volume (afterwards published) was completed 
before his death ; and the second so fiur ad- 
vanced, that in 1629 Antonio announced it 
might be ready for publication in the course 
of six months. An abstract of these laws, 
"Sumarios de la Recopilacion general de 
las Leyes de Us Indias," was prepared by his 
direction and under his superintendence, and 
published at Madrid a few months before his 
death. Antonio de Lmn says of this com- 
pendium, that the arrangement and distribu- 
tion of the materials were so excellent as to 
give rise to a suggestion that it might super- 
sede the necessity of publishing the lar^r 
work. The praises bestowed upon A^^uiar 
by Antonio de Leon, who held a subordmate 
office under the council of the Indies, may 
appear suspicious ; but they were uttered after 
the death of his principal, and attributed to 
him merit which some have insinuated be- 
longed of right to the eulogist himsel£ (Ni- 
colaus Antonius, Bibliotheca HUpana Nova ; 
Antonio de Leon i Pinelo, Emlome de la 
BMiotheca Orie$Ual i Occidental cet) 

W W 

A'GUILA, FRANCISCO DEL,* a 
Spanish painter, lived in Murcia towards the 
end of the sixteenth century, where he painted 
in the cathedral the tomb of Alonso el Sabio, 
or the Wise. R. N. W. 

A'GUILA, LUIS DEL, a Spanish sculp- 
tor, a native of Jaen, in Lower Andaluoia, 
and scholar of Pedro de Valdelviria. He 
was employed, in 155S, by the chapter of the 
■cathedral of Seville, to estimate the works 
on the sides of the great altar-piece of that 
•cathedral. (Bermudes, Diceionario Historico, 
^.) R. N. W. 

A'GUILA, MIGUEL DEL, abo a 
Spanish painter, and a native of Seville. 
His works, which are painted in the style 
•of Murillo, and well coloured* are much 
esteemed. He died in Seville, in 1736. 
(Bermudes, Diccitmario Bistorico, #c.) _ 

R.N. W. 

AGUILAR, BARTOLOME' DE, a 
Spanish sculptor of considerable merit He 
•was appointed, in 1518, coigointlv with Her- 
nando de Sahagun^ to make the festoons and 
504 



other embellishments of the paranymph, or 
scholastic theatre of the university of Alcala 
de Henares, in the province of Toledo, io 
New Castile. (Bermudes, Diccianario His- 
torico, ^c.) B. N. W. 

AGUILAR. [Jaureoui.] 

AGUILE'RA, DIEGO DE, a Spanish 
historical painter, of Toledo, of considerable 
reputation. Few of his works remain, many 
of them having been lost through a fire. 
He lived towards the end of the sixteenth 
century. Aguilera was appointed, together 
with Sebastian Hermandes, by the chapter 
of the cathedral of Toledo, to estimate the 
price of the celebrated picture of the parting 
of Christ's raiment, pamted by II Greco, for 
the altar of the sacristy of that cathedral. 
[Theotocopull] (Bermudes, Diccumario 
Historico, ^. ; Quilliet, J>icHonnaire dee 
Peintree Eapagnole.) R. N. W. 

AGUILERA, SEBASTIAN DE, organist 
of Saragossa in the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century. His most celebrated com- 
position is a Magnificat on the eight eodesi^ 
asdcal tones, for four, five, six, and eight 
voices : published in 1618. (Nic. Antonius, 
Biblioth, Hispana Nova.) £. T^ 

AGUILLON, FRANCOIS, a Jesuit, was 
bom at Brussels in 1566. He entered the 
order in 1586, and afterwards was professor 
of philosophy at Douai, where he soon made 
himself a name. He was afterwards ap- 
pointed to a professorship in the Jesuits' Col- 
lege at Antwerp, where he taught divinity, and 
introduced the study of his fiivourite science 
mathematics, which until that time had been 
neglected by the Jesuits of the Low Coun- 
tries. Subsequently, he became rector of the 
college at Antwerp, and lie retained his place 
till his death. Aguillon is the author of a 
treatise on ontics, "Opticorum Libri VI., 
Philosophicis juxta ac Mathematicis utiles,*^ 
AntwenS 1618, in folio, in which we first 
find the term stereo^raphic prqjection. It 
has been said that this work was highly es- 
teemed by Newton, which Smets states m so 
many words. Feller simply says that per- 
haps it might have been useful to Newton. 
The name of Aguillon is not contained in 
** Memoires pour servir i THistoire Litteraire 
des Pays-Bas." Aguillon was engaged in 
another work on catoptrics and dioptrics, at 
the time of his death, the 20th of Miutih, 
1617. (Alegambe, BiM. Script Sac, Jes* 
ed. 1643, p. 112. ; Smets, Woe thai der Je- 
suitm-Orden/Ur die Wiseenechaftf sub. voc ; 
Feller, Dictionnaire Historique, suli). Voc ; 
Chaufepi^, Nouifeau Diet Hiet sub. voc) 

W*P. 

AGUIRRB, FRANCISCO DE, a Spa- 
nish portrait nainter, a scholar of Eugenio 
Caxes. He professed also the art of of restoring 
old pictures, and in 1646 he went to Toledo 
for the purpose of restoring a very old paint- 
ing of die German school of the fourteenth 
century, which had been already once re> 



AGUIRRE. 



AGUIRRE. 



fetorcd, in 1586, by Bias del Prado. The pic- 
ture formed one of the collection of pictures 
preserved in the winter chapter-house of the 
cathedral of Toledo, all of which were re- 
stored, and, according to Quilliet, spoiled, by 
Agnirre. The canons, however, seem to have 
been well satisfied with his restorations, for 
he painted for them a portrait of the Infante 
Don Fernando, which they placed among the 
series of archbishops' portraits in that col- 
lection. (Bermudez, DiccUmctrio JUstorico, 
^c, ; Quilliet, Dictionnaire dea Peintres Es- 
pagnola,) R. N. W. 

AGUIRRE HORTES DE VELASCO, 
DON JOSEPH MARIA, marquess of 
Montehermoso, and lieutenant-general in 
the Spanish army, was elected, in 1756, a 
member of the Royal Academy of Arts of 
Madrid, on account of his excellence in paint- 
ing, to which art he devoted much of his 
time. He died at Vittoria, in 1798. His 
uncle, Don Tiburcio Aguirre, vice-patron 
of the academy, and his son, Don Ortuno 
Aguirre, both distinguished themselves as 
amateurs. (Bermudez, Diccumario Historico, 

At \ iR N W 

AGUIRRE, JOSEPH SAENZ (or 

SAENS) DE, a Spanish ecclesiastical writer, 
bom at Logroiio^ in Spain, 24th March, ▲.d. 
1630. After finishing his studies he became 
a Benedictine monk, and took (a.d. 1668) 
the degree of doctor of divinity in the uni- 
versity of Salamanca, and, idfter holding 
several theological professorships, became 
chief interpreter of Scripture in that univer- 
sity. He afterwards became censor and 
secretary to the Spanish Inquisition, and in 
JuD. 1686 was made a cardinal by Pope 
Innocent XI., in reward for a work wnich he 
had published, three years before, in reply to 
the declaration of the assembly of the Gal- 
lican clergy (a.d. 1682), who were embroiled 
with the pope. Cardinal Aguirre died of 
apoplexy, 19th August, 1699, aged 69. His 
works were as fi)Uow:— 1. "Laurea Theo- 
logy, sive Ludi Salmanticenses,"' folio, Sala- 
manca, A.D. 1668. This work consists of 
theological disquisitions, composed according 
to the practice of the university before re- 
ceiving a doctor's degree. The author him- 
eelf noticed several blemishes in it, in his sub- 
sequent works. 2. "Philosophia Nov-anti- 
qua," containing disquisitions on the physics, 
metaphysics, and logic of Aristotle and of St. 
Thomas Aquinas, 3 vols. fol. Salam. 1672- 
3-5. 3. ** Philosophia Morum," the first 
-volume containing a commentary on the 
ethics of Aristotle, and the second several 
dissertations on the same work ; 2 vols. foL 
Salam. 1675-77. 4. **S. Ansehni Archiep. 
Cantuar. Theologia," 3 vols. fol. Salam. 1679- 
80-81. 5. Auctoritas Infidlibilis et Summa 
Cathedrffi S. Petri extra et supra Concilia 
quflslibet," &c.; fol. Salam. 1683. This is 
tiie work in reply to the assembly of the 
-Galilean ohorch, which obtained for him his 

VOL. I. 



cardinal's hat It has been alleged by some 
to have been really written for him by an- 
other doctor of Salamanca, but Aguirre always 
maintained that it was really his own. 6. 
"Notitia Conciliorum Hispaniae atque Novi 
Orbis,*' 8vo. Salam. 1686. This was the 
outline of the next work. 7. "CoUectio 
Maxima Conciliorum omnium Hispanise 
atque Novi Orbis," 4 vols. foL Rome, 1693-4. 
In this work he defends the authenticity of 
the decretals of the first popes. He was a 
contributor to the ** Bibliotheca Hispana 
Vetus" of Nicolas Antonio. Some of his 
works came to a second edition in his life- 
time ; and he appears to have projected many 
new ones. Dnpin characterises him as a stu- 
dious and learned man, but deficient in genius 
and discrimination. (Dupin, Bibliathique dea 
Auteura Eccliaiastiquea ; Niceron, M&moirea ; 
Nicolas Antonio, Bibliotheca HUpana Nova, 
The last anthori^ was i)ublished m Aguirre's 
lifetime, and does not give all his works.) 

J. CM. 

AGUIRRE, JUANES, a Spanish sculptor, 
a native of Segovia. He was the scholar and 
son-in-law of Mateo Inverto, whom he as- 
sisted in the ornaments of the great altar of 
the parish church of Villacastin. He exe- 
cuted alone the tabernacle, with the statues 
of the evangelists, and other six saints, in 
small, in 1594, which are of considerable 
merit. (Bermudez, DtccUmario Hiatorico^ kc") 

R. N. W. 

AGUJA'RI, LUCREZIA, was with her 
husband, Colla, an Italian composer of 
secondary rank, in London in 1777, whose 
compositions she almost exclusively sang. 
From London she went to Parma, and died 
there in 1783. Bumey speaks of her as *' a 
wonderful performer. She had two octaves 
of fair natural voice ; and Sacchini said that 
in early youth she could go up to B flat in 
altiaaimo. Her shake was perfect, her in- 
tonation true, and her execution marked and 
rapid." (Bumey, Hiat of Music.) R T. 

AGUSTF, or AGUSTIN, MIGUEL, a 
Spanish writer on agriculture, was bom at 
Baiiolas in Catalonia, in the last quarter of 
the sixteenth century, and became a chaplain 
of the order of Saint John, and prior of the 
temple of that order in Perpignan. The 
date of his death is unknown. His work, in 
Catalan, on the secrets of agricalture, 
**Llibre dels Secrets de Agricultura," was 
published at Barcelona in 1 6 1 7, in folio. The 
author translated it into Spanish, with the 
addition of a fifth book, and the work ap- 
peared in that shape at Perpignan in 1626, 
after which it ran through several editions, 
mostly at Barcelona, but the last at Madrid 
in 1781. The first book principally treats of 
signs of the weather, and the proper times of 
sowing and planting ; the second, of fhiit trees 
and manure ; the third, of vines ; the fourth, of 
domestic animals ; and the fifth, of the chase. 
A rural vocabulary is added, in six lan- 

LL 



AGU8TL 



AQYLEO. 



mget — Spaniflb, Catalan, Latin, Portugneae, 
Italian, and French. The work displays 
great knowledge of the sulject for the time, 
and is still a fiiToarite in the houses of Cata- 
lan farmers. Nicolas Antonio mentions 
that the fifth book was first added in the 
Spanish edition, which is contradicted by 
Amat, who affirms it was the fourth ; but a 
reference to the Barcelona edition of 1626 
shows that Antonio was right (N. Antonius, 
Bibliotheca Himana Noyc^ edit of 1783, ii. 
131. ; Amat, Diccionario de ha EKritorea 
CaUdaneSf p. 8. ; Agustin, Secretoa de Agri- 
cvitwcL) T. W. 

AGY'LEO, ENRI'CO. (Latinised A^- 
Ifleus,) the son of Antonio Agyleo, an Italian 
domiciled in Brabant, was bom at Bois-le- 
Duc about the year 1533. He received a 
good education, and was looked upon as a 
distinguished Greek scholar, and devoting 
himself to the study of the law, came, whether 
by his professional knowledge or his activity 
as a political partisan is uncertain, to occupy 
an important position. He attached himself 
to the Protestant party, and was, in 1578, 
the head of a plot for delivering his native 
city into the lumds of the Dutch. A preci- 
pitate movement of the Dutch troops frus- 
trated the enterprise ; but Agyleo and his 
associates made themselves masters of the 
principal gate, and, although unsupported, 
maintained their position for a considerable 
time. After the compromise of 1579, by 
which the Protestant citizens, on condition 
of their quittmg Bois-le-Dac, were allowed 
to carry their property along with them, 
he appears to have resided principally at 
Utrecht; where, in 1586, he was appointed 
by Leicester's party procurator for the trea- 
sury, and a member of the Supreme Court 
He died in April, 1595, aged sixty-twa 
There was published at Basel, in 1561 — 
** Justinian! Principis Novells Constitu- 
tiones, Latine ex Gregorii Haloandri et 
Henrici Agylsi Interpretatione ad Grsecum 
Scrimgeri Exemplar, nunc primum edits. 
Quibus suis Locis interseritur, quicquid 
vetus Versio amplius habet, atque prozimis 
Editionibus, ex vetustis Libris ac JuUani 
Epitome aspersum est In qui Editione 
Henrici Aj^lsi Opera diligentem tum vari- 
orum Lectionum Annotationem, tum Haloan- 
driie Versionis castigationem, invenire est. 
Item, Ejusdem Justiniani Edicta, Justmi, 
Tiberii, Leonis Philosophi Constitutiones 
et una Zenonis, qute ad Titulum Codicis de 
privatis .£dificiis pertinet, Henrico Agylseo 
mterprete. Poalremo^ Canones Sanctorum 
Apostolonim per Clementem in unum con- 
gesti, Gregorio Haloandro interprete. Ba- 
silesB per Joannem Hervagium, 1561, AXo," 
The book is dedicated, by Agyleo, to Elizabeth, 
queen of England, in a strain sufficiently 
exaggerated, yet not. unnatural in a Belgian 
Protestant, when a Protestant had so recently 
succeeded to the English crown by the death 
506 



of a Roman Catholic, who was the wife of 
Philip of Spain. Andrea, in his brief me- 
moir, attributes to Agyleo an amended edi- 
tion of Haloander's I^^ version of the No- 
velise of Justinian, published at Paris, 4to.y 
in 1560 ; and an edition of the Edieta of 
that prince, and the Constitutions of Justin, 
&c., printed there in 8vo. in the same 
year by Henry Stephens. The same author 
states that Agyleo was the translator of the 
compilation published at Basel in fblio in 
1561, under the title ** Nomo-canon Photii 
Patriarchs, sive ex Legibus et Canonibns 
compositom Opus, cum Commentariis Theo- 
dori Balsamonis.** Verses, ** ad Leetum In- 
troitum Brabantis Philippi IL Regis Catbo- 
lici,** first printed at Utrecht, in 1620, have 
also been attributed to Agyleo. (Valerii 
Andrese BMiotheca BtlaicOy Lovanii, 1643, 
sub voce " Henricus Agyheus;" HiMtarica 
Niarratio prqfectionis et inauguratumU Se- 
renits* Beigii Principum Alberti et IsabdUe^ 
Austria Archidwnan, Auctore Joanne Bochio, 
Antverpia, 1602, p. 488.) W. W. 

AGY'RIUS, or ARGYRIUS, but more 
correctly AG YRRHIU8 ('At^/J^ws), a native 
of CoUytus in Attica, who distinguished him- 
self as a demagogue at Athens during the 
period which followed the Peleponnesian war. 
During the first period of his political career 
he embezzled some part of the public money, 
for which he was imprisoned : he was pro- 
bably not released till shortly before the year 
B.C. 395 ; for in this year he exerted his in- 
fluence to get the theoricon (that is, the public 
money given to the Athenian people for their 
admission to the theatres,), which had for a 
time been diBContinued, restored to the people, 
although the financial affairs of Athens were 
then still in a bad condition. The system 
of pandering to the wishes of the people, by 
paying the services which they owed to the 
state as citizens, and by enabling theni, at the 
public cost, to enjoy the luxuries of life, was 
carried out by Agyrius to its fUl extent, and 
in the year following (b. c. 394) he carried 
a measure by which tiie pay for attending Uie 
popular assembly (iKKKriineurrucdp) was raised 
to three oboli, or about 4{ pence, for each 
person. Some ancient writers represent him 
as having introduced the system of paying the 
citizens for attending the assembly ; but this 
is a mistake, for we know f^m the best au- 
thorities that the system originated with Peri- 
cles. The comic poets of the day frequently 
attacked Agyrius for his conduct ; and it was 
probably to revenge himself that he persuaded 
the people to reduce the allowance which 
had hitherto been given to the comic writers. 
Nevertheless he appears to have gained great 
popularity, for after the death of Thrasybulus, 
in B. c. 389, he was made commander of the 
Athenian fleet at Lesbos, but he never gained 
any distinction as a commander. (Demos- 
thenes, Against Timocratee, 742. ; Harpocra- 
tion, V. etwpiKk and ^KySppios^ with the notes 



AGTRIXJ8. 



AHAB. 



of Valesius ; Schoiia ad ArutopK EccUs, 1 08. ; 
Suidas, T. *EiticXir(ria<rruc<{y ; Diodoms, xiv. 99. ; 
Xenophon, Hellen, iy. 8. 31. ; compare Meur- 
ains, Lect, AtL vi. 4. ; Kiister, on AristopK 
PluL 176. ; Bockh, Public Economy of Athens^ 
p. 220, &c 228. 236, &c, second edit £ng. 
translation; Schomann, Dissertation on the 
Assemblies qf the Athenians^ 59, &c Eng. 
translation.) L. S. 

A'HAB (Heb. n«n«; in the LXX. 'Axoaffj 
in Josephus, "Axc^ios ; and in the Vulgate, 
Achab), second king of Israel of the dynasty 
or house of Omri [Omri], whose son and 
immediate successor he was. He reigned 
twenty-two years, b. c. 931 — 909. 

The reign of this prince is memorable for 
the general introduction of idolatrous wor- 
ship for the first time after the service of 
Jehovah had been regulated by David and 
Solomon. The golden calves of Dan and 
Bethel had indeed been previously set up 
by Jeroboam; but this act was, to borrow 
an expression of later date, schismatical 
rather than idolatrous ; the purpose had been, 
not to alter the object of worship, but to 
alter the place and time of worship, so as to 
avoid the necessity of the Israelites ^ing 
to Jerusalem, which still remained faithful 
to the house of David. In the reign of 
Ahab, the worship of the Tyrian Baal or Mel- 
kart was introduced ; and to this violation 
of the first duty of an Israelitish king may 
be ascribed the declaration of the sacred 
writer, that *' Ahab did evil in the sight of 
the Lord above all that were before him.*' 
Ahab appears in history as a gallant soldier, 
but destitute of sufficient moral principle to 
withstand the superior ener^ and wicked- 
ness of his wife, varying his conduct ^ ac- 
cording as he complied with her evil desires, 
or was in turn overawed by the stem rebukes 
of the prophet Eigah, and his fearful de- 
nunciations of divine judgment 

Ahab married Jcaebel (^nt^fctJ I«0^«X 
ID LXX. ; UCaS^X-ti in Josephus ; Jexabel in 
the Vulgate), daughter of Ethbaal or Itho- 
balua, king of the Sidonians. Ethbaal before 
he was lung had been a priest of Astarte. 
Ahab erected a temple for Baal, and offered 
sacrifice to him in Samaria ; and " set up a 
grove" (if indeed the Heb. HIK^K be cor- 
rectly transhited grove), thus establishing 
idolatry in his very capital. Idolatrous priests 
and prophets were multiplied, and eight 
hundred and fifty eiyoyed the special favour 
and support of the aueen. It was probably 
at this time that Jezebel persecuted unto 
death the prophets of Jehovah, of whom 
one hundred were concealed and so pre- 
served by Obadiah, governor of Ahab's 
house. 

At this time the prophet Elgah was di- 
rected to denounce as a judgment against 
Ahab a drought of three years. Drought 
cam& and with it fieunine; and when the 
app^nnted time of its continuance was nearly 
507 



at an end, the land was reduced to the ex- 
tremity of distress, and Ahab with his minister 
Obadiah went through the country in differ- 
ent directions to see if there were any grass 
left which mi^ht save the cattle from perish- 
ing. In this journey Elijah presented him- 
seu to Ahab, and required him to assemble 
at Mount Carmel the idolatrous priests and 
the whole people of Israel, that in this great 
convention it might be determined whether 
the national worship should be i^d to Je- 
hovah or Baal. The account of this meeting 
is one of the most striking narratives in the 
Bible. Ahab was present, but took no active 
part; the miraculous descent of fire from 
heaven determined the solemn controversy ; 
the nation recognised by acclamation Jehovah 
as their God ; the priests of Baal and of the 
groves were, by order of Elgah, put to death ; 
and the descent of a copious shower in- 
dicated that the divine judgment was now 
recalled. But Jezebel sent a message to 
Elgah, threatening him with death, and the 
prophet, panic-struck, fled into the wilderness 
of Sinai or Horeb, to escape f^om the ven- 
geance of the queen. 

About this tune the marriage took place 
between Jehoram son of Jehoshaphat, one 
of the best of the kings of Judah [Jehorah ; 
Jehoshaphat], and Athaliah daughter of 
Ahab and Jezebel [Athauah.] 

The close of AhaVs reign was marked by 
warfare with Benhadad, king of the Syrians 
of Damascus. The history of the Damas- 
cene kingdom is obscure ; it had formed 
part of the subject dominions of David and 
Solomon, and had been established or re- 
stored by the revolt of Rezon against Solomon. 
During the following period it acquired 
strength, and had, durmg the reigp of Omri, 
made some conquests in his territories, and 
exercised some kind of supremacy over him. 
Benhadad advanced with a mighty army to be- 
siege Samaria (b. c. 9 13 ?). The king of Israel 
would have yielded upon moderate terms ; 
but the exorbitant demands of the Syrian 
could not be complied with ; and Ahab, en- 
couraged and directed by a prophet of Je- 
hovah, sallied out at the head of a trifling 
force, composed of " the young men of the 
princes of the provinces, i. e. the personal 
attendants or body-guards of his chief nobles 
or governors, followed by the whole army 
which he had with him, amounting to seven 
thousand men. The attack was made at the 
unusual hour of noon ; and Benhadad, little 
anticipating such a movement in the heat of 
the day, was surprised in the midst of a 
drunken carousal with his subject princes. A 
general panic seized the Syrians, and a com- 
plete rout ensued, Benhadad with difficulty 
making his escape on horseback. 

He returned next year (a. c. 912 ?), with 
an equal force to that which had been de- 
feated ; and, ascribing a merely local power 
to the God of Israel, ti^ought to insure victory 
LL 2 



AHAB. 



ARAB. 



by fighting in the plain instead of the hilU. 
Ahab gave him a second defeat at Aphek, in 
the plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon, 100,000 
Syrians (unless there is some error in the 
numbers) being slain in the field, and 27,000 
buried under the ruins of the wall of Aphek. 
Benhadad surrendered upon terms, promising 
to restore all the cities that had been taken 
from Israel in the reign of Omri, and to 
render to Israel the same submission which 
had previously been exacted Arom it. Ahab 
released him with inconsiderate lenity, for 
Benhadad (apparently for having challenged 
the sovereignty of Jehovah), was devoted to 
destruction; and judgment was threatened 
agiunst Ahab himself and his subjects for 
having released him. Benhadad did not 
fulfil the condition of restoring the previous 
conquests of Syria, and this led to the re- 
newal of the war. 

It was perhaps in this, the most prosperous 
period of his reign, that Ahab executed those 
great works which are briefly noticed in the 
Bible, as building cities and erecting " an 
ivory house " (a palace adorned with ivory), 
and enlarging his grounds at Jezreel (where 
he had a palace), by the addition of a kitchen 
garden or *' garden of herbs." To make this 
addition, he proposed to buy the vineyard of 
Naboth, a citizen of Jezreel; but Naboth 
refused to sell the Inheritance of his fathers. 
Though mortified by the refbsal, Ahab did 
not attempt to force him to sell ; but Jezebel 
procured, by means of a false accusation, the 
death of Naboth ; and her husband, though 
not an active accomplice in the crime, readily 
seized the desired possession. Elijah was 
hereupon commissioned to denounce the judg- 
ment of God upon both Ahab and. Jezebel, 
and the destruction of all their race, though 
the execution of the latter part of the sentence 
was, upon Ahab*s repentance, deferred till 
after his death. 

This event was fast approaching. Ben- 
hadad had never fulfilled the stipulations 
of his capitulation at Aphek. Ramoth in 
Gilead, a fortress of importance, east of Jor- 
dan near the river Jabbok, was retained by 
the Syrians ; and three years after the capi- 
tulation, Ahab, with the aid of Jehoshaphat 
king of Judah, determined to besiege it 
Ahab was surrounded by false prophets, 
who, while professing to speak in the name 
of Jehovah, flattered the passions and 
wishes of the king. Encouraged by their 
predictions, he undertook this fatal ex- 
pedition, notwithstanding the warning of 
the prophet Micaiah, whose faithfulness only 
entailed captivity on himself. The king of 
Syria came to the relief of Ramoth, and in 
order to insure the destruction of Ahab, 
commanded that every weapon should be 
aimed at him. Ahab, either informed of this 
design, or suspecting it, disguised himself; 
but was, notwithstanding, mortally wounded 
by an arrow shot at a venture. He remained 
508 



in the field, and was supported in his chariot 
till the evening, when he died (b. c. 909). The 
battle appears to have been undecided, and 
though the king's death caused the dispersion 
of the Israelites, the Syrians do not seem to 
have guned any advantage fh>m it Ahab 
was brought to Samaria, and there buried. 
He left two sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram, who 
successively occupied the throne of IsraeL 
The Bible speaks of seventy other sons 
(2 Kingt, x. L) ; but these were perhaps 
kinsmen or descendants generally. He had 
at least one daughter, Athaliah, married to 
Jehoram, king of Judah. 

Jezebel survived her husband many years ; 
but when the revolution which overthrew 
the dynasty of Ahab was efiiected by Jehu 
(b. c. 895), she was thrown out of her palace 
window at Jezreel by some of her own 
household, who wished to gain the fiivour of 
the conqueror [Jehu], and her unburied 
body was devoured by dogs in the possession 
of Naboth, agreeably to the prediction of 
Elijah. (1 KingSf xvi — xxii ; 2 Chron. 
xviii. ; Josephus, Jewish Antiq, viii. 13 — 15.) 

J. C. M. 
AHASUE'RUS, or. more properly 
ACHASVE'ROSH (Kn-ftbnK), is the 
Hebrew name, as used in the Bible, for several 
of the Persian and Median kings. In the 
corresponding passages of the Septnagint the 
names used are Assuerus (*A0'<roi^i|por, Ezra 
iv. 6. ; AffouiipoSf Dan. ix. 1.) and Artaxerxes 
QAfnaiip^ils, Esther L 1, &c.). 

With regard to the form of the name, it ia 
most probably derived from the same Persian 
word (whatever that was) which in Greek 
takes the form ** Xerxes." The true form of 
this name has been lately ascertained from 
the Persepolitan inscriptions. It is Khshershe, 
Khshvershe, or Khshcarsha, and means simply 
" king," or " lion-king." (Gesenius*8 Lexicott, 
8. V. ; Grotefend's Supplement to Heeren's 
Ideen ; and the Review of Pott's EtymologUckt 
Forschvngen in the Journal of Education^ voL 
ix. p. 336-7.) Either of the above forma, 
especially the second, with the addition of 
the prosthetic Aleph of tiie Hebrew, gives 
the name Achashverosh. This word might 
also stand for *' Artaxerxes," since the latter 
is merely the word *' Xerxes"- compounded 
with the word ** arta," meaning ** great " or 
" noble." Now " Xerxes " and " Artaxerxes" 
were at fij:vt (as is plain firom their meaning) 
royal titles, and not proper names. The same 
remark applies to the other royal Median 
name used in the Bible, namely, Darius. 
Hence it may be inferred that the Hebrew 
writers would use the name Ahasuerua for 
any Persian or Median king. There is, how- 
ever, some difficulty In determining who are 
the kings that are mentioned by this name in 
the Bible. 

1. In Daniel ix. 1. <* Darius the Mede,** 
who reigned two years in Babylon after its 
taking by the Medes and Persians, is called 



AHASUERUS. 



AHAZ. 



the son of Ahasaerofl. Those commentators 
who suppose the scriptural narrative of these 
times to agree with that of Xenophon in the 
••CyropsBdia" identify Darius with the Cy- 
axares IL of Xenophon, and consequently 
Ahasuerus with his father Astyagea. [ Asty- 

▲GE6.1 

2. In Ezra it. 6. Ahasuerus, the successor 
of Cyrus, must of course be Cambyses, as 
indeed Josephus expressly calls him. (^Jewish 
Anti^. xi. 2.) The only circumstance related 
of lum by Ezra is, that the people of the 
countries adjacent to Judsa wrote to him in 
the beginning of his reign an accusation 
against the Jews $ with what effect we are 
not mformed by Ezra; but Josephus, who 
professes to give a copy of the letter and of 
the kmg^s reply, states that he caused the 
rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem to be 
suspended during his reign. (b.c. 529 — ^522.) 
The rest of his acta are related under Cam- 
byses. 

The opinion of Howes, quoted by Hales 
(^Analyns of Chronology^ iL 481.), that the 
Ahasuerus of Ezra iv. 6. is Xerxes, and that 
^e passage, v. 6 — ^23, is an historical antici- 
pation, appears altogether untenable, as there 
IS no ground for taking that passage out of 
the di^ct order; and also the supposed re- 
sumption at Y. 23. of the subject broken off 
at V. 5. is exceedingly harsh and improbable. 

3. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther is 
generally supposed to be Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, who reigned from 464 to 425 b.c. 
[ Artaxerxes LoNOiMANUs] ; but others sup- 
pose him to be Xerxes L (485—465 B.C.) 
The former opinion rests on the anthority of 
the Septuagint, of the apocnrphal additions to 
the book of Esther, and of Josephus (Antiq, 
xi. 6.), and has been followed by Prideaux 
(^Connection of the Old and New Testament, 
pt. L bk. Iy. p. 361.) and Hales (AncUysts of 
Ckronologyj ii. p. 449.). The latter opinion is 
that of Scaliger {De Emend, Temp, lib. vi.^ 
who is followed by Justi (Repertoriwn Jur 
Bibliech, und Morgeniand. lAttertUur, xy. 1, 
&c), Eichhom {Endeitung ins AUe Teat iii. 
637, &c.), Jahn {Hebrew Commonwealthy i, 
193. Eng. trans.), and Winer {Bibliaches 
BetdwOrterbuchj art. ** AhasYcrus "). A third 
hypothesis — that of Archbishop Ussher {An- 
nates, i. 160, &c), who msJces tiie Ahasuerus 
of Esther to be Darius Hystaspes — is gene- 
rally and properly rejected as quite irrecon- 
cileable with the history of that king. On 
the whole, Prideaux's arguments go Yerv fat 
to determine the question in faYour of Arta^ 
xerxes Lon^fimanus. The biblical history 
of this king is insepcunbly mixed up with that 
of Esther. [Esther ] 

4. In the apocryphal book of Tobit (xIy. 
15.) the conquerors of NineYch are called 
Nebuchadnezzar (Na«w>ro5oi»rf<rop) and Aha- 
suerus (*A<ri$i7po5). This Ahasuerus must 
have been Cyaxares I., king of Media. 
[Ctaxaebs.] p. S. 

509 



I A'HAZ, (in Hebrew, truC; in the LXX. 
"AxaC; in Josephus, *AxrfCl»; and in the 
Vulg^, Achaz;) son of Jotham, king of 
JodRh. He succeeded his fkther on the 
throne at the age of twenty years, and reigned 
sixteen years, according to the present 
reading of the Hebrew text These numbers, 
according to which he died at the age of 
thirty-six, do not admit of his leaving, as we 
are mformed he did, a son twenty-five years 
of a^. The reading of the LXX. in 2 Chron. 
xxYiii. 1. gives " twenty -five " years for his 
age at his accession, instead of " twenty ; " but 
the variations in the MSS. render the authority 
of this alteration very doubtful, and it is hardly 
consistent with the age at which Jotham the 
father of Ahaz died. We must, then, leave 
the difficulty unexplained. Ahaz succeeded 
to the throne in an early period of the hosti- 
lities which Pekah, king of Israel, and Re- 
zin, king of Syria, carried on in alliance 
against Judah. Ahaz distinguished himself 
beyond all his predecessors by his idolatrous 
propensities. He practised the revolting 
worship of Moloch, of which the valley St 
the son of Hinnom, south of Jerusalem, be- 
came the seat ; and made his own son *' pass 
through the fire." Enemies now multiplied 
against Ahaz, and his efforts to expel them 
were unsucc^sfuL The Edomites made an 
inroad on the south, and carried off many cap- 
tiYcs ; and in the same quarter the Syrians took 
and retained the port of Elath, on tiie Red Sea. 
The Philistines also captured and held, at least 
for some time, several of the towns and vil- 
lages of the western frontier. Pekah, king of 
Israel, defeated the army of Ahaz with dr^- 
ful slRUghter, killing 120,000 in one dRy, and 
leading away into captivity 200,000 persons, 
includmg women and children. Pekah was, 
however, obliged to restore the captives, by 
the intervention of the prophet Oded, sup-* 
ported by some of the nobles of Israel Maa- 
seiah, termed ** the king^s son,'* but pro- 
bably a kinsman, was slain in the battle just 
noticed. Pekah and Rezin now approached 
to besiege Jerusalem ; and thought of de- 
throning Ahaz, and setting up another person, 
'* the son of Tabeal," in his stead. In this 
distress, the prophet Isaiah was sent to assure 
Ahaz of his safety, and of the approaching 
ruin of his foes. The intimation that the 
King of AssyriR was to be the agent in their 
overthrow, perhaps induced Ahaz to apply 
for aid to that prince, who is called in Scrip- 
ture Tilgath^Pilneser, or Ti^lath Pileser. 
Ahaz was forced to purchase his assistance at 
a cost which led the sacred writer to say that 
**> he distressed him, but strengthened him 
not." (2 Chron, xxviii. 20.) The temple of 
Jerusalem, and the palaces of the king and 
his nobles, were stripped of their treasure to 
provide the needful supplies. The purpose 
of the application was, however, attained. 
Tiglath Pileser took Damascus, iht capital 
of Syria, carried the inhabitants captive, and 
I.L 3 



AHAZ. 



AHAZIAH. 



8l6w Rezin : he then adyanced against Israel, 
and carried captive the inhabitants of Galilee 
and Gilead, in the northern and eastern part 
of the kingdom. Pekah was soon afterwards 
slain by Hoshea, one of his subjects, who, 
after a long interregnum, succeeded to the 
throne. The death of Pekah, and all the 
preceding erents, seem to have occurred in 
the first four years of the reign of Ahaz. 
(Comp. 2 Kings, nv. 27. 30. 33. xvi. 1.) 
. Ahaz, who had acknowledged himself the 
yassal of the Assyrian, now went to Damas- 
cus to meet him, and on his return was com- 
pelled to remove or mutilate much of the 
fhmiture of the temple, in order to satisfy 
his further demands. Nor was this the only 
evil resulting from the visit : it led to the 
introduction of a new variety of idolatry, the 
worship of the gods of Damascus. Urijah 
the high-priest joined with the king in his 
idolatrous practices, which were diffused 
through the land. The temple was closed ; 
and among other objects of worship was the 
brazen serpent, which Moses had set up in 
the wilderness for another purpose. 

The reign of Ahaz is fixed by Hales as 
comprehending the years from b. c. 741 to 
725. There u an apparent discrepancy in 
the accounts of his burial. According to the 
book of Kings (2 Kings, zvi 20.) he was 
buried ** with his fillers in the city of 
David ; " while in Chronicles (2 Chron, xxviii. 
27.) it is said that, though he was buried in 
Jerusalem, he was not brought into ** the 
sepulchres of the kings of IsraeL" He was 
succeeded by his son Hezekiah. The order 
of events in the early part of his reign 
is to a considerable extent conjectural, the 
sacred writings affording few chronological 
data. (2 Kings, xvL ; 2 Chron. xxviii ; 
Isaiah, viL viiu ; Josephus, Jewish Antiq. ix. 
12.) J. C. M. 

AHAZI'AH (Heb. nWK, or liTtntt ; in 
the LXX. and in Josephus, *Oxo^cu), son 
and successor of Ahab, king of Israel. He 
restored the idolatry which his fitther had in 
his later years renounced [Ahab], adding 
the worship of Baal to the schismatical 
worship introduced by Jeroboam; the re- 
tention of which indicates that he regarded 
Jehovah as one of the many gods which the 
accommodating spirit of polytheism admitted. 
He continued the alliance which his father 
had formed with Jehoshaphat ; and attempted, 
in conjunction with that prince, to revive the 
trade by the Red Sea with Tarshish and 
Ophir ; but this alliance drew upon Jehosha- 
phat the divine displeasure, and the ships were 
wrecked. Ahaziah proposed to renew the 
attempt, but Jehoshaphat declined. The 
Moabites, no longer awed by the warlike 
qualities of Ahab, now revolted, and with- 
held their accustomed tribute of sheep from 
Ahaziah ; and before he could reduce them, 
he had a severe fall apparently from a lat* 
liced window or balcony, and was confined 
510 



by the conaef^uences of the accident to his bed. 
In this condition he sent messengers to in- 
quire of the oracle of Beelzebub the god of 
the Philistines at Ekron; but Jehovah, to 
numifest his displeasure at this perseverance 
in idolatry, directed Elyah to meet the mes- 
sengers, and to desire them to return with a 
message to the king that he should die. 
Enraged at this, Ahanah sent an officer with 
a body of soldiers to apprehend Elijah ; but 
the troop, with their leader, were destroyed 
by fire from heaven: the attempt was re- 
peated with a similar result ; but the sub- 
missive behaviour of the third officer who 
was sent induced Elgah to go to the king, 
not indeed as a captive, but to repeat in 
person the divine denunciation. Ahaziah 
accordingly died after an nnfntunate reign 
of two years (b.c. 909 — 907), and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Jehoram. [ Jehoram. ] 
(1 Kings, xxii.; 2 Kings, i. ; 2 Chron. xx. 
35. 37. ; Josephus, Ant, JutL ix. 2.) 

J. CM. 
AHAZr AH (Hebrew and Greek forms as 
above), the youngest but only surviving son 
of Jehoram king of Judah by his wife 
Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, 
succeeded his &ther on the throne of Judah, 
which he occupied for a year (b.g. 896-5). 
He allowed his mother's influence to lead him 
into evil, and his short reign was marked by 
crime. He was twenty-two years of age at 
his accession, according to 2 Kings, viiL 26. ; 
in the Hebrew text and the Latin Vulgate 
of 2 Chron. xxii. 2., he is siud to have been 
forty-two ; but this reading is obviously in- 
correct, and is not supported by the LXX., 
in most copies of which we read twenty 
years; or by the Syriac and Arabic versions 
and some copies of the LXX., which g^?e the 
reading twenty-two years. Ahaziah went 
with his uncle Jehoram or Joram, king of 
Israel, to the Syrian war at Ramoth Gilead ; 
whether to besiege that city (as the Vulgate, 
2 Kiop, ix. 14., and Josephus say) or to 
make it their head-quarters, is not clear. 
Jehoram, being wounded, returned to Jezreel 
to be healed, and Ahaziah went to pay him a 
visit. The absence of the two kings gave 
opportunity for the revolt of Jehu [Jehu], 
who proceeded with his army, or, as Josephus 
says, with a select body of cavalry, to Jez- 
reeL Jehoram and Ahaziah, ignorant of his 
revolt, went forth to meet him : Jehoram was 
slain on the spot ; Ahaziah fled, but being 
wounded (with an arrow according to Jo- 
sephus), died at Megiddo, where he had 
taken reftige. An account, somewhat dif- 
ferent from this, which is from the book of 
Kings, is given in the book of Chronicles, 
in which Ahaziah is said to have been 
sought out in his hiding-place in Samaria by 
the order of Jehu, before whom he was 
taken, and by his command slain. The vari- 
ous proposed ways of reconciling the two 
accounts of Ahaziah's death may be seen in 



AHAZIAH. 



AU&NOBARBI. 



Poole's Synoptis CnUcorum, but Bon« of them 
are satisfactory. 

The respect felt for the memory of his 
grandfather Jehoshaphat, secured to Ahaxiah 
an honourable burial in the royal sepulchre 
at Jerusalem. Seyeral of his kinsmen were 
also put to death by Jehu ; and his children, 
except one, perished by the act of his own 
mother [Athauah], who usurped the king- 
don. 

Ahaziah is called in one place (3 Chron. 
xxii. 6.) Axariah (inntSO eyidently by an 
error, which is corrected or avoided in the 
ancient versions ; and in another place he is 
called (2 Chron. xxL 17.) Jehoahax, which 
is merely a transposition of the elements 
of his name AhaxiiJi, tniTliT for tnnnK. 
(2 Kings, viiL 9. ; 2 Chron. xxiL ; Josephus» 
Jewitk Antiq, ix. 6.) J. C. M. 

AHE'NOBARBL The Gens Domitia 
contained two principal fiimilies, the Calvini 
and Ahenobarbi (Suetonius, Aero, 1.). The 
Ahenobarbi derived their surname, which 
signifiea Red-beard, from the colour of 
their hair, and traced the appellation to a re- 



mote period. In b. c. 496, the Diosdiri 
(Castor and Pollux), on their return from 
the battle of the lake Regillos, announced to 
one L. Domitius the victory of the Romans. 
But, since he was incredulous, they stroked 
his hair and beard, which were immediately 
changed from black to red. (Plutarch, 
u£mu<ttf, 25., CoriolanuSt 3. ; Dionysius 
Halicam. vL 13. ; Cicero, De Natur. Deomm^ 
ii. 2., and the coins of the Domitii Aheno- 
barbi in Eckhel, Doctrin, Num, Vet^ 5. 
p. 202.) The Ahenobarbi had only two 
prsenomina, Cneius and Lucius; and these 
were given sometimes alternately, and some- 
times three Lncii followed three CnelL This 
remark, however, (Suetonius, Nerot I.) r^ert 
to an earlier period than that embraced in the 
following Stenuna. Yelleius Paterculus (it 
10.) notes another peculiarity of the Aheno- 
barban fiunily, that they were mostly, up to 
the year b. c 16, only sons, all of whom be- 
came consuls and pontifices, and several ob- 
tained triumphs. The remark, as will be 
seen below, requires some allowance. 



AHENOBARBI 
(Oeof DomltU). 

(1.) Cn. Domitiiu Ahenobarbu*, L. F. L.N. 
Cot. B. a 199. 



(S.) Cn. DomiUat AheootMrbiw, Co. F. L. N. 
C^. Milfecc. B. c. 163. 



(S.) Cn. Domltlaa Ahenobarbui, On. F. Co. N. 

Cos. B. 0.122. 

Cenior. B.C. 115. 

B 



(4.) Cn. Domltiut Ahenobarbiu, Cn. F. Cn. N. 
Cot. B.a 96. 
CeoMir. B.C.93. 



(6.) lu Domitloi Ahenobarboa, Cn. F. Cn. N. 
Cot. B. c. 94. 



Domitius Ahenobarbut. 
'ather uncertain, probably No. 4. 



(6.) Cn 

Father uncertain, probabl. 
Slain B. c. 81 in Africa ; 

married 

Cornelia, daugliter of 

L. Cornelius Cinna. 

Cos. B. o. 87. 



(7.) Ik Domitius Abenobarbus. 

Cos. B.0.64. 

Married Porcia, sister of 

M. Cato Uticensls. 

^ H ^ 

(8.) Ca Domlttnt Abenobarbus, L. F. Cn. N. 
Cot. B. o. 82. 

n ^ 

(9.) L. DomiUus Ahenobartnu, Cn. F. L. N. 

Cot. B.C.16. 

Married Antonia malor 

(Minor, Tadt. Annal. It. 44. xll. 64.), 

daughter of M. Antonius III? ir and OcUtIs. 



(la) Cn. Domitius Abenobarbus, L. F. Cn. N. 
Cot. a.Dl32. 
Married Agripplna, daughter of Ctetar Oennaaicut. 

(11.) L. Domitlns Ahenobarbut, 

afterwards, by adoption. 

Nero Claudius Cesar Augustus Oermanlcut, 

became emperor a. o. 64. 

ABENOBARBUS, CNEIUS DOMF- 
TIUS, L He was plebeian ajdile in b.g. 
196, and with the fines levied on those who 
exceeded their rights of pasturage on the 
public lands, built, in coigunction with his 
colleague C. Scribonius Curio, a temple of 
511 



(18.) Domitia 
Married 
M. Valerius 



(IS.) Domitia. 

Married 

Griipua Patdenna. 



W.B.D. 

Faunns in the district of the city called In- 
sula Tiberina, which he dedicated in b. a 
194, the year of his prsstorship. Abenobar- 
bus was pnstor urbanus, and in that office 
presided over the appointment of commis- 
sioners for establishing colonies in the neigh- 
LL 4 



A&ENO&ARB08. 



AHENOBARBUa 



bourhood of Thurii and in Brattinm. Towards 
the close of b. c. 193, Ahenobarbua and L. 
Qoinctias Flamininus were elected codsoIb 
m preference to Publiua ComeliuB Scipio 
Nasica, the brother, and to Caius Lflelitu, the 
friend of the elder Africanus. War with 
AntiochuB the Great, king of Syria, was 
then imminent ; and the consuls of b. c. 192 
were therefore directed by the senate to take 
Italy for their joint province. But, should 
hostilities break out, one of them, to be de- 
termined by lot or agreement, was to hold 
himself in readiness to cross the sea, and 
empowered to raise two fresh legions. The 
war, however, was deferred until the year 
following, and Ahenobarbus proceeded by 
way of Ariminum to his province, the conn- 
try of the Boii, which lay between the Taro 
tod the Po to the west and north, and between 
the Apennines and the Rubicon to the south. 
After laying waste their lands he received 
the submission of the Boian nation, and re- 
mained beyond the Rubicon, as proconsul, 
until superseded, in b. c. 191, by the consul 
P. Cornelius Scipio. Ahenobarbus was one 
of the lieutenants of L. Ciomelius Scipio 
Asiaticus in the war with Antiochus, and 
commanded a reconnoitring party previous 
to the decisive action near the city of Mag- 
nesia on the Hermus. Plutarch, in his 
** Anecdotes and Sayings of the Romans," 
ascribes to this Ahenobarbus an important 
victory in the war with Antiochus, of which 
other historians are silent The ox, which 
in B. c. 192 uttered the warning, " Rome, 
beware ! ** was the property of Ahenobarbus, 
and the prodi^ was the more remarkable 
from its occurring in his consulship. {Fcuti 
Capitdini u. c. 561 ; Livy, xxziil 42. zxxiv. 
42. 53. XXXV. 10. 20. xxxvi. 37. ; Plutarch, 
Apopthegmata Rotnarui. Reiske's edit, vi. 745.) 

W. B. D. 
AHENOBARBUS, CNEIUS DOMF- 
TIUS, II., son of Cneius Domitius Aheno- 
barbus L In the year b. c. 1 72 one of the 
pontifices, Q. Fulvius Flaccus, destroyed him- 
self, and Ahenobarbus, although he had not 
attained the legal age, was appointed to the 
vacant priesthood. In b.c. 169 he was one 
of a commission of three ap^inted by the 
senate at the request of .^Snulius Paullus IL 
to examine and report the state and position 
of the fleet and legions in Macedonia, and to 
collect information respecting the forces, 
movements, and alliances of Perseus, the 
Macedonian king. After the defeat of Per- 
seus, he was one of ten commissioners who 
were sent in b. c. 167 to arrange with 
^milius Paullus and L. Anicius the future 
division and administration of Macedonia. 
In B. c. 162 the consuls P. Cornelius Scipio 
Nasica and C. Marcius Figulus, in con- 
sequence of an oversight of Tiberius Sem- 
.pronius Gracchus, consul in b. c. 163, in 
•taking the auspices at their comitia, were 
compelled to resiini, and Ahenobarbus with 
512 



Lnoius Comeliiis Lentolns were sabstititted* 
in their pUce. (I^i^i ^^* 8* ^^- ^S. 20. ; 
Cicero, De Natura Dearum, IL 4., De Dan- 
natione^ i. 17. it 35. ; Valerius Maximus, L 
1. § 3.) W. B. D. 

AHENOBARBUS, CNE'IUS DOMI'- 
TIUS, III., son of Cneius Domitius Aheno- 
barbus II. The dates of his sedileship and 
of his admission into the pontifical coUege 
are unknown; but the former was com- 
memorated by coins, still extant, bearing on 
the reverse a head of Jupiter. Ahenobarbos 
was consul with C. Fannius Strabo b. c. 122, 
and in the following year, as proconsul, 
defeated the Allobroges and their ally Bituitos, 
or Bittus, prince of the Arvemi — the modem 
Pays d'Auvergne — at Viudalium, near the 
confluence of the Sulga with the Rhone. 
His victory was owing in great measure to 
the terror in^ired by his elephants in the 
cavalry of the Gauls. In b. c. 121 Aheno- 
barbus was superseded in his province by Q. 
Fabius Maximus, who acquired the surname 
Allobrogicus fh>m his successful terminalioB 
of the war. Valerius Maximus relates that 
Ahenobarbus, incensed with Bituitus for re- 
commending his own nation the Arvemi 
and their allies the Allobroges to submit 
themselves to his successor Fabius rather 
than to himself, seized, under pretence of a 
conference, the person of Bituitus, and sent 
him prisoner to Rome. Livy, however, ac- 
cording to his epitomist, represented Bituitus 
as having gtme voluntaoily to Rome to treat 
with the senate, by whom he was detained 
in captivity at Alba. Ahenobarbus was 
however deeply mortified at being compelled 
to resign his command before he had com- 
pleted the war. To perpetuate the memory 
of his own exploits he constructed the Do- 
mittan Road in his province, and erected 
towers of stone, on which the arms of the 
Arvemi and Allobroges were suspended — a 
deviation from the ordinary practice of the 
Romans, who seldom raised trophies. His 
mode of travelling in his province, mounted 
on an elephant and surrounded with almost 
triumphal pomp, betrayed also a desire of 
distinction or mortified vanity. Ahenobar- 
bus triumphed at Rome for his victory over 
the Arvemi, and, according to Cicero, over 
the Allobroges also, in b. c. 120. In their 
censorship, b. c. 115, Ahenobarbus and his 
colleague L. Cscilius Metellus Dalmaticus 
prohibited all scenic exhibitions at Rome 
except that of the Latin flute-players, and all 
games of chance except chess or draughts, 
and expelled from the senate thirty-two of 
its members, and among them C. Licinius 
Geta, who afterwards became himself censor, 
B.C. 108. ( Appian, I>c i?eAi« GaOicisy fragm. 
xii. J Cicero, Brutus, 26., fVo FonteiOy 4. 12.; 
Floras, lii. 2.; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 10. 
39. ; Strabo, iv. 191. j Valerius Maximus, ix. 
6. ; Eutropius, iv. 22. ; Suetonius, JVero, 1, 2. ; 
Pliny, Hut NaL ii. 32.) W. B. D, 



AHENOBARBUa 



AHENOBARBUa 



AHENOBARBUS, CNEIUS DOMF- 
TIUS, IV., son of Cneius Domitins Aheno- 
barbus II L In his tribnneship (b.c. 104) 
he brought forward and carried the Domitian 
law (Lex Domitia de Sacerdotiis), by which 
the election of the priests of the saperior 
colleges was transferred to the people, pro- 
bably in their assembly of the tribes. B^ 
this law the people made choice of a candi- 
date, who then became by co-optation a 
member of the college, and thus the people 
really appointed the priesthood, and the co- 
optatio, although still necessary, remained a 
mere form. A similar attempt had been 
previously made in b.c. 145, by the tribune 
O. Licinios Crassus, but was frustrated, on 
religious grounds, by the pnetor C. Lselins. 
The Domitian law was repealed by the Lex 
Cornelia de Sacerdotiis of L. Cornelius Sulla ; 
revived at the instigation of Julius Ceesar by 
the tribune Labienus in b.c. 63 with certun 
modifications, and again annulled by Marcus 
Antonius, the triumvir. Ahenobarbus is 
said to have proposed this law fh>m a desire 
to avenge himself on the pontifices, who had 
refused to adopt him into their college in the 
room of his deceased father. Soon after the 
passing of the law, the people evinced their 
gratitude to AJienobarbus by electing him 
pontifex maximus. As tribune, Ahenobar- 
bus undertook several impeachments, princi- 
pally of those who had offended him by their 
neglect or opposition. Of these the most 
remarkable were the prosecutions of M. 
Junius Silanus, and of M. ^milius Scaurus. 
SiUnus in his consulship (b. c. 109) had 
attacked the Cimbri in Gaul, without orders 
from either the senate or the people, and 
been defeated by them. This was the pre- 
text of the impeachment ; but its true cause 
was, according to Cicero, that Silanus had 
wronged or insulted the Gaul ^gritomlims, 
an hereditary friend of the Ahenobarbi. The 
accusation of Scaurus had also a nominal and 
a secret motive. Scaurus had neglected or 
performed carelessly some of the more an- 
cient sacrifices of the Roman people, and, 
among others, the worship of the Penates at 
Lavinium. But he had also delayed or re- 
fused the adoption of Ahenobarbus into the 
college of augurs. Both Silanus and Scau- 
rus were, however, acquitted. In connection 
with the prosecution of Scaurus an instance 
of forbearance is recorded of Ahenobarbus. 
During the preparations for the trial a slave 
of the defendant's offered to give evidence 
against his master; but Ahenobarbus sent 
hun back to his owner, unheard. Aheno- 
barbus was consul in b.c. 96 with C. Cassius 
Longinus, and censor in b.c. 93 with L. 
Licinius Crassus the orator. Crassus and 
Ahenobarbus disagreed on every point of 
their official duties, except in regarding the 
'schools of the Latin rhetoricians as injurious 
to public morals and in suppressing them. 
In their frequent discussions, Ahenobarbus, 
513 



whose temper was rehement and irascible; 
was the object of his colleague's more dex- 
terous rhetoric and readier wit. In allusion 
to^ his fiunily name (Ahenobarbus), Crassus 
said, ** it was not extraordinary that his beard 
was of brass, since his mouth was of iron 
and his heart of lead." In return, he re- 
torted upon Crassus his sumptuous mode of 
life, his house on the Palatine with its 
columns of Hymettian marble, his fish-ponds, 
and his f&vourite lamprey whose death he 
lamented as if his daughter and not his fish 
were dead. Yet, if Crassus excelled him in 
the art of eliciting laughter, Ahenobarbus^ 
from the gravity <^ his character, the force 
of his invectives, and his experience in 
speaking, enjoyed considerable reputation 
among his contemporaries as an orator. Ci- 
cero, indeed, says that he had eloquence 
enough for his oflBcial and consular dignity $ 
but, had Ahenobarbus refrained from attack- 
ing the aristocrac^r, he would probably have 
been mentioned with more respect by the 
great orator and critic of Rome. SigoniUs 
{Feutif n. c. 662.) has collected the various 
passages in which the disputes of Aheno- 
barbus and Crassus in their censonhip are 
related. A characteristic anecdote is pre- 
served by Valerius Bdaximus, ix. 1. § 4. 
(For the numerous references to Ahenobar- 
bus (IV.) in Cicero, see Emesti, Clavisy or 
Grellius, Onomasticon Ciceronianum, v. ** Do- 
mitius i" Valerius Maximus, vL 5. § 5. ix. 1. 
§ 4. ; Suetonius, Nero, 2. ; Asconius, in Scav- 
rianam, p. 21., in Comelianamy p. 80. ; Livy, 
Epitome, 65. 67. ; Pliny, HisL Nat xvii. 1. ; 
Aulus Gellius, Nociet Attica:, xv. 11. ; Ma- 
crobius. Saturnalia, ii. 11, &c.) W. B. D. 

AHENOBARBUS, CNEIUS DOMI'- 
TIUS^ probably a son of Ahenobarbus IV. 
He married Cornelia, dau^ter of L. Cornelius 
Cinna, consul in b.c. 87, and with him em- 
braced the Marian or popuhtr party in the 
firat civil war, b.c. 87 — 81. When proscribed 
b^ Sulla, Ahenobarbus fied to Africa, where, 
aided by the Numidian king Hiarbas, he as- 
sembled a considerable army, to which many, 
under similar proscription, attached them- 
selves. Gn the appearance, however, of Chieius 
Pompeius, as Sulla's lieutenant, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Utica, Ahenobarbus was deserted 
by 7000 of his soldien. Pompeius attacked 
the remainder during their retreat, and after 
witnessing the defeat of his followers, Aheno- 
barbus fell in the storming of his camp. He 
was very young at the time of his death. 
According to some accounts he was not slain 
in battle, but executed afterwards, together 
with his ally, Hiarbas, by command of Pom- 
peius, B.C. 81. (Plutarch, Pontius, 10, 12. ; 
Livy, Epitome, 89. ; Valerius Maximus, vL 2. 
§ 8.) W. B. D. 

AHENOBARBUS, CNEIUS DOMI'- 
TIUS, VIIL, son of Ahenobarbus VIL, and 
of Porcia, sister of Marcus Cato the younger. 
In B.C. 59 he appeared, but on what grounds 



AHENOBARBU& 



AHENOBABBUa 



ia anknown, as the proflecator of Cneius 
Saturniniu. In the year following he was 
captured with his fiBither in Corfiniom 
[Ahenobaebus VII.]* ^'od experienced Cse- 
sar's clemency. Since, however, on the 8th 
of March in the same year, he passed by 
Cicero's Formian yilla on his way to Naples, 
he probably did not accompany his fiither to 
Marseille, bat proceeded at once to the Pom- 
peian camp in Greece. After the defeat of 
the Pompeians at Pharsalos, Ahenobarbos 
laid down his arms, bat did not repair to Italy 
until Cesar's return from the East He was 
again pardoned ; but his Other's and his 
uncle Cato's death made a cordial recon- 
ciliation with the dictator impossible. Yet it 
does not appear that Ahenobarbus took part 
in Caesar's murder j nor does he seem to 
have joined the conspirators afterwards in 
the Capitol, when many flocked to them from 
desire to be thought accomplices. Cicero 
and Dion Cassius, indeed, affirm the participa- 
tion of Ahenobarbus; but the orator was 
wont to magnify the number «f the con- 
spirators, in order that their act might seem 
less that of indiriduals than of the senate ; 
and the historian inferred the presence of 
Ahenobarbus on the Ides of March, merely 
from his having been proscribed by Octa- 
vianus. Appian and Suetonius, however, 
deny, on better evidence, the porticipadon of 
Ahenobarbus ; the former of whom had be- 
fore him the contemporary memoirs of Coc- 
ceius Nerva, a mutual friend of both the 
triumvirs, Antonius and Octavianns. But 
Ahenobarbus aided the principal conspirators 
in building and equipping a fleet on the coast 
of Tuscany, and, since he had an estate there, 
probably with his own slaves and materials. 
In the following September he accompanied 
Brutus to Athens, and rendered the republi- 
can party an important service in Macedonia 
by inducing a portion of the cavalry of Dola- 
bella, the proconsul of Syria, to desert Ahe- 
nobarbus was connected by marriage with 
both Brutus and Cassius. Porcia, fiie wife 
of M. Brutus, was his first cousin, and Cas- 
sius was married to a sister of Brutus. Under 
these circumstances, Ahenobarbus may well 
have been suspected of taking part in Qesar's 
destruction, and was thus mcluded in the 
prosecution of the conspirators in b. c. 43, 
under the Pedian law. In B.a 42, Ahe- 
nobarbus, at the head of fifty galleys and one 
legion, which he had himself collected and 
organised, acted as lieutenant to Statins Mur- 
cus in the Adriatic and Ionian seas. They 
intercepted the communication of the trium- 
virs with Italy, and threatened Rome with 
fimiine by capturing the com fleets. In an 
engagement with Domitius Calvinus off the 
harbour of Brundisium, Ahenobarbus gained 
the title of ** Imperator." Yet, after the de- 
feat of the republican party at Philippi, he 
did not with Statins Murcus join Sextus 
Pompeius in Sicily, but continued to cruise 
514 ' 



with seventy galleys in the Adriatic Sea, 
which he supported by plundering the coasts 
of Italy and Epirus. In B.c. 41 the siege of 
Perosia brought Marcus Antonius to Italy. 
and Ahenobarbus seised the opportunity of 
throwing up his independent and now dan- 
gerous command, and securing for himself a 
protector in the triumvir. He became one of 
Antonius's lieutenants ; but since the ap- 
pointment gave offence to Octavianns, who 
regarded ^enobarbus as one of his uncle's 
murderers, he was sent, by the advice of 
Cooceius Nerva, into an honorary exile, as 
governor of Bithynia. Cocceius, however, 
eventually persuaded Octavianns that Aheno- 
barbus had no share in Csesar's death, and he 
was accordingly absolved from the Pedian 
law, and, at the celebrated congress of the 
triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius off the pro- 
montory of Misenum, he was nominated one 
of the consuls elect for b. c. 32. Aheno- 
barbus remained some time longer in the 
East, and accompanied Marcus Antonius on 
his disastrous expedition against the Par- 
thians (b. a 36) ; and when it became neces- 
sary to recross the Araxes, he was deputed 
by Antonius, who from grief and shame 
dared not leave his tent, to inform the legions 
of the order for retreat On the 1st of 
January, b.c. 32, AhenobariHis, as had beat 
agreed, became consul ; but his colleague's 
(C. Sosius) intemperate declaration in &voar 
of M. Antonius obliged both consols presently 
to quit Rome. Ahenobarbus found Antonius 
at Ephesus, and Cleopatra with him. With her 
he speedily quarrelled. He advised her dis- 
missal to Alexandria, and refused to address 
her by her assumed title **the queen of 
kings.'* Just before the battle of Actium 
(b. c. 31) Ahenobarbus sought a new pro- 
tector in Octavianns. Antonius pretended 
that his passion for Servilia Nais caused him 
to desert, and sent after him his baggage and 
slaves. But Ahenobarbus was of little ser- 
vice to his last patron : sickness had already 
enfeebled him, and he died of fever, aggra- 
vated by anxiety and disappointment, a few 
days after the defeat of Antonius at Actium. 
A coin is extant with the inscription ** cm . 

DOHIT . AHENOBARBUS . lUP . anui 714" OU 

the reverse, which shows the orthographv of 
this fimiily of the Gens Domitia to be AAeno 
and not ^»o-barbus. The twenty-second 
letter of the sixth book of Cicero's epistles 
** Ad Familiares" is addressed to Ahenobar- 
bus VIII. Suetonius calls him the best of his 
race. (Cicero, PJUlippic^ ii 11. 27. x. 6, 13. ; 
Ad Familiaree, viii. 14. I. ; Plutarch, Brutus^ 
25. and AnUmiua; Appian, CivU War, v. 55. 
63. 65. ; Dion Cassius, xlvii. xlviii. 4. ; Vel- 
leius Paterculus, il 72. 76. 84. ; Suetonius, 
Nero, 3.) W. B. D. 

AHENOBARBUS, CNEIUS DOMP- 
TIUS, L. F. CN. N., X., son of Ahenobar- 
bus IX. and of Antonia (migor) daughter 
of the triumvir Antonius and of OcSavia 



AHENOBARBCS. 



AH£NOBARBUd. 



sister of Augustus. His high birth reeom- 
mended Ahenobarbus in a. d. 28 to Tiberius 
for the husband of Agrippina, daughter of 
Germanicns Ciesar. The Emperor Nero was 
the offspring of this marriage. Ahenobarbus 
was consul m a. d. 32, and afterwards pro- 
tsonsul of Sicily. His character was marked 
b^ extreme profligacy and ferocity. He was 
dismissed from the train of Caius Caesar for 
the wanton murder of one of his own freed- 
men ; and be tore out in the forum the eye 
of a Roman knight who had offended him. 
In his prsetorship (the date of which is un- 
known) he defrauded the auctioneers of the 
produce of the public sales, and the winners 
m the chariot-races of their prizes. To- 
wards the close of the reign of Tiberius, 
Ahenobarbus was conyicted, as the accom- 
plice of Albocilla, of the twofold crime of 
adultery and miurder, and on the grayer 
charge of incest with his sister Domitia 
Lepida ; but the death of the emperor pre- 
Tented the execution of the sentence. When 
congratulated on the birth of his son L. Do- 
mitins (afterwards Nero), he replied that 
nothing but what was monstrous and banefhl 
to the state coidd erer proceed from Agrip- 
pina and himself. He died of dropsy at 
Pyrgi in Etruria. (Suetonius, Nero, 5, 6. ; 
Yelleius Paterculus, iL 10. 72. ; Tacitns, 
AnnaL iv. 75. vL 1. 47., 12. 64.) W. B. D. 

AHENOBARBUS, LUCIUS DOMI'- 
TIUS, v., son of Cneius Domitins Aheno- 
barbus UL, and brother of Ahenobarbus IV. 
He was proprsetor in Sicily shortly after the 
termination of the servile war in that island, 
B.C. 99. The edicts of succeasiTe pretors 
had declared it death for a slaye to be found 
with weapons. A boar of unusual size was 
brought to Ahenobarbus, who inquired in 
what manner and by whom it had been slain. 
A slave, armed with a hunting spear, pre- 
sented himself, and expecting rewaid or com- 
mendation for his prowess, boasted that he 
had kUled the animal with that weapon, and 
was immediately ordered by the proprsetor to 
be crucified for his breach of the law. In 
the first civil war (b.c. 87 — 81), Ahenobar- 
bus espoused the party of the senate, and, 
by order of the younger Marius, was put to 
death at Rome by the pnetor Damasippns, 
B. c. 82. Lucius, as well as his brother 
Cneius (IV.), was the fHend of Q. Cscilins 
Metellus Numidicus, who wrote to them 
during his exile. A ftragment of his letter is 
preserved by Aulus Gellius, ** Noctee Atticte," 
XV. 13. (Cicero, Verrin. v. 8.; Valerius 
Maximus, vL S. § 5. ; Velleius Paterculus, 
ii. 26. } Appian, CitfU War, i. 88.) W. B. D. 

AHENOBARBUS, LUCIUS DOMF- 
TIUS, VIL, son of Ahenobarbus IV. He 
gave evidence against Verres (b. c 70), and 
was described by Cicero, on that occasion, as 
the foremost and most illustrious of the 
young men of Rome. The games which he 
exhibited in his cnmle sedileship (b. c. 61) 
515 



were recorded in the annals of the city. ** On 
the 18th of September in the consulship of 
Piso and Messala, Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
curule sedile, brought into the circus one 
hundred Nnmidian bears, and as many Ethi- 
opian hunters." Pliny, who has preserved 
this extract flrom the Annals, remarks, how- 
ever, that ^ the bear is not a native of Africa. " 
At these games began also the practice of 
allowing a pause in the spectacles— <diludium) 
(Horace, Ep. i. 19. 47.), during which the 
spectators withdrew to reft^sh themselves. 
Cicero, in a letter to Atticus (b. c. 65), repre- 
sents Ahenobarbus as at that time possessed 
of considerable popular infiuence, and one 
therefore whose mterest in the comitia it was 
necessary for him to secure in his own can- 
vass for the consulship. Ahenobarbus also 
supported Marcus Cato the younger, whose 
sister Porcia he had married, in hu measures 
(b. c. 61) for the prevention or restraint of 
bribery at elections, and thus drew on him- 
self for a while the hatred of the aristocracy. 
Ahenobarbus, however, soon lost his popu- 
larity with the many, and acquired the con- 
fidence of the senatorian party. Cicero looked 
forward to his prctorship for protection 
against Clodius ; and Cassar, regarding Ahe- 
nobarbus as a formidable antagonist, probably 
instructed his creature, the iiSbrmer Vettius, 
to include his name in the pretended plot 
against Cneius Pompeius, since the house of 
Ahenobarbus was named as the place of 
meeting for the conspirators. Ahenobarbus 
was pnetor in b. c. 58. But there is no trace 
either of his protecting Cicero against Clo- 
dius, or of his exertions in the repeal of 
Cicero's exile. They belonged, indeed, to 
the same political party, but were not per- 
sonal friends. The Julian laws of b. c. 59, 
the consulship of Cesar and Bibulus, were 
rather the object of his attack, and Ciesar 
and Ahenobarbus mutually inveighed against 
one anoth^ in the senate. With his colleague 
in the preetorshipyC. Memmius, he impeached 
the validity of Caesar's acts, and attempted to 
wrest firom him his provinces the Gauls. 
The senate, however, dared not encourage 
Ahenobarbus, since Csesar, with his pro- 
consular army was still in the suburbs. 
Ahenobarbus was more successfbl in with- 
standing the seditious and insidious bill of 
the tribune Cneius ManlinSi by which it was 
proposed that freedmen, instead of being re- 
stricted to the four city tribes, should vote 
indifferently in all the tribes. Ahenobarbus 
attacked also the ftmners of the revenue, 
and was distinguished at this period for his 
professions of independence and rough de- 
meanour. He would neither ask nor grant 
ikvonrs; reproached one of his colleagues, 
Appius, for soliciting Ceesar ; and declar^ he 
would recommend no one to ofllce, not even 
to the tribuneship of a legion. At Lucca, in 
April, B. c. 56, the compact was made be- 
tween Pompeius, Crasfos, and Cesar, by 



AHENOBARBUS. 



AHENOBARBUS: 



which the consulship was secared to the two 
former for b. c. 55, and, in return, the term 
of Caesar's proconsulship was extended. Cato, 
however, and the leaders of the senate, by 
whom Ahenobarbus was now regarded as a 
strenuous partisan, urged him to oppose this 
illegal agreement, and to offer himself as a 
candidate for the consulship. Prompted by 
hatred to Cssar, and confident of success, 
Ahenobarbus prematurely boasted ** that he 
would effect, when consul, what he could not 
do when prsetor, rescind Caesar's acts, and 
recall him from his government" On the 
morning of the comitia he was, however, 
driven from the Field of Mars by an armed 
band : the slave who carried the torch before 
him was slain, and Cato wounded in the arm. 
In the following year (u. c. 54) Ahenobarbus 
was consul, but with him was associated 
Appius Claudius Pulcher, a relation of Pom- 
petus. His consulship was, however, in- 
efficient C. Cato, who as tribune in b. c. 56 
had obstructed the consular comitia, and 
Gabinius, the partisan of Pompeius, who had 
disobeyed the senate in restormg Ptolemacus 
Auletes, king of Egypt, were both impeached 
by him, and both acquitted : and notwith- 
standing his opposition, Julia, Cassar's daugh- 
ter and the wife of Pompeius, was interred in 
the Field of Mars without a previous decree 
of the senate authorising a public Ameral. 
The consular elections for b. c. 53 displaced 
an open disregard of both law and principle 
and, in procuring the return of his kinsman 
Cneius Domitius Calvinus, Ahenobarbus 
yielded to no one in effrontery and corrup- 
tion. No province was assigned him on the 
termination of his consulship, and as the 
breach between Pompeius and Caesar was 
now daily becoming more apparent, he at- 
tached himself to the party of the former. 
He presided at the trial of T. Annius Milo, 
in B. c. 52, and when the news arrived at 
Rome of Csesar's defeat by the Bellovaci 
(Beauvois), Ahenobarbus zealously pro- 
claimed his satisfaction and his hopes. On 
the death of Hortensius the celebrated orator 
in B. c. 50, Ahenobarbus was a candidate for 
the vacant augurship. He had made, how- 
ever, an enemy in M. Caelius by encouraging 
Appius Claudius, censor in b. c. 50, in his 
prosecution of Caelius ; and the latter, aided 
by the tribune C. Curio and Caesar's gold, 
procured the election of Marcus Antonius. 

When in b. c. 49 the civil war at length 
broke out, Ahenobarbus, animated probably 
by the decree of the Pompeian senate ap- 
pointing him successor to Caesar in Gaul, 
displayed more firmness and sagacity than 
either Pompeius or his lieutenants. At the 
head of about twenty cohorts he seized on 
Corfinium, a strongly fortified town in the 
country of the Pehgnians, and employed 
every means to make good his defence. He 
encouraged the garrison by promising from 
bis own estate four jngera of land to every 
516 



common soldier, and proportionable assign*- 
ments to the tribunes and centurions. He 
planted engines in all parts of the waUa, and, 
properly supported, might probably have long 
delayed Caesar's march on Rome. But Pom- 
peius, either distrusting his own followers, or 
determined to make Greece the seat of war, 
wrote urgently to Domitius to abandon the 
town before Caesar surrounded it, and to join 
him at Brondisinm. Caisar, however, had 
already invested Corfinium, and his own 
troops compelled Ahenobarbus, who had 
made a fruitless effort to escape, to open the 
gates. Despairing of the conqueror's cle- 
mency, Ahenobarbus ordered one of his 
slaves, a physician, to administer to him a 
dose of poison. But Caesar dismissed unhurt 
all the prisoners of rank ; and to Ahenobar- 
bus he restored six millions of sesterces 
(48,437/.) which that general had brought 
with him to Corfinium. His dose of poison 
proved to have been merely a sleeping 
draught, and he was again free to prosecute 
his enmity against Caesar. It was for some 
time uncertain whither Ahenobarbus had 
gone ; but in that interval he manned a fleet 
of seven galleys with slaves, peasants, and 
freedmen from his estates in Tuscany, and 
proceeded to Marseille. He was appointed 
governor of the city, and his active mea- 
sures, although they did not delay Caesar's 
march to Spam, made it necessary to detach 
three legions, and to equip a fleet for the 
siege of Marseille. But the city was even- 
tasSly compelled to yield, and Ahenobarbus 
made his escape, during a storm, with only 
three vessels. Two of these were pursued 
by Decimus Brutus, and obliged to return ; 
the third alone, with Ahenobu'bas on board, 
cleared the harbour. In the following year 
(b. c. 48) Ahenobarbus was with the Pom- 
peian army in Thessaly. Here, as if the 
issue of the war had been certain, he con- 
tested fiercely with Lentulus Spinther and 
Metellus Scipio for the reversion of the high 
priesthood with which Caesar was invested. 
He moved in coancU also, that after Csesar's 
destruction a conmiission should be ap- 
pointed to inquire into the conduct of the 
senate generally, with reference to the war. 
For those who had remained at Rome he 
proposed the penalty of death ; for such as 
had withdrawn into provinces under the 
command of Pompeius, but had taken no 
part in the war, a fine ; while those alone who 
were present in the camp should be exempt 
from punishment. To the second of these 
classes belonged Marcus Cicero, whom Ahe- 
nobarbus had publicly upbraided with cow- 
ardice. At the battle of Pharsalus he led 
the left wing of the Pompeians, and was slain 
by Caesar's cavalry in his flight from the 
camp. Cicero, in his second Philippic, 
ascribed the death of Ahenobarbus to Marcus 
Antonius, but the charge has no other found* 
ation than the orator's assertion : and CU 



AHENOBARBUS. 



AHENOBARBUS. 



cero» at different times, wrote very differently 
about Ahenobarbas. One while he was a 
moBt illustrious citizen ; at another, no one of 
the Pompeians was more foolish ; and the 
author of the letter to Caesar ** On the ad- 
ministration of the Republic," usually in- 
cluded in Sallust*8 worlu, describes him as a 
man polluted with every vice. As a speaker, 
Ahenobarbus is represented bv Cicero as 
uncultivated, but as expressing himself with 
much freedom and in correct language. His 
fledileship, his promise of four jugera of land 
to each of the soldiers in Corfinium, and his 
subsequent equipment of ships from his 
estate at Cosa, diow Ahenobarbus to have 
been wealthy; and Dion remarks that he pro- 
fited by Sulla*8 proscriptions. Both in peace 
and war he exhibited die character of an un- 
scrupulous and relentless partisan. (Emesti 
Clavis Ciceronia^ or Orellius, Ononuuticon 
Ciceronianumj ** Domitius Ahenobarbus ;" 
Suetonius, Cttmw, 23. NerOy 2. ; Pliny, iVot 
Hiat. viii. 54. ; Dion Oassius, xxxvii. 46. 
xxxix. 41. 60. 62. xlL 11., and the various 
references to Domitius Ahenobarbus in the 
Index Historicns to Caesar's BeUum Civile s 
Pseudo-Sallustius, in Gerlach's Salhut, p. 275.) 

W. B. D. 
AHENOBARBUS, LU'CIUS DOMI- 
TIUS, IX., son of Ahenobarbus VIIL In 
his youth he was celebrated as a charioteer. 
At the meeting of the triumvirs at Taren- 
tnm (B.C. 36) he was selected for the hus- 
band of Antonia (Antonia m^jor), eldest 
daughter of Marcus Antonius and Octavia. 
Tacitus, indeed, (Annal. iv. 44.) says, that he 
married the younger daughter (Antonia 
minor), but Suetonius represents Antonia 
minor as married to Drusus Nero, brother of 
the Emperor Tiberius. Ahenobarbus was 
curule sedile in b.c. 22, and displayed in that 
office the arrogance which Suetonius imputes 
to him, by compelling L. Munatius Plancus, 
censor in that year, to yield him precedence. 
By a recent edict of Augustus, the public spec- 
tacles had been placed under control of the 
pnetors, and a portion of their cost was de- 
frayed by the treasury. But Ahenobarbus 
so greatly abused his powers, that, after fruit- 
less admonitions, Augustus was at length 
compelled to restrain by edict the licence, 
tumult, and bloodshed which he had Intro- 
duced into the city. Roman knights and 
matrons were brought upon the stage ; com- 
bats with wild beasts exhibited in every 
quarter of Rome ; and the arena thronged 
with an army of gladiators. Ahenobarbus 
was consul in b.c. 16, and received the com- 
mand of the legions of the Rhine. He 
crossed the Elbe, and advanced the Roman 
eagles fiuther into Northern Europe than 
any former proconsuL For his services in 
tilts campaign, Ahenobarbus received the 
triumphal ornaments. He died in ^.d. 25. 
Suetonius describes him as proud, prodigal, 
ind pitiless. (Suetonius, iVm>, 4, 5. ; Taci- 
517 



tus, Anntde8j iv. 44. ; Velleius Patercnlus^ 
iL 72. ; Dion Cassius, liv. 2. 19. Iv. 31. •, 
Dion confounds Ahenobarbus IX. with VIIL, 
xlviii. 54.) W. B. D. 

AHENOBARBUS, LUCIUS DOMI- 
TIUS. XI. [Nero.] 

AHI'J AH, (in Hebrew, n^DK ; in the LXX. 
*Ax<^ or *Axuis ; in Josephus, *Ax^as ; in the 
Yulg. Ahiasi) a Hebrew prophet, of the age 
of Solomon and his son Rehoboam. Perhaps 
he was the same person as Ahgah the Levite, 
to whom David, at the close of his reign, 
gave charge of the dedicated or sacred things, 
and other treasures of the house of God. Ue 
was a native of Shiloh, and, at least in later 
life, a resident there. He declared to Jcro- 
bosm, while yet in a private station, the pur- 
pose of God to give him the sovereignty of 
ten of the tribes of Israel, as a punishment 
for the idolatry into which Solomon had 
&llen. This declaration coming to Solomon's 
ears, excited his jealousy, and he sought to 
slay Jeroboam, who fled into Egypt 

In the extremity of old age, Ahgah was 
consulted by Jeroboam, now king of the ten 
tribes, as to the recovery of his son Abjjab, 
who was ilL The inquiry was made by the 
wife of Jeroboam, in disguise ; but her rank 
and character were revealed by God to Ahi- 
jah, who was now blind. The prophet was 
commissioned to rebuke the apostasy of Je* 
roboam, and to denoimce ruin against his 
dynasty and house ; and also to declare that 
the child about whom the inquiry was made 
should die as soon as his mother returned 
home, which was fulfilled. 

Ahijah was the author of a written pro- 
phecy, in which many historical particulars 
of Solomon's reign were given. It is referred 
to by the author of the books of Chronicles, 
to whose mention of it alone we owe our 
knowledge that it ever existed. It is now 
lost (1 Kings, xi. xiv. ; 1 Chron. xxvi. 20. ; 
2 Chrim. ix. 29. ; Josephus, Jewish Aniiq, 
VIIL vil 7, 8. xi. 1.) J. C. M. 

AHI'MELECH. [Sact.] 

AHLE, JOHANN GEORG, a poet and 
musician, the son of Johann Rudolph Able, 
was bom at Miihlhausen, in 1650. He so early 
and diligently devoted himself to scientific 
studies, and especially to music, that while yet 
a youth he was chosen to succeed his father 
as organist of the church of St Blasius in 
that town, in 1673. He was one of the 
most diligent writers of his time ; for during 
a period of thirty years he annually published 
some practical or theoretical work on his art 
Many of his labours were destroyed by the 
great fire at Miihlhausen in 1689, and copies 
of his works are now very rare. These were 
of a varied kind, comprising songs, with and 
without instrumental accompaniments, hymns 
and sacred songs, and instrumental pieces. 
(Gerber, Lexicon der TonkHnstler,) E. T. 

AHLECJOHANN RUDOLPH, organist 
at Muhlhausen, was bom in that town, Dec 



AHLE. 



AHIX 



24, 1625. He studied succcssiyelv at the 
uniTenities of Gottingen and Eriurt At 
Erftirt he was appointed cantor in the church 
of St Andrew, where he distinguished him- 
self bj his diligence and ability in the dis- 
charge of his duties, and the publication of 
some elementary and practical works. His 
reputation reached his native town, and on 
the death of the organist of the church of St 
Blasius in 1649, he was appointed his suc- 
cessor. He was afterwards elected a member 
of the council, and finally burgomaster of 
MUhlhausen : but his attachment to his art 
remained unabated, as his frequent publica- 
tions sufficiently eridence. He died m 1673. 
Gerber gives a list of twenty of his published 
works, which are chiefly motets and hymns, 
with some instrumental compositions, and two 
elementary works in the Latin language. 
(Gerber, Lexicon der TonkunttUr.) £. T. 

AHLIOF KHORA'SA'N, a Persian poet 
who lived in the firsthalf of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. The author of the ** A'tash Kada" gives 
several extracts fW>m his works, but a very 
meagre account of the poet, which is in sub- 
stance as follows : — "He was bom in the town 
of Tarshiz, and was the author of a Divan, or 
collection of odes. For a considerable period 
he sojourned in Hmdustan. He also composed 
a celebrated work with the title of " Saki- 
nima,'* which, according to Fakir Hasan, is 
not to be surpassed." We are not aware that 
any of this poet's works are yet in print, 
and we believe that the manuscripts of them 
are very rare in this country. Von Hammer, 
in his valuable work, ** Geschichte der Schonen 
Redekiinste Persiens," page 376, gives a brief 
notice of this poet, with several extracts from 
his works, which may probably have been 
accessible to that learned orientalist (^Atcuh 
Kadd, India House MS.) D. F. 

AHLI SHI'RA'ZI, a celebrated Persian 
poet, born at Shiraz, about the middle of the 
fifteenth century. Of several Persian authors 
who have given a brief account of Ahli, none 
mentions the precise time of his birth, though 
they all agree respecting the year in which 
he died. He seems to have led a life of 
religious retirement, being distinguished as 
one of tiie luminaries of the Shiah sect In 
a biographical work called the " Haft Aklim," 
or "Seven Regions," it is stated that **m 
clearness of understanding and purity of sen- 
timent Ahli was superior to all the poets of 
his own time. During his residence at Shi- 
ras he produced many beautiful specimens. 
He afterwards removed to Herat, the capital 
of Khorisan, where he wrote his first book 
of Kasidas (a peculiar kind of odes), which 
he dedicated to 'All Shir, vizir of Sultan 
Husain." After his return to Persia, he was 
graciously received at the court of Shah 
Ismail Sufi, to whom the third and last book 
of his odes is dedicated. The Kasidas of 
Ahli are greatly admired by his countrymen, 
on account both of their natural and artificial 
518 



beauties. 'Hiey are all so contrived as to 
convey two different meanings. In common 
copies, where only one kind of ink is used, 
the reader would probably discover no more 
than the plain and obvious signification ; but 
in the finer copies of the poe^s works, certain 
letters are written in red ink, and others in 
black, so that by reading the red letters 
alone, there will result a new and condensed 
ode, strictly accurate in language, metre, and 
sentiment Ahli states, in his pre&ce, that 
he composed his Kasidas in imitation of 
Rhi^a Salman, a celebrated poet, who lived 
at the court of Sultan Sanjar, of the SeQuki 
dynasty, about the middle of the twelfth 
century. For a complete list d Ahli's works, 
the reader is referred to Stewart's ** Catalogue 
of Tipik Sultan's Library." In page 67. o£ 
that work, there is described a beantifhUy 
written copy of Ahli's whole works, presented 
by the poet himself to Shah Ismail Sufi, 
(a.d. 1514,) and stamped with the royal seal 
of Persia. This rare work is now in the 
possession of the East India Company. None 
of Ahli's works has yet been prmted, so fiir 
as we know, nor are they often met with in 
Europe. Pertiaps the most common of them 
is his collection of odes under the title of 
Divin*, which is a fiivourite species of com- 
position with most Persian poets, from An- 
vari downwards. If Ahli is not entitled to 
rank among the very highest of the Persian 
poets, yet few, if any, of those who have 
written since his time can be considered his 
equals. He was the ** prince of poets" of his 
own age, a title whi<^ his contemporaries 
elegantly bestowed on him after his death. 
The numerical values of the letters compos- 
ing the Persian anagram, ** Badshah i shu'ara 
bud Ahli," that is, *' Ahli was the prince of 
poets," amount, when added together, to the 
year of the HQra 942^ in which he died, 
which corresponds with the Christian year 
1535. iAtash Kadd; StewarCs Cataiogue ; 
and a beautiftil copy of the poet's works, in 
possession of the au&or of this notice.) 

D. F. 
AHLWARDT, CHRISTIAN WIL- 
HELM, was bom at Grei&wald, on the 23d 
of July, 1760. He studied at the gymnasium 
and the university of his native town, and 
devoted himself principally to the study of 
languages, both ancient and modem. After 
the completion of his studies, in 1782, he ob- 
tained a situation as private tutor in a fiunily 
at Rostock, but he did not remain long in 
this situation : he preferred supporting him- 
self by private lessons to being dependent 
on the caprices of parents. In 1792 he went 
to Demmin, where he gained a scanty sub- 
sistence as teacher. He remained, however, 
in this place for three years ; and, as he con- 
tinued his linguistic studies with unabated 
zeal, and also began to be known as a writer, 

• Thli work the author of the " Atuh KacU '• njt 
be had never seen. 



AHLWARDT. 



AHLWARDT. 



cliiefly as a translator of ancient poetry, be 
was, in 1 795, invited to undertake the manage- 
ment of the public school at Anklam in 
Pomerania. J. H. Yoss entertained a very 
high opinion of the talent of Ahlwardt, as well 
as of his translations ; and it was through his 
influence that, in 1797, he was appointed 
rector and principal professor of the gym- 
nasium of Oldenburg. Here he remained 
till 1811, when his own native town, proud 
of his growing fiune, appointed him rector of 
its gymnasium, in addition to which he was, 
in 1818, honoured with the professorship of 
ancient literature in the university of Grei&- 
wald. Here he continued his &vourite studies 
with the most indefiuigable seal, except when 
they were interrupted by a complaint in the 
eyes, from which he suffered during the last 
twenty-five years of his life. He died at 
Greiftwald on the 12th of April, 1830. 

Ahlwardt*s whole life was spent on the 
study of languages, and on the best works 
written in them. He was an excellent Greek 
and Latin scholar, and knew most of the 
languages of modem Europe. During the 
earlier part of his life, he was principally 
engaged in the study of the ancient writers, 
and o( the Portuguese and Gaelic languages. 
His chief merit, however, is as a tnmslator, 
in which Yoss's translation of Homer was his 
^reat model. His first essays, which i^peared 
m several periodicals, were translations from 
Pindar, Euripides, Yirgil, Ovid, Catullus, 
JuvenaJ, Claudian, Camoens, and Shakspere. 
The first separate work that he published 
was a (German translation of the hymns and 
epif^rams of Callimachus, Berlin, 1794, 8vo. 
Thjs was followed by a translation of the 
satires of Ariosto in the same year, and some 
others of the same kind. In 1606 he pub- 
lished a Portuguese anthology, in a German 
translation: ** Gedichte aus dem Portu- 
giesischen ilbeTsetst,'' (Hdenburg, 4to. A 
new impulse was given to his studies by the 
publication of the Gaelic original of Ossian's 
poems, at London, in 1807. Ahlwardt im- 
mediately took up the study of Gaelic ; and, 
although there were already several German 
translations of Ossian from Maci>her8on's 
English version, Ahlwardt, who was ambitious 
to do for the supposed Gaelic poet what Yoss 
had done for Homer, published a specimen of 
a new translation of Ossian from the Gaelic 
original, which appeared under the title 
** Probe einer neuenUebersetzung des Ossian 
aus dem Gaelischen Original," Hamburg, 
1808, 4to. He now devotc^l several years of 
uninterrupted study to Ossian, and in 1811 
he produced his translation of all the poems : 
** Die Gedichte Ossians, aus dem Gaelischen 
im Sylbenmasse des Originals," Leipzig, 
3 vols. 8va The translation is preceded by 
a dissertation on the versification of Gaelic 
poetry, and on the principles which he 
had adopted in his attempt to nationalise 
Ossian among the Germans. This subject of 
519 



Ossian's poems is ftuther discussed under 
Macpherson. Another fruit of his study of 
Ossian is a granmuur of the Gaelic language, 
which is printed in J. S. Vater*s ** Ver- 
gleichungstafeln der Europaeischen Stamm- 
sprachen," &c Halle, 1822, 8va Besides 
several other and less important translations, 
Ahlwardt wrote a considerable number of 
essays on ancient poetrv, on grammar, on 
prosody, and similar subjects, which are con- 
tained in various periodicals. One among 
them, at^teai interest, on the " Nibelnngen- 
Lied," is m the ** Transactions of the Acade- 
my of Greifswald," vol. L ^ 99, &c. What 
Ahlwardt has done for classical literature is of 
little value, compared with what he has done 
for the nationalisation of foreign literature in 
Germany. He published two supplements to 
Schneider's Greek Lexicon, one m 1808, at 
Rostock, and the second in 1818, at Grei&- 
wald. In 1820 he published a school edition 
of Pindar, Leipzig, 8va, which was to be 
followed by a large critical edition, but it has 
never appeared. Ahlwardt left in MS. ma- 
terials and collations of several MSS. for a 
new edition of Terentianus Maurus, a work 
on Uie Greek tragic poets, and a Portuguese 
dictionary for Germans. In two works 
published by J. G. Hagemeister, ** Gustav 
Wasa ein historisches Gemalde nach Yertot," 
Berlin, 1795, 2 vols. 8vo., and ** Dom Joam 
von Brannza, historisches GemiUde nach 
Vertot," Berlin, 1796, 8vo., considerable por- 
tions are written by Ahlwardt (ZerV^enotfrn, 
vol. iii. p. 55, &c, where a complete list of 
Ahlwardt's works is given.) L. S. 

AHLWARDT, PETER, was bom on 
the 14th of February, 1710, at Greifswald, 
where his fiither was a poor shoemaker, who, 
by the assistance of some friends, was enabled 
to give his son a good education. After 
young Ahlwardt had gone through the gym- 
nasium of his native city, and also studied 
for some time at the university, he went, in 
1730, to Jena, to complete his philosophical 
and theological studies. In 1732 he returned 
to Greifiiwald, commenced lecturing on phi- 
losophical subjects, and subsequently became 
a^junctus to the philosophical faculty. In 
1752 he was appointed professor of logic and 
metaphysics. He died on the 1st of March, 
1791, and left his large library to the uni- 
versity of Grei&wald. 

Ahlwardt was not a man of any great 
talent, but his diligence and good sense ren- 
dered him a valuable teacher in the uni- 
versity, and a useftd writer, who contri- 
buted to promote sound views in philosophy 
and religion. His principal works are — 
" Betrachtungen iiber die Augsburg^he 
I Confession,*' 2 vob. in seven ptartB, Greifs- 
I wald, 1742-50. 4to. «* Gedanken von der 
I Kraft des menschlichen Yerstandes," Greift- 
wald, 1741, 8vo. " Gedanken von Gott und 
I wahrem Gottesdienst," Greifswald, 1742, 8va 
i " Betrachtungen Uber den Blitz und Donner," 



AHLWARDT. 



AHMED. ' 



Grei&wald, 1745, Syo. <* Einleitung in die 
doguiatische Gottesgelahrtheit," Grei&wald, 
1753, Syo. " Einleitung in die Philosophies* 
Greifswald, 1752, 8vo. (SchlichtegroU, iVc- 
krobg auf das Jahr 1791, i. 367—375.) 

L. S. 

AHMED, the faYoorite child of Saltan 
Bayazid II. and the third of hia eight sons, 
was horn about the year 1475. His father 
conferred on him the goYemment of Amasia 
in Anatolia, and after the death of his two 
elder sons acknowledged him as his successor 
on the throne. This preference roused the 
jealousy of the youngest brother, Selim, who 
reYolted against his father, now advanced in 
years and enfeebled by disease. A battle 
ensued, in which Selim was defeated. Kor- 
kud, the sixth son, a prince naturally in- 
dolent and unwarlike, but a lover of poetry 
and music, followed the example of Selim, 
who had now recovered from his defeat 
and obtained considerable adYantage over 
the sultan's generals, pursuing them to the 
very walls of Constantinople. At this crisis, 
Ahmed, justly fearing that this twofold re- 
bellion might bring about his own ruin as 
well as the aged sultan's, concerted his plans 
with the grand vizir, 'Ali Makhdum Pasha 
[*Ali Makhouh Pasha], and secretly as- 
sembled an army. The news soon reached 
him that Selim had dethroned their aged 
lather Bayazid, strangled their brother, prince 
Korkud, with five of their nephews, and had 
been proclaimed sultan. It appears that the 
corps of Janissaries and most of the great 
men were devoted to Selim, whom they loved 
for his brave and energetic character. Ba- 
yazid died shortly after, and it was reported 
that his end was hastened by Selim's orders. 
To assert his right to the crown and avenge 
his Other's death, Ahmed declared war against 
Selim, and seized the city of Brusa. The 
new sultan crossed the Bosporus with a nu- 
merous army, and encamped before Brusa. 
Ahmed attacked and routed his vanguard, 
and might have secured a victory if he had 
known how to improve this advanta^. The 
two armies met on the 24th of April, 1513 ; 
but before they joined battle, Ahmed, wish- 
ing to prevent unnecessary bloodshed!, chal- 
lenged his brother to single combat, on the 
condition that the survivor should be sultan. 
Selim refused, and the battle began. It ter- 
minated in the discomfiture of Ahmed, who 
was taken prisoner and put to death by his 
brother's orders, by the hand of the same 
Sinan who strangled his brother Korkud. 
The body of this unfortunate prince was in- 
terred at Brusa, near the tombs of Miirad II. 
and of his five nephews, whom Selim had 
put to death. (Hammer, Geschichte des Os- 
fnanischen Reickea, vol. ii. b. 21, 22. ; KnoUes, 
General History of the Turksy 6th edit vol. 
i. p. 830—350. ; 'Ali, Nddiret-el'Miihdrib, 
•• The Rarity of BatUes.") W. P. 

AHMED L, the fourteenth saltan of the 
520 



Osmanlis and third son of Mohammed ILL, 
was bom a. d. 1590 (a.h. 998), and suc- 
ceeded his father on the throne in 1603. This 
^oung prince evinced considerable energy 
m the beginning of his reign ; for when 
the grand vizir, then on the eve of his de- 
parture for the war in Hungary, made exor- 
bitant demands on the imperial treasury, and 
threatened that he would not move till he 
was satisfied, the young sultan wrote him this 
laconic answer : — "If thy head is dear to 
thee, thou wilt move." But this enetgy was 
onlY an ebullition of youthful passion. 

Ahmed's armies had first to sustain the 
attacks of his revolted subjects in Asia, at 
that time supported by Shah Abbas of Persia 
[Abba's L], who beat the Turks in 1605. 
During the same period, Ahmed assisted the 
malcontents of Hungary and the prince of 
Transylvania, then in arms against the Em- 
peror Kudolph II., and the Turks took some 
few towns, which, however, they afterwards 
lost Ahmed now listened to the emperor's 
pacific proposals, and as^arly as 1605 he sent 
plenipotentiaries into Hungary to arrange the 
terms of a definitive peace, which was con- 
cluded at Sitvatorok on the 1 1th of November, 
1 606, after long negotiations. This peace has 
one important feature, which most diplomatists 
and historians seem to have overlooked : it 
was the first transaction in which the Turks 
acknowledged the existence of an international 
law. It is not, therefore, from the peace of 
Carlowicz, as generally believed, that the 
change in the Ottoman diplomatic system is 
to be dated. Down to the peace of Sitvato- 
rok, all treaties between the European powers 
and the Turks, if short truces may be so called, 
had only been verbally agre^ upon, the 
sultans having scarcely ever signed any docu- 
ment The peace they granted was only a 
favour bestowed on the vanquished by a 
haughty conqueror ; and they considered the 
presents made them by powerful European 
kings as tribute, treating the donors as Uieir 
inferiors, and not unfrequently as their re- 
bellious subjects. But in the preliminarv 
proceedings at Sitvatorok, Ahmed's pleni- 
potentiaries acted in another spirit They 
acknowledged the emperor as the sultan's 
equal, renounced all claim to tribute, re- 
serving for themselves, however, a consider- 
able sum, under the name of an honorary 
present, and finally they signed the treaty. 
The celebrated Baron Herberstein was the 
bearer of the imperial ratification to Constan- 
tinople, whilst Ahmed Kiaya was despatched 
with the sultan's to Prague, where the em- 
peror then resided. In the following years 
Ahmed was occupied with a dangerous 
mutiny among his soldiers, with a rebellion 
in Asia, which was suppressed in 1608, and 
with a fresh but disastrous campaign against 
the Persians in 1612. In the same year he 
concluded the first treaty with the United 
Provinces of the Netherlands, and he made 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



odier treaties with England, Venice, France, 
Poland, and Betlen Gabor, prince of Tran- 
sylyania. In 1616 he confirmed- bj the 
peace of Vienna that which was condnded 
ten years before at Sitvatorok. He died on 
the 23 Zilk. A. h. 1026 (22d of NoTember, 
1617), after a short illness, in the twenty- 
eighth year of his age and the fourteenth of 
his reign. His successor was Mustafa L 
Ahmed was a weak and capricious prince, 
always acting upon the adrice, or rather the 
orders, of his wires and fiivourites. His 
want of vigour was manifested in his govern • 
ment, especially by the peace of Sitvatorok, 
which must have been most offensive to the 
haughty descendants of the old Turks ; by 
that with Shah Abbas in 1 613, which cost him 
several provinces, and b^ the continual revolts 
of his subjects and soldiers. He was fond of 
music and poetry. He was greatly addicted 
to hunting and women, of whom he is said to 
have had more than 3000, and the number of 
his fidconeis exceeded 40,000. If; as some 
, historians say, he was just, he certidnly can- 
not be called hnmane. He had his grand 
viair strangled in his presence; and when 
the sufferer still showed some signs of life, he 
cut his- throat with his own hand. He was 
only prevented by fear from murdering his 
brother. If there was 'anything great or 
paiseworthy in his actions, we must look for 
It in his religious foundations and his taste for 
architecture. He built the grand mosque 
named after him, Ahmedye, axid he expended 
immense, sums in embellishing the holy cities 
of Medina and Mecca. The Ka*bah was 
ornamented by him wiUi a sun composed of 
precious stones set round a diamond of extra- 
ordinary size and beauty, for which he had 
paid 50,000 ducats. The following remark- 
able circumstance was looked upon as omi- 
nous by the true believers. Ahmed, the twice 
seventh sultan of the Osmanlis, lived four 
times seven years, reigned twice seven, and 
when he ascended the throne he was also 
twice seven years of age ; so that the three 
most remarkable events of his life are sepa- 
rated by two epochs of twice seven years 
each ; he had seven, grand vizirs ; he had 
seven aunts, whom he married to seven great 
men of his court ; and he concluded treaties 
with seven European powers. (Hammer, 
Gachichte des Osmanigcnen Belches, voL iv. ; 
Knolles, Geaerai History of the Turks, 6th edit 
▼oL il p. 837—944.; D'Ohsson, Tableau 
g^nSralde V Empire Othonum, foh vol. iL p. 67, 
etc ; ConsHtutiones Pacts inter JRonumorum et 
T\trcicum inq>eratoremj 1606 ; Nay^u^ FesUket 
«/ Tewdrfkh (CoOection of History}, 2 vols. foL 
Constantinople, A. H. 1147 (▲.!>. 1734), vol. ii. 
p. 417.) W. P. 

AHMED II, sultan, son of Sultan Ibra- 
him, was bom a.h. 1053 (a.d. 1643), and 
succeeded his brother, Mohammed IIL in 
1691, after passing for^-eight years in the 
setaglio. He there cultivate letters, poetry, 

VOL. I, 



and music, to alleviate the dulness of his 
secluded life ; but he became a prey to 
bigotry and the darkest melanchcdy. Such 
a temperament and such tastes could hardly 
produce an energetic prince ; nor had Ah- 
med in reality more than the name of sul- 
tan. He left all the cares of government to 
his grand vizir Koprili, the third of that 
name who attained the high office of first 
minister. Koprili, an excellent man, and 
well worthy of the titles of holy and virtuous, 
which were given him by his contemporaries, 
had prepared everjrthing for placing Ahmed 
on the throne ; but nei^er the minister nor 
sultan could extricate the Porte from the 
dangerous situation in which it stood at that 
epoch. The war with (Germany was ra^g 
with the utmost fhry. The Imperialists, 
commanded by the greatest captains of the 
age, such as Prince Eugene and Prince Louis 
of Baden, always had the advantage ; until 
the Turks, having received reinforcements, 
made a stand at Slankimen, to measure their 
strength with the enemv. A bloody battle was 
fought on the 19th of August, 1691 ; the Im- 
perialists lost Duke Christian of Hol8tein,and 
the Counts of Kannita and Starhemberg ; but 
the Turks were routed with dreadfUl shmghter. 
They lost 150 cannons, with their camp 
and military chest ; and the enemy obtained an 
immense booty. The ^rand vizir Koprili, 
S&fer, tiie aga of the Janissaries, and Ibrahim 
Pasha were left dead on the field with 5,000 
Turks. The fortress of Grand- Waradin 
soon surrendered to the Emperor Leopold I. 
Dangerous ^ intrigues in the seraglio, the 
plague, fiunine, and a violent earthquake at 
Smyrna, completed the calamity. Ahmed, 
infilriated by so many misfortunes, changed 
his ministers, and beheaded or strangled many 
eminent men. But the pec^le, exasperated 
by these calamities, were still more provoked 
by the hnpmdent measures of the sultan, and 
showed their dissatisfiiction in the usual man- 
ner by settingfire to the houses. On the 5th 
of September, 1693, a dreadful conflagration 
broke out in the most populous quarter of 
Constantinople, and raged without inter- 
ruption for twenty-three hours ; and, as a 
further addition to the public calamities, the 
Arabs pillaged the grand Mecca caravan. 
The war with Austria was still continued 
with unceasing animosity on the part of the 
Turks, whose pride was m nowise humiliated 
bjr all their reverses. Lord Paget, the En- 
glish ambassador at the Porte, in vain offered 
himself as mediator between the sultan and 
the emperor. France, to whom this war waK 
most advantageous contrived to frustrate all 
attempts at mediation on the part of England. 
The result, however, was un&vourable to the 
Turks; they were beaten at Lippa and Wara- 
din in Hungary, and discomfited in Dalmatia 
by the Venetians, who seized the island of 
Cliios and threatened Smyrna in 1694. 
Overwhelmed by so many humiliating 
N V 



AHMED. 



AHMSB. 



events, Ahmed sank under the disease ttom 
which he had long suffered, and died of 
dropsy on the 6th of February, 1695. He was 
succeeded by Mustafa IL Ahmed, haTing 
passed the greater part of his life in the seraglio, 
was weak and credulous. But his piety fre- 
quently prevented him from indulging in 
those fits of passion to which he was naturally 
subject, especially after drinking, for he was 
addicted to spirituous liquors. He was 
passionately fond of music, and he wrote 
several poems in the Persian language ; his 
handwriting was beautiful These occu- 
pations filled up his time, for he always left 
the cares of government to others. The fol- 
lowing trait IS honourable to his humanity. 
After his accession to the throne, " I have 
been," said he to his deposed brother Mo- 
hammed III., ** forty years a prisoner, whilst 
you were on the throne. You suffered me 
to live, and I will do the same by you : be 
not alarmed on that head." (Hammer, 
Geschichte des Osmaniscken Beichea, voL vi., 
who cites Rashid I., fol. 172—205.) W. P. 
AHMED III., sultan, son of Mohammed 
IV., was bom on the 3d Ramaz^, a. h. 1084 
(12th December, 1673). He ascended the 
throne on the 10th of Rebiul-akhir, a.h. 
1115 (23d August, 1703), after a mutiny of 
the Janissaries, who deposed his brother 
Mustafa IL Ahmed, contrary to the cus- 
tom of his predecessors, announced his ac- 
cession to the throne to the emperor, the 
kings of England and France, and other 
Christian princes, from whom he received 
congratulatory answers. The first years of 
his reign were troubled by intestine com- 
motions of everv kind, and sudden changes of 
ministers ; for m fifteen years he had four- 
teen grand vizirs. In 1707, religious quarrels 
broke out among the Armenian Catholics at 
Constantinople, who were excited by the 
Jesuits and supported by France, who also 
protected at the same time the revolted Pro- 
testants of Hungary. But after the decapitation 
of the Armenian patriarch Sari, on the 5th of 
November, 1707, the disturbances ceased. In 
the same year the Turkish army attacked the 
Tcherkesses and experienced a severe defeat 
Upon this, Ahmed chose for his grand yizir 
'Ali Chorlili, an active and enterprising 
man, who increased the navy, and established 
a foundery for casting anchors, which, till 
then, had always been procured firom Eng- 
land. These events were simultaneous with 
the war between Peter the Great and Charles 
XII., who after the loss of the battle of Pul- 
tawa suddenly appeared on the Turkish 
territory. It is generally believed that 
Charles XIL, in advancing mto the Ukraine, 
had merely followed his own rash councils ; 
but it is now known that in penetrating so fkr 
his object was to get nearer to Turkey, 
whose alliance had been proposed to him 
some time before by an agent named Mo- 
hammed Efendi, despatched to him at Danzig 
522 



by the Pasha of Oczakow. [CHASUSd Xlt] 
Charles found means to rekindle the war be- 
tween Turkey and Russia, and Baltaji Mo- 
hammed, the new grand vizir, reduced tiie 
czar to a very dangerous situation on the 
Pruth ; but, weak-minded and covetous, he 
traitorously sold the honour of his country 
and the fortune of Charles by the peace of 
the Pruth (22d July, 1711), which was not, 
however, altogether without advantage to the 
sultan, as Russia restored to him the fortress 
of Azo£ In 1714 the war with Venice and 
Austria began. Ahmed placed himself at the 
head of his army to oppose the Venetians, 
and accompanied it as far as Larissa in 
Thessaly. The Morea was conquered in a 
single campaign ; but the Turkish forces 
were less fortunate in Hungary. On the 
5th of August, 1716, the grand vizir Damah 
'Ali Pasha, at the head of 150,000 men, was 
completely defeated by Prince Eugene, at 
Peterwaradin, and the grand vizir was left dead 
on the field of battle, with 6000 of his men. 
The issue of the war was decided on the 
16th of August, 1717, by the battle of Bel- 
grade, in which the Turks were routed with 
great slaughter. Peace was concluded at 
Passarowicz on the 21st of July, 1718. Of 
her Venetian conquests Turkey retained* 
the Morea, but was obliged to cede to Aus- 
tria, Belgrade, Orsowa, Temeswar, Servia, 
and a part of Walachia. A fire desolated 
Constantinople on the 17th of July, 1718, 
which continued to bum for twenty-four 
hours. Ahmed concluded an ^ eternal 
peace** with Russia on the 16th of November, 
1720, on the fiwting of the treaty of the 
Pruth, but he recognised Peter only as czar 
and not as emperor. In the same year 
a Prussian agent named Jurgowski app^u«d 
at Constantinople for the first time. In 
1723 Ahmed declared war against Persia, 
occupied Georgia, and made several conquests, 
which he divided with Peter the Great. For 
the retrieving of his affairs he was indebted 
to the grand vizir Ibrihim Pasha, a man of 
superior abilities, who administered the go- 
vernment from 1718 to 1730. Ibrahim not 
only made the Porte respected abroad, but 
consolidated the internal peace of his country. 
He published proclamations a^inst luxury 
and the rage for flowers, which was then 
as great in Turkey as in Holland : whole 
palaces were filled with tulips, and with lamps 
placed between them of colours to correspond' 
with the flowers, thus producing the most 
brilliant effect Ibriihim established two im- 
perial libraries, and three for public use, at 
Constantinople; and in 1727, a printing-office, 
the first in Turkey, was founded at Constanti- 
nople under the patronage of Ibrahim, by the. 
Hungarian renegade Ibrahim Basmigi, who in 
less than twelve years published sixteen great 
works concerning history, moral and gram- 
matical science. [Ibra'hi'm Babma'ji'.] 
Able irriters translated into Turkish the" 



. AHME0. 



AHBIEDl 



Uniyenal History of the Arabian A'yni, en> 
titled *«Akd.ul-jeiiian fi Tarikhi Ehlif- 
semaa" (** Coral-knots of the History of 
CSontemporaries"), and another uniyersal 
history written in Persian by Khnand. Under 
Ahmed IIL and his vizir Ibrahim the in- 
fluence of the West over the East made great 
progress. In 1730 Turkey was suddenly 
invaded by Tahmasp, Shah of Persia, who 
took up arms to recover the provinces, which 
had been lost some years before. Ibrahim 
was ready to march against him, and the 
Saltan himself had resolved to accompany his 
army, when news arrived that the Turkish 
forces had been completely beaten, and that 
the Shah was advancing by forced marches. 
The sultan and grand vizir were in the 
country at the time, little expecting such a 
misfortune. Suddenly, on the 15th of Re- 
biul-ewwal, a. h. 1143 (28th September, 
1730), the Janissaries, who attributed the 
reverses of the army to the grand vizir, 
burst out into open rebellion. The sultan 
and his vizir hastened to Constantinople, and 
there Ibr&him was assassinated, and Ahmed 
was compelled to abdicate on the 17th (18th?) 
of Rebiul-ewwal (30th September, or Ist Oc- 
tober). His nephew ascended the throne 
onder Uie name of Mahmud L 

Notwithstanding his reverses, the reign of 
Ahmed III. was glorious. He was a person 
of migestic stature, and of a mild but com- 
manding presence ; his voice was remarkably 
harmomous, and he possessed every quality 
calculated to win the affections of women. 
He was tenderly beloved by his wives, by 
whom he had thirty-one children. He 
loved whatever gratifies the senses, such as 
singing birds, sweetmeats, flowers, rich 
clothes, and fine buildings ; and he cultivated 
letters and poetry with some success. He 
died of apoplexy m the month of Moharrem, 
1152 (Apnl, 1739), at the age of sixty-six, 
nine vears after his deposition. (Hammer, 
Ge9ckchte det OtmaniMchen Reiches, vol. vii. 
book 62 — 65. ; Storia deUe due RibeUUmi^ 
aegmie in Constaniinapolif meSt 1730 e 1731, 
nakt I>€po»izum$ de Ahmed III., ^c, com^ 
posta aopra Matnucritti originaU, m VeneziOf 
1737, 8va ; Luigi di St filer, Lettere par- 
ticcHari Bcritte in Constantvnt^poli dal 1720 
muxd 1724, regnante Ahmed III^ Bassano, 
1737, 4.; Ferrari Girolamo, Notizie histo- 
riche ddia Lega tra S, M. Carlo VI, e la 
RqntbL di Venezia eontro Ahmed III,, Ve- 
nezia, 1723, 4to., and 1736, 4to.) W. P. 

AHMED IV., or more correctiy 'ABDU- 
L-HAMID I., was bom on the 5Ui of Bijib, 
▲.H. 1137 (20th March, 1725), and suc- 
ceeded Mustafft IIL on the 3d of Shawwal, 
A.H. 1187 (24th December, 1773). Ham- 
mer, in ihe genealogical tables at the end of 
the eighth volume of his work cited below, 
places his birth on the 2d of March, 1775 ; 
and in Ersch and Oruber's ** Allgemeine En- 
eyclopssdie," he places his accestton to the 
523 



throne on the 2 Ist of January, 1774, and his 
death in 1780 ; but the first and the third of 
these dates are typographical erron^ and as 
to his accession, it is correct to place it on the 
day of the death of his predecessor, who died 
on the 24th of December, 1773. It is only 
the date of the installation of this sultan, 
which took place in the beginning of Janu- 
ary, which authorises us to say, as the his- 
torians generally do, that he came to the 
throne in 1774. Turkey was then engaged 
in a dangerous war with Russia, which was 
undertaken for the purpose of preventing 
Poland from being partitioned among Russia, 
Prussia, and Austria. However, the Porte 
had not only declared war before she was 
able to measure herself with her formidable 
neighbour [Ahmed Resmi Pasha], but her 
armies were commanded by incompetent 
generals. The Russians had conquei^ all 
the Turkish provinces north of the Caucasus 
and the Danube, and when Ahmed succeeded 
Mustafa they had crossed that river. Im- 
mediately after the accession of the new 
sultan, the Turks were beaten at Basaijik, 
and routed in the battie of Koslije on the 
19th (O. S. 9th) of January, 1774 ; and such 
was the disorganization of the Turkish army, 
that Neyli Ahmed, a pasha of three tails, was 
sent to Adrianople for the sole purpose of 
preventing the cowards and deserters from 
escaping to their homes. Educated in the se- 
raglio. Ignorant, without experience, without 
character and energy, and fuU of that haughti- 
ness which is peculiar to men of high rank 
who live in a narrow sphere of life, Ahmed 
was overpowered by circumstances. As early 
as the I4th of July, the grand vizir, Musa 
Oghli, was entirely surrounded at Shumla by 
the Russian general Kamenski, who, al- 
though he did not force that strong position, 
was ready to descend into the plain of 
Adrianople, when the Turks, at hist, ac- 
cepted proposals for peace. It was concluded 
on the 17th of July, 1774, at Kuchuk Kai- 
naiji, which was chosen l^^ the Russians as 
the place of negotiation, because they wished 
to humble the Turks, who, some time before, 
had gained a battie there over General 
Weissmann, who lost his life. For the same 
reason the Russian ministers did not sign the 
treaty before the 22d of Julv, which was the 
anniversary of the peace or the Pruth. By 
this peace, which was concluded without any 
foreign mediation, Russia obtained the Great 
and the Little Kabarda, between the Kuban, 
the Terek, and the Caucasus ; the fortresses 
of Azof, Kilbum, Kertsh, and Yenikale ; the 
tract between the Bog and the Dniepr ; the 
free navigation on the Black Sea and the sea 
of Marmara ; the co-protectorship over Mol- 
davia and Walaehia, as well as the pro- 
tectorship over an the Greek churches of 
the Tuiidsh empire. The Khanat of the 
Crimea was separated from Turkey, and ac- 
knowledged as an independent state, although 
M M 2 



AHMED. 



AHMED.. 



It became dependent upon Russia ; and the j 
sultan was obliged to consent to the division ' 
of Poland, and to reco^ise the czars of i 
Russia as emperors, bj giving them the title ' 
of Padishah. 

The peace of Carlowicz had broken the 
power of Turkey, but that of Kuchuk Kai- 
naiji destroyed its political independence, , 
and brought it under the direct influence of j 
Russia. Austria was neutral during this war, I 
and yet Ahmed was compelled to pay for mere 
neutrality by ceding the province of Bu- ' 
kowina, the bulwark of Transylvania, by 
which Austria obtained an easy communica- 
tion between Transj^lvania and die kingdom of 
Galicia, her share m the partition of Poland. 
A struggle with Russia to recover political 
independence became necessary, and was ac- 
celerated by the haughtiness of Russia. As 
early as 1783 the Empress Catherine the Se- 
cond annihilated the ridiculous independence 
of the Khanat of the Crimea, which was 
united with Russia, and in 1784 the sultan 
was obliged to recognise this usurpation. He 
now invited French officers to exercise his 
troops, and to fortify the fortresses on the 
Austrian and Russian frontier. The alliance 
between the Emperor Joseph II. and Cathe- 
rine left no doubt that his next war would be 
against their united forces. Notwithstanding 
the lesson they had received in the last war, 
the Turks rashly began hostilities against 
Russia in 1787, by assailing the fortress of 
Kilbum; and in the month of February, 
1788, they were in their turn attacked by 
the Austrian troops. On the 17th of De- 
cember, 1788, the Russian general Potemkin 
took Oczakow by storm, and although the 
grand vizir Yusuf gained some advantages in 
Hungary over the Imperialists, the state of 
Turkey became so hopeless, that the sultan 
was obliged to force his subjects to sell him 
all their silver at the rate of a hundred pias- 
ters for an okka weight, or two pounds and a 
half of silver. This was the only means of 
providing for the expense of a new cam- 
paign, and the treasury thus gained more 
than sixty per cent Before the new cam- 
paign began, Ahmed died, on the 7th of 
April, 1789, in a state of physical and moral 
exhaustion. His successor was Selim IIL 

Besides the political events, the reign of 
Ahmed is remarkable for the re-opening of 
the printing-offices, which had ceased to be 
worked thirty years before his accession, but 
which were again brought into activity by 
Reshid and Wassii^ both Reis-Efendis, and 
known as Turkish historians. (Hammer, 
GeschicfUe des Osmanuchen Retches, voL viii. 
p. 430 — 448. 585. ; Hammer in Ersch und 
Gruber, AUgemeine EncycIopcBdie, s* v. Ab- 
dul-Hamid ; Ahmed Resmi Pasha, Khtda" 
satul'itebar, translated into German under 
the title of WesentUche Bebuchtungen, by 
Diez. Berlin, 1813.) W. P. 

AHMED IBN 'ABDI-R-RABBIHI 
524 



<Ab(i 'Omar Ibn HabH) Ibn Hodeyr Ibtt 
Selim), an historian and poet of note, was 
bom at Cordova, on the 10th day of Rama- 
dhan, ▲. h. 246 (Nov. ▲. d. 860). He was de- 
scended from an enfhmchised slave of Hi- 
sh&m L, second sultan of Mohammedan Spain, 
of the dynasty of Umeyyah. He studied at 
Cordova under the most eminent professorip 
and as he was endowed with a great memory, 
he soon became deeply learned in sacred tra- 
ditions, and acquired great historical inform- 
ation. He was likewise an excellent poet, 
and passes as the inventor of a species of me- 
trical composition, called by the Arabs ** mo- 
washshahat," and not dissimilar in structure 
ftom the old Spanish romances. (Casiri, Bib. 
Arab. HUp. Esc. I 127) Ahmed's chief 
work is an historical cyclopaedia, divided into 
twenty-five books, each containing two chap- 
ters. The tiUe is •* Kitabu-l-'ikd" ("The 
Book of the Pearl Necklace "), and each of the 
twenty-five books of which it is composed is 
denominated after one of the twenty-five pearls 
which form a neckhice, and have a particular 
name in the Arabic language. The con- 
tents of the work are various essays upon 
history, genealogy, the science of war and 
that of government, eloquence, justice, li- 
berality, courage, magnanimity ; women and 
their good or bad qualities, houses, camels, 
weapons, hostages, encampments, &c. The 
fifteenth book, entitled "Al-'o^adah fi-1- 
kholafil wa iy£mihim wa tawirikhihim" 
(" The Book of the Pearl, called 'Oqldah"), 
treating of the khalift and of their history 
and chronology, is undoubtedly the most in- 
teresting of aU, as it contains much valuable 
information on the history of the Arabs, both 
in the East and in the vVest The second 
chapter of the same book is wholly occupied 
with the history of Mohammedan Spain. 
There are in the Bodleian library several 
detached fragments of this interesting work, 
which in its original state must have con- 
sisted of at least ten folio volumes. The 
historian Al-homaydi, who in a.d. 1086 
wrote a biographical dictionary of illustrious 
Moslems bom in Spain, bestows great pnuse 
on Ahmed Ibn 'Abdi-r-rabbihi, whom he 
calls the phcenix of his age, and the restorer 
of good taste in poetry. He adds that he 
saw in Cordova a copy of the ** 'Ikd," which 
the author had written himself for the use 
of Prince Al-hakem, son of 'Abdu-r-rah- 
man III. of Cordova, under whose reign 
Ahmed lived and died. He wrote also other 
mmor works, the titles of which have not 
been preserved ; and he published a diwan, 
or collection of his own poems, which he 
entitled ** Al-maharat" (" Purifications "), be- 
cause every erotic piece in it is followed by 
another on morality and devotion ; as if he 
had intended to purify the proftme ideas of 
the one by the religious sentiments of the 
other. Ahmed Ibn ^Abdi-r-rabbihi died on 
Sunday, the 18th of Jum^da the first, a.k. 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



328 (March, a.d. 940), and was buried thd 
next day in the cemetery of the Benl 'Abbas 
at Cordova. Shortly after the death of Ah- 
med, his large irork was abridged by Abu 
Jslxik Ibrahim Ibn ' Abdi-r-rahman Al-kaysi, 
a natiTe of Guadix in the prorince of Gra- 
nada, who died in a.h. 570 (a.d. 1174-5), as 
well as by Jemalu-d-din Abu-l-fikdhl Mo- 
hammed Ibn Mokarram Al-khazr^i, the 
author of an excellent work on rhetoric^ en* 
titled «* Lisanu-l-'arab" C The Langnage of 
the Arabs "). Some extracts from the ** Ikd" 
have been given by Mr. Fresnel, in his 
** Letters." (Al-homaydi, JadhtoatU'l'mok- 
tabu, MS. BodL Lib. Hunt No. 464. ; Al- 
makkari, Moham. Dyn, i. 338. ; Ibn Khal- 
lekan, Biog. Did L 92. ; H^ji KhaUhh, Lex. 
BibL voc "'Ikd ;" Casiri, Mib, Arab. Hisp. 
Esc, L 157. il 134. ; Conde, Hist de la Dom. 
i. 425.) P. de G. 

AHMED BEN ABrL-ASH'ATH, an 
Arabic physician, whose complete names 
were Abu Ja'fiir Ahmed Ben Mohammed 
Ben Ahmed Ben Abi'l-Ash'ath. Ibn Abi 
'Ossaybi'ah, who has given an account of his 
life in his ** Pontes Relationum de Classibus 
Medicorum," cap. x. § 34., says that he had 
many scholars, and notices especially the 
greatness of his abilities, the uprightness of 
his intentions, his love of learning, the quiet- 
ness and soberness of his manners, and his 
carefulness about the things of heaven. He 
died at a great age, about a.h. 360 (a.d. 
970-1). He wrote several works, chiefly 
medical, none of which have been published, 
either in the original lang^nage, or in a trans- 
lation : two of them (namely, his treatises on 
Animals, and on Colic) were abridged by 
'Abdn-l-latti£ (Wiistenfeld, Geschwkte der 
Arabischen Aerzte ; NicoU and Pusey, CalaL 
CoM MSS. Arab. BibKotk BodL p. 583.) 

W. A.G. 

AHMED ipN ABP MERWAN IBN 
SHOHEYD, surnamed Abu ' A'mir Al-adgaS, 
a celebrated Arabian poet, was bom at Cor- 
dova, in A. H. 382 (a. j>. 992). He was the 
son of 'Abdu-1-malek Ibn Shoheyd, a dis- 
tinguished ftmctionary of the court of Al-ha- 
kem IL of Cordova, ['Abdu-l-malek,] and 
the grandson of Ahmed Ibn Shoheyd, who 
had been Dhu-1-wiziirateyn * (holder of 
the double vizirate) during the khalifkte of 
Abdu-r-rahman An-nisir lidinillah, the 
eighth of the Bern Umeyyah of Spain. 
Ahmed was one of the most learned men of 
his time ; he was a great fkvourite of Al- 
mansur, the higib (chamberlain) of Hi- 
shim II., who raised him to posts of honour 
and trust, and distinguished hmi above all the 
other poets of the court Ahmed wrote the fol- 
lowing works : — ** Kashfh-d-dakk wa 'idhahu- 
sh-sh^ck,** ("The unravelling of Subtlety, 
and clearing of Doubt"), which, according 
to H^ji Khal&h (Lex, BibL), is a treatise 

* A title glTen to those y\tln who were at the same 
time invested with dvll and raiUtary authority. 
525 



on legerdemain; ** At-taw£bi' wa as-zawabi',** 
which Mr. Fluegel {Lex. BiUiog. No. 3711.) 
translates by ** Genii et Dsmones ; " and lastly, 
"Hanutu-l-*attar" (" The Drugrist's Shop "), 
which, according to Adh-dhobbi, is a treatise 
on grammar. Ibn Khallekan {Biog. Diet), 
who gives the life of Ahmed among those of 
his eminent Moslems, introduces some ex- 
tracts firom his verses. He died at Cordova, 
on Friday morning, the 30th of Jumada the 
first, A. H. 426 (April, a.d. 1035.), and was 
interred the next day in the cemetery of 
Unmi Salmah. (Casiri, Bib. Ar. Hisp. Esc, 
ii. 47. 1 Conde, Hist de la Dom. i. 624.) 

P. de G. 
AHMED IBN AHMED IBN YAHYA 
AL-KORAYSHP AL-MAKKARI' AT- 
TELEMSA'NF (better known as Ahmed 
Al-makkari), the author of a viduable history 
of Mohammedan Spain, was bom at Telem- 
san, in A. H. 985 (a.d. 1577-8). He was de- 
scended from an ancient and illustrious £unily, 
which had been established at Makkarah, a 
village close to Telemsib, from the time of the 
invasion of Eastern Africa by the Arabs. 
One of his ancestors, named Abu 'Abdillah 
Mohammed AUmakkari At-telemsani, be- 
came kadhl-1-jam'ah, or chief justice of Fez, 
and made himself known bv several learned 
works on theology and jurisprudence. Ah- 
med passed the first years of his life at Te- 
lemsan, where he learned the Koran and the 
science of traditions under his uncle, Abii 
*Othman Sa'id, who then held the office of 
mufti in that city. Under the tuition of that 
learned man, who was himself the author of 
many valuable works, Ahmed early imbibed 
that love of science, and acquired that taste 
for literature, by which he was distinguished 
in after life, ^vin^ completed his studies, 
he quitted his native place in a. h. 1009 
(A.D. 1600-1), and repaired to Fez, where 
he f^uented the society of the learned men 
of the day, with most of whom he contracted 
an intimate fHendship. He then returned to 
Telemsan, which place he again left for Fez 
iinA.H. 1013 (A.D. 1604-5). After passing 
fbnrteen years in that city, Ahmed quitted 
Fez, towards the end of Ramadh&n, A. h. 1027 
(A.D. 1618), and soon after sailed for Alex- 
andria, intent upon a pilgrimage to Mecca 
and Medina. He arrived at Mecca early in 
A. H. 1028 (Jan. A. D. 1619); and, having made 
a short stay at Cairo, started for Arabia in 
the month of Rcjeb of the same year. On 
his return from the holy cities, in Moharram, 
A.H. 1029 (Dec A.D. 1619), he went to Cairo, 
where he took a wife and settled. Ahmed 
continued to i>eTform yearly his pilgrimage 
to Mecca, until a.h. 1037 (Sept a.d. 1627), 
when he determined upon visiting Jerusalem. 
After spending twenty-five days in that city, 
he proceeded to Damascus, where he arrived 
at the beginning of Sha'ban, A. h. 1037 (Feb. 
A.D. 1628). Soon after his arrival there. 
Ahmed Al-makkari made the acquaintance 

MM 3 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



of a wealthy Turk, named Ahmed Ibn 
Siihin Ash-shahihi, who was a liberal patron 
of literature, which he himself cultivated 
with success. Bj his recommendation Ah- 
med obtamed a set of rooms at the Ma- 
drisah Al-jakmakiyah, or college founded by 
Al-malek Adh-dhaher Jakmak, tenth sultan 
of Syria and Egypt, of the dynasty called 
** the Circassian Mamelukes." The generous 
and enlightened individual who had become 
Ahn^d's patron employed him in transcrib- 
ing some works for his own library, as well 
as in writing a history of Damascus, for which 
he was amply remunerated. It was also at 
his persuasion that Ahmed undertook to 
write the history of the Mohammedan em- 
jMre in Spain, from the conquest of that 
country by Tarik Ibn Zejjid and Musa Ibn 
Nosseyr (a. d. 711-12) to the expulsion of 
the Moriscos under Philip IIL in 1610. 

During his stay at Daxnascus, Ahmed gave 
public lectures on the " Sahih," or repertory 
cf authenticated traditions by Isma'il Al- 
bokbari, which were attended by the prin- 
cipal citizens, as well as by all the students 
and theologians of Damascus. In the month 
ai Shawwti, A.H. 1037 (a«d. 1628), Ahmed 
left Damascus, and returned to Cairo. He 
again visited Damascus about the end of 
Sha'ban, a. h. 1038 (February or March, ▲. d. 
1^29), being received by Ahmed Ibn Shahin 
and his other friends as kindly as on the for- 
mer occasion. He then returned to Cairo, 
and, after a short stay, divorced his wife. He 
was preparing to make another journey to 
Damascus, where he had determined to settle 
for the remainder of his days, at the invitation 
of his friend and patron Ibn Shahin, when he 
was attacked by violent fever and dysentery, 
which caused his death, in the mondi of Ju- 
mida the second, a. h. 1041 (Jan. A. d. 1632), at 
the age of fifty-six. Besides the patronymic 
Al-korayshi, denoting that his fimiil^ be- 
longed originally to the illustrious tribe of 
Koraysh, and Al-makkari and Telems&ni, 
both taken from the places of his birth and 
residence, Ahmed was known in the East 
under different surnames and appellations, 
which it is important to point out At Da- 
mascus, his great literary reputation, and the 
immense learning which he displayed in his 
course of lectures on the ** Sahih,*' obtained 
him the honourable titles of Al-hafedh Al- 
maghrebi (the Western traditionist), and She- 
habu-d-din (bright star of religion). He is 
sometimes called Alm41iki Al-ash'arf, be- 
cause he professed the sect of Malik Ibn Ans, 
and partook of the religious opinions of the 
Ash*aris, or disciples of Ash'ari ( Abu-1-hasan 
'Ali) ; and lastly, the surnames of 'Imidn-d- 
din (column of religion), and Sahibn-t-t«wa- 
rikh (the historian), are bestowed on him 
by Ajnin Jeleln, the historian of Damas- 
cus. 

The history of Mohammedan Spain, the , 

most important as well as the best known of [ 

526 ' 



Al-makkarfs works, is entitled *<Nafha-t- 
tib fi ghosni-l-Andalun r-ratib wa t&rikh Li- 
sani-d-dini-bni-l-khattib" (** Fragrant Odour 
[exhaling] from the tender Shoots of An- 
dalus (Spain), and the History of the Yizir 
Lisanu-d-din Ibnu-1-khattib ''). It is divided 
into two parts or sections (aksam) : the first 
part relates to the history and topography 
of Mohammedan Spain, and contains eight 
books, in which the author gives a ftiU 
narrative of the conquests, wars, and settle- 
ments of the Spanish Moslems, frx>m their 
first invasion of the Peninsula to their final 
expulsion, together with an account of their 
government, literature, manners, customs, 
dress, &c, and biographical notices of the 
most eminent individuals mentioned in the 
course of his work ; the second part, which 
is likewise divided into eight books, contains 
the life of the celebrated historian and vizir, 
Lis£nu-d-din Ibnn-1-khat^ (Abii 'Abdillah 
Mohammed Ibn * Abdillah), who was a native 
of Granada, and lived about the middle of 
the fourteenth century of our era : so that, 
in point of ftct, Al-makkari's history of Mo- 
hammedan Spain is onl^ a sort of introduc- 
tion or ^reHaioe to the life of that celebrated 
Granadian vizir. At first, Al-makkari met 
with considerable difficulties in the execution 
of his task, from the scarcity of historical 
records, having, as he informs us in his 
preface, left the whole of his books in Af ri<», 
including a very complete history of Spain 
under the Moslems, on which he had be- 
stowed considerable labour. He was enabled, 
however, through the liberality of Ahmed 
Ibn Shahin and other friends, to purchase a 
large collection of books both at Cairo and 
Damascus, with the aid of which he brought 
his arduous undertaking to an end. The 
plan which he followed in the composition 
of his history is rather singular. Instead of 
compiling tram more ancient sources, and 
presenting to his readers a clear and unin- 
terrupted narrative of events, as Abu-1-feda, 
At-tabari, and other historians have done, 
Al-makkari preferred transcribing entirely 
or abridging the narrative of those historians 
who preceded him. For instance, when re- 
lating the taking of Seville by Ferdinand III. 
of Castile, in a.d. 1248, he tells it in the 
words of an historian, after which he intro- 
duces other passages fk>om other sources, thus 
giving different and even contradictory ver- 
sions of the same event: so that, properly 
speaking, the work of Al-makkari is not a 
history, and ought rather to be called " Selec- 
tions on the History of Mohammedan Spiun." 
However objectionable this plan of writing 
history, it has its merits: by adhering 
strictly to it, the author has in many in- 
stances given us the original text of ancient 
Arabian historians, whose works are either 
lost or boried in some library in the East 
An English translation of the historical part 
of Al-makkari's work by the author of thifr 



AHMED. 



AHMSn. 



iiiticle 18 now in ooune of pnUication under 
the anspices of the Oriental Translation Fond 
of Great Britain and Ireland. The first to- 
Inme has already appeared. (London, 1840, 
4to.) 

Ahmed Al-makkari also wrote several 
other works. The principal are — " Aaliarn- 
l-kem^mah wa azhim-r-riyadh fi akhbltf 
Kadhi lyadh " (" Blooming Buds and Flowers 
of the Garden ; or the History of the Kadhi 
'Iyadh*p. This is the life of a celebrated 
theologian named Abu-l-£Ebdhl 'lyadh Ibn 
Musa Al-yahssobi, who was kadhi of Ceuta, 
and died in ▲.&. 544 (a.d. 1149-50), with ' 
interesting particulars of other eminent or 
learned men who lived abont the same time. 
There is a copy of it in the royal library at 
Paris (No. 1877. ancien fond). **'Arafu-n- 
naahak fi akhb&r Dimashk" (''Sweet Odour 
Of the Flowers, or the History of Damas- 
cus**) : this was written at Uie desire of 
Ahmed Ibn Shahin. «*Raudhu-l-a8i-l-'attiri- 
I-an£is fi dhikr min lakituhu min a*lam 
Morrekosh wa Fas" (** The Garden of fra- 
grant Myrtles, or an Account of those learned 
Men whom I met during my stay at Marocco 
and Fez**): it is a biography of those 
doctors and literary men whose pupil he had 
been in his youth, or whom he met during 
his stay at those two cities. ^ Sharh Mu- 
kaddamiit Ibn Khaldun,** a commentary 
upon the historical prolegomena by Ibn Khal- 
dun, [Abdu-r-rahma'n Ibn Khaldu'k,] 
the celebrated African historian. A com- 
mentary upon the Koran ; an abridgment of 
general history, entitled ** Kattafii-1-muh- 
tassar*' (''Bunch of Grapes synometrically 
arranged**); a treatise on the epithets of 
God, called ** Ad-dorru-th-thamm** (" Valu- 
able Pearls**); and other compositions, the 
titles of which we omit for brevity's sake, are 
among Al*makkari*s productions. He also 
began, but did not complete, a biographical 
dictionary of the illustrious men who were 
bom at his own native place, Telemslm. 
(Haji KhalfiBdi, Lex. BM, sub. voc. "Ti- 
rikhu-l-andalus,** " Nafhu-t-tib,** &c. ; D*Her- 
belot. Bib. Or. voc "Tarikh;** Amin Je- 
lebi, Hist, of Damascus, MS.) P. de G. 

AHMED AL-ANSA'RI' (Abu Ja*far 
Ibn 'Abdi-r-rahmlm Ibn Mottaher), a Mo- 
hammedan historian, native of Toledo in 
Spain. He was the author of a biographical 
dictionary of eminent lawyers and k^dhis, or 
judges, bom in his native city. He died in 
A. H. 489 (a. d. 1096), after the occupation of 
Toledo by the Christians. (Casiri, Bib. Arab. 
Hisp. Eac. ii. 141.) P. de G. 

AHMED 'AL-BAGHDADr (Abu Bekr 
Ibn *Ali Ibn Thabit Ibn Ahmed Ibn Mahdi 
Ibn Thabit), more generally known as Al* 
khattib Al-baghdadi, or the preacher of 
Baghdad, was bom in that capital, on Thurs- 
day, the 23d of Jnmada the second, a. h. 392 
(May, a. d. 1002). Ibn Khallekan, who gives 
his life among those of his •"---^-^ — ** -^- — 
527 



distinguishes Ahmed by the title of Al-hi- 
fidhu-sh-sharki,'* or tiie Eastern traditionist, 
owing to the immense reputation he acquired 
as a lawyer and a recorder of sacred tradi- 
tions. But though a doctor of the law, 
Ahmed made hi^ry his chief study. He 
devoted his whole life to collect information 
respecting his native place, and wrote a 
voluminous history of Baghdad, which he 
designed as a continuation <^ that by Ahmed 
Al-is&ra^i, and in which he gave short 
biographical notices of all the eminent au- 
thors, poets, theologians, and others, who had 
lived in that city from its conquest by the 
Moslems to his own times. Ahmed Al- 
baghdidi is also said to have written upwards 
of 100 different works on various sul]rjects, 
but principally upon sacred traditions and 
hiw. One, entitled " Mokhtassar talkhiss el- 
mutuhabahi-fi-r-rasam wa hamiyati,** beuig a 
treatise on the orthography of proper names 
which occur in sacred traditions, is in the 
library of the university of Leyden, and has 
been described by Hamacker in his "Spe- 
cimen Ck>d. Or. Bibl. Lugd. Batav.,*' p. 145. 
Ahmed died at Baghdid, on Monday the 7 th 
of Dhi-1-hidjah, a.h. 463 (Sept a.d. 1071). 
During his last illness he gave away all his 
fortune, which was very considerable, dis- 
tributing it in alms to the poor students and 
theologians of Baghdad. He also bequeathed 
his library to a mosque. (Ibn Khallek&n, 
Biog. Diet. ; H^ii Khalfah, Lex. BibL sub 
voc. "Tirikh Baghd&d;** Abu-1-feda, Ann, 
Musi, iii 216.) P. de G. 

AHMED AL.BELAT>HORr (Abu-1- 
'abb^ Ahmed Ibn Yahya Ibn Jabir), sur- 
named also Abu Ja'Au*, and Abu-l-hasan, an 
Arabian writer of note, who lived at Baghdad 
towards the middle of the ninth century of 
our era, in the khali&te of Al-mu*tamed. 
He wrote a work entitled " Fotiihu-1-boldan,'' 
C The Conquest of the World by the Mos- 
lems **), which is in the Leyden library (No. 
1908.) Another work, on cosmography, with 
a description of the inhabited earth, entitled 
«< Kitibu-L-bold4n " (<' The Book of the Conn* 
tries **), is in the library of the British Mu- 
seum {Bib. Rich, No. 7496.) He also wrote 
a work on the genealogy of the Arabian 
tribes, the title of which has not reached us ; 
and he translated several works from the 
Persian. He is said likewise to have been 
a good poet. Ibn Haukal, Al Me*siidi, and 
other ancient geographers cite him frequently 
in their writings. Al-beladhori is the 
relative adjective of Beladhor, or Beli- 
dhir, the name of an intoxicating plant (an- 
acardium), of which Ahmed is said to have 
made use, whence he was called Al-beli- 
dhori According to Abii-1-mahisen, he died 
in A.H. 279 (A.D. 892-3). (Hamacker, 
Speeinun Cod. Or. Bibl Ludg. Bat. p. 7. et 
seq. ; Sprenger, £1-Ma*s(idi*s historical ey- 
dopeedia, entitled Meadows of Cfdd and 
Mines of Qems^ p. 15.) P. de a 

M ]f 4 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



AHMED AL-FA'Sr, samamed Sheh&bu* 
d-din (bright star of religion), and Al- 
mokri, because he was reader of the Koran 
in the great mosque of the Karawiin, or 
people of Cairwan, at Fez, is supposed to 
haye lived in the fifteenth century of oar 
nra. Be was the author of a general history, 
entitled " Kitabu-l-juman n akhbari-z-za- 
m£n " (** Connected Pearls : on the History 
of the Times"). The work is divided into 
three parts: the first part comprises the 
history of the world from the creation to the 
birth of the prophet Mohammed ; the second 
part contains the life of Mohammed, his 
preachings, adventures, wars with the infidel 
tribes of Arabia, &c ; the third part con- 
tains the history of the khali& of the houses 
of Umeyyah and 'Abbas, till a. h. 845 (a. d. 
1441-2), as well as that of the Fddmites of 
Egypt, the Benl Umeyyah of Spain, the 
Almoravides and Almohades of Africa, and 
some of the Mameluke dynasties of Syria. 
There is an abridgment oH this work by a 
Spanish Moslem, named Abd 'AbdiUah 
Sidi Al-haj Mohammed Ash-shitibi, of 
Shatibah, now Xativa, in the province of 
Valencia. The original work is n^er scarce; 
but copies of the abridgment are not un- 
common, and are found in several European 
libraries. The royal library at Paris pos- 
sesses two, marked Nos. 762. and 769., whidi 
are fhlly described in the second volume of 
the " Notices et Eztraits," in an article by 
De Sacy. (D'Herbelot, Bib, Or, sub. voc 
" Giuman,*' '' Fassi ;" Noticeg et ExtraiU de» 
MS, de la BMioth, Roy, i. 124.) P. de G. 

AHMED AL-GHAZZAXr (Abu-l-fh- 
tub Ibn Mohammed Ibn Mohammed Ibn 
Ahmed At-tusi), snmamed Migdu-d-^Un 
(glory of religion), a doctor of the sect of 
Sb&fi , and brother to the celebrated Im&n 
Abu Hamid Al-ghazzalL Ibn KhalleUm de- 
scribes him^ as being handsome in person and 
endowed with the gift of working miracles. 
At first he practised as a lawyer, but, preach- 
ing being his ruling passion, he neglected 
his profession, and took to frequenting the 
mosques and other public places, where he 
addressed the people on religious subjects 
with great eloquence and vigour. When his 
brother Abfi Hamid was induced frxmi re- 
ligious principles to quit Baghdad, and retire 
to Mecca, Ahmed succeeded him as professor 
of theology in the - Nizamiyah College, and 
continued to lecture on that science. After 
his brother^s death, he made an abridgment 
of his *' Ihyi 'oliimi-d-dln'* (** Revival of the 
Religious Sciences"), which he entitled ** Lo- 
babu-Mhyi" (** The Marrow, or Essence, of 
the Ttijfr), He was also the author of 
another treatise, called ** Adh-dhakhirah fi 
'ihni-1-basirah" ("The hoarded Treasure: 
on the Science of Vision"), which, to jud^ 
from its title, must have related to tiie mystic , 
doctrines of a particular sect of Sufis, who I 
believed that by abstinence and the practice 
528 



of virtue a man could arrive at a knowlej^ 
of future events. Ahmed Al-ghazzali died 
at Kazwin, in a.h. 520 (a.d. 1126). (Iba 
Khallekan, Biog, Diet i. 79. ; H^i Khalfah, 
Lex. Ency. sub. voc. " Ih'ya.") P. de G. 

AHMED AL-ISFARATNI' (Dm Abi 
Tahir Mohammed Ibn Ahmed)^ suniamed 
Abu Hamid, a celebrated Mohammedan 
doctor, of the sect of Shafi', was bom at 
Is&rayn, a small town of Khorasan, in the 
district of Nishapur, in a. h. 334 (a. d. 955). 
At the age of twenty, Ahmed left his native 
place, and went to Baghdad, where he tan^t 
jurisprudence, and gave lectures on the 
''Mokhtawar" ("Epitome") by Al-muzani, 
which he explained with additional observa- 
tions of his own. Ahmed is said to have 
contributed more powerfully than any other 
doctor of his sect to spread the doctrines of 
the Imlun Shafi*, by two works, entitled, " Ta* 
likit " (" Hasty Notes"), in which he treated 
exclusively of the religious opinions of that 
celebrated imam. He also wrote another 
work, called " Bost4n " (" Garden "), consisting 
of smgular anecdotes. H^ji Khalfah attri- 
butes to him a history of Baghdad, which 
was continued after his death by Ahmed 
Al-baghdadi. Ahmed died at Baghdad, on 
Friday, the ISthof Shawwal, a.h.406 (March, 
A. D. 1016). [Ahmsd Al-baohda'di'.] 
(Ibn Khallekin, Biog, Diet ; Hl^i Khaliah, 
Lex, BibL sub. voc " Ta*likat;" Abu-1-feda, 
Ann, Mud, iii.) P. de G. 

AHMED AL-KASTAXr (Abu 'Omar 
Ibn Mohammed), sumamed Ibn Darr^ 
(the grandson of the maker or seller of 
ladders), a celebrated Arabian poet, was bom 
at Kastilah, now Casalla, a town between 
Cordova and Seville, in Spain, in the month 
of Moharram, a. h. 347 (February or March, 
A. D. 958). He repaired to the capital in his 
youth, and was introduced to the notice of 
the celebrated Almansur (Mohammed Ibn 
Abi 'A'mir), who appointed him his katib, or 
secretary, took him in his company whenever 
he went on a military expedition, and granted 
him a handsome pension. Ahmed fuled not 
to show his gratitude. He wrote several 
poems in praise of his patron, which are held 
in great esteem even by the Arabs of the 
present day. An eastern writer, named Ath- 
thalebl, who wrote the " Lives of the Ara- 
bian Poets," ['Abdu-l-Ma'uk,] compares 
him to Al-mutennabl, for the sweetness and 
melody of his poetical compositions. (See 
YaUmatM-d-dahr^ Brit Mus. No. 9578.) 
The life of Ahmed Al-kastali is in the 
" Biographical Dictionary" of Ibn Khallekan, 
who gives some extracts from his poems, 
and places his death on Sunday, the 15th of 
Jumlda the second, a.h. 421 (July, a.d. 
1030). Another writer, named Al-homaydi, 
places it one year sooner ; and Casiri is cer- 
tainly mistaken when he makes him still alive 
in A. H. 426. (Casiri, Bib, Ar, Hiq>, Etc, ii. 95. ; 
Conde, Hist de la Dom, i. 522-3. ; Al-makkari, 



AH3IED. 



AHMED. 



Moham, Dym. u 39. 342. } Ibn KhaUekan, Bioa. 
Diet) P. de G. 

AHMED AL-MEYDA'NF (Abu-l-fiidhl 
Iba Mohammed Ibn 'AH Ibn Ibrahim), tur- 
named Al-adib, (the philologist), is well 
known as the aathor of a collection of Ara- 
bic pTorerbs, entitled ** Amthalu-l-meydani," 
or, *' The Proyerbe of Al-meydanl," which 
Pooocke translated into Latin. The original 
is in the Bodleian library. In 1773 Henry 
Albert Scholtens published a specimen of 
Pococke's version, ** Specimen Proverbiorum 
Meidanii Ex Versione Pooockiana. Lond.*' 
4to. The same author undertook in 1795 
to publish a complete translation of Al-mey- 
dani's proyerbs ; but he died before the com- 
pletion of the work, and only 454 out of the 
6000 proverbs which compose the collection 
of Al-me^dani appeared, edited by Schroeder, 
** Meidanii Proverbiorum Arabicorum Pars, 
Latind vertit Henricus Albertus Schultens. 
Lugd. Bat 1795." 4to. A few more pro- 
verbs, together with a specimen of Pococke's 
version, were also published by Dr. Mac- 
bride of Oxford, in Uie first, third, and fourth 
volumes of the collection entitled ** Fundgm- 
ben des Orients." Rosenmiiller published 
also a few in Arabic and Latin, 1796, 4to., 
Leipzig. An edition of the entire work in 
Arabic, with a Latin translation and notes 
by G. W. Freytag, is now in course of pub- 
lication at Bonn. Ahmed Al-meydini died 
at Nishapur, in a.h. 513 (a. d. 1124-5). 
Al-meydani means the native of Meyddn, a 
quarter of the city of Nishapur where Ahmed 
was bom and resided. (Ibn Khallek&a, 
Biog, Diet ; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. sub. voc 
"MedianL") P. de G. 

AHMED AN-NAHHA'S (Ab6 Ja'fiff 
Ibn Mohmnmed Ibn Ismail Ibn Yfinas Al- 
moredi), an eminent grammarian and philo- 
logist, was a native of E^ypt He wrote 
several works, among which are a volu- 
minous commentary on the Korin ; a treatise 
on the grammatical analysis of the Korlm ; 
another on the verses of the Korlm which 
were suppressed, and those who suppressed 
them ; a work on grammar, entitled '* TuffiU 
hah fi-n-nalia" (*« The Apple") $ another on 
etymology, a treatise on the ideas usually 
met with in the works of poets; a com- 
mentary on the seven ** Mo'allakit," or sus- 
pended poems ; a biography of eminent poets, 
arranged according to Uie age in which they 
lived, and their different schools (Tabak&tn- 
sh-sho'ari). He was considered the first 
grammarian of his time, and he had been the 
pupU of Al-akhfiish (Abfi-l-hasan Said), 
Abu Ishak, As-zi^^j, and other literary men 
of 'Irik, whither he had travelled for the 
purpose of studying under them. He is de- 
scribed as exceedingly parsimonious. He 
would live as much as possible upon his 
friends and acquaintances, to whom he be- 
came a burden; notwithstanding that his 
rooms were always thronged wifii students. 
529 



He died at Misr (Old Cairo), on Sunday the 
5th of Dhi-1-hiujah, a. h. 338 (May, a. d. 
950) ; or, according to others, the vear be- 
fore. He came by his death in the following 
manner. He was sitting on the staircase <? 
the Nilometer, by the side of the river, whidi 
was then on the increase, scanning some 
verses, when a common fellow, who knew 
him not, hearing him utter words which 
to him appeared unintelligible, said, ^'Tbis 
man is pronouncmg a charm to prevent the 
overflow of the Nile, so as to raise the price 
of provisions," and he pushed him forthwith 
into the river, where he was drowned. An- 
nahhis means the coppersmith, but we are 
not informed if such was Ahmed's trade. 
(Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet i. 81. ; H^i 
Khal&h, Lex. BibL sub. voc '*Taffahah," 
" Tabakit," " Mo'allakfit," &c) P. de G. 

AHMED AN-NE8A'YT (Ab(i 'Abdi-r- 
rahman Ibn *Ali Ibn Sho*ayb Ibn 'Ali Ibn 
Senan Ibn Bahr), a celebrated Mohammedan 
doctor and hiifidh, or traditionist, was bom 
at Nesi, a city in ELhorasan, in A.H. 214 or 
215 (A. o. 829-30). He inhabited Old Cairo, 
in which city he gained great reputation by 
his works, and had many pupils ; but towards 
the end of his life he settled at Damascus. 
He was the author of a sunan, or collec- 
tion of traditions, as well as of a work en- 
titled "Khassais" ("Particularities"), in 
which he treated of the merits and virtues of 
'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, and those of his family. 
Having been asked one day why he did not 
write a work on the merits of the companions 
of Mohammed, he answered, ** On entering 
Damascus, I found a great number of persons 
holdmg 'Ali in aversion, and I wrote this 
book to make them change their opinion. 
Hjoi Khalfah (Lex. Ency. voc *« Asma") at- 
tributes to him another work, entitled ** As- 
mau-l-mudallesin" ("The Names of the Im- 
porten or Recorders of False Traditions"^. 
Ahmed An-nes&yi died in the month of Sha- 
ban, A. H. 303 (Feb. a. d. 9 16). He met with 
his death in the following manner. Having 
on acertain occasion, in the mosque, advocated 
very strongly the rights of the khalif 'Ali 
and his fiuoily, he was immediately assailed 
by those who were present, severely beaten, 
and trodden under foot He was carried on 
a litter to Rakkah, where he died soon after 
his arrival (Ibn Ehallek&n, Biog. Diet; 
D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. sub voc "Neasai;" 
mi\ Khal&h, Lex. BibL) P. de G. 

AHMED AN-NUSHARISr, a Moham- 
medan author who lived and died at Granada, 
and was the author of a history of Abu-l-ha- 
jaj Yusul^ seventh king of Granada, of the 
dynasty of the Nasserites, or Beni Al-ahmar, 
as they are otherwise called by the Arabian 
writers. A copy of this work, which is en- 
titled " Kenasatu-dh dhakan b&'d intikili-s- 
sekim," is in the Escurial library (No. 1707.). 
From a note at the end it would appear that 
the work was completed in a. h. 750 (a. ix 



AHMEIX 



AHMED. 



1349>50). (Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp. Em, ii 
159.) P. de G. 

AHMED IBN 'ARABSHAH,.an Arabian 
writer of the fifteenth century, was a native 
of Damascus, where he died in a.d. 1450. 
He is the author of a history of Timur, or 
Tamerlane, entitled " 'Ajayibu-l-kodur fi 
akhbar Timur " (" Miraculous Effects of 
Divine Providence [shown] in the History 
of Timur**). This work, which has been 
translated into Persian and Turkish, is 
written in that highly figurative style which 
is so much to the taste of the Eastern people. 
Its historical merits, however, are far from 
being equal to its rhetorical beauties. There 
are three editions of this history ; one pub- 
lished at Leyden by Golius, in 1636, 4to. ; the 
second by Henry Manger, in 3 volumes 8vo.; 
and the third at Calcutta, by Sheikh Ahmed 
Ibn Mohammed Al-ansari, 1818, 8vo. Vattier 
first translated it into French, ** L'Histoire 
dn Grande Tamerlan traduite de rArabe* 
d' Ahmed, fils de Gueraspe,'* Paris, 1658, 
4to. ; and Samuel Henry Manger into Latin, 
*' Ahmedis Arabsiadee Vitie et Rerum ges- 
tarum Timuri, qui vulgo Tamerlanus dicitur, 
Historia,** Leovard. 1767-72. Ahmed Ibn 
' Arabshah was also the author of a collection 
of tales in elegant prose, entitled ^'Faka- 
hatu-l-kholafa wa muiakahatu-dh-dhorafa " 
(" Fruits for the Khalifs and Amusement for 
the Witty "), of which there are three copies 
in the Escurial library (Nos.611, 512, 513.) ; 
as well as of a treatise on education, con- 
taining elegant extracts in prose and verse, 
under the title of " Miratu-1-adab " ("The 
Mirror of Literature "). He wrote likewise 
a treatise, in verse, on the unity of God, en- 
titled " Irshadu-1-mufid likhalissi-t-tauhid" 
(" Profitable Direction to those who believe 
sincerely in the Unity of God"). (D*Herbe- 
lot, Bib, Or. sub. voc. "Ahmed** and " Arab- 
schah ;** Haji Khalfah, Lex. Bihl. sub. voc 
" Irshad,'* " ' Ajayib,** &c.) P. de G. 

AHMED AR-RA'Zr (Ibn Mohammed 
Ibn Musa Ibn Busheyr Ibn Jenfid Ibn Lekitt), 
an historian of Mohammedan Spain, was 
born at Cordova about the end of the ninth 
century of our sera. His father, Mohammed, 
was a native of Ray, a considerable district 
of Persia, and a jeweller by trade. Having in 
one of his journeys visited Spain, he met with 
to much encouragement from 'Abdu-r-rah- 
man II., the reigning sultan of Cordova, and 
the nobles of his court, that he decided upon 
establishing himself in Cordova, and following 
his mercantile pursuits there. He died very 
rich, on his return from an embassy to the 
city of Elvira, whither he was sent by Al-mun- 
dhir, sixth sultan of Cordova, of the familv 
of Umeyyah. Ahmed followed, at first, his 
father's profession ; but, as he was very fond 
of scientific pursuits and the society of lite- 
rary men, he neglected his affairs and suffered 
heavy losses, which induced him to retire 
from business, and devote all his leisure to 
530 



the cultivatioa of letters, and especially lb 
the investigation of the history and antiquities 
of Spain. He wrote a voluminous work, in 
which he gave an account of all the Arabian 
tribes which settled in the Peninsula, as well 
as a description of the principal cities or dis- 
tricts inhabited by them, the productions of 
the soil, the minerals, industry, commeroe, 
&c. ; followed by a concise history of Moham- 
medan Spain, from the conquest to the 
accession of *Abdu-r-rahmlui An-n4Bir-lidin- 
illah, first khalif and eighth sultan of Spain 
of the race of Umeyyah. There is a semi- 
barbarous Spanish translation of this work, 
made during the middle ages, under the title 
of " La Coronica del Moro Rasis, Coronista 
de Dalharab, Miramomelin de Marrueoos y 
Rey de Cordova.** It was first translated into 
the Portuguese dialect by Gil Peres, a priest, 
and Mohamad, a converted Moor, during the 
reign and by the command of Dinis, king of 
Portugal (a. d. 1279—1325.). It was then 
translated into Castilian. The work has never 
been printed ; but copies of it are not un- 
common : there is one in the library of the 
British Museum (No. 9044.). Casiri, on the 
authority of Al-homaydi, attributes to this 
historian a work on the topography of Cor- 
dova, similar to that which Ibn Abi Tahir 
composed on the topography of Baghdad. If 
the statement be correct, this production must 
be a distinct one from the above. The same 
writer, Casiri, conjectured that a valuable 
historical fragment published by him at the 
end of his " Bib. Arab. Hisp. Esc." was 
likewise the work of Ahmed Ar-razl ; but we 
doubt if the circumstance of the name 
Ahmed (so common among Mohammed- 
ans), which is also the initiid name of Ar- 
razi, being placed at the head of the fragment, 
is a sufficient ground for the conjecture. The 
year of Ar-razi*s death is not known ; but 
from certain passages in his work it may be 
inferred that he was still alive in a. h. 920. 
Ar-razi means the native of Ray. He is 
likewise called by some writers Al-t&rikhS, 
t. e. the historian. 

There is another Arabian writer also called 
Ahmed Ar-razi, because he was a native of 
the same district, who was the author of 
an Arabic dictionary, entitled, " AJ-mugammel 
fi-l-loghat"(" The Collector: on the Lan- 
guage*'), as well as of a biographical work, 
known under the title of " Hilyatu-l-fokah£ 
(" Ornament of Doctors **). The entire name 
of this author was Ahmed Ibn Faris Ibn 
Zakariyya Ibn Mohammed Ibn Habib Ar- 
razi. He died in a. h. 375 (a. d. 985). 
(Al-makkari, Moham. Dyn. L 314. ; Casiri, 
Bib. Arab. Hup. Esc. ii. 329.) P. de G. 

AHMED IBN BU'WAYH (Abd-l- 
huseyn), sumamed Mo*izzu-d-daulah (the 
exalter of the empire), and Al-akta (the 
maimed), from having lost his left hand, 
and some fingers of the right, in a skirmish 
with the Kurds, founder of the dynasty of 



AHMED. 



ADMED. 



Buwayh or Buvah, who rul^dr over Pernan 
'Irik and Ahwax. He wag bom near Shiraa, 
A.H. 303 (A.D. 915-16), and was the son of 
Abu Shi^a' Buwayh, a poor man, who 
boasted a descent from Behram^hiir, one of 
the most renowned of the ancient Persian 
kings. Ahmed was one of three brothers, 
all of whom attained a considerable share of 
power. Abu-1-hasan 'Ali, somamed 'Imadn- 
d-danlah (the column of the state), who was 
the eldest, became sorereign of Dilam, a 
diTision of the province of Tabaristin, and 
fixed his court at Shiraz. The second, Hasan, 
sumamed Roknn-d-daulah (the foundation of 
the state), took possession of Ispahan and part 
of Persian Irak, where he mled undisturbed 
till his death. As to Mu*izzu-d-daulah (Ah- 
med), he began his life by selling fire-wood, 
but he ultimately attsdned the same eminence 
as his two brothers. In a. h. 321 (a.i>. 933), 
when Im&du-d-daulah was proclaimed sove- 
reign of Dilam, his brother Ahmed was 
despatched by him, at the head of an army, to 
extend the power of the race of Buwayh 
over the neighbouring provinces. Ahmed 
left Shiraz in a. H. 322 ^A. d. 934), and 
marched upon Seijau, of which city he made 
himself master without opposition. Having 
proceeded into Kerm&n, he reduced the 
whole of that province, after defeating the 
governor, Mohammed Ibn Eliyas, in several 
conflicts. He then marched towards the 
territory of Ahwaz, the whole of which he 
onJted to his former conquests. In a. h. 334 
(a. d. 945), during the khalifate of Al-mustakfi, 
the twenty-second of the house of 'Abbas, 
Ahmed set out for Baghdad, which he en- 
tered without resistance on Saturday the 
11th day of Jumada the first (Dec a.d. 
945), under the pretence that he was going 
to deliver that monarch from the tyranny at 
the Turks, who had usurped aU the power 
at court. He there promised allegiance to 
that khali^ who granted him the investiture 
of all the provinces which he had conquered, 
and also conferred on him the dignity of 
Amiru-l-omra, and the title of Mu*izzu-d- 
danlah. But some misunderstanding having 
arisen in the course of the same year between 
Ahmed and the khaiif, the former, who was 
all powerful at Baghdad, had his sovereign 
seized and confined to a dungeon, where he 
lost his eyesight, and appointed in his room 
Al-mutayu-billah, who retained only a 
shadow of power ; all authority being in the 
hands of the ambitious Ahmed. After a rule 
of upwards of twenty-one years, Ahmed died 
at Baghdad, on Mondav the 17th of Rabi' 
the second, a.h. 356 (April, A. i>. 967). He 
was interred in his palace, but his body was 
afterwards removed to a superb mausoleum 
built for its reception in the cemetery of 
Koraysh, near Baghd^ When on the point 
of death he granted liberty to all his slaves, 
and gave the greater part of his property in 
alms. He was succeeded in the lordship of 
531 



Kermin and Ahwaz, as well as in the dignity 
of Amiru-1-omri at Baghdad, by his son 
Bakhtiyar (Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet, vol. 
L p. 155. ; Abu-l-feda,./liui. Mu», subpropriis 
annis ; Price, Ckron, Retroap, of Afoham, 
Hist ii. 255. ; Elmacin, HisL ISar. 216.) 

P. de O. 

AHMED IBN FARAJ (Abu 'Amru), 
a celebrated Arabian poet and historian, was 
bom at Jaen in Spain about the middle 
of the tenth century of our era. When 
youn^ he removed to Cordova, where the 
reignmg khalif; Al-hakem Ai-mustanser- 
billah, ninth sultan of the race of Umeyyah, 
was encouraging science and literature by his 
example and his liberality. Ahmed was first 
brought to the notice of his sovereign by some 
light poems, which were greatly admired, 
and which Al-hakem wished him to recite in 
his presence. Ahmed complied with the 
order, and received, as a reward, a purse 
containing 100 dinars of gold. Some time 
after, he wrote an historiod account of all 
the rebels who had on different occasions 
revolted against the government of the Beni 
Umeyyah, from the establishment of that 
dynasty, in a. h. 138 (a. d. 755) to his own 
times. Adh-dhobbi, quoted by Conde (i. 480.), 
attributes to him a collection of the best poems 
written by the Spanish Arabs, which he is 
reported to have made at the express desire 
of Al-hakem, who desired it for his own 
library. The work bore the title of " Hada- 
yik " (** Enclosed Gardens "), and consisted of 
two-hundred chapters, each containing one 
hundred verses. Each chapter, moreover, 
was denominated after a flower. It appears 
that this collection was made in competition 
with a similar one which Abu Mohammed 
Ibn Dawud, an eastern poet, had made for a 
khalif of the race of 'Abbas. Ahmed wrote 
likewise a history of the sultans of the house 
of Umeyyah who reigned in Spain. The 
above-mentioned historian (Adh-dhobbi) in- 
forms us that Ahmed Ibn Fang was executed, 
by the order of Al-hakem, in a. h. 360 (a. d. 
971); but he is silent as to the cause of his 
incurring the displeasure of that monarch. 
(Conde, Hist de la Vom. i. 465.; Al-makkari, 
Moh, Dyn. L 185—187.) P. de G. 

AHMED IBN HANBAL (Abu 'Abdillah 
Ash-sheybani Al-merwazi), founder of one of 
the four religious sects which are considered 
orthodox by the Mohammedans, was bom at 
Baghdad, in Rabi* the first, a. h. 1 64 (a. d. 780). 
Other writers make him a native of Meru, 
in Khorasan, to which place he must at least 
have originally belonged, since the adjective 
Al-merwdzi, i. e. firom Mem, is invariably 
affixed to his name. However this may be, 
Ahmed Ibn Hanbal studied at Baghdiid, 
where he soon gained great reputation by his 
learning and exemplarv life. He became the 
intimate ftiend of Shafi', the founder of the 
sect of the Shafiites, from whom he is said to 
have Received most of his knowledge of the 



AKMED^ 



AHM£D. 



SlUsred traditions. When 8h&fl* left Baghdad 
for Egypt, he was beard to exclaim, ** I went 
forth from 'Irak, and left not behind me a 
more pious man, or a better jurisconsult, 
than Ahmed Ibn Hanbal/* Among the doc- 
trines held by Ibn Hanbal, in common with 
other eminent theologians of his day, one 
was, that the KoWm was uncreated and eter- 
nal Haying been called upon to declare that 
the KoWm was a creation, he refused ; and 
although he was scourged and imprisoned by 
order ot the khalif Al-mu'taasem, Uie eighth oif 
the house of ' Abbis, he persisted in his refusal. 
Ibn Hanbal died at Baghdad, in Rabi' the 
first, A. H. 245 (▲. D. 855). According to 
Ibn Khallekin, his body was followed to the 
graye by 600,000 men, and 60,000 women ; 
and we are gravely told by the same biogra- 
pher, that on the day of Ibn Hanbal's death, 
20,000 Christians, Jews, and Magi yolun- 
tarily embraced the Mohammedan faith. 
He left two sons, both men of learning ; 
the eldest of whom, named S^eh, became 
kadh! of Ispahan. Among his disciples the 
most celebrated were, Al-bokhari, the author 
of the Sahih, Moslem AUkusheyri, Abu 
Dawiid Alh-k&heri, and TbHhua Al-ha- 
rethr. The sect founded by Ibn Hanbal 
increased so fast, and became so powerful, 
that in A. h. 323 (a. d. 934-5) in the kha- 
lififtte of Ar-ridhi, the twentieth of the house 
of Abb^, they raised a great commotion 
in Baghd&d, entering the houses of the in- 
habitants, spilling their wine, or breaking 
their musical instruments, when they found 
any, beating the singing women whom they 
met in the streets, and committing other 
excesses. A severe edict was published 
against them, and many of the ringleaders 
were committed to prison before they could 
be reduced to order. The Hanbalites are 
not numerous now, and are seldom met with 
out of Arabia. (&de*s Kordn, Prelim. Disc ; 
Ibn KhaUekiin, Biog, Diet; Abii-l-feda, Ann. 
Mud, iL 154. ; Abii-1-fang, Hitt Dyn. p. 
352.) P. de G. 

AHMED IBN HU'D (Abii Ja'fiff Al- 
jodhami), sumamed Al-muktadir-billah, 
(he who is powerful by the grace of God), 
second king of Saragossa, of the dynasty of 
the Beni Hud, succeeded his &ther Suley- 
man, in a. h. 438 (a. d. 1046-7). He was an 
able and enlightened ruler, who bravely de- 
fended his dominions against the then rising 
power of the kings of Aragon. In a. d. 1048 
he reduced the fortress of Barbastro, which had 
some time before &llen into the hands of the 
Aragonese, and defeated and killed their king, 
Ramiro, near the castle of Grados. Sancho £, 
who succeeded his fitUher Ramiro on the throne 
of Aragon, being anxious to revenge the 
outrage, advanced into the dominions of Ibn 
Hud, recovered Barbastro, invested and took 
Monzon,and, lastly (in a.d. 1054), laid siege 
to Huesca, the ancient Osca. Ahmed having 
hastened to the assistance of the besieged, a 
532 



battle ensued, in which the King of Ara^oii 
was defeated and slain. A Moorish wamor, 
named Sa*darah, having reached the enemy's 
camp in disguise, entered the tent of Sancho, 
and stabbed him with his dagger below the 
right eye. Such is at least the account 
given by the Arabian writers } the Christian 
chroniclers, who do not mention the battle, 
say that Sancho, having one day approached 
the walls of Huesca fbr the purpose of recoii* 
noitring, was mortally wounded bjr an arrow 
in the right side, while raising his hand to 
point out a spot where the assault might he 
made. Ahmed Ibn Hud died in a. h. 474 
(a. d. 1081-2), and was succeeded by his son 
Abu 'Amir Yusuj^ sumamed Al-mutamen 
(he who trusts in God). 

There were two other kings of Saragossa of 
the dynasty of Hiid, who bore the name of 
Ahmed, namely, Ab6 Ja'ftr Ahmed EL, snr« 
named Ai-musta* in billah (he who implores 
the help of God), who reigned fixmi a. h. 478 
to 503 (a. d. 1085-1109), and Abu Ja'&r 
Ahmed IIL, sumamed Seyfu-d-daulah (the 
sword of the state), and Ai-mostanser-billah 
(he who expects the assistance of God), who, 
though no longer master of Saragossa, which 
was taken by Alfonso I. of Aragon in a. i». 
1118, reigned nevertheless over some extensive 
districts of Aragon till A. h. 524 (a« d. 1 130), 
when he died. (Casiri, Bib, Arab, Hi^. Etc, 
it 213.; Conde, Hist, de laDom, iL 175.267.; 
Abu-1-feda, Ann, Mud, iu. 75.). P. de G. 

AHMED IBNU-L-MAKU'Wr (Ibn 
'Abdi-1-malek Ibn Hashim Abii 'Chnar), a 
celebrated Mohanunedan lawyer, a native of 
Seville, who is said by Casiri to have been 
chief kiidhi of Cordova, and to have compiled 
a code of Mohammedan law (" Pandectss 
Hispanse") by the command of Al-hakem 
Al-mostanser-billah, the ninth sultan of the 
fiunily of Umeyvah, in Spain. Al-homaydi 
(jJadhwcLtU'l'^moitaljis, foL 107.) says that, in 
conjunction with Abd Merwin Al-mu'ayti, 
he wrote a work on the memorable sayings 
of Malik Ibn Ans, in imitation of the ** Al- 
bahir" (" The Illustrious"), written by Ahd 
Bekr Ibnn-1-haddad on the memorable say- 
ings of Shafi*. Ahmed Ibnu-1-makuwi died at 
Cordova, on Saturday the 7th of Jumada the 
first, A. H. 401 (Get A. D. 1010). (Casiri, Bib. 
Arab, Hisp, Etc. ii. 140 ; Al-homaydi, «)a(M- 
watu'l'moktabis, MS. BodL Lib. J/une. 464. ; 
Conde, Hist de la Dom. i. 475.) P. de G. 

AHMED IBNU^-SAFFATl (Ibn 'Ah- 
dillah Al-ghafeki Ab(i-l-k&Bim), a celebrated 
mathematician and astronomer, was bom at 
Hisn-Ghafek, in the territory of Cordova, 
about the close of the tenth centuij of our 
lera. When young he left his native place 
and repaired to Cordova, where he obtained 
an appointment under government, and gained 
great celebrity by a treatise on arithmetic 
which he is said to have dedicated to Al- 
mansur Ibn Abl 'Amir. He died at Cordova 
mA.H. 426 (a. i>. 1034-5). Ibn Abi Gs- 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



nyhi*ah, who gives hb life among those of 
the Spanish physicians, attributes to him ^ A 
Treatise on the Manner of constructing 
lihthematical Instmments," and a set of 
Astironomical Tables. (Casiri, Bib. Arab. 
Hisp, Esc, il 140. ; Al-makkari, Moham, 
Dyn. L 428.) P. de G. 

AHMED JESATR. [Avbis I.] 
AHMED KEDtJK, or " Broken-mouth," 
one of the most celebrated Turkish captains, 
was grand Tizir of Mohammed H. from 1473 
to 1477. From being a private soldier he 
soon became an officer, and distinguished 
himself in every engagement. When raised 
to the rank of genend, he commanded the 
army against the rebels of Caramania, took 
the fiunoos castle of Develi-Karahissar, and 
brought that dangerous war to a close. As 
a reward Ibr his services, the sultan named 
him grand vizir (1473), and in 1475 intrusted 
him with the command of an expedition Re- 
signed to aid the Ehin of the Crimea agaiiist 
his revolted brothers and the Genoese. 
Ahmed Kediik, at the head of a powerfhl 
fleet and an army of 40,000 men, anchored 
before Kafifk ; and that town, then called 
Little Constantinople, surrendered on the 4th 
of June, 1473, after a siege of four days. The 
Tm'ks found an immense booty; 40,000 
prisoners were sent as settlers to Constanti- 
nople ; and 15,000 (1500?) young Genoese 
noblemen were enrolled in the corps of Ja- 
nissaries. The city had been betrayed bv 
certain Armenians, and Ahmed Kediik 
invited them to a grand entertunment 
After dinner the traitors were led down a 
narrow staircase, at the ibot of which they 
were beheaded. The town of Tana (Asof ) 
surrendered shortly after, and the whole of 
the Crimea was soon snljugated by the Otto- 
mans, who annexed it to their dominions. 
Whatever claims these numerous services 
might give him to the sultan's gratitude, the 
latter, frequently irritated by his viair's ob- 
stinaiTf, deposed him in 1477, and imprisoned 
him m the castle of the Bosporus, from 
which, however, he was soon released to 
assume the pashalik of Valona. In the year 
following he was appointed to the command 
of an expedition agamst Italy. He took the 
islands A St Maura and Zante, hmded on the 
coast of Apulia, and on the 28th of July, 
1479, after a siege of fburteen days, took the 
city of Otranto, then the rampart of Italy 
asainst the Infidels. The Turks were guilty 
of unheard-of atrocities : out of 22,000 in- 
habitants, 12,000 were massacred, and the 
rest sent into slavery. Ahmed Kediik was 
the first Turk who set fbot on the classic soil 
of Italy, where, six centuries before, the 
Mohammedan Saracens had lost the last of 
their possessions. Sultan Mohammed II. died 
in 1481. His son, Bayazid II., was his suc- 
cessor ; but his brother Jem, so well known 
i^m his detention in France and his tragic 
liite, disputed his claim to the crown. Baya- 
533 



zid*s fhte depended on the issue of a battle, 
which he was afraid to oommence, as the 
conqueror of Kafia was not in his camp. On 
the eve of the engagement, Ahmed Kediik 
unexpectedly arrived, and his presence gave 
more confidence to the troops than the ar- 
rival of a whole army would have done. Jem 
was defeated (20th June, 1481), and pursued 
by Ahmed Kediik. While thus occupied, 
he was suddenly recalled to Constantinople ; 
but, iproud and headstrong, he neglected to 
obey, unmediately, the orders of the capricious 
Bayazid, and was again consigned to prison. 
The brave pasha was, however, too valuable 
a servant to remain there long. Kazlm Bey, 
the last of the Caramanian pnnces, had once 
more raised a rebellion in that province, but 
Ahmed Kediik soon reduced it to the sultan's 
authority. Prince Jem then overran Asia 
Minor with a powexfril army ; but the rebels 
dispersed before Ahmed Kediik. Jem him- 
self fled to Rhodes, and the throne was se- 
cured to Bayazid. 

In 1482 the Sultan had made a treaty with 
Venice, renouncing his claim to the tribute 
hitherto paid by that republic ; and at the 
same time he concluded a peace with the 
knights of Rhodes. He was anxious for 
peace, as he feared that war mig^t supply the 
Janissaries with new pretexts for revolt, as 
the^ had twice mutinied after the disgrace of 
their idol Ahmed Kediik. But this great 
captain was too fond of war to approve S the 
two treaties, and forgot himself so fiff as to 
speak of the sultan in terms highly offSensive : 
he also intrigued with his fitfher-in-law 
against the influence of Musta& Pasha, the 
sidtan's fiivourite. This imprudent conduct 
decided Ahmed's fiite. On the 6 Shawwal, 
A. H. 887 (18th of November, 1482), Baya«» 
zid, after a dinner given to his ministers, 
among whom was Ahmed, dismissed them 
with presents of splendid robes. Ahmed 
Kediik, the conqueror of KafEa and Otranto, 
and of Jem and Kasim Be^, approached in his 
turn : he was presented with a black kaftan, 
the symbol of immediate death. F<v the first 
time in his life the old warrior drew back 
in alarm. One of the sultan's mutes ad- 
vancing, stabbed him with a poniard, and 
Ahmed expired at the sultan's feet The 
Turkish historians do not allude to the fatal 
issue of this dinner ; and according to Edris, 
Ahmed was not assassinated tiU some days 
after in the environs of Adrianople. A revolt 
of the Janissaries succeeded the death of their 
great captain. The following anecdote is 
given on authority that cannot be disputed. 
When Bayazid was a young man, he was one 
day severely rei>rimanded by Aluned Kediik 
for having unskilfully placed a division of the 
army which was intended to fidl on the enemy. 
Bayazid, irritated at this want of respect, swore 
that he would have his revenge as soon as 
he became sultan. ** And I swear," returned 
Ahmed, " that I will never giid on my scimitar 



ahmed: 



AHMED. 



in your aervice." And it actoally happened, 
when Bayazid joined the army after he suc- 
ceeded his £Either on the throne, that Ahmed 
appeared at the head of the cavalry with his 
sword attached to the pummel of the saddle. 
Bayazid observed it, and said, "Well, you 
have a long memory ; but forget the faults of 
my youth, gird on vour scimitar, and use it 
against my enemies. (Hammer, Gexkichte 
des Osmanischen ReicheSy voL ii. book 18, 19., 
especially p. 284, 285. : he cites Edris, fol. 
240. ; 'All, fol. 155.) W. P. 

AHMED KHA'N, one of the Mogul kings 
of Persia, whose real name was NIKlJ- 
DA'R. D. F. 

AHMED KHA'N ABDA'LI, founder of 
the Durrani dynasty in Afghanistan, and 
grandfather of Shah SSiuja, the late ruler 
of that country. Zaman Khan, the father of 
Ahmed, was distinguished as the chief of the 
Abdali tribe, and a few years previous to the 
appearance of Nadir Shah he had nearly suc- 
ceeded in shaking off the Persian yoke. In 
1722, after defeating a Persian army of double 
their own number, the Abdalis not only were 
in possession of Herat, but were able to de- 
spatch a large force to besiege Mashhad, in 
tne western extremity of Khorasan. At last, 
in 1728, they were, for the first time, attacked 
by the renowned Nadir, and after a short 
campaign, of various success, they were re- 
duced to submit to that conqueror. Zaman 
Khan left two sons, the elder Zul'fikar, and 
the younger Ahmed, the subject of this 
memoir, who was bom in 1723. When yet 
very young, Ahmed was taken prisoner by 
Niidir, and served for some time as one of the 
royal slaves, till, attracting the notice of his 
master, he was promoted to the rank of mace- 
bearer. He accompanied Nadir in his expe- 
dition to India in 1739, probably in some 
domestic capacity, as he was then too young 
to bear arms. He afterwards obtained the 
rank of an officer of cavalry, and had the 
command of a considerable body of Afghans 
in a campaign against the Turks. The valour 
displayed by Ahmed and his countrymen in 
these wars raised them very high in Nadir's 
favour, a partiality which, according to some 
historians, cost that tyrant his life. But the 
fkct is, that Nadir had completely forfeited 
the affection of his own subjects, and at this 
period he showed most attachment to his 
foreign troops. Meanwhile the Persians, op- 
pressed beyond the power of endurance, re- 
solved " that the tyrant should die ;" and on 
the 8th of June, 1747, when encamped not 
far from Mashhad, a band of Persian con- 
spirators surprised his tent, and, after a brief 
struggle, deprived him of life. Ahmed Khan, 
then about twenty-four years of age, appears 
to have attained considerable ascendancy in 
Nadir's service, as we find him, on the morn- 
ing after the tyrant's death, acting as com- 
mander-in-chief of the Tartars and Afghans 
in an attack upon the Persians. It has been 
534 



already stated that N&dir had fbr some thno 
shown a decided preference to his foreign 
troops ; and on the very night in which he 
was murdered, he had formed a design of 
massacring, by their means, all the Persians 
in his camp. Hence authors disagree as to 
which party began the attack the next morn- 
ing. The Persians were eager to exterminate 
their intended executioners ; and the Tartars 
and Afghans were equally ready to avenge 
the death of their master, and to gain an op- 
portunity of plundering the camp. At length, 
after a loss of 5000 men on both sides, 
the fbreign troops were repulsed. Ahmed 
Khan proceeded by rapid marches to Kan- 
dahar, where he arrived with a force not 
exceeding two or three thousand men. He 
succeeded in taking possession of that city, 
where he found a large convoy of treasure, 
on its way from India to Nadir's camp. This 
treasure had been already appropriated by 
the Afghans ; but Ahmed, backed as he was 
by military force, claimed it for himself^ and 
by^these means he laid the foundation of a 
kingdom which, during his own lifetime at 
least, became formidable to the neighbouring 
nations. In October, 1747, Ahmed was 
crowned at Kandahar as Ahmed Shah Dur- 
rani. He passed the following winter in 
settling the country which he had already 
acquired, and in collecting an army for future 
expeditions. His first object was to secure 
the affection of his troops, and particularly to 
attach to himself the chiefis of his own tribe. 
He distributed all the great offices of his 
new state among the leading Durranis, esta- 
blishing certain offices in particular families, 
in the same manner in which he settled the 
crown in his own. He left the hereditary 
chiefe in possession of their ancient privileges, 
and seldom interfered in the internal govern- 
ment of their clans, except in such a degree 
as was necessary to maintain his army and 
preserve the general tranquillity. It re- 
quired considerable address, however, to 
reconcile so many warlike and independent 
tribes to a form of government to which they 
had never been more than temporarily sub- 
jected, and to which they had no reason to be 
at all attached. They never had been united 
under a native king ; and when subdued by 
the more warlike sovereigns of Persia, such 
as Timiir and Nadir, they viewed the kingly 
power as an engme of extortion and oppres-^ 
sion, to be feared and resisted, rather than a 
source of order and protection, to be loved 
and obeyed. Hence the exaltation of Ahmed 
was looked upon by many of the chiefs with 
as much jealousy as the usurpation of a foreign 
master. To counteract these feelings, Ahmed 
directed his views to foreign wars and ex- 
peditions into the more wealthy regions around 
him. He justly perceived that if they should 
prove successfU, his victories would raise his 
reputation, and his conquests would supply 
him with the means of maintaining a large 



AHMED. 



AHMEIX 



army, as well as of attaching the disaffected 
clue& by favours and rewards. Besides, the 
liope of plander would induce many of the 
trihes to join him, whom he could not other- 
^wise have compelled to submission. In the 
spring of 1748 Ahmed commenced his career 
of conquest, and the most attractlTe object 
appeared to be the imperial city of Delhi, 
whose wealth and luxury he had witnessed 
when in Nadir's campaign. He advanced 
rapidly tiirough Kabul and Peshawer, then 
nominally under the Great Mogul, whose 
governor he drove across the Indus, at Attock. 
Ahmed's army increased as he advanced 
through the Afghan country. He then 
crossed the Indus, traversed the Panjab, and 
after defeating a large body of Indian troops, 
in sight of Lahore, he entered that city in 
triumph, prepared to advanced upon Delhi. 
He thence crossed the Sutledge, and captured 
the town of Sirhind ; but being opposed, near 
that city, by a strong Indian force, he was 
compelled to retreat into the Panjab, of which 
he took and retained possession, the Mogul 
governor Safdar Jung having acknowledged 
Ahmed as his sovereign, and agreed to pay 
the regular tribute of that province. The 
affairs of the Panjab being thus satisfactorily 
arranged, Ahmed marched back to Kandahar. 
On his way he settled the governments of all 
the intermediate provinces, and reached his 
own capital in the early part of 1749. The 
busy reign of Ahmed may be summarily 
described as a series of campaigns and expe- 
ditions, extending over the immense regions 
situated between Delhi on the east, and the 
Caspian Sea on the west, and from the Oxus 
to the Indian Ocean. The full detail of these 
belongs to history. The following brief out- 
line is enough here. In the spring of 1 749 
he marched against Herat and Mashhad, 
reducing under his power all the places that 
lay on tibat route. In 1750 he captured the 
city of Nishapur, and annexed the whole of 
Khorasan to his dominions. In 1752 he 
marched into the Panjab, and reduced to sub- 
mission Mir Manu, the governor, who had 
revolted in his absence. During this cam- 
paign he conquered Cashmir, and obtained 
from the Great Mogul a cession of the coun- 
try of Hindustan as far east as Sirhind. In 
1756 he was once more called into India, 
owing to the disturbed state of the Panjdb, 
which the Great Mogul was endeavouring to 
regain. Ahmed's presence in the Panjdb 
soon restored order and tranquillity. He 
thence marched upon the imperial city, and, 
after a feeble resistance on the part of the 
inhabitants, he entered triumphantly within 
its walls. During his stay at Delhi, he and 
his son Timur Shah married princesses of 
the imperial fiunily, with whom large por- 
tions were ^ven, or rather exacted : among 
these, the fair kingdoms of the Paigab, Mul- 
tin, and Sind were settled on Timur Shah, 
who was at the same time appointed viceroy 
535 



of all his Other's territories to the east of thd 
Indus. In 1759 Ahmed made another expe- 
dition into Hindustan, partly with a view of 
restoring order into his own Indian posses- 
sions, and partly to protect the Great Mogul 
fh>m the Mahrattas, whose power had then 
become formidable. They had assembled in 
large force near Delhi, and, before Ahmed's 
arrival, had almost gained possession of the 
city. The Afghans fell in with the Mah- 
rattas at Badli, near Delhi, where a severe 
action took place, in which the latter were 
totally defeated, and Datdji, their leader, 
killed. The Mahrattas, however, exerted 
themselves to repair their losses, and soon re- 
assembled a powerful army from the Dekkan, 
under Yishwas Rao, the heir apparent of 
their country. The two armies passed several 
months in each other's vicinity, and various 
skirmishes took place, but with no decisive 
results. At length, on the 7th of January, 
1761, was fought the celebrated Rattle of 
Paniput, near Delhi, in which, after a des- 
perate struggle, the Afghdns were victorious 
on every point So complete was the victory, 
that scarcely one out of the Mahratta army 
escaped, and the result was, that the Mah- 
rattas thenceforth abandoned their designs 
on the north of Hindustan, which now ap- 
peared to be at Ahmed's mercy. He, how- 
ever, wisely contented himself with the por- 
tion that had been formerly ceded to him, 
and in the spring of 1761 returned to KdbuL 
Ahmed had now reached the summit of his 
ambition ; and it required all his talents and 
activitjr to maintain his elevation durmg the 
remaining twelve years of his life, ^me- 
times he had to suppress insurrections among 
his own chie&; and frequently he made a 
rapid march to quell a revolt in some remote 
province. At length, in 1773, his health had 
considerably declined, and in the spring of 
that year he left Kandahar for the hills of 
Toba, where the summer is comparatively 
cool. Here his malady, which was a cancer 
in the face, continued to increase, and in the 
be^ning of June he died at Murgha, m the 
fiftieth year of his a^, and twenty-fifth of 
his reign, leaving his throne to his son 
Timur Shah. Mountstuart Elphinstone, 
in his elegant work on Kabul, says of 
Ahmed, that ** his character seems to have 
been admirably suited to the situation in 
which he was placed. His enterprise and 
decision enabled him to profit by the con- 
f\ision that followed the death of Nadir. He 
seems to have been naturally disposed to 
mildness and clemency, and the memory of 
no eastern prince is stained with fewer acts 
of cruelty and injustice." He treated muUas 
and learned men with respect, being himself 
ambitious of the character of a divine and an 
author. He laid the foundation of a mighty 
empire, which rose to its meridian splendour 
under his own wise administration. It 
declined under his less active son, I'imut 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



Shitti; and sunk under his grandsons, the 
last of whom, after liying for years on the 
bounty of ** the merchants of England," was, 
by them, hitely placed upon the throne of his 
grandfather. (Elphinstone*s Caubul; Mill's 
TSritish India; Malcolm's Persia ; and an 
" Account of Ahmad Shah Abdali," from a 
Persian MS., AMtatic MiacdJany, 4to. Cal- 
cutta, 1785.) D. F, 

AHMED PASHA, son of Weli-ed-din, 
preceptor to the princes under Mohammed IL, 
and afterwards vizir, was the first Turkish 
lyric poet who deserved the name, and he 
continued so until he resigned the palm to 
Nejati, who in his turn ceded it to the cele- 
brated Baki Extracts from his '* Diwan" 
are given in all the anthologies of Turkish 
poets. The Orator of Brusa (f 184.) gives a 
biography of Ahmed, who is the fint of the 
series, because he is interred in the beau- 
tiful mosque which he himself had reared 
at Brus& We cannot ascertain the year of 
his birtnt but he died in a. h. 902 (a. d. 1469). 
(Hammer, Geachichtedes OsmaniachenReichea^ 
voL il p. 688.) W. P. 

AHMED PASHA, grand vizir to Soli- 
man L, was by birth a Croatian and a 
Christian, but he embraced Isbim and joined 
the corps of Janissaries. He soon attained 
distinction, and in 1552 commanded the army 
that was besieging Temeswar. The Turks 
had been repulsed several times; at last, 
Ahmed, wielding an iron mace, drove back 
the fugitives to the . breach, and took the 
fortress by capitulation, which, however, he 
disregarded, and beheaded the brave Hun- 
garian commandant Losonczy. On the 2l8t 
of September, 1553, Sollman, yielding to the 
instigations of his finvourite wife Khasseki 
Khurrem Sultanin, sumamed Roxolana, or 
the Russian, ordered his son Mustafii to be 
strangled ; and to appease the Janissaries, who 
had revolted on account of this atrocious 
murder, he deposed the g^rand vizir Rustem 
the same day, and appointed Ahmed, the con- 
queror of the Banat in Hungary, in his stead. 
Ahmed, however, refused to accept the dan- 
gerous office until the sultan had sworn that 
he would never depose hiuL But he did not 
remain grand vizir long. In 1555, an im-< 
poster, the famous Mustafa, excited Asia Minor 
to revolt, proclaiming that he was the sultan's 
son. The grand vizir of this adventurer was 
a poulterer, and two students were his 
ministers. Ahmed promptiy suppressed the 
rebellion ; but during his absence, the in- 
triguing Roxolana, eager to reinstate her son- 
in-law Rustem in the office of vizir, caballed 
against Ahmed, whom she accused not only 
of peculation, but also of having calumniated 
All-Pasha, governor of Egypt, for the purpose 
of disgracing him with the sultan and causing 
his destruction. On the 12 of Zilk. a. h. 962 
(28th September, 1555), Ahmed was ar- 
rested on his way to the diwan, and imme- 
diately after beheaded at the gate of the 
536 



palace. "" Thus,*' says Higi Khal&h, <« the 
sultan kept his oatii; for he did not de- 
pose him, he merely put him to death." 
This author places the death of the vizir in 
A. H. 972 instead of 962 ; but this is a 
typographical error. It cannot be doubted 
that Aluned died in the manner stated by 
the Turkish historians, and we must there- 
fore reject the stories with which European 
writers have amused their readers, and espe- 
cially Busbequius, the ambassador of the Em- 
peror Rudolph at Constantinople. Ahmed 
Pasha built the fine mosque which still bears 
his name, at the gate of canons in Constanti- 
nople ; but his name is particularly distin- 
guished as having formed several eminent 
statesmen, such as Mustab Aga, Mohammed 
Chelebi, and Memi Chelebi, afterwards 
Reis Efendi. (Hammer, Geachichie dea Oa- 
maniachen Reickea. voL iiL p. 299—341., who 
cites the Turkish sources ; Pechewi,foL 114.. 
and Haji KhalfSedi, Chronological TabUa, p. 
176.) W. P. 

AHMED PASHA, sumamed the Traitor, 
first distinguished himself in the war of 
Soliman L against Austria. He followed 
his master in the expedition against the 
knights of St John, who then held Rhodes, 
and after the terrible assault of the 24th of 
September, 1522, he was named general-in- 
chief by the sultan, who had become furious 
by his want of success. Ahmed made an- 
other assault on Rhodes 1 1th of Moharrem 
(30th November), but he was repulsed with 
tiie loss of 3000 men. The knights, however, 
findinff their position hopeless, wished to 
capituhite, and with this view sent to Ahmed 
two officers bearing a letter written by the 
late Sultan Bayazid, in which he promised 
to keep eternal peace with the knights. The 
Turkish general, enraged at his defeat, tore 
up the letter, stamped on the pieces, and 
wrote to the Grand Master of the Order a 
letter, full of abusive language, which he 
sent by two Christian prisoners, whose noses, 
fingers, and ears had been cut off by his 
orders. Rhodes capitulated on the 2d of 
Safer, a.h.928 (21st December, 1522); but, 
four days after, the Turks violated the capi- 
tulation and plundered and profaned tiie 
churches. This event occurred on Christmas- 
day, the same day and nearly the same hour 
when the pope, in celebratmg mass at St. 
Peter's, was frightened by a stone fiilling 
from the top of the cupola and rolling to his 
feet, as if to announce that the first rampart 
of Christendom had fallen into the hands of 
the infidels. This brilliant conquest turned 
Ahmed's head. He calumniated the cele- 
brated grand vizir, Piri Mustafii Pasha, in the 
hope of obtaining his office, but he only suc- 
ceeded in part, for though Piri Pasha was 
dismissed, it was not himself, but Ibrahim, 
the sultan's fiivourite, who was named grand 
viztr. Being sent to Egypt, in 1523, to put 
down a revolt of the Arabs, he there eon* 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



ceived the idea of making himself sultan of 
Egypt, as a compensation for having missed 
the vixirship. He gained over the Mamluks, 
distributed the go-vemment lands among his 
creatures, and suddenly raised the standard 
of rebellioo. But the corps of Janissaries, 
faithful to their oath, made an obstinate re- 
sistance in the citadel of Cairo. At last, 
Ahmed took the fortress by stratagem, and 
the Janissaries were put to the sword (1524). 
Upon this, Ahmed proclaimed himself sultan 
and assumed the two prerogatives of Mo- 
hammedan sovereignty; that is, the coin- 
ing of money, and the Khutbeh, or public 
prayers. ['AiIa'-bd-di'n.] A Chaush or officer 
having brought the sultan's order for his 
deposition, he put him to death, and named 
three vizirs, one of whom, Mohammed, soon 
betrayed his new master. Ahmed was 
surprised while in the bath at Cairo, but he 
escaped from the assassins and took refuge in 
the castle, which he defended with great 
bravery. Mohammed having declared that 
the treasures of the rebel should be given to 
the troops which took the fortress, whole 
hordes of Beduins attacked the castle, and 
carried it by assault Ahmed escaped in the 
conf\ision, and sought an asylum in the tribe 
Beni Bakar, which inhabited the district of 
Sherkije. But Kharish the Sheikh gave him 
up to Mohammed, who sent his head to Con- 
stantinople. (Hammer, GeschichU des Os- 
maniacken ReicheSy iiL p. 28 — 36, who cites 
the following Turkish authors : Ferdi,foL 85. ; 
Jelalzade, fol. 74. ; Solakzade, fol. 102. ; Su- 
heili, foL 53. ; Shukri, foL 107. ; 'Abdu-l 
A'zif, foL 58.) W. P. 

AHMED PASHA EL-HA'Jr, grand vizir 
under Mahmud L, was son of Jafer Pasha, who 
had been t^e obedient tool of Osman Kiaya- 
Bey, and was executed after the taking of 
Oczakow and Nissa by the Russians (a.d. 
1 737). He entered the service under the pro- 
tection of Bekir Pasha, son-in-law to the 
sultan, and formerly governor of Jidda, and 
rose by degrees to the posts of marshal of the 
empire and high chamberlain. He had par- 
ticularly distinguished himself at the be- 
ginning of the last war against Russia, more 
especiidly in throwing supplies into Oczakow. 
At a subsequent period, for the zeal he dis- 
played in Aldin (in Anatolia) against the 
rebels under the command of S&ri Oghli, he 
was appointed kaymakan ; and when the 
grand-vizirship was confened upon hun he 
held the office of nijjanji-vizir of the cu- 
pola, 28 Rebiul-ewwal, a. h. 1153 (23d 
June, 1740). As soon as he assumed the 
administration, he adopted a svstem of 
crooked diplomacy towards Austria, taking 
advantage of the critical position in which 
Maria Theresa was then placed ; for at that 
period the Turks had perfected themselves in 
diplomacy, and Ahmed particularly excelled 
in that art. His intellect was of a high order, 
and he was distinguished by his love of 

VOL.1. 



justice and his respect for the European 
ministers, to whom he gave splendid enter- 
tainments, which none of his predecessors 
had ever done except on extraordinary occa- 
sions, and then to ambassadors only. Great 
as his talents were, he was deposed by the 
sultan in 1742, to prevent a threatened po- 
pular insurrection in Constantinople, which 
was owing to the exasperation produced 
among the people by the daring attacks of 
Persia on the Turkish dominions. As a re- 
ward for his services, the sultan confided to 
him the government of Rakka. He became 
successively pasha of Baghdad, Ichil, and 
Egypt, and showed himself very active against 
the rebellious Arabs, who were excited by 
the famous fhnatic Mohammed Ibn Abdu-1- 
wahhab, whose " impious doctrine sapped 
the fimdamental principles of Islam, and who 
set himself up as the head of a new religion" 
(1749). (Hammer, Gesckicktedes Osmanischen, 
Beiches, voL viii. p. 7 — 153., who cites Mo- 
hammed Said, Biographies of Grand VizCrs,) 

W. P. 
AHMED PASHA HEZARPA'RA', or 
** Tom in a thousand pieces,** the son of Mus- 
tafa Chaush, who was the son of a Greek priest, 
rose by endless intrigues from one place to 
another, until, in 1647, he became prime 
minister after the execution of the grand 
vizir, Salih Pasha. Another person was on 
the point of being named to this important 
office, but Ahmed had the impudence to offer 
300,000 piasters for the place, and Sultan 
Ibrahim I. so far forgot his dignity as to 
take the money and iniSball this adventurer as 
S&lih*8 successor. Not long after, a second 
bargain, still more dis^praceful, was made 
between the sultan and his minister. Ahmed 
divorced his wife, whom ^e sultan received 
into his harem in exchange for his daughter, 
Bibi Sultanin. This double wedding was 
celebrated by feasts and entertainments of 
unheard-of splendour during eighteen days. 
The grand vizir, to gratify his master, who 
was passionately fond of handsome furs, had 
aU the apartments of his own palace hung 
with ermine and sable. Ahmed was well 
acquainted with business, and very active, but 
harsh and cruel; he corrupted others, and 
was himself ready to accept money for any 
services that he might render to individuals. 
He oppressed the people so much by his 
fiscal measures that the ulemas, as early as 
1648, assembled in the grand mosque to 
concert means for depriving him of his high 
office, and the sultan, yielding to the ad- 
vice of his ministers, promised to dismiss 
him; but he would not give up to pub- 
lic vengeance the husband of his daughter. 
Ahmed, warned of the danger that threat- 
ened him, took to flight, carrying with him 
an immense quantity of gold and diamonds ; 
but he was arrested by &e new grand vizir, 
and forced to give an account of his gold 
and jewels. He valued them at 300 purses. 

N N 



AHfilED. 



AHBIED. 



** That will not do^ my den* frjend," politely 
obserred the grand yuir, ** pot another 
cipher, if you please." Ahmed reluctantly 
wrote 3000 ; but this was not enough to satisfy 
his rapacious successor, who still insisted on 
more ciphers, and at last made him add 
70,000 ducats. Notwithstanding this, the 
sultan at last consented to his being put to 
death; the executioner led Ahmed outside 
the gates of Constantinople, and strangled 
him there, 18th of Rejib, A. H. 1058 (8th of 
August, A.D. 1648). It was not his body, as 
some have pretended, but his fiiur name which 
was torn into a thousand pieces, a circum- 
stance that conferred on him, during his life, 
the surname of Hezarpara. (Hammer, Ge- 
tchichte des Osmanischen Retches, vol. y. p. 420 
—453., who cites Osmanzade Efendi, History 
of the Grand Vizirs,) W. P. 

AHMED the RENEGADE, pasha, vizir, 
and grand yizir, was a German, and bom at 
Griitz in Styria. Being taken prisoner by 
the Turks, he embraced Islam, entered the 
army, and soon attracted notice by his talents 
and intrigues. He was yizir when he* mar- 
ried a grand-daughter of Soliman the Great, 
and his wedding was celebrated with kingly 
splendour and munificence *, the expense of 
sweetmeats distributed among the people 
alone is said to have amounted to a hundred 
thousand pounds sterling. After the murder 
of the fimious grand vizir Sokolli, 19th of 
Sha'ban, a. h. 987 (1 1th of October, a. ». 1579), 
the sultan appointed Ahmed in his stead ; but 
he held the office only six months, for he died 
in May, 1580. In a conversation which he one 
day had with the ambassador of the Emperor 
Rudolf II., he had the impudence to tell the 
representative of his old sovereign, " I am a 
native of Gratz, and intend shortly to go and 
see my dear countrymen in Austrm." At this 
time there were many renegades in the sul- 
tan's service. Such were the four dragomans, 
Mahmud, 'Ali-Bey, and Melchior Tierpuch, 
Germans ; Miirad, a Hun^rian ; the vizirs 
Sokolli and Piale, Hungarians ; Mahmud, a 
German; Siawusz, a Croatian; the famous 
Ochiali, Kapudan Pasha by the name of 
Kilij 'Ali, an Italian ; Cicala, a Genoese, 
Agha of the Janissaries ; and three Germans 
more, the Elislar Agha Welzer, the Baron von 
Kammacher, a Chaush, and the fiunous Adam 
Neuser, a Protestant minister, who joined the 
Mamlnks. (Hammer, Geschichte des Osma- 
nischen Retches, voL iv. p. 26, &c.) W. P. 

AHMED RESMI HA'JF, of Greek ex- 
traction, was Kuchuk Ewkuf or principal of 
the chamber of small pious foundations at 
Constantinople, when Sultan Mustafii IIL, 
who highly appreciated his worth and talents, 
sent him on an embassy to Vienna in 1756. 
The Seyen Tears' war, which had just com- 
menced, had placed the sultan in a yery 
delicate position, and he required a man (^ 
abilities as his representative at the court 
of the Empress Maria Theresa, with whom 
538 



Mostafh was anxious to remain at peaoe. 
Ahmed Resmi, a man of ready wit and great 
sagacity, justified the sultan's choice, which 
had been directed in this critical circum- 
stance by his own experience as well as 
by the counsels of the Reis Efendi Mustafii 
Taokji, Ahmed's fiither-in-law. He did not 
return to Constantinople till 1758, and in 
reward for his services, he was appointed 
Ngaigi, or keeper of the sultan's seaL In 
1763 the sultan sent him to congratulate 
Frederick the Great on the yictories which 
he had gained oyer the Austrians, Russians, 
and French. It has been pretended that the 
Porte was inclined to conclude a treaty of 
alliance with Prussia, but this opinion is 
unfounded. On the contrary, all the efforts 
made for that purpose by the Prussian am- 
bassador, Rexin, had been frustrated by the 
sultan's firm resolution to remain neutral 
in that memorable war. In 1763, how- 
ever, Ahmed Resmi was not sent for idle 
ceremonies only; he was directed to dis- 
cuss with Frederick what measures should be 
taken with respect to Poland in case of the 
decease of Ring Augustus IIL, and to unite 
with the King of Prussia against any Russian 
or Austrian intervention. It is worthy of 
remark that the political notions of the Porte 
at this epoch were extremely precise. The 
title given to Frederick by the sultan in the 
credentials of his ambassador is alone a suffi- 
cient proof of this fact He is first styled King 
of Prussia and Margrave of Brandenburg ; 
and afterwards, *' Ruma Imperatorimin Kame- 
rariosi we Herzek we Prinj we Silezioniin 
Dukazi," that is, ** Chamberlain of the Roman 
Empire, Duke, Prince and Duke of Silesia." 
Now, in calling him Duke of Silesia, the 
Porte declared its opinion as to the right of 
the Eling of Prussia to that province, which 
was, in fact, the primary cause of the Seven 
Years' war. On returning from his embassy, 
Ahmed was made Kiaya-Be^, or minister 
for home affiurs, an office which he resigned 
six months afterwards, for that of President 
of the Chamber for daily business. In this 
capacity he accompanied the army in the war 
against Russia in 1769, and superintended the 
management of the fimds to be distributed 
among the wounded soldiers. In 1771 he was 
appointed Kiaya-Bey a second time. Ahmed 
Resmi has written an account of his two embas- 
sies, which contains many curious remarks on 
Austria and Prussia, and especially on the per- 
sons with whom he came in contact. His ob- 
servations are not altogether free from Turkish 
prejudice, but are nearly always founded on 
truth ; it is only in the arrangement of his 
observations, and in the strange conclusions 
he comes to, that we recognise the oriental 
author. Sometimes the reader might suppose 
he had fiillen on the adventures of Higi Baba. 
His description of the life led by the Sybarites 
of Vienna is equally true and amusing ; but 
the conclusion drawn by the author betrays 



AHHED. 



AHMED. 



a man brooght up under the inflaenoe of 
opinions and mannen Tery different fit>m 
oon, and scarcely able to distinguish between 
the frivolity of our social life, and the weight 
of onr private and public interests. ** The 
great and wealthy of Vienna,'* says Ahmed 
Resmi, "sleep till broad daylight, dine at 
noon, eat again in the afternoon, then ride 
ont in their carriages, go to the opera or play- 
house, and make another good meal before 
they retire for the night. Now, how is it 
possible for people who think of nothing but 
eating all day and sleeping all night to make 
any vigorous preparation against the attacks 
of the King of Prussia ? " The description of 
Berlin is not less interesting than that of 
Vienna. He devotes a whole chapter to Fre- 
derick, of whom he speaks in the highest 
terms as a warrior and statesman. Ahmed 
was in general better informed than his pre- 
decessors at Vienna, especially Rashid, who 
says that one of the principal sources of 
revenue to the Emperor of Germany was the 
•♦ penny " paid by every passenger who entered 
Vienna after the closing of the gates. In the 
Annals of the Turkish Empire, from 1754 
to 1774, by Wassif, Ahmed's narrative oc- 
cupies twelve large folio sheets. It has been 
translated into German by Baron Hammer, 
though his name does not appear in the trans- 
lation, the title of which is " Des Tiirkischen 
Gesandten Resmi Ahmed Efendi gesandt- 
schaftliche Berichte von seinen Gesandt- 
sdiaften in Wien, 1757, und Berlin, 1763," 
Beiiin & Stettin, 1809, m 8vo. This trans- 
lation is accompanied with notes by the editor, 
Fr. Nicolai, and by the Prussian mi^or-general, 
Minutoli. Ahmed Resmi is also the author of 
the following works, all of great value for 
the history of the Turks, but in many parts 
written with too much passion : ** Khulasat-ul 
itebar," or *• Summary of Observations,** 
translated into German with a somewhat dnil 
commentary, by Diez, under the title of 
** Wesentliche Betrachtungen," Berlm, 1813, 
8vo. These observations relate to the war 
with Russia in 1769. Ahmed disapproved 
of this war as being rashly undertaken, and 
its unfbrtunate issue showed his opinion to be 
right " Hannilet-ul-Kubera," or " Amulet of 
the Great,*' contains the biographies of thirty- 
seven Kialar Aghas, from the close of the 
sixteenth century to the middle of the eigh- 
teenth ; a work written at the suggestion of 
the powerful Kislar Agha, £l-haj Beshir. 
There is a copy of this work in the library 
of Baron Hammer at Vienna. (The notes of 
Nicolai, llinutoli, and Diez to the above- 
mentioned works ; BeackreUnma der vom 
Vice-Ktmzler Grafen von Couoredo dem 
TSrkUchen Gesandten Resmi Ahmed Efendi 
vwterm 11 April, 1758, Offendich ertkeilten 
Audienz, Vienna, 1758, 8vo. ; Hammer, Ge- 
schichte des Osmanischen Reic/ies, vol. viii. 
p.202, &c) W. P. 

AHMED IBN SA'ID (Abu Ja'far Al- 
539 



'anst), a poet and historian, was bom at Kal'ah 
Yahssob, now Alcala la Real, near Granada, 
in A. H. 507 (a. d. 1 113-14). He was the son 
of *Abdu-l-malek Ibn Sa*id, a powerful Arab 
chieftain, who had filled offices of trust under 
the Almoravide sultans, and who was feudal 
lord of Kal*ah Yahssob. His family, the Beni 
Sa'id, were the descendants of Yasir, one of 
the companions of the Mohammedan Prophet 
From early youth Ahmed evinced great 
talents for poetry, as well as great aptitude 
for learning. Some of his poetical composi- 
tions having attracted the attention of Sid 
Abu Sa'id, at that time governor of Granada 
for the Almohades, he was raised to the 
rank of vizir, and intrusted with the admi- 
nistration of affairs, which he conducted with 
much prudence and success. 

There was at that time in Granada a 
poetess, named Hafssah, whose society Ahmed 
was in the habit of frequenting. The governor, 
Abu Sa'id, having fallen in love with her, she 
was persuaded to abandon her former lover, 
and to accept the governor, who, from that 
moment, conceived a great dislike for Ahmed, 
and deprived him of all his honours and 
distinctions. Ahmed, however, was so strongly 
attached to Ha&sah, that, although he was 
repeatedly advised by his friends to quit 
Granada, and not to expose himself to Abii 
Sa*id's vengeance, he still persisted in visiting 
her, and trying to regain her favour. One 
day he said to her, ** What good canst thou 
expect from that huge slave of thine (mean- 
ing Abu Sa'id, who was of a dark olive com- 
plexion) ? I can any day procure thee a better 
one for twenty dinars." These words having 
been reported to the governor, he swore 
vengeance ; and an opportunity soon presented 
itself. The father, the broUiers, and other 
relatives of Ahmed, having entered into a 
secret correspondence with Ibn Mardanish. 
an Almoravide chieftain, who had risen in 
Valencia against the Almohades, Abu Sa'id, 
who had received intelligence of their pro- 
jects, issued orders for ti^e apprehension of 
the conspirators. All, however, had time to 
escape, and take refuge within the family 
castle, with the single exception of Ahmed, 
who, unwilling to depart from Granada with- 
out taking leave of Hafssah, stayed till it was 
too late. Having at last obtained an inter- 
view with her, he left Granada, accompanied 
by his own servants ; but he had scarcely got 
out of the gates, when he was closely pursued 
by the troops of the governor, obliged to 
change his route, and fly to Malaga, where 
he lay hid for some time, until he was dis- 
covered and put to death, in Jumada the first, 
A. H. 550 (April, a. d. U64). Ahmed Ibn 
Sa'id wrote several works, the most celebrated 
of which was a ** History of Mohammedan 
Spain," being a continuation of that by his 
fatlicr, 'AMu-l-malek. He composed also 
s^^vcral odes and other short poems, of which 
no collection appears to have been formed, 
N N 2 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



althoQgli there are lar^ extracts from them 
in the " Biographical Dictionarr of lUustrionfl 
Granadians," hj Ihna-1-khattib. Conde has 
also translated some. (Al-makkari, Moham, 
Dyru I 165. 442. ; Conde, HuL de la Dom. 
iL 358. ; Casiri, Bib, Arab. Hi»p. Ex. iL 107.) 

P. dc. O. 

AHMED IBN SA'ID IBN MOHAM- 
MED IBN 'ABDU.LAH, hetter known hy 
the surname of Ibnu-l-fiiyyadh (the son of 
the man generous like an overflowing tor- 
rent), an Arabian writer, who lived in Spain 
about the beginning of the eleventh century 
of our aera, was the author of a history of that 
country, entitled " Kitabu-l-'ibar" (" The Book 
of the Councils or Example "X which is often 
cited by more modem writers, and of which 
there is a Hebrew translation. Ahmed is 
sometimes designated by the gentile name 
Al-bayesi, or the native of Baeaa, a city 
of Spain, in the province of Seville. (Conde, 
Hist de la Dom. L 5 13. ; AL-makkari, Moham, 
Dyn, i. 194. 474.) P. de G. 

AHMED BEN SEIRIM QAxf^h- vlbs 
2«(pc2^), commonly called Acmet, or Achmet, 
the author of a treatise on the Interpretation 
of Dreams QOy^ifioxperucd), concerning whom 
much has been written, but some degree of 
uncertainty still prevails ; an abstract of the 
various opinions on the subject will be here 
given, and references to the works where it 
is discussed. His Other's name is written in 
various ways in different manuscripts (SttpcI/a, 
2vpc2/i, Sci^Mf &c.) ; but this may be easily 
accounted for, if we recollect that ci, tt, and 
V have all the same sound in Romaic, and 
therefore were probably pronounced in the 
same way in ancient Greek, or at least at the 
time when this work was written. It was 
translated out of Greek into Latin about the 
year 1160 by Leo Tuscus, and dedicated by 
him to Hugo Etherianus, (or Eterianns, or 
Echerianus,) an eclesiastical writer of the 
twelfth century. Two specimens of this 
translation are to be ibnnd in the Adver- 
saria of Caspar Barth (lib. xxxi. cap. 14. 
Franco! 1624. fol.). It was translated into 
Italian by Patritio Tricasso de Cerasari of 
Mantua, and published at Venice, 1546, 8vo., 
and again in 1551, 8vo. (Paitoni, Bihlioteca 
degli Autori Antichi Cfreci e Latini Volgariz- 
awft*, Venez. 1766, tomo L p. 6, 7.) It was 
published in Latm at Frankibrt in 1577, 8vo., 
translated by Leunclavius from a very im- 
perfect Greek manuscript found in the library 
of Sambucus, with the title "Apomasans 
Apotelesmata, sive de Significatis et Eventis 
Insomniorum, ex Indorum, Persarum, JEgyp- 
tiorumque Disciplina." It contains an apo- 
logetic pre&ce of twelve pages by the editor, 
and begins in the middle of the fourth chap- 
ter ; several other chapters are also wanting, 
for instance, from die thirtieth to the thirty- 
fifth, firom the two hundred and forty-ninth 
to the two hundred and fifty-eighth, &c. 
The name Apcmasares is a corruption of Al- 
540 



*, or Abu Ma'shar, and Leondaviiu 
is said to have acknowledged his mistake in 
attributing the work to him, in his " Annates 
Turcici." A French translation was published 
at Paris, 1581, 8vo., and it is said to have 
been also translated into German. (Hend- 
reich, PandecUe BramdaUmrgica^BenA. 1699 ^ 
foL p. 32.) It was first publiahed in Greek 
from two manuscripts in the royal library 
at Paris by Rigaltius, and annexed (because 
of the simiUtude of the subjects) to his editicm 
of Artemidorus, Lutet Paris, 1603, 4ta He 
reprinted the Latin version of Leunclavius, 
in^ which he supplied the chapters that were 
missing; he added no notes, but prefixed 
a short preface. This is the last edition thai 
has been published (as fiur as the writer is 
aware); but some Greek various readings 
to it are to be found in Jac. De Rhoer, 
**Otium Daventriense, Davent" 1762. 8vo, p. 
338, seq. The learned Joseph Mede has made 
use of this work in interpreting the Apoca- 
lypse (Mede*s Works, Loud. 1672, foL p. 
451.), and Knorr de Rosenroth is said to have 
borrowed from it without acknowledgment 
in his commentary on the same book, pub- 
lished 1670, 12mo., under the assumed name 
of Peganius. (Placcius, Pseudonym, CataL 
Hamb. 1674, 4to.) It is rather a long work, 
consisting of three hundred and four chapters. 
The substance professes to be according to the 
doctrine of the Indians, Persians, and Egyp- 
tians ; it is written in an eastern style, con- 
tains much that is curious, and (as might be 
expected from the subject matter) much that 
is absurd. It quotes ^bacham (SvpAixVX 
Baram (Bapj^), and Tarphan (Tc^i^) ; the 
first of whom is said to be an Indian inter- 
preter of dreams, the second a Persian, and 
the third an Egyptian. This last person ia 
probably the most ancient of the three, as he 
appears to have lived in the times when 
Pharaoh was the common name of the kings 
of Egypt Who was the author of the worK, 
is sdU uncertain. Rigaltius is of opinion that 
Ahmed Ben Seirim is the same person who 
is mentioned by Conrad Gesner in his ** Bib- 
liotheca Universalis," and by J. Ant. Sara- 
oenus in his notes to Dioseorides, as being a 
physician and the author of a work, which 
was extant in Greek, in seven books, entitled 
♦♦Viatica Peregrinantium." This opinion 
however is certainly not correct, as Abu 
Ja*&r Ahmed Ben Ibrahim Ben Abi Khaled 
Ibnu l^ezzar was quite a different person. 
[Ibku 'i^ezza'r.] In a manuscript at 
Vienna he is called *Axm^ vS6s XrifHilfi, 6 
'OvtipoKpirjis rod Up^ov XvftiMXov Mofwvy, on 
which authority he is generally said to have 
lived in the ninth century under the Khalif 
Al-Mamiin ; and this is the account given by 
Casiri, ♦* Biblioth. Arabico-Hisp. Escur." torn. 
L p. 401.; the *< Biographic Universelle ;" 
and Lambecius, "Biblioth. Vindobon." lib. 
vii. p. 562, seq. ed. Kollar, and several other 
writers. The internal evidence is somewhat 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



contradictory : the author says that Mamiin 
was not of the race of the ^puTo<r6fiJ8w^ol 
(cap. 45.), which is not true of the khalif of 
that name, if that is the meaning of the title 
npcirotr6fA€ov\os. (Da Cange, Gtoaa. Med, 
et Inf, GrcBciL in yy. Mofiovy, et Uporrwf^ijJS.) 
He speaks sometimes of Seirim without at 
all alluding to his being his son (cap. 95. 146, 
&C.X and he appears clearly to haye been a 
Chnstian (cap. 2. 150, &a) Upon the whole 
it seems probable that Ahmed Ben Seirim 
is the same ^rson as Abu Bekr Moham- 
med Ben Sirin ; and the two names Mo- 
hammed and Ahmed may the more easily 
haye been confounded from each consisting 
in Arabic of four letters of which the first 
only is different In the catalogue of the 
royal library at Paris, where the work of 
Mohammed Ben Slrin is still extant in 
Arabic, it is said to be the same that has 
been published under the name of Ahmed 
(yoL L p. 230. cod. Mocz.); but as the 
Greek work was certainly written by a 
Chrutian, it must differ in that respect at 
least from that of Ben Sirm. Till the two 
works are carefully and thoroughly compared, 
the question respecting the authorship of the 
'Oy^tpoKptrucd cannot be finally settled. (See, 
besides the works quoted above, Fabricius, 
Bibliotkeea Grace^ torn. y. p. 266. ed. Har- 
less; Clement, Biiliothique Vurieuses Bayle, 
XHcL HiaL et Crit ; Nicoll and Pusey, CaiaL 
Codd, Arab. BibUoth. BodL p. 516.) 

W. A. O. 
AHMED SHA'H, the second king of the 
Mohammedan dynasty of Guzerit, succeeded 
his grand&ther Muzaffiu' Shah in 1411, at 
the early age of twenty-one. During the 
feeble reign of Mahmiid Toghlak of Delhi, 
and the confosion resulting from Timur's 
inyasion of India, seyeral of the provinces 
remote firom the capital assumed the title of 
independent kingdoms. Muzaffiu' Khan, 
whose family had been eleyated firom menial 
situations in the household of the kings of 
Delhi, was appointed goyemor <^ GuzeriU 
about 1391, and from that period his reign 
may be said to haye commenced, although he 
did not assume the title of kiuff for several 
^ears after. At his death, which took place 
m 141 1, he appointed as his successor Ahmed 
the son of his favourite son Tatar Khan, who 
had died in 1404. Ahmed Shih was at first 
violently opposed by his uncles, who were 
strongly supported b^ Hushang the king of 
Malwa, a dynasty, like his own, of recent 
growth. This led to a war which continued 
for several years without any important re- 
sult on either side. Ahmed thnoe invaded 
Msdwa, and once penetrated as &r as Saran- 
pur in the east o£ the kingdom, where he 
gained a victory. On the other hand the 
Sking of Malwa, assisted by Ahmed's enemies 
combined with the refiractory rajas within 
the territory of Guzerat, succeeded twice in 
invading the latter kingdom, though without 
541 



gaining any real advantage. The peculiar 
situation of the Mohammedan dynasties of 
India rendered it necessary that every prince 
should be a warrior. Hence there is a same- 
ness in the histories of all of them. The 
reign of Ahmed Shah of Guxerat is a coun- 
terpart of that of his namesake and contem- 
porary Ahmed Shiih of the Dekkan. In 1429 
Ahmed Shah Bahmani, during an invasion 
of the Concan territory, captuied the islands 
of Bombay and Salsette, which had been 
previously annexed to the kingdom of Gu- 
serat This led to a war between these 
rival princes, which terminated only with 
their lives. The Bahmani king was expelled 
from Bombay, but ever after remained hostile, 
and more than once joined the King of Can- 
desh (another recent dynasty) in his wars 
with Ahmed of Guzerat But notwithstand- 
ing these incessant expeditions and cam- 
paigns, Ahmed was not negligent of the 
mtemal administration of his kingdom. He 
established fortresses in different places to 
restram the disaffected. He founded the 
city of Ahmedab&d ^so called after his own 
name), thenceforth his capital, and one of the 
largest cities in India, both from the num- 
ber of inhabitants and the magnificence of 
the buildings. Ferishta says that "it con- 
sisted of 360 different muhallas or parishes, 
each having a wall surrounding it, and the 
principal streets were sufficiently wide to 
admit of ten carriages abreast** He con- 
cludes, ** It is hardly necessary to add that 
this is on the whole the handsomest city in 
Hindustan, and perhaps in the world." Ah- 
med's last campaign, like his first, was un- 
dertaken against Malwa but with very 
different views. In 1435 Mahmud Khan, 
one of the officers of the Malwa government, 
seised that throne by usurpation, after having 
poisoned his master Mohammed Ghory the 
son of Hushang, who had been Ahmed's 
early and unremitting enemy. Bias'ud the 
son of Mohammed, Sien thirteen years of 
age, fled fbr protection to the court of Gu- 
zerat Ahmed received him with kindness, 
and immediately made extensive preparations 
for reinstating on his paternal throne the 
grandson of his ancient loe. The expedition 
totally failed, chiefly owing to the plague 
which broke out with dreadful severity in 
Ahmed's army. This is supposed to be the 
only instance on record of the disease known 
to Europeans by the name of the plague 
having made its appearance in Lidia, notwith- 
standmg the firequent intercourse between its 
coast and Egypt Ahmed was therefore 
compelled to quit Malwa and to retreat to 
his own kingdom with the wreck of his army. 
He died at Ahmedabod in 1443, after a war- 
like reign of nearly thirty-three years. Ah- 
med seems to have been well qualified for 
supporting the throne erected by his grand- 
ftither. The Mohammedan historians com- 
mend him for the orthodoxy of his fiuth, 

M N 3 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



which waa exhibited in destroying the tem- 
ples of the Hindus and in boilding mosques 
in their places. (Elphinstone's India; and 
Feri8hta*8 History.) D. F. 

AHMED SHAll, son of Mohammed 
Shah, succeeded his father on the throne of 
Delhi, in 1747. A short time previous to his 
father's death, he distinguished himself as 
commander of the Indian troops, in resisting 
the first invasion of Hindustan b^ his illus- 
trious namesake, Ahmed AbdalL But on 
ascending the imperial throne, he seems to 
have given himself up to indolence, and his 
brief reign presents nothing but dissensions at 
court, revolts in many of his provinces, and 
encroachments on the part of his warlike 
neighbours the Afghans. Under him the 
Mogul empire sunk rapidly into insignifi- 
cance, and almost every province startc^d up 
into an independent principality. One of his 
nobles, Ghazi-ed-dln, a young man of talent 
and energy, made considerable efforts to re- 
trieve the affairs of the empire. His success 
excited the envy of some of the emperor's 
courtly favourites, and their weak master 
concerted a plan for his destruction. On 
hearing of this, Ghazi joined the Mahratta 
chief Holkar, and ultimately succeeded in 
seizing the person of his ungrate&l master, 
to whom he previously wrote, justifying the 
course he had adopted. He said, " that he 
could no longer place confidence in the man 
who plotted against his life for no crime, 
unless to serve the state be one. A prince 
that is weak enough to listen to the base in- 
sinuations of every sycophant, is unworthy to 
rule over brave men, who, by the laws of 
(fod and nature, are justified to use the power 
which Providence has placed in their hands 
to protect themselves from injustice." Ahmed 
was soon driven into the citadel of Delhi, and, 
after a brief resistance, obliged to surrender. 
He was dethroned, and deprived of sight, 
afrer a reign of nearly seven years. He was 
succeeded by Ayiiz-ed-din, great grandson of 
the celebrated Aurungzebe, under the title 
of Alamgir the Second. (Dow's Hiatory of 
Hindwitan.) D. F. 

AHMED SHAH WALI BA'HMANI, 
the ninth king of the Bahmani dynasty in 
the Dekkan, and one of the grandsons of the 
founder Ala-ed-din. He succeeded his brother 
Firoz Shah in 1422, but his history begins 
twenty-five years earlier. Under Firoz the 
Bahmani &mily had reached the pinnacle of 
its prosperity and splendour. That illustrious 
prince soon after his accession raised his 
younger brother Ahmed to the highest rank 
under the crown, with the title of Amir ul 
Umra or Khan Khanan, both of which sig- 
nify Lord of Lords. This is not the nsiuil 
course in oriental kingdoms, the younger 
brothers of a successor to the throne bemg 
generally removed from all power ; and it 
must be admitted that in Ahmed's case the 
event did not altogether disprove the wisdom 
549 



of such policy. The active reign of Fizx»s 
was passed in perpetual warfiune both with the 
Hindu r^fas of the Dekkan, and the rival 
Mohammedan princes of the north. In all 
these transactions Ahmed bore a conspicuous 
part, both in the field and in the counciL 
At length, in 1412, as may be inferred finom 
Ferishta's history, Ahmed began to aim at 
his brother's throne. There was a celebrated 
saint of the day, by name Saiyad Mohanuned, 
sumamed Gisu-daraz, ^ of long ringlets" or 
'* long-locked," who had for some time enjoyed 
Firoz's bounty, " but on the king finding 
him deficient in learning and information, he 
withdrew his fiivour. Meanwhile Ahmed 
entertained the highest veneration for the 
holy man, and not only built a superb palace 
for him, but spent great part of his time in 
attending his lectures, and distributed large 
sums of money in presents to the saint's 
attendants and disciples." The result of this 
excessive piety on the part of Ahmed ap- 
peared a few years after. Firoz had a weak 
and dissipated son, by name Hasan, whom 
he wished to proclaim publicly as his sue* 
cesser. For this ceremony he mvited all his 
nobles to attend, and requested the holy 
Saiyad to come and give his blessing. The 
saint returned an answer, that ** to one chosen 
by the king, the prayers of a poor beggar 
could be of no consequence." Firoz, dissa- 
tisfied with this reply, sent to him again, on 
which the saint observed, " that as the crown 
was decreed to descend to his brother Ahmed 
by the will of Providence, it was in vain for 
him to bestow it on another." In the years 
1417 to 1419, when Firoz was occupied in 
besieging the fort of Pangul, a severe pesti- 
lence broke out in his army, in which men 
and horses died every day in great numbers. 
The surrounding Hindu rajas, availing them* 
selves of this crisis, suddenly assailed him 
with a vastly superior force. Firoz was 
totally defeated, and with the utmost difficulty 
effected his escape from the field. The Hin- 
dus made a general massacre of the Moslems, 
and pursuing the king into his own country 
laid it waste with fire and sword. Firoz 
ShIUb seemed ready to sink under these mis- 
fortunes, which affected both his health and 
understanding. In the mean time Ahmed 
strenuously betook himself to repair these 
disasters. He reassembled the wreck of his 
brother's army, and, favoured both by his su- 
perior military skill and his thorough know- 
ledge of the country, he after repeated battles 
succeeded in expelling the whole of the in- 
vaders. His brother's ministers, jealous of 
Ahmed's weU-eamed popularity, suggested 
to Firoz that his son's succession woidd be 
very insecure while Ahmed possessed such 
power and influence. Firoz, recoUecting the 
prediction of Saiyad Mohammed, ordered his 
brother to be blinded to prevent the possibility 
of his ascending the throne. Ahmed, in- 
formed of this design, prepared for flight ; and 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



aboQt midnight, with his ton AU-ed-din, 
sought the dwelling of the holy Saiysd, who 
gave them his blessing, and predicted sove- 
reignty to both. Next morning Ahmed with 
a band of 400 &ithfiil companions issued 
from the gates of the cit^r* where he was 
saluted with the title of king by one of his 
earliest acquaintances, a wealthy merchant 
named Khidf Hasan of Basrah. From this 
moment Ahmed's reign may be said to hare 
commenced. His little bimd was soon in- 
creased to a formidable army, before which his 
brother's troops were repeatedly defeated. 
At length Firoz, borne down by sickness and 
sorrow, called to him his son Hasan, and 
observed that " empire depended on the at- 
tachment of the nobility and army ; and as 
these had declared for his uncle, he recom- 
mended him to refrain from farther oppo- 
sition, which could only occasion public cala- 
mities." Soon after Firoz had an interview 
with Ahmed, whom he expressed pleasure in 
seeing as sovereign. He begged of him to as- 
cend the throne, resigning himself and his son 
to his care. Ahmed was accordingly crowned 
in Sept 1422, under the title of Ahmed Shah 
BahmanL Firoz died shortly after, having 
reigned twenty-five years ; and his son 
Hasan, though l^gal heir to the sovereignty, 
was appointed to a conmiand of 500 horse. 
It is true Ahmed's ministers strongly advised 
that this prince should be put to death, or at 
least blinded ; but Ahmed followed the more 
generous policy which he had himself expe- 
rienced from Hasan's father. Besides, this 
prince was too much devoted to pleasure to 
become an object of jealousy under his uncle's 
government Ahmed commenced his reign 
by a crusade against the infidel ngas of the 
Camatic, whom he not only defeated in the 
field, but chastised with severe retaliation by 
desolating their country with fire and sword, 
sparing neither age nor sex. The historian 
Ferishta details these atrocities with great 
complacency, stating that ** wherever the 
number of slain (including old men, women, 
and children) amounted to 20,000, the king 
there halted three days and made a festivid 
in celebration of the bloody .event He also 
broke down the idolatrous temples, and de- 
stroyed the colleges of the Bramins." At 
length a body of 5000 Hindiis, urged by des- 
peration at the cruelties perpetrated upon 
their race and the insults offered to their 
religion, united in a solenm compact never to 
sheathe the sword till they had slain the 
author of their sufferings, or sacrificed their 
own lives in the attempt They had not 
long to wait for a favourable opportunity ; as 
it happened one day that Ahmed when 
hunting separated firom his attendants, and 
in his eagerness for the chase advanced twelve 
miles from his camp. The Hindus, who had 
spies to watch his movements, immediately 
hastened to intercept him, and^ had nearly 
succeeded when Ahmed was joined by a 
543 



faithAil band of 200 Moguls, with whom he 
fled for shelter into a small mud indosure used 
as a fold for cattle. Here a most desperate 
battle ensued, in which the brave defenders 
sacrificed their lives in maintaining their post 
against such formidable odds. At length 
Ahmed's armour-bearer arrived with a strong 
body of troops, which after a severe struggle 
rescued their master firom his perilous situ- 
ation. In this conflict the Hindus lost 1000 
men, and the Mohammedans about 500. 
After this event, Ahmed pursued the Hindus 
with tenfold rigour, till at last they sued for 
peace. The whole of Ahmed's reign con- 
sisted of a series of campaigns, not only 
against the infidel Hindds, but also with the 
orthodox Mussulman princes of Guserat and 
Malwa. At that period the Bahmani dynasty 
held the first rank among the Mohammedan 
powers in India, as the princes of Delhi did 
not then possess any eminence. Ahmed 
died in February 1435, after a reign of twelve 
years, and a nulitary career of nearly forty 
years. He is much admired by Mussulmar 
historians for the orthodoxy of his fiiith, and 
the great deference which he [mid to holy 
and learned personages. (Ferishta's His- 
tory,) D. F. 
AHMED IBN TULU'N, snmamed Abu- 
l-'abbas, founder of the dynasty of the 
Tulunites of Egypt, was bom at &unara, 
others say at Biaghdad, on the 23d of Ra- 
madhan, a. h. 220 (Sept A. D. 835). His 
father, Tulun, was of the Turkish tribe of 
Tagharghar, which inhabits the shores of 
Lake Lop, in Lesser Bokhara. He had been 
taken in an incursion by the governor of 
Bokhara, Nuh Ibn Ased, the Samanide, and 
presented to the Khalif Al-mamiin, who 
gave him his liberty, together with a lucra- 
tive office at court, and the command of a 
division of the army. At the death of his 
ftther, in a. h. 240 (a.d. 854-5), Ahmed suc- 
ceeded him in the conmiand of the troops ; 
and when Al-must'ayn-billah was compelled 
to abdi(»te by the all-powerful party of the 
Turks, it was Ahmed who was selected to 
escort him to Wasit, the place of his confine- 
ment, and intrusted with his custody. In 
A. H. 254 (a. d. 867\ the Khalif Mu'tazz 
having appointed a Turk, named Bakbak, to 
be governor of E^^t, the latter, who knew 
the brilliant qualities of Ahmed, took him in 
his suite, and gave him the command of a 
division of troops stationed at Fostat, or Old 
Cairo. Ahmed did not betrav the con- 
fidence placed in him. An African, named 
Bogha Al-asfiu', who pretended to be the de- 
scendant of 'Ali Ibn Abi Talib, having re- 
volted in the territory of Barca, Ahmed sent 
against him a body of troops under Temim 
Ibn Huseyn, who pursued die impostor and 
put him to death. Another rebellion, ex- 
cited in Upper Egypt by an adventurer 
called Ibrihim, the son of Mohammed Ibnu- 
s-sufi, was also ussnccessfiiL Defeated under 

N N 4 



AHMED. 



AHMED. 



the iralls of Ikhmim, the ancient ChemmiB 
or Panopolifl, the rebel had to seek an asylum 
in the Desert In the meantime Bakbak, the 
governor of Egypt, having been pnt to death 
by order of the khali^ another Turk, named 
Barkuk, whose daughter Ahmed had married, 
was raiaed to the vacant dignity. Shortly 
after, in a.h. 260 (a.d. 873-4), Barkiik died, 
and Ahmed succeeded him in the govern- 
ment of Egypt, where he ruled as master, 
although he still acknowledged himself the 
vassal of the khalif, and sent yearly to court 
the customary tribute. An attempt, how- 
ever, which was made some years after to dis- 
possess him of his government, made Ahmed 
throw off the mask, and renounce all alle- 
giance to the khali£ Hearing that a con- 
siderable body of troops was marching to 
Egypt to enforce the execution of the khsdiTs 
order, Ahmed raised an army, put his pro- 
vinces in a state of defence, defeated the 
troops sent against him, and declared him- 
self independent Not satisfied with the do- 
minions he had acquired, Ahmed determined 
upon extending them eastwards. Under the 
pretence of going to make war against the 
Greeks, he marched his army into Syria, and 
profiting by the absence of MuwidSek, the 
lieutenant of the Khalif Al-mutawakkel, then 
at war with the Zinj of Arabia, he took 
possession of Emesa, Hamah, Aleppo, An- 
tioch, and other important cities of Syria. 
In A. H. 268 (a. d. 881-2) the rebellion of his 
son, Abu-l-*abbas, whom he had left to govern 
Egypt in his absence, obliged Ahmei Ibn 
Tulun to return. No sooner had he arrived 
at Old Cairo, than his son came out to meet 
him, threw himself at his feet, and implored 
his mercy. Ahmed was preparing to return 
to Syria, when the intelligence was brought 
to him that his freedman Lulu, whom he 
had left to command in his absence, had 
made common cause with Al-mnwaffek, who 
had now returned from his Arabian expe- 
dition. Determined upon chastising the rebel, 
he marched into Syria ; but though he gained 
at first some slight advantages over his 
enemies, he was unable to regain all his 
conquests. He died at Antioch, in a.h. 
270 (A.D. 883-4), of a diarrhoea, caused by 
the immoderate drmking of buffalo's milk, 
of which he was passionately fond. Ahmed 
Ibn Tulun is represented as a just, brave, 
and generous prince. Ibn Khallekan says 
that he was an able ruler, and an unerring 
physiognomist; he directed in person all 
public affairs, repeopled his provinces, and 
inquired diligently into the condition of his 
subjects ; he liked men of learning, and kept 
every day an open table for his friends 
and the public; a monthly sum of one 
thousand dinars was expended by him in 
alms. Being consulted one day by his trea- 
surer as to the propriety of bestowing alms 
upon a woman who had come to solicit his 
charity, though she was respectably dressed^ 
544 



and had a ^Id rmg on her finger, he an- 
swered, ** Give to every one who holda oat 
his hand to thee." He knew the Koran by 
heart, and was well versed in sacred tra- 
ditions. He built a magnificent mosqae 
at Cairo, which stUl bears his name, as 
well as a large citadel, where he resided ; 
he erected colleges and hospitals, and caused 
the canal between Cairo and Alexandrim 
to be cleaned. He also ordered many other 
useful works to be executed in his dominions. 
The dynasty founded by Ahmed Ibn Tulun 
lasted until a.h. 292 (a.d.905), when the 
Khalif Moktafi reduced Egypt and Syria, 
and put to death Senan, son of Ahmed Ibn 
Tulun, the fourth sultan of the Tnlunite 
dynasty. There is a history of Ahmed Ibn 
Tulun in Arabic, written by Ahmed Ibn 
Yusuf Ibnu-d-dayah, who, according to Haji 
KhaUah, died in a. H. 338 (a. d. 945-6). 
There is likewise a work entitled ** Abul Ab- 
basi Amedis Tulonidamm primi Vita et Res 
gestae, ex Codicibus MSS. Bib. Lngd. Bat 
editisque libris concinnavit et auctorum 
testimonia a4jecit Taco Boorda, Frisius. 
Lugd. Bat" 1825, 4to. (Besides the two 
above works, D'Herbelot, Bib, Or. toc 
''Thonloun;" Abu-1-feda, Ann, Mud, sub 
propriis annis ; Ibn Khallekan, Biog, Diet ; 
Abdellati^ Hdation de VEgypte^ p. 4. ; Qua- 
tremdre, Deacription de VJSgypte^ p. 66.) 

P. de G. 

AHMED IBN YU'SUF IBN MOHAM- 
MED FIRU'Z Is the name of an Arabian 
writer, who was the author of a history of 
Yemen, entitled ** Mattali'-n-niran" (" The 
Rising of the Constellations"), of which there 
exists a copy in the royal Ubrary of Paris, 
No. 829. An analysis of this work by De 
Sacy appeared in the fourth volume of the 
" Notices et Extraits des MS& de la Bib- 
liothdque du Roy," p. 606. P. de G. 

AHRU'N, (whose name is commonly 
written Aaron,) a Christian priest of Alex- 
andria, who lived in the reign of the Emperor 
Heraclius (a.d. 610—641). He compiled a 
large medical work, entitled ** Kunnash " (or 
** Pandecta "), a name frequently occurring 
among Syriac and Arabic medical works. 
Ahrun is supposed by Freind, Haller, Kiihn, 
Wiistenfeld, and others, to have written his 
work in the Syriac language ; but Abu 1-faraj, 
in his " Chronicon Syriacum," (p. 62.) says 
expressly that "he was not a Syrian himself 
but that his book was translated fK>m Greek 
into Syriac by an Alexandrian named Gosius." 
The same writer tells us, in his "Historia 
Dynastiarum," (p. 99.) that " Ahrun's work 
was extant in Syriac, consisting of thirty 
tracts, to which two more had been added by 
Sergius ; " and he remarks, in another place, 
(p. 127.) that "the Pandects of Ahrun had 
been transited into Arabic under the Khalif 
Merwjin, by a Jew named Maseijawaih." 
(A.H. 64. A.D. 683-4.) His work appears 
to have been lost ; at least no manuscript of it 



AHRUN. 



AHUITZOTL. 



(as fiir as the writer is aware,) is to be foond 
in any European librarj : large extracts from 
it are,howeYer, preserved in the '^Continens** 
of Rhazes. Ahriin is particularly celebrated 
as being the earliest writer* who is known 
to have mentioned the smallpox and measles, 
which, together with anthrace or erythema- 
tous plague, he considered to be the product 
of one common specific contagion. The last- 
mentioned disease was soon thrown out of 
the list by Rhazes, and transferred to a dis- 
tinct genus ; but the two former continued to 
be contemplated by most writers as one and 
the same disease for eight centuries after the 
nraofAhrun. (Good's Shufy of Med, art 
" Empyesis Variola.") Ahriin attributed the 
smallpox to the putrefaction and ferment- 
lUtion of the blood, and to the fermenting par- 
ticles being thrown out of it ; a theory which 
was afterwards adopted by the greater part of 
the Arabic physicians. He points out several 
prognostic signs, saying, for example, that 
the life of the patient is m danger if the erup- 
tion makes its appearance on me first day of 
the disease, and that it is a more fiiyourable 
sign if it does not appear till the third. At 
the commencement of the disease, he recom- 
mends the avoiding cold air and cold drinks, 
and the use of diluents and resolvents. Ahriin 
is quoted in several other parts of Rhases's 
works, and also by Mesne, Serapion, Con- 
stantinus Afisr, and others : Haly Abbas tells 
us that dietetics and surgery were treated by 
him in a superficial manner. {Lib, Reg. Thieor, 
lib. L proL pb 6. ed. Lugd. 1.523.) 

A more detailed account of his medical 
opinions and practice may be found in Haller, 
BibUoth, Medic. Pract i. 335. ; and espe- 
cially Sprengel, Hut. de la MAL ii. 267. See 
also Fabricius> BibUoth. Graca, xiiL 18. ed. 
vet; Fremd*s Hi^ ofFhfmc. ; Russell's ydt 
Hist, of Aleppo^ voL ii. Append, p. iv. ; C. O. 
Ruhn, Additam, ad Ind. Med. Arab, a Fabric, 
exhib. ; Wiistenfeld, GeccA. derArob. Aerzte. 

W. A.G. 

AHUITZOTL, (or, as it is written by the 
author of the explanation of the Mexican 
paintings in the collection of Mendoza, 
** Ahui909in,'') eighth king of Tenochtitlan, 
or Mexico. He was son of Axajatl the sixth 
king of Mexico, and brother of Tizoc the 
seventh king, and was bom about the year 
1426. He commanded the armies of Mexico 
during the reign of his brother, it having 
been, since the reign of the third king Chi- 
malpopoca, customary at Mexico not to raise 
any member of the royal fimiily to the throne 
who had not previously held that charge. 
Ahuitzotl was elected king, according to 
Humboldt, in 1480 ; acoordmg to Glavigero, 

* Rbaiet, in tbc beginning of bit treatlM on the 
Bmallpox and measlet, expressly says that these dis- 
ease* are mentioned by Galen ; but the passages al- 
luded to bv him are almoat universally supposed to 
refer to different complaints. See Channing's note on 
Rhaxes, p. 14. ; O. Gruner, Varid. AnUquU. ab Arab. 
Sot^Repet.t. 12. p. 92. 
545 



in 1482 ; and according to the interpreters of 
the Mendozan and Tellerian collections, in 
1486. Believing that Humboldt has adopted 
the chronology of Gama, who calculated most 
of the eclipses recorded in the Mexican an- 
nals, we incline to adopt his date as correct 
In 1486 according to Humboldt and Glavi- 
gero, 1487 according to the commentator on 
Uie Tellerian collection, the great Teocalli 
of Mexico, begun under Tizoc, was com- 
pleted ; and, during the four days* festival of 
its consecration, an immense number of hu- 
man victims, the prisoners, it is said, taken 
in the incessant wars waged by Ahuitzotl 
from the time he mounted the throne, and 
reserved for that solemnity, were sacrificed. 
His lust of conquest continued to the last ; 
and, according to the Mendozan annals, forty- 
five cities were added to the Mexican domi- 
nions during his reign. His intrigues were 
felt in the territories of Guatimala, but it 
does not i^pear that his authority had 
reached so fiur even as the frontiers of that 
state. A succession of dry years having 
rendered the navigation of the lake on which 
the city of Mexico or Tenochtitlan stood diffi- 
cult, he conceived the project of augmenting 
the volume of water by a canal from Goljoa- 
can, intended to divert into that lake a part 
of Uie affiuents of the neighbouring lake of 
Xoehimilco. Tzotzomatin, a powernil noble- 
man of Golljoacan, remonstrated against this 
scheme, as likely, in rainy seasons, to sub- 
ject Mexico to inundations. Ahuitzotl attri- 
buted this opposition to his plan to Tzo- 
tzomatin's fear lest Goljoacan might be in- 
jured by diverting its streams into the terri- 
tory of Tenochtitlan, and, irritated by the 
pertinacity with which that nobleman ad- 
hered to his representations, had him put 
to death. The canal was constructed in 
1498, and the apprehensions of danger were 
verified in the course of the same year : the 
city of Mexico was inundated, many buildings 
were destroyed, the inhabitants obliged to 
save themselves in boats, and the king him- 
self narrowly escaped. Making a precipitate 
retreat from the rising water, he struck his 
head with such violence against the low door 
of the apartment in which he sate that he 
never completely recovered from the efiects 
of the contusion. Popular clamour forced 
Ahuitzotl to apply for counsel to the king of 
Acolhuacan, \!y whose advice he repaired the 
dyke erected by Montec9uma I., at the sug- 
gestion of that prince's fhther, and, it is pro- 
bable, destroyed the canal, inasmuch as 
scarcely a vestige of it remained when the 
Spaniards arrived. The year 1499 was ren- 
dered remarkable by a diamine, and by the 
discovery of a quarry of tetzondi, the employ- 
ment of which in rebuilding Mexico contri- 
buted much to the magnificence which so 
strongly impressed the minds of the Spanish 
conquerors. (Aglio's Antigtuties of Mexico, 
voL V. — EgpUcacion de la Colecion de Men' 



AHUITZOTL. 



AlBJSK. 



(lota, and Esplicacum dd Codex Tdleriano- 
Remengis ; Clavigero, Storia Antica dd Mes' 
aico, i. 256 — ^263. ; Hnmboldt, Esaai PoUHgue 
sw h Hfwavme de la Nottvelle EapagnBy p. 1 74. 
208. ; Monumena des Fet^plu Indighiea de 
rAmerujue, p. 319.) W. W. 

Ai'BEK A'Z AD-ED-DrN, snmamed Ma- 
lek-el-Moezz, or **inost exalted king," the 
first saltan of Egypt of the dynasty of the 
Mamlokfl-Baharites, was of Turkish origin, 
and was bom at the beginning of the 
thirteenth century, in the kingdom of Kipt- 
shak, on the borders of the Caspian Sea. 
Being made prisoner and sold in Egypt, he 
entered the corps of Mamluks, which pre- 
ferred taking recruits among Turkbh slaves, 
as this nation was already renowned for its 
martial virtues. ATbek's courage raised him to 
the highest offices in the army during the reign 
of Turan-Shah, who then governed Egypt 
In 1250, when Louis IX., king of France, 
landed in Eg^ypt with an army, A'lbek took 
part in the bloody battles which signalised 
this campaign, and in which the Turkish 
slaves called Baharites more than once dis- 
comfited the French cavalry. The un- 
fortunate issue of this campaign is known to 
alL King Louis and his army fell into the 
hands of the Musulmans, who would have 
massacred them all if Albek, who intended 
to share with the Mamluks the .200,000 francs 
which the King of France was to pay for his 
ransom, had not drawn his sabre and sworn 
that he would never suffer the fiedth of treaties 
to be thus violated. It was also during the 
captivity of the French king that the re- 
volted Baharites murdered the Sultan T^ran- 
Shah, and acknowledged as queen of Egypt 
his favourite wife Sbajr-ed-dur (Shegger- 
Eddor), who raised Albek to the dignity of 
ntabey or generalissimo of the army. Three 
years afterwards she married him, and put 
the administration into his hands. But the 
Mamluks were envious and the people in- 
dignant at seeing a slave obtain supreme 
power, and they compelled him to resign it, 
but without depriving him of his military 
authority. They recognised for their sultan 
a child of Saladin's family named Eshref, 
and appointed Al'bek his guardian. Not long 
after Albek was attacked by Nazir-Yusu? 
sultan of Damascus or of Syria, who ad- 
vanced with an anny under pretence of 
avenging the death of Tiiran-Sh^ although 
his real intentions were to take advantage of 
the disorders in Egypt, or at least to prevent 
ATbek from joining the Franks and seizing 
Syria. Albek was beaten at first, but he 
afterwards gained a signal victory near 
Abaza, A.H. 649 (iM). 1251), and compelled 
the Sultan of Damascus to treat for peace. 
The Jordan was nutde the limit between 
their territcries, and A'ibek engaged never 
to make common cause with the Franks. 
Thus each obtained what he most wanted, 
and both parties were satisfied. In order to 
546 



strengthen his authority ATbek procured the 
death of Tares-ed-din, a powerful Mamlnk, 
his rival and enemy ; and at last dethroned 
his ward Eshrei; the last sultan of the Saladin 
dynasty. Albek became sultan in a. h. 652 
(a. d. 1254), but did not hold his sovereignty 
long $ fbr his wife, Shigr-ed-dnr, having 
learned that he designed to marry the 
daughter of the S^ing of Mosul, had him 
assassinated on 23 of the first Rebiul, ▲. h. 655 
(A.D. 10th April, 1257). The partisans of 
Albek, to avenge his death, slew all who had 
any share in his murder, and placed on the 
throne his son ' Ali, whom they sumamed Ma- 
lek-al-Mansur (victorious king). Albek was 
the first sultan of the race of the Baharites or 
Mamluks, which subsequently divided into two 
branches, that of the Baharites, and that of 
Boijites or Tcherkess, which succeeded the 
former and terminated with the conquest of 
E^fypt by Sultan Selim L Albek loved the 
sciences, and founded on the banks of the 
Nile, in Old Cairo, a superb college, to which 
he gave his name. (Deguignes, JStsL dea 
Hvnsy iv. 122, &c. ; Abu-l-Mahassen, HisL 
of Egypt, in Atmalea Mosiemici, ed. Reiske ; 
Ibn Khallekan, Joinville, and Matthew Paris, 
extracted in Michaud, Bibliotheque des Croi- 
mdes,) W. P. 

AICARDO, GIOVANNI, an Italian archi- 
tect, bom at Cuneo, about, or rather after, 1 550, 
who obtained such repute in his profession 
that he was invited to €renoa at the beginning 
of the seventeenth century, where he erected 
the com magazines near tiie Porta San Tom- 
maso, several houses near the Piazza de' Ban- 
chi, &c., and died in that city, in 1625. (Ti- 
cozzi, Dizionario degU ArchiteUi, &v.) 

W. H. L. 

AICARDO, J A'COPO, son of Giovanni, 
was also an architect, and was employed with 
his fiither in many works at Genoa, and suc- 
ceeded him in those of the great aqueduct. 
He erected the salt magazines near the church 
of San Marco, improved both the Ponte de' 
Mercanti and the Ponte Reale, and executed 
the beautiful fountain near the latter bridge. 
He died in 1650, at about the age of seventy. 
(Ticozzi, Dizionario degU ArcMtetH, &c) 

W. H.L. 

AICARTS DEL FOSSAT, a troubadour 
of the thirteenth century, of whose life nothing 
is known. His name is affixed to one of the 
most spirited pieces of poetry in the Proven9al 
lan^us^, a "sirvente" of forty lines, in 
which he anticipates with the vivid delist 
of a warrior the pleasures of the war which 
was about to break out between Conradin, the 
last of the house of Hohenstauffen, and 
Charles of Ai^ou, the usurper of the throne 
of Naples; the contest between whom was 
terminated by the battle of Tagliacozzo, in 
1268. In the poem, Conradin is called Con- 
rad, which has sometimes led to his being 
conjfosed with Conrad IV., king of the 
Romans, a supposition which is irreconcilable 



AICARTa 



AICH8PALT. 



with other circnmstanoes mentioned in the 
sirvente. The poem is given entire in 
Raynooard, an entire trandation in Millot, 
and an ahnoet entire one in the "Histoire 
Litteraire de la Fnmoe ;" but both are in prose, 
and 8o weals, that they give no notion what- 
ever of the vigour and spirit of the original. 
(Raynouard, Chaix des Poities onginaiea des 
TroubadourBf iv. 230. ; Hiatohre JUUiraire des 
Troubadours, by Millot, iL 326, &c ; Histoire 
LiUiraire de h FroMce^ xix. 524, &c.) T. W. 

AICHER, OTTO, a German historian and 
antiquary of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries. He embraced a monastic life in 
the Benedictine monastery of St. Beit in 
Lower Bavaria, or, accordmg to other au- 
thorities, in the Abbey of St Lambert in 
Styria. He was appointed in 1657 one of the 
professors of the university of Salaburg, and 
taught grammar, poetry, rhetoric, eUiics, 
and history. He died at Salaburg a. d. 1705, 
aged 77. He edited portions of the works of 
Cicero, Livy, and Tacitus, and produced a 
great number of usefiil treatiscas, chiefly on 
points of ancient history, all in the Latin 
language. Among his principal works are — 
1. ** Theatmm Funebre ezhibens, per va- 
rias Scenag Epitaphia nova, antiqua, seria, 
joocsa. 2 tom. 4to. Salisburgi (Salzburg), 
1675.** 2. " Hortus variarum Inscriptionum 
vetenun et novarum, 2 parts, 8vo. Salis- 
burgi, 1676-^4 ;" " Brevis Institutio de Co- 
mitiis veterum Bomanorum, 8vo. Salisburgi, 
1678 ;" reprinted by Polenus in the first voL 
of his ** Utrius<|ue Thesauri nova Supple- 
menta.*' 3. ** Epitome Chronologica HistorisB 
Sacrte et Profanie Colonise, 1706.** A little 
volume of aphorisms, entided ** Florilegium 
Sententiarum, 12ma Noribergs, 1695," is 
ascribed to him in a MS. addition to the title- 
page of a copy in the library of the British 
Museum, and in the catalogue of that library. 
(Joseph, BiblioUUque Ginirale des E'crivains 
de tOrdre de St Benoit; Ersch & Gruber, 
Encyclopadie; Biographie UniverseUeJ) 

J. C. M. 

AICHINGER, GREGOTIIUS, an eccle- 
siastic, was organist to the celebrated Jacobos 
Fugger. His published compositions extend 
firom the year 1590 to 1621, and were printed, 
some at Augsburg, some at Dillingen, and 
some at Venice : they are principally masses 
and hymns for the service of the church, to- 
gether with some madrigals and canzonets. 

E. T. 

AICHSPALT (according to some writers, 
Achtzspalt, or Asspelt), PETER OF, was 
bom, apparently, about the middle of the 
thirteenth century. The accounts of the in- 
cidents of his life previous to his elevation to 
the archiepiscopal chair of Mainz, scattered 
through the pages of German chroniclers, are 
for the most part confhsed and irreconcilable. 
It seems agreed that he was bom at Asspelt, 
a village near Trier, and that his parents 
were extremely poor. He received his ele- 
647 



mentary education in the schools of Trier. 
Where he received instraction in theology 
and medicine — for the knowledge of both of 
which, especially the latter, he eigoyed a 
' distinguished reputation among his contem- 
poraries — is unknown. He was at one time 
physician to Henry, duke of Luxemburg; 
and, according to some authors, he for a 
short period held the same appointment at 
the court of the Emperor Rudolph of Habs- 
burg. Both these princes are said to have 
employed him in political negotiations. His 
services were rewarded wi& presentations 
to various ecclesiastical benefices ; and in 
1296 he was installed in the bishopric of 
Basel, with the designation Peter IL of that 
see. In 1300, the ^nperor Albrecht L sent 
him on an embassy to Pope Bonifkce YIII. 
On the death of Gerhard IL, archbishop 
of Mainz, the chapter elected Baldwin, bro- 
ther of Henry, duke of Luxemburg ; but 
Clement V. refiised to confirm the election, 
on the ground of Baldwin being only eighteen 
years of age. The chapter could not come 
to an agreement in &vour of any other can- 
didate, and the pope conferred the vacant 
archbishopric upon Peter of Aichspalt This 
elevation does not appear to have occasioned 
any interruption in his friendly relations to 
the house of Luxemburg. In 1307 he brought 
about the election of Baldwin to the arch- 
bishopric of Trier ; and in 1308 it was owing 
to his exertions that Henry of Luxemburg 
was raised, by an unanimous vote of the elec- 
toral college, to the imperial throne with the 
title of Henry YIL The archbishop of Mainz 
was one of the three regents to whom 
Henry intrusted the administration, on setting 
out for Italy, in September, 1310; and -in 
February, 1311, this prelate placed the crown 
of Bohemia on the head of the emperor's son 
John. The archbishop's devotion to the in- 
terests of the Luxemburg family drew upon 
him the hostility of Frederick, markgraf of 
Meissen, who, having embraced the cause of 
the dethroned King of Bohemia, invaded the 
territories of Mainz. The death of Henry 
VII. in 1313, occasioned great anxiety to the 
house of Luxemburg ; the able and powerful 
Frederick of Austria was in the field as a can- 
didate for the imperial throne ; the wishes of 
the nation were in his fiivour, and he had pro- 
mises of support from a msgority of the elec- 
tors. The King of Bohemia and his uncle had, 
in the event of his election, good reason to fear 
that he would exert his power to reinstate his 
cousin, the deposed king, in the possession of 
Bohemia. The archbishop of Mainz remained 
tme to his party, and by his counsels the 
Luxemburg princes succeeded in detaching 
the Elector of Saxony from the interests of 
the Duke of Austria. The Archbishop of 
Mainz and Trier, the King of Bohemia, and 
the Elector of Saxony, constituting a nugority 
of the electoral college, elected Ludwig of 
Bavaria ; but the minority had, the day b^ora, 



AICHSPALT. 



AIBAN. 



at a separate meeting, taken upon themselTes 
to declsLTe Frederick of Aostria king. The 
war which immediately ensued between the 
rival emperors wrought such desolation in 
Germany, that it was remarked of the arch- 
bishop, to whom the election of Ludwig was 
generally attributed, that he had forgotten his 
medical art, and made the nation sick, instead 
of welL He did not survive to see the end of 
the contest, having died on the 5th of July, 
1320. He maintained, during the fifteen years 
that he filled the see of Mainz, the character 
of a good governor, and a pious and moral 
man. He retained to the last the respect of 
the secular princes of the empire, and the 
love of his own suljects and clergy ; although 
he held a strong hand of discipline over the 
latter. Notwithstanding the troubled times 
in which he lived, he ducharged many debts 
which he found burdening the diocese at his 
accession ; and secured for it, by grants and 
purchases, many new fiefb and tolls upon the 
Rhine. These additions of territory and 
revenue were the rewards of the support he 
gave to Henry and Ludwig, when candidates 
for the empire. (Schunk, BeytrSge zur Main' 
zer Geschichte^ Frankfiirt und Leipzig, 1788, 
et seq., vols. iL & iii. ; Heinrich's TeuiBche 
Reicha-Geschichtey iii. 647 — 674. Leipzig, 
1789 ; H. A. Erhard, in Ersch & Gruber's 
AUgemeine EncyclopSdie^ v. *♦ Aichspalt") 

W. W. 
AIDAN, the most eminent among the 
kings of the Dalriadic Scots, was the son of 
King Gabran, grandson of Fergus, by whom 
this Irish colony had been conducted to Ar- 
gyle, and the monarchy founded, about a. d. 
503. On the death of Gabran, a.d. 560, the 
throne was taken possession of by his nephew 
Conal, who occupied it till his death in 573 ; 
and then a contest for the succession appears 
to have ensued between Conal's son Don- 
chad and his cousin Aidan, which was ter- 
minated by the defeat and death of the 
former, at the battle of Loro, in XLintyre, in 
575. Various events of Aidan's reign, wluch 
are now perfectly uninteresting, are noticed 
by Adomnan, Bede, and the Irish annalists ; 
the old " Gslic Duan," or genealogical 
poem, composed in the reign of Malcolm 
Canmore, commemorates him as " Aidan of 
the extended territories ;*' and it appears 
from Bede, who calls him " Edan, rex Scoto- 
rum qui Britanniam inhabitant" (the king 
of the Scots dwelling in Britain), by way <rf 
distinction from the original or Irish Soots, 
that in the year 603 he was so ambitious as 
to lead a great army against EdilfHd, king of 
the Northumbrians, by whom, however, the 
Scots were defeated, and put to the rout, with 
great slaughter ; " nor from that time," adds 
Bede, writing about 130 years after, "has 
any king of the Scots in Britain dared to 
come to battle with the English to this day." 
Aidan died, it is said, at an advanced age, 
about two years after this, and was buried, 
548 



according to Fordun, at Kilcheran, in Kin- 
ijre. He was succeeded by his son, Eochoid 
Boidhe, who reigned sixteen or seventeen 
years ; but after his death, the succession 
appears to have been disputed by a son of 
Conal, and the claims of the two rival 
lines confhse the obscure story for many ge- 
nerations. (Pinkerton's Enquiry ink) the His- 
tory of Scotland preceding the Reign of Mai- 
ccin IIL, iL 114, &c., and the authorities 
there referred ta The Biographia Britan- 
nica has two folio pages on Aidan, mostly 
made up of the inventions of Hector Boethius, 
and other late writers.) G. L. C. 

AIDAN, or JEDAN, ST., was originally 
a monk of lona, in which monastery &wald, 
who became king of Northumberland in 635, 
had been educated. As soon as Oswald came 
to the throne, he sent to lona for an eccle- 
siastic to instruct his subjects in the Chris- 
tian religion; for, although the people of 
Northumbria had been converted a short 
time before by PauUnus (who is reckoned the 
first archbishop of York)^ they had generally 
returned to paganism on that prelate having 
been driven out of the country by the suc- 
cessful invasion of Penda, the Mercian king, 
in 633. In the first instance the Scotch 
monks sent Oswald one of their number, 
named Corman, who is described as a person 
of a severe disposition and morose manners ; 
but he speedily returned, and reported to his 
assembled brethren that the Northumbrians 
were a rude and intractable race, of whom it 
was impossible to make anything. Aidan, 
who was present, observed mildly, that per- 
haps their excellent brother had not con- 
descended so much as he ought to have done 
at first to the weakness of his unlearned 
hearers ; and this opinion being shared in by 
the rest, it was agreed that Aldan should 
himself undertake tiie task in which Corman 
had fSuled. His gentle demeanour and per- 
suasive mode of teaching had all the success 
that could have been desired ; he became a 
great finvourite with Oswald, and it was not 
long before Northumberland was once more 
a Christian kingdom. Aidan, who is com- 
monly considered as a bishop, though it does 
not appear by whom he was consecrated, esta- 
blished himselJ^ not at York, where Paulinus 
had resided, but on Lmdis&me, hence in after 
times called Holy Island, where he founded, or 
induced King Oswald to found, a monastery, 
over which he presided as abbot Aidan is 
reckoned the first of the line of bishops now 
designated of Durham, in which city the 
episcopal residence was finally fixed in the 
end of the tenth century. Oswald was killed 
in battle in 642 ; and was succeeded in the 
part of his dominions called Bemicia by his 
brother Oswio, in the part called Deira by 
Oswin, the son of a former king. Aidan 
appears to have attached lumself to Oswin, 
whose murder, m 651, by the contrivance of 
Oswio, the Abbot or Bbhop of Lindisfiune is 



AIDAN. 



AIGREFEUILLE. 



said to hove predicted, and to have taken so 
much to heart that he died himself tweWe 
days after. Bede, who is the authority for 
all the &ct8 that have been mentioned, ex- | 
cept only the name of Gorman, which is 
preserved by the Scottish historian Hector 
Boethins, gives Aidan the highest character 
for piety, humility, diligence, charity, and all 
other Christian virtoes ; the only thing to ! 
be excepted to him, in Bede*s opinion, is, ' 
that he was not orthodox on the subject of 
the season for celebrating Easter, holding m I 
that point to the usage and doctrine of the I 
primitiye British and Irish churches, in which | 
he had been reared. The historian giyes an j 
interesting account of the spectacle which he 
says used often to be seen, of Aidan preach- 
ing in his natiTe tongue (the Irish Celtic), 
not haying a perfect knowled^ of the En- ; 
glish (or Saxon), whUe the km^, who had 
become fiuniliar with the foreign tongue \ 
during his long exile, interpreted the dis- j 
course to his generals and mmisters. Great | 
numbers, it is added, of Scottish ecclesiastics i 
followed Aidan to Northumberland, and 
settled in the country, both as priests and 
as teachers of youth. Seyeral miracles are 
attributed by Bede to Aidan, one of which is 
worth noting, his smoothing the sea in a 
storm by directing some holy oil to be poured 
on it There is reason to believe that the 
application of oil for this purpose, to which 
the experiments of Franklin attracted the 
attention of scientific inquirers in the last 
age, has been fiimiliar finom early times to 
the inhabitants of the Hebrides, as well as to 
other insular or sea&ring races. The name 
of St Aidan is not found in the most an- 
cient martyrologies, such as those of Bede, 
Ado, Usuardus, &c ; but it appears in some 
of those of the tenth century. The daj 
assigned to him in the Roman calendar is 
the 31st of August (pridie kalend. Septem.), 
which Bede gives as that of his death. 
(Bede, Hist Ea^, iii. 3. 5. 14, 15, 16, 17.; 
WilL Mahnesburiensis, De Gettis PonHf. 
Angl, lib. iii. p. 275., in H. Savile, Rentm 
An^ Scriptortapost Bedam Practpuiy foL 
Franco£ 1601 ; Hen. Huntingdoniensis, His' 
toria, p. 295. 330., ibid. ; Bollandus, &c. Acta 
Sanctonimj torn. vL August, (1743), pp. 688 
—694.) G. L. C. 

AIGEN, KARL, an Austrian historical 
painter, bom at Olmutz, in 1694. He ex- 
celled in figures of a small sise, which he 
painted wiUi great care. A St Leopold, 
which has been en^ved h^ G. A. Miiller, is 
reckoned one of his best pictures. He died 
at Vienna, in 1762. (Fiissli, Attgemeines 
KutuUer Lexicon.) R. N. W. 

AIGNER, A. F., a clever sculptor at 
Pra^e, executed the tomb of the Baron von 
EUrichsluiusen, in the MariahiilfKhanze, for 
the Emperor Joseph 11. (Nagler, Nettea AU- 
gemeinea Kihutler Lexicon.) R. N. W. 

AIGREFEUILLE, CHARLES D*, a 
549 



French ecclesiastic of the eighteenth century 
doctor of divinity, and one of the canons 
of the cathedral of Montpellier. He was a 
native of Montpellier, but little appears to be 
known of him, except that he was the author 
of a work of some value, ** Histoire de la 
YDle de Montpellier depuis son Origine,'* 
2 vols. IbL Montpellier, 1737-1739. The 
second part or volume contains the eccle- 
siastical history of the city, and is sometimes 
cited, but erroneously, as a distinct work. In 
the title-page and dedication of this second 
volume the author's name is printed Degre- 
feuille ; but in the first volume it is D' Aigre- 
feuille. {Pi^face and Title to his History of 
MontpeUier,) J. C. M. 

AIGUA'NI, FRA MICHELE, a learned 
Carmelite and cardinal of Bologna, of the 
fourteenth century. He was eighteenth ge- 
neral of his order, was the author of several 
theological works and comments (as an Ex- 
position of the Psalms, a Theological Dic- 
tionary, &c), and was distinguished also as 
a sculptor. Some of his works in sculpture 
are still in the Carmelite church of San Mar- 
tino Maggiore at Bologna. It is reported 
that Ai^uani was engaged upon one of his 
statues m his convent, when the news was 
brought him that he was raised to the dignity 
of cardinaL He died at Bologna, in 1400, 
and his body 1^ in state three days. (Ma- 
sini, Bologna Ferluttrata; Orlandi, Abece- 
dario Pittorico.) R, N. W. 

AIGUEBE'RE, JEAN DUMAS D*, a 
counsellor of the parliament of Toulouse, 
but better known as a dramatic writer than 
a judge, was bom at Toulouse on the 6th of 
September, 1692. He studied at Paris in the 
college of Louis le Grand, where he formed 
an intimacy with Voltaire. He completed 
his legal education at Toulouse. On his 
return to Paris, M. d*Argental introduced 
him to the Duchess of Miune, who was de- 
lighted with his wit and gaiety, and he 
became a ft^quent guest at Sceaux, the resi- 
dence of the duchess. Mouret, the celebrated 
musician who composed the music fi>r the 
fStes known as the **Nuits de Soeanx," 
pressed Aig^bdre to write an opera, and 
accordingly he produced a piece comprising a 
tragedy, comedy and opera, under the title 
of *♦ Les Trois Spectades," which was per- 
formed at Sceaux the 9th of July, 1729, and 
subsequently at the TheiUre Fran^ais. This 
piece consists of a prologue in verse, of " Po- 
lixdne," a tragedy m one act and in verse, of 
"L'avare amoureux,*' a comedy, and of 
*< Pan et Doris,'* a pastoral opera, the music 
to which was composed by Mouret It was 
subsequently parodied under the title of 
" Melpomene vengce." The success of " Les 
Trois Spectacles' was surprising; and, al- 
though anxious to return to Toulouse and 
discontinue theatrical composition, he yielded 
to the pressing solicitations of the Duchess of 
Maine, and prolonged his residence at Paris 



AIOUEBERE. 



AIGUILLON. 



sufficiently to write a comedy called ** Le Prfaiee 
de Noidy," which was acted at Soeanx 
and also at the Theatre Fran^aiB in the year 
1730. He afterwards parodied it under the 
name of ** CoUnette " for the Th^4tre Italien. 
Neither the original piece nor the parody 
has heen printed. In 1715 he was crowned 
by the Academic det Jeux Floreaux for an 
ode entitled ** L*Or ; *' and in the following 
year he received a Bimilar honour for one 
called *'Le8 Graces.** His friendship with 
Voltaire continued through life. In 1749, on 
the death of the Marquise du Chitelet, Voltaire 
sought consolation in communicating his sor- 
row to Aiguebdre. In a letter written to Aigue- 
bdre by Voltaire soliciting him to go to Paris, 
he says, ** It appears to me that you are made 
to be petted. I confess that it would be a 
sweet consolation to me to pass with you the 
remainder of my days.** Aigneb^re would 
not, however, abandon his office, the duties 
of which he performed with equal zeal 
and integrity. He died at Toulouse on the 
21st of July, 1755. Sabatier, in his "Sidcles 
de Litterature," speaks highly of his promise 
as a dramatic author. "Les Trois Specta- 
cles" was printed at Paris in 1729, in 8vo. 
and 12mo., and also in the 12th yolume of 
the **Th6&tie Francais." Paris, 1738. In 
addition to the foregomg pieces, he published 
anonymously, ^ Lcttre d*un Gar9on de Cafe 
au Souffleur de la Comedie de Rouen sur la 
Pi^ce des Trois Spectacles,** Paris, 1729, 
12mo. ; and **Reponse du Souffleur de la 
Comedie de Rouen k la Lettre du Gar^on de 
Cafg," Paris, 1730. 12mo. {Bioaraphie Ton- 
huaeUne, article ** Dumas ; ** Queraid, La 
France LitUraire ; Barbier, jyictUmnaire des 
Ouvrages anonymea et pseudcnymea, ii. 248., 
iil 220. 2d edit) J. W. J. 

AIGUILLON, ARMAND VIGNEROD 
DU PLESSIS RICHELIEU, DUC DE, 
the great grand nephew of Cardinal Richelieu, 
and first minister of France during the last 
three years of Louis XV., 1771 — 1774, was 
bom in 1720. The life of this nobleman and 
his administration form one of the most re- 
markable episodes in the whole history of 
France before the revolution. Aiguillon was 
bred to arms like the other French nobles of 
that day ; and having engaged the afifections 
of a lady who had captivated Louis XV., he 
joined the army in Italy by the command of 
the king. He passed the Alps with the 
troops which the Prince of Conti led into 
Piedmont in 1742, and was wounded in the 
engagement which took place in the defile 
near Chateau Dauphin. Returning to France, 
he was appointed governor of Alsace; and 
afterwards military commandant in Brittany. 
He held this latter post, one of high trust 
and importance, during all the Seven Years* 
war (1756 — 1763), when the province of 
Brittany was continually threatened by a 
descent from the English troops, and more 
than once suflPered actual invasion. He was 
550 



a man of ambitious and enterprising chara<v 
ter, and of a very imperious temper ; but en - 
dowed with courage and capaci^, and with 
signal activity and address. The character 
of the court and ministry of Louis XV., and 
still more the state of parties in France at 
that period, presented an inviting career to 
a man of a turbulent and intriguing character. 
During the latter period of LiDuis s reign the 
internal agitation caused by the disputes be- 
tween the Jesuits and Jansenists, which had 
signalised the commencement of the eighteenth 
century, after subsiding under the temperate 
sway of Fleury, burst forth with augmented 
violence through the restless activity of the 
Jesuits, and especially through the heated 
zeal of the Archbishop of Pans. This man, 
b^ withholding the sacraments from the ex- 
piring Jansenists, had not only filled Paris 
with confruion, but had set an example to 
the parochial clergy in every province ; the 
political animosities arising from the opposite 
pretensions of the court and the parliament 
of Paris revived and mingled with these 
ecclesiastical broils ; the spirit of civil liberty 
received new accession of force, and spread 
under the shelter of zeal ibr the security of 
the Galilean church against papal encroach- 
ment ; and the same parties which had dis- 
tracted the realm under the regency and Car- 
dinal Du Bois, appeared new modelled on the 
one hand by the intrigues which had produced 
the Austrian alliance, and on the other by 
the rage of conquest and territorial aggnm- 
dizement which at that time began to aggra- 
vate the domestic fiictions of France. The 
Due de Choiseul, prime minister, embracing 
a plan of policy more subtle than prudent, 
had alternately courted the parliament and 
the Jesuits; and while he thought to esta- 
blish his dominion on their alternate depres- 
sion, he not only lost the confidence of both, 
but raised up a third party which aimed only 
at workmg his fall. But finding that the 
Jesuits were again growing formidable by the 
countenance and protection of the dauphin, 
father of Louis XVI., Choiseul deemed it 
requisite for his own safety to join the party 
of the Jansenists, and he permitted the par- 
liament of Paris, in 1762, to expel the 
Jesuits from France. It was at this moment 
that Aiguillon, whose discerning eye had 
watched the vicissitudes of these fiictions, 
laid the foundation of his greatness by ac- 
quiring the direction of the passions excited 
by the bold and somewhat precipitate mea- 
sure of Choiseul. He zetdously attached 
himself to the dauphin, and, supported by his 
kinsmen of the fiunily of Richelieu, he placed 
himself at the head of a numerous party who 
had been induced by the near approach of 
that prince's accession to imitate his devotion 
to the Jesuits. When Choiseul abolished 
the order, Aiguillon held together the 
remnant of that body ; he united them with 
the Uy zealots; he formed their diq^crsed 



AlGUttLON. 



AIGUILLON. 



fbtlowen into a league ; and he attracted and 
concentrated £rom every part of the kmgdom 
all who from bigotxr, resentment, or ambi- 
tion were hostile to Choiseul's administration. 
His own government of Brittany, by reason 
of the extremes to which the parliament of 
Rennes and the priestly party had poshed 
their opposite pretensions, was the centre of 
those intestine feuds which raged throughout 
the kingdom. He was possessed of sdmost 
unlimited power within that spacious pro- 
vince; but while he exerted it to give rorm 
and strength to his rising party, he was 
hurried by his impetuous and vindictive tem- 
per into acts by which he incurred universal 
odium, exposed himself to the penalties of the 
law, and yet was enabled by his singular 
address finally to triumph over his enemies. 
Aiguillon held the office of military com- 
mandant of Brittany when Greneral Bligh 
made a descent on the French coast at the 
bay of St Cas near St Malo in 1758. The 
Euj^h general had already marched into 
the interior of the province with 6000 men ; 
when Aiguillon, advancing with a superior 
force, compelled him to retreat, and, attacking 
him while in the act of reimbarking his 
troops, cut off his rear with considerable 
slaughter. Elated by this success, and taking 
advantage of the military dispositions pro- 
duced by the dread of invasion, he was 
prompted to many acts of rigour, which drew 
on hun the remonstrances of the parliament 
of Brittany, one of the most intrepid and 
refractory of the local judicatures. The 
period was unfavourable to the privileges of 
these bodies. The ministers of Louis XV. 
had made an attempt, after the peace of 
1763, to contmue certain imposts which were 
to have terminated with the war ; they were 
assailed by loud remonstrances from aU the 
parliaments throughout France; and in the 
general conflict which ensued between the 
court and these local tribunals, the parlia- 
ment of Rennes was, at the instigation of 
Aiguillon, and by an unusual stretch of the 
royal authority, abolished by edict, and a 
commission appointing sixty new judges 
issued. This measure left the whole pro- 
vince of Brittany exposed to the military 
tyranny of Aiguillon, whose ambition and 
private resentment, freed from local control, 
burst forth in acts of great cruelty and in- 
justice. M.de la Chalotais, procureur-gcneral 
in the parliament of Rennes, a man of genius, 
spirit, and abilities, had incurred the dis- 
pleasure of Aiguillon by some railleries which 
he had thrown out on the suspected cowardice 
of that nobleman in the affair at St Cas ; and 
had further provoked his resentment by de- 
nouncing in the parliament of Rennes the 
iniquities of his provincial administration. 
Without delay Aiguillon resolved on his de- 
struction; and as his promptitude in exe- 
cution was equal to his thirst of vengeance, 
he found means of instituting process against 
551 



Chalotais, on a iSilse accusation of trea- 
son, of suborning evidence, and finally of 
procuring sentence of deaUi against him, 
▲.D. 1765. Chalotais awaited his fieite in the 
castle of Morlaix. Meanwhile the king, at 
the instance of the Due de Choiseul, dien 
prime minister, had reinstated the parlia- 
ment of Rennes; and the members scarce 
recovered their places in time to save their 
procureur-generai from the vengeance of 
Aiguillon. They procured the reprieve and 
liberation of Chalotais. A new scene now 
opens in this view of provincial government 
in France as it subsisted before the revolu- 
tion. The parliament of Rennes instituted 
inquiries into the process which Aiguillon 
had directed ; and discovered not only evi- 
dence that he had resorted to subornation, 
but strong presumption of an attempt to poi- 
son the procureur-generai. The parliament 
commenced process against Aiguillon; and 
that nobleman, who had long laboured under 
universal odium, was removed by the Due 
de Choiseul from the military command of 
Brittany. But no concession could allay the 
just resentment of the parliament of Rennes ; 
the counsellors pushed their inquiries with 
vigour ; the lawyers of Paris seconded their 
proceeding with all their influence over 
public opinion ; the case was evoked to the 
parliament of Paris, the proper tribunal ac- 
cording to the ancient law of France for the 
trial of peers. The affair had now engaged 
the attention of the whole nation, and all 
men awaited with impatience the issue of the 
struggle between the high rank, fortune, and 
powerful court influence of the ex-com- 
mandant on the one side, and the jurisdic- 
tion, venerable, but undefined and precarious, 
of the parliament of Paris on the other. 

But Aiguillon possessed a source of 
strength more than sufficient to support him 
against all his enemies. Nursed in those 
court intrigues by which all affairs, even the 
most momentous wars and treaties, were de- 
termined in the reign of Louis XV., he had 
fortified himself with the friendship of 
Madame Du Barry, whom he had introduced 
to Louis after the death of Madame Pom- 
padour ; and as his influence over that lady 
was as unlimited as her ascendant over Louis, 
he thus exercised an indirect control over 
the king. Another circumstance concurred 
to render his power irresistible. Madame Du 
Barry was fidl of resentment against the 
Due de Choiseul, who had oppo^ her in- 
troduction at court ; she was irritated at the 
repulses which she had met with in her ad- 
vances to that minister, and was eager to 
wreak her revenge by seconding Aiguillon 
in subverting his administration. But though 
the influence and power of Aiguillon, through 
these means, outweighed those of the mi- 
nister, he was alarmed with just appre- 
hensions of the judicial sentence which hung 
over him; nor could he have averted the 



AI6UILL0N. 

▼engeance of the parliament, had he not by 
a rare fortune found in the heart of ChoiseurB 
cabinet an instrument ivho not only sheltered 
him from impending ruin, but payed the way 
for his advancement to power. 

The Chancellor Maupeou, an ambitious, 
corrupt, and daring minister, no sooner ob- 
senred Choiseul sinking under the superior 
influence of Aiguillon than he formed a 
coalition with the rising ex-commandant of 
Brittany ; and he paid assiduous court to 
Madame Du Barry, the fountain of honours, 
by entering into all the views of her favourite. 
As the head of the law he exercised the in- 
fluence of his office over the parliament of 
Paris; and he was the man in France the 
best fitted by his ftinctions to stay or over- 
rule the proceedings still urgently pressed 
forwards by that body against Aiguillon. 
Animated by the hope of new power, and no 
way dismayed by the determined flpont op- 
posed by the paruament, he shrunk not from 
renewing those conflicts between the court 
and the supreme tribunal so ihtal to royal 
authority, nor from exposing the king to the 
hazards of a contest with the parliament in 
defence of a criminal of whose guilt the 
evidence had never been questioned. The 
heads of the accusation were very grave; 
subornation, tyranny, an attempt to poison : 
but once resolved, the resolutions of Maupeou 
were inflexible, and he carried through his 
design of screening the delinquent and crush- 
ing the parliament with signal energy. He 
thought first to overawe that assembly with- 
out recourse to violence; and he found no 
difficult;^ in persuading Louis, now worn 
down with debauchery, to call together the 
parliament to Versailles, and, presiding in 
person, to convey such intimation of the 
royal wishes as might induce them to drop 
the proceedings, and so carry a vote to that 
effect This first meeting of Louis and the 
parliament, which took place in April 1770, 
passed so peaceably that the chancellor and 
Aiguillon imagined themselves secure, and 
were surprised when the parliament, secretly 
supported by Choiseul, renewed the attack, 
and proceeded towards a sentence of con- 
demnation against the duke. The next step 
of the court (for the minister sided with the 
parliament) was a direct interposition of the 
royal authori^ in favour of Aiguillon, which 
brought the king into open collision with that 
body. In June Louis summoned the parlia- 
ment to a bed of justice at Versailles, that is, 
to a session where the king presided in all 
the forms of royalty. The chancellor, in a 
menacing tone, rebuked the contumacy of 
the parliament, and in the name of the king 
commanded them to cease the prosecution. 
This was a stretch of prerogative unpre- 
cedented even in the absolute monarchy of 
France. Beds of justice to compel the re- 
gistration of fiscal edicts and other royal 
ordonnances were conformable to the esta- 
552 



AIGUILLON. 

blished mftyims of the French gOYemment, 
and had acquired sanction from precedents 
so ancient as in the judgments of lawyers to 
be no longer questionable ; but to suspend a 
penal process by the authority of the king was 
an act of power which even Cardinal Richelieu 
had never attempted. The parliam^it was 
inflamed by this aggression of the crown, and 
made haste to vindicate their juriadiction by 
proceeding to a sentence againat Aigufllon. 
In Juljr they passed a judgment ol attainder, 
by which he was deprived of all his rights 
and honours as a peer. Aiguillon and Mau- 
peou, who grew bolder at every sta^e of &e 
contest, were no way disconcerted by this 
blow. These fierce and impetuous spiriti, 
in whose hands the pageant king, in the last 
stage of his dissolute life, was an instrument; 
thundered out an arr^t or ordonnance of the 
royal council, by which they quashed the 
judgment of the parliament and reinstated 
Aiguillon in all his honours. This was the 
mode in which Cardinal Richelieu was wont 
to crush the refractory parliaments of his 
day when they resisted his edicts of con- 
fiscation and proscription by counter decrees; 
and was a less riolent exertion of arbitrary 
power than the former interposition, an edict 
of the council being in the judgment of 
French jurists equivalent to a royal ordon- 
nance registered in the parliament When 
the court struck this last blow all the re- 
sources of the parliament were exhausted; 
and it had now recourse to remonstranoe. The 
members persisted in successive deputations to 
the king, complaining of their grievances in 
a style glowing with suppressed indignation, 
which kept alive the popular ferment and 
held Aiguillon in continual inquietude. The 
danger of that nobleman was not yet past 
The evidence of his crimes was in the 
archives of the parliament ; its register con- 
tained the record of his conviction ; and 
there was nothing to prevent that body, upon 
any new turn of fiu^on, renewing their pro- 
ceedings against him. Some £resh act of 
power, and that more vigorous and decisive 
than the last, he deemed necessary for his 
safety. In September, 1770, the king sud- 
denly entered Paris, surrounded the parlia- 
ment with his guaris, held a summary bed 
of justice, and after reprehending, through 
the mouth of Maupeou the chancellor, their 
obstinate presumption in transgressing their 
jurisdicdon, he called for the register and 
tore from it the minutes of the proceedings 
and the judgment against Aiguillon. In 
this measure Aiguillon and Maupeou again 
followed in the steps of Cardinal Richelieu, 
who in 1631, when the parliament refused 
to register his edict of attainder against the 
adherents of Mary de Medicis, and placed 
on their archives a counter decree of re- 
monstrance, summoned them to the gallery 
of the Louvre, and made Louis XIII. tear 
their decree with his own hand from the 



AIGUILLON. 



AIGUILLON. 



register. A second bed of Justice followed 
after a short interval, in which the king 
tendered to them a general ordonnance, which 
declared it to be incumbent on the parlia- 
ment to register all edicts emanating from 
* the throne; and this law, which destroyed 
the last shadow of legislatiye authority re- 
siding in the parliament, receiyed a com- 
pulsory registration. 

During this Tiolent career, in which Ai- 
guillon trampled down the supreme tribunal 
of France, the only shield of the nation 
. against arbitrary sway, Choiseul, despoiled of 
all power, stUl clung to his office ; while his 
riTal, all-powerfiil, awaited the conyenient 
moment for his expulsion. The political au- 
thority of the parliament being destroyed, 
and that council reduced to the functions of a 
mere judicature, all things were ripe for the 
&11 of ChoiseuL On Christmas, 1770, the 
lettre de cachet dismissing and ordering him 
into exile was deliyered to that minister. 
Aiguillon, impeached and oonyicted, and 
lately on the brink of punishment, became 
from that moment supreme in France, with 
the parliament at his mercy, and the last 
control on the executiye government over- 
thrown. Some time, however, elapsed before 
the seals of office were formally delivered to 
him. Aiguillon was fifty years of age when 
he thus seised the reins of government, which 
he held with a vigorous htoid till the death 
of Louis XV. He had neither the eloquence 
of Choiseul nor the knowledge or compre- 
hensive mind by which that minister was 
distinguished. Activity, subtlety, penetra- 
tion, promptitude in resolution, — these, the 
arts by which he rose, were better fitted to 
elevate him to the office of foreign minister 
than to qualify him for the vast and compli- 
cated questions of external policy which then 
agitated France. The commencement of his 
power was marked by his usual energy, and 
his administration was signalised by several 
memorable events which render it a kind of 
sera in the decline and fidl of the Bourbon 
dynasty. Of these, the most remarkable, 
both in design and execution, was the de- 
stniction of the parliament of Paris, an insti- 
tation which was coeval with the earliest 
periods of the French monarchy. Stripped 
of its legislative powers, and deprived of its 
patron Choiseul, the parliament had never 
abated the energy of its indignant remon- 
strances against tiie illegal acts which had 
wrested from them their ancient privileges. 
Seeing all the remaining barriers of the con- 
stitution levelled by A^illon, and dreading 
a total annihilation of justice, they resolved 
to abandon their judicial functions ; and they 
thought to embarrass the new administra- 
tion by the disorder incident to the cessation 
of the legal tribunals. They sent Aresh 
deputations to Versailles, intimating their 
resolution no longer to continue their session. 
The king replied by an arbitrary mandate, 

TOL.I. 



ordering them to resume their f^inctions. 
The parliament was inflexible, and Paris 
was thrown into concision by the denial of 
justice, and by the agitation which prevailed 
among the lawyers. Aiguillon and the 
Chancellor Maupeou, who, having reaped the 
reward of his subserviency, stood foremost in 
this continued conflict, had gone too far to 
recede, or even relax their vigour in the 
prosecution of their desi^ now visibly 
formed, of rendering the ung wholly abso- 
lute. They resolved on the dissolution of 
the parliament and the bcmishment of all the 
refractory members. In the month of January, 
1771, at midnight, two musqueteers arrived 
at the house of each counsellor of parliament 
at the same moment, and, tendering him the 
question ^ whether he would resume his 
duties?" commanded him to answer simply, 
yes or no. The members, roused ffom 
their slumber, and in confusion at so rude a 
summons, were scarce allowed time to collect 
themselves: by fiur the greater number, re- 
fusing to comply with the demands of the 
court, were bamshed to remote parts <k 
France, some to Languedoc, some to Mont 
St Blichel, and the remnant, whose sub- 
serviency reconunended them to the fkvour 
of the chancellor, in the present exigency c^ 
[justice, were formed into a new tribunal, 
which wholly superseded the ancient parlia- 
ment This judicature, by which the le^l 
business of France, suspended by the vio- 
lence of Aiguillon, again proceeded, was 
called the Bfaupeou parliament The sup- 
pression of the supreme judicature of the 
metropolis was followed by the general de- 
struction of the local parlimnents. At Metz, 
Toulouse, Bordeaux, Rennes, the same 
scenes of military violence ensued ; and in 
all these cities the local tribunals, the de- 
positaries of the remains of the ancient con- 
stitution and the organs of public opinion, in 
which the flower of the talents and accom- 
plishments of the provinces centred, were at 
one stroke swept away. At a bed of justice 
held in April, 1771, prior to AiguiUon's re- 
ceiving the s^ls as foreign minister, the new 
courts of law, composed of men dependent 
on him and on the chancellor, were solemnly 
installed. Thus did these two ministers, 
without convulsion or popular tumult, work 
out a measure which was nothing short of a 
great internal revolution, and complete the 
destruction of institutions which had limited 
the power of the crown in the most ty- 
rannical periods of the French monarchy, 
which had thwarted Richelieu, taken arms 
against Mazarin, and by their intrepidity, 
constancy, and influence over the nation, had 
so braved all former ministers, that no one 
had ever attempted their destruction. At 
flrst Aiguillon, through Maupeou, attacked 
the parliament, ftom dread df the attainder 
and apprehension of the disgrace with which 
it threatened him ; but finding so bold and 



AIGUILLON. 



AI6UILL0N. 



onserapnloiu % coa4jator, he opened hU 
mind to larger enterpriaes, and from a mea- 
sure of mere self-defence still proceeded on- 
wards till he had annihilated all intermediate 
power between the king and the people. The 
character of Maupeoa will be given in another 
place [Maupeou] ; we here merely view him 
as the partisan df Aiguillon. The progress 
of this attempt excited an extraordinary in- 
terest ; the energy with which the ministers 
redoubled their blows, from the first encou- 
raged their partisans ; and those who cen- 
sured the measure as rash and Impolitic were 
daszled by the success which seemed to justify 
its temerity. Many circumstances favoured 
the attempt. The nation was divided ; Aiguil- 
lon dissipated the first combination against 
him by intrigue and profusion ; and by his 
vigilance and severity overawed those whom 
he could not gain by these artifices. Thouj^h 
the French court was at that time dissolving in 
the maturity of its own corruption, it drew a 
species of strength from the general disso- 
luteness of manners, which, enervating public 
q>irit, even among the growing principles of 
liberty, rendered the nation incapable of any 
firm or unanimous effort 

In May, 1771, Aiguillon received the 
seals of the foreign office. By his late 
measures he stood in a situation which no 
French minister had ever before attained. 
Neither the cardinal of Lorraine nor Richelieu, 
his great grand uncle, possessed such uncon- 
troUed power. But all this minister's renown 
terminated with his elevation to office. His 
foreign policy during the last three years of 
Louis XV. exhibits a perfect bhmk ; and as 
a statesman his administration sinks into in- 
sijB^ificanoe, compared with the extensive 
views and successful political intrigues of 
Choiseul, his predecessor, or the magnificent 
ambition of Vergennes, who succeeded him. 
The rage of foreign conquest which burst 
forth in France upon the death of Fleury 
had engendered two parties, of whom one 
insisted on maritime war and the main 
strength of France being directed against 
England, the other clamoured for conquest 
and territory on the continent. Choiseul, 
adhering to the former policy, had encouraged 
all the hostile designs of Spain against Eng- 
land, had formed the fimuly compact with 
the Spanish branch of the Bourbons for 
offensive purposes, and by drawing close 
the alliance with Austria, had closed up the 
prospect of French aggrandizement on the 
continent. Aiguillon reversed the whole 
system of Choiseul without adopting any 
definite policy of his own ; and while he 
disgusted the maritime war party, he did not 
satisfy the more numerous faction who called 
aloud for a return to the aggressive policy of 
Louis XIV. He relaxed the alliance with 
Spain, the basis of ChoiseuFs projected hos- 
tilities against England ; and though he at 
the same time broke with Austria, and thereby 
554 



seemed to open the way for a continental war, 
his policy on that side was wholly pacific and 
pusillanimous. The chimoun which rose 
against him were augmented to a tenfold pitch 
when the three other military powers received 
a vast accession of strength by the partition of 
Poland, the former scene of French influence, 
without an effort on the part of Aiguillon to 
avert its fate. In that event the nation saw- 
the effect of the exhaustion of France by her 
exertions during Austrian alliance, the work 
of Choiseul ; and Aiguillon reaped at once the 
odium of his rival's policy, and of his own 
vaccination. When the noise of preparations 
in the arsenals of Brest gave umbrage to the 
English government, and Lord North em- 
ployed remonstrances, he suspended his war- 
like measures with as little dignity as he had 
displayed foresight in commencing them. 
Contrary to the former policy of France, he 
made no effective effort to repress the rise 
of the naval power of Russia in the Medi- 
terranean. He neglected the republican 
party in Holland, where the French interest 
ran high, as well as the invisible springs by 
which Choiseul had divided and swayed the 
court of Sweden; and though he claimed the 
merit of the remarkable revolution which in 
the year 1772 rendered Gustavus IIL of Swe- 
den absolute, he had no part in that event. 

While Aiguillon displaced so little vigour 
in council, he abated nothmg of the violence 
in action which had conducted him to power. 
He threw Segur into the Bastile for secretly 
remonstrating with Louis on his apathy in 
the matter c^ Poland. His dissensions with 
his instrument Maupeou had thrown his 
cabinet into anarchy, when the death of 
Louis XV. in March, 1774, brought his ad- 
ministration to a close. One of Louis XVL's 
first and most popular measures was the dis- 
grace of Aiguillon and of Maupeou, which 
was quickly followed by the restoration of 
the parliament of Paris. AiguUlon had in- 
curred the resentment of Marie Antoinette 
by neglecting the Austrian alliance ; and 
notwithstanding his spirit of restless intrigue, 
he never was able to recover any share of 
power under that reign. He died before the 
revolution, leaving a son, who inherited his 
title and estates. 

Posterity has formed a just and unanimous 
judgment concerning the character of Ai- 
guillon. His own adherents, exulting in his 
dominion, and dazzled with a success at once 
great and unexpected, imagined that, like 
Richelieu, he had achieved the permanent 
triumph of the French crown over every 
limitation ; and it was only by the course of 
events that they learned the contrast between 
a statesman who gave a mortal stab to the 
falling dynasty of Bourbon, and that famous 
cardinal whose hand first rooted and exalted 
that dynasty. On the other hand, he was 
signally endowed with courage and sagacity, 
was fertile in expedients and rapid in exe> 



AIGUILLON. 



AIGUILLON. 



cntion ; yet such was his ignorance of foreign 
affiurs that he was the feeblest foreign minister 
and the most ineffectiTe diplomatist of his 
age.. He left France hamiliated in the eyes of 
Europe, worn down with taxation, and the 
revenue so dilapidated that the benevolent 
administration of Turgot which succeeded, 
though supported by genius, only sustained the 
falling fortunes for a time, but could not avert 
the fate of the French monarchy. (Mim. du 
Due ^AiguiUon; Soulavie, Mim, du Mar. 
Due de Richelieu; Lacretelle, /fur/, du ISme 
Siiele ; Condorcet, Vie de Turgot ; Man. mr 
le9 Finances; Politique de Toua lee Cabinets^ 
L. B. Segw taini, ^c. ; Mim. de Bertrand 
de MoUeviUe.) H. O. 

AIGUILLON, ARMAND DE VIGNE- 
ROD DU PLESSIS RICHELIEU, DUC 
DE, son of Armand, duke of Aiguillon, was 
elected to the order of nobles in the assembly 
of the States General in 1 789, for the bailiwick 
of Agen. Stung with the disgrace of his &ther, 
fbU of resentment against Louis XV L, whose 
accession caused his fall from power, he was 
one of the minority of nobles who from the 
beginning urged on the revolutionary move- 
ments, and made a conspicuous figure in its 
first stages. He was one of the first of his or- 
der who joined the Tiers E'tat on the occasion 
of the debate respecting the separate session 
of the three orders. Aiguillon signalised him- 
self in a still more remarkable manner on 
the celebrated night of the 4th August, 1789, 
by seconding and enforcing the motion of the 
Viscount of Noailles for the relinquishment 
of the privileges by which the French nobles 
had long eigoyed exemption from taxation; 
and he urged on the National Assembly both 
the abolition of tibe feudal services, which 
pressed heavily on the peasantry, and the 
total extinction of praedial servitude, which 
still existed in several provinces of France. 
His wide domains and extensive forests and 
royalties, conaunanding many species of ser- 
vitude, rendered this sacrifice the more con- 
spicuous, and acquired him an unbounded 
popularitv. Still actuated by the same mo- 
tives, Aiguillon was foremost in pushing 
matters to extremity against the court, during 
the period of the Constituent Assembly. 
He supported the motion which gave to that 
body the right of nominating to public em- 
ployments, and that which vested m them the 
power of declaring war and making peace. 
When the war brdie out, he superseded 
Custines in the coamumd of the army on the 
Rhine. Upon the fall of the two earliest 
revolutionary Actions, which he had succes- 
sively supported, and the final subversion 
of the monarchy, in 1792, by the triumph of 
the Jacobins, Aiguillon was struck at by 
one of the numerous decrees of accusation 
which were scattered by the Convention. He 
escaped the scaffold by flying to Germany; 
and died at Hamburg, where he resided 
with other emigrants, in 1800. He had 
555 



much of the versatile ability and ardent tem- 
perament which distinguished the race of 
Richelieu. (3fontteiir, 1789-90; Toulongeon, 
Hist de la Rivol. Fran^aise ; Thiers, Ilist de 
la RiuoL Francaise ; Mim. de Bailli,) H. G. 

AIGUILLON, MARIE MADELEINE 
DE VIGNEROD, DUCHESSE D\ the niece 
of Cardinal Richelieu, was bom at Paris in 
the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
She was the daughter of Rene de Vignerod, 
seigneur of Pont-Courlay in Poictou, and of 
Fran9oi8e du Plessis, the sister of the car- 
dinal The fkmily of Pont-Courlay is now 
merged in the two houses of Richelieu and 
Aiguillon. 

Richelieu, in the first part of the reign of 
Louis XII L, was only bishop of Lucon, an 
humble diocese. Having acquired the un- 
limited confidence and friendship of Mary de 
Medicis, the queen-mother, and persuaded 
that ambitious princess that by advancing 
him she should recover the dominion which 
she enjoyed when regent, she appointed him 
superintendent of her household; and he in- 
troduced to her his niece Vignerod, in qua- 
lity of maid of honour. Richelieu, who, by 
the unceasing importunities of the queen- 
mother, had obtained first a cardinal's hat, 
and after a short interval the first place in 
the administration, at first repaid his bene- 
factress by permitting her to share his power; 
and during the first five years of his govern- 
ment. Mademoiselle Vignerod, now become 
the wife of M. de Com^et, a gentleman of 
the court, continued to hold her place in the 
household of Mary de Medicis, grew in her 
favour, and was enriched by her bounty. 
During these years, while the influence of 
the cardinal over Louis was yet unfixed, and 
his tenure of power still precarious, he 
deemed it necessary to court the queen-mo- 
ther; and by the aid of Madame de Combalet, 
who was continually about the court and 
person of Mary, he was enabled both to 
maintain a show of gratitude and submission 
to that princess, and to discover and discon- 
cert the numerous intrigues to which he was 
constantly exposed from the animosity of the 
French nobles and princes. When he had 
established the same ascendant over Louis 
which he had long exercised over the queen, 
and,by the scaffold and Bastile, had overthrown 
every obstacle to his ambition, this princess 
found her own influence rapidly on the 
decline. But though aversion now succeeded 
to that intimate friendship which had long 
subsisted between her and the minister, and 
the animosity and revenge of her Italian cha- 
racter prompted her to undermine the car- 
dinal's sway, she still retained Madame de 
Combalet in her household. Upon the occa- 
sion of the celebrated intrigue called the day 
of dupes, in 1630, when Mary extorted from 
her son a promise to dismiss his minister, 
and all Paris looked to the immediate fUl 
of Cardinal Richelieu, Mary de Medicis de- 
oo S . 



AIGUILLON. 



AIGUILLON. 



prived Madame de Combalet of her place, 
notwithstanding the king's earnest solicita" 
tions in her behalf. Louis even led her into 
his mother's apartment, and made an effort 
to reconcile them: bat no entreaty could 
soften the resentment of Mary ; and such was 
the indignity of her language, that Madame 
de Combalet retired in tears. Richelieu hav- 
ing banished the queen-mother from France, 
to which she never returned, Madame de 
iCombalet, now a widow without children, 
resided in the Palais Cardinal with her 
uncle, who was exceedingly attached to her; 
and as his power was now unbounded, she 
became the olgect of universal adulation. 
Many sought the honour of her hand; but 
the arrogance of the minister, and his am- 
bition of royal alliances for his kindred, made 
him reject the offers of the French nobles. 

In 1633, when on the eve of declar- 
ing war with ^Hun, Richelieu advanced a 
French force into Lorraine, and having 
stripped the duke of a great part of his 
dominions, the brother of that prince, the 
Cardinal of Lorraine, endeavoured to divert 
him from the siege of Nancy by offering to 
wed Madame de Combalet This proposal 
touched a passion deeply rooted in the breast 
of Richelieu, the aggrandizement of his fa- 
mily ; and though he listened to the marriage 
treaty with seeming indifference, and r^ect- 
ed it when proffered as the price of Nancy, 
he secretly hoped that means might be found 
of carrying it mto effect With pleasure he 
found the proposal revived when he had car- 
ried all his ends in Lorraine; and Richelieu, 
in order to compensate the capflinal for the loss 
of the benefices which in conse<}uence of his 
marriage he was obliged to resign, promised 
Madame de Combalet a large dowry, and the 
inheritance of that vasf personal estate which 
he was daily accumulating. Meanwhile the 
Duke of Lorraine abdicated his dominions ; 
the cardinal succeeded him; and Madame de 
Combalet daily expected to be enthroned at 
Luneville, as duchess of Lorraine. Tlie Car- 
dinal of Lorraine immediately despatched a 
messenger to Paris, with professions of duty 
and submission; but his addresses to Madame 
de Combalet were no more heard of; and he 
soon after solemnised his marriage with the 
Princess Claude of Lorraine, to whom he 
had been secretly engaged when he paid his 
addresses to Madame de Combalet Stung 
by this affiront, Richelieu avenged the honour 
of his niece by stripping the cardinal-duke of 
his dominions, which he annexed to France; 
and he consoled Madame de Combalet by 
conferring on her the duchy and vast domains 
of Aiguillon, after the confiscation of the estate 
of Pu^Iaurens. The death of Cardinal Riche- 
lieu, in 1642, left the Duchess of Aiguillon 
defenceless, and not without apprehension 
from the many enemies whom his career of 
vengeance had raised up against his fkmily. 
But Louis XIIL, who quickly felt in iu full 
556 



extent the loss which he had sustained in 
the death of his minister, assured her that 
he would never abandon her, nor foi^get the 
services of her illustrious relative. In the 
decline of life the duchess became a devotee, 
and from her vast revenues bestowed large 
sums for preachers, who disseminated them- 
selves among the French Protestants and 
endeavoured to bring them back to the Ro- 
man Catholic church. She ultimately em- 
braced the ascetic discipline of St Vincent 
de Paul ; and she built and endowed the 
hospital of Quebec, and ransomed slaves on 
the coast of Africa. Almost from the death 
of Cardinal Richelieu she devoted herself to 
these labours; and, declining the rising splen- 
dour of Louis XI V.'s court, spent the remain- 
der of her days in penitence and prayer. She 
died in 1675, bequeathing her splendid do- 
main of Aiguillon to her niece, and in re- 
mainder to her nephew, the younger son of 
the Marquis de Richelieu, in whom the fk- 
mily of Aiguillon began. Flechier has cele- 
brated her piety in a funeral oration. {Minu 
de Richelieu; Mezerai, HivL de France; 
M4m. de Marie de Med*; Le Clerc, Vie du 
Card, Richelieu ; Flechier, Oraisont Funihre*,) 

H.6. 

AIGUrNO, BRESClA'NO,was author of 
a work entitled ** La Illuminata de tutti i 
Tuoni di Canto fermo," &c published in 1562 
at Venice. A second edition of the same 
work was published m 1581. He was a pupil 
of Pietro Aaron, whom he calls ** il mio 
irrefragabile maestra" (Mattheson, Orgu" 
nistenmbe.) E. T. 

AIKEN, JAMES, bishop of Galloway, 
was the son of Henry Aiken, sheriff and 
commissary of Orkney. James was bom in 
Kirkwall in the year 1613, where he re- 
ceived the rudiments of his education; but 
was afterwards sent to Edinburgh, where he 
completed his classical studies. From Edin- 
burgh he went to Oxford and studied divinity, 
with the view of taking holy orders in Eng- 
land. When the Marquis of Hamilton was 
sent down by Charles the First as the roval 
commissioner to the General Assembly 
which met at Ghugow in 1638, Mr. Aiken 
was appointed his chaplain, and accom- 
panied him into Scotland. The Glasgow 
assembly commenced its sittings on the 21st 
of November, 1638 ; but its views and those 
of the king's commissioner not coinciding, 
he dissolved it by proclamation. The as- 
sembly, however, renised to obey the royal 
mandate, and continued their sittings till the 
end of December, when they had established 
the supremacy of the solemn league and 
covenant ; and declared " that the swearer is 
neither bound to the meaning of the pre- 
scriber of the oath, nor to his own meaning 
who takes the oath, but to the reality of the 
thmg sworn, as it shall be afterwards in- 
terpreted by the competent judge.** In his 
I station of chaplain Aiken conducted himself 



AIKEN. 



AIK£N. 



so much to the satisfiMtion of the Marqais 
of Hamilton, that u^n their return to court 
he procured for him a presentation from 
King Charles to. the church and parish of 
Birsa in Orkney. 

In the beginning of the year 1650, the 
Marquis of Montrose landed in the Orkney 
Islands furnished with a commission from 
Charles the Second to raise troops for the pro- 
secution of the -war with Oliver CromwelL 
The Orkneys were loyal, and the marquis met 
with the best wishes of the clergy and chief 
inhabitants, who held a public meeting and 
unanimously deputed Mr. Aiken to draw up 
a declaration, in their names, expressive of 
their loyalty to their exiled king, and their 
determination to maintain his rights. Ac* 
cordingly Mr. Aiken composed a paper re- 
plete with expressions of loyalty and of re- 
solutions to adhere to their dutiful allegiance. 
For this step, and also fbr having conversed 
with the Marquis of Montrose, the General 
Assembly sitting at Edinburgh exoonmiuni- 
oated the whole of the Orcadian clergy, and 
deposed them from their ministeral character 
and office; and the council also issued a 
warrant for the apprehension of Mr. Aiken, 
who had been the most prominent actor in 
this affiur. The warrant came down in due 
course for execution, and besides being in- 
cluded in the whole body of the Orcadian 
der^, Mr. Aiken was individually ezoom- 
muucated, a sentence which then carried with 
it the confiscation of all his real and personal 
property. At that time Sir Archibald Prim- 
rose, who afterwards became lord registrar and 
Earl of Rosebery, was clerk of the council, 
and being related to Mr. Aiken, sent him 
private notice that a warrant was out against 
him. Aiken immediately fled to Holland, 
where he lived in povertv till 1653. In that 
year he returned to Orkney, and removed 
his fimiily secretly to Edinb^rgh, where he 
resided in obscurity till the Restoration in 
1660. 

On the Restoration he accompanied the 
only surviving Scottish prelate. Bishop 
Sydserf, to London, to congratulate King 
Charles on this auspicious event His fHend 
Bishop Sydserf recommended him to the 
Bishop of Winchester, who presented him to 
the rectory of Winfirith, in the county of 
Dorset, where he continued till the year 
1677. In reward of his loyalty and suffer- 
ings he received a conge d'esUi^ to the dean 
and chapter of Mora^, who elected him 
bishop of that see. H!e was consecrated at 
Edinburgh by Archbishop Sharp. He pre- 
sided over the see of Moray till the year 1680, 
when he was translated to Galloway on the 
6th of February, with a dispensation to reside 
at Edinburgh ; because, says Wood, " it was 
thought unreasonable to oblige a reverend 
prelate of his years to live among such a 
rebellious and turbulent people as those of 
that diocese were.** Keith says, **He so 
557 



carefully governed this diocese, partly bv his 
letters to the synod, presbyteries and smgle 
ministers, partly by a journey he made 
thither, that had he resided on the place, 
better order and discipline could scarce be ex- 
pected.'' On account of the disturbed state of 
the country Bishop Aiken opposed the repeal 
of the penal laws against the field meetmgs 
of the Covenanters, although he had the most 
charitable sentiments towuds them. He died 
of apoplexy at Edinburgh on the S8th of 
October, 1687, in the seventy-fourth year of 
his age; and was buried in the GrevfHars 
churchyard in that city. The foUowmg in- 
scription was affixed to his coffin : — 

'* Uaximui. Atktnsl, pietmte. et maximiu aonif 
Ante diem, loTiU religlone, cadU. 
Nl codcret. nostril Inferret fortitan oris 
Haud Impune sues Roma superta decs.** 

(Skinner's Ecclea, Hist ; Keith's Catahgue of 
Scotti^ Bishop*} Wood's Athem, Oxon.) 

T.8. 

AIKIN, A. L. [Babbauij>.] 

AIKIN, EDMUND, youngest son of John 
Aikin, M D., was bom at Warrington, 
October 2. 1780. Having shown early in- 
dications of a taste for drawing and design, 
he was placed, at a suitable age, with a sur- 
veyor and builder, after leavmg whom he 
commenced business as an architect and 
surveyor. He wrote several of the earlv 
articles in the department of civil archi- 
tecture for Rees's *' Cydopeedia ; " an Essay 
on Modem Architecture, published by the 
London Architectural Society; and some 
other minor pieces. In 1808 Mr. Aikin 
published a series of Designs for Villas and 
other mral buildings, with an introductory 
essay ; and a few years after he presented tq 
the Architectural Society an Essay on the 
Doric Order of Architecture, which was 
printed at their expense, in folio, with several 
plates : this is his most important work. 
He subsequently published, in 1813, an 
Essay on St Paul's Cathedral, and remarks 
upon the architecture of the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth, appended to his sister's Memoirs 
of the Court of Elisabeth. About 1814 he 
went to Liverpool, to superintend the erec- 
tion of the Wellington assembly-rooms ; and 
he fixed his fbture residence in that town, 
where he fbraished designs for several build- 
ings. He died at Stoke Newington, during 
a visit to his fkther, March 11. 1820. 
{Memoir of John Aikin^ 3f. X>., by Lucy 
Aikin, L 267—272.) J. T. 8. 

AIKIN, JOHN, MD., was the only son 
of the Reverend John Aikin, DJ>., and Jane, 
daughter of the Reverend John Jennings, a 
dissenting minister who superintended an 
academy at the village <tf Kibworth-Har- 
oourt, Leicestershire. The father of John 
Aikin was educated for the dissenting mi- 
nistry under Dr. Doddridge, and accepted a 
pastoral charge at Leicester ; but, just as he 
was entering upon its duties, a disease of the 
CO 3 



AIKIN. 



AIIUN. 



lungs permanently incapacitated him from 
preachinff, and compelled him to retire from 
active life. Under these circumstances he 
opened a school at Kibworth-Harcourt, where 
both his children, John and Anna Lsetitia 
(afterwards Mrs. Barbauld), were bom, the 
former on the 15th of January, 1747. In 
1756 he removed with his family to War- 
rington, where he became classical tutor to 
the dissenting academy established in that 
town ; and, at a later period, tutor in divinity 
also. Young Aikin improved this oppor- 
tunity of obtaining a classical education, and 
was entered among the students in the War- 
rington academy while only in his twelfth 
year. He had been intended for the mi- 
nistry; but, preferring the medical profession, 
he was articled to a surgeon named Garth- 
shore, at Uppingham in Rutlandshire. Owing 
to the want of congenial society this situation 
proved very irksome to him, and at the age 
of about eighteen he removed to the uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. Having studied there 
for two winters he returned to England in 
1766, and shortly after became a pupil of 
Mr. Charles White, of Manchester, at which 
place, while he was diligent in his pro- 
fessional pursuits, he devoted much attention 
to poetry and polite literature, as is evident 
firom extracts published in his "Memoir,'* 
hereafter referred to, from letters written 
about this period to his sister, with whom he 
always maintained a most affectionate in- 
tercourse. In 1769 he removed to London, 
and joined the anatomical class of Dr. William 
Hunter. During this visit to the metropolis 
he was received mto the house of Mr. Arthur 
Jennings, his maternal uncle, whose youngest 
daughter he married in 1772. 

Aikin commenced his professional career 
in the autumn of 1770, when he settled at 
Chester, where he obtained several valued 
friends, among whom were Pennant and 
Dr. Haygarth. Failing, however, to obtain 
sufficient encouragement, he removed in 
little more than a year to Warrington. WTiile 
at Chester he published *' Observations on 
the external Use of Preparations of Lead, 
with some general Remarks on topical Me- 
dicines;'* a work which was well received, 
and is still held in esteem. Watt mentions a 
still earlier publication of Aikin's, entitled 
" Essay on the Ligature of Arteries," which 
he says was published in 1770. In 1771 
appeared another professional work, entitled 
** Thoughts on Hospitals," which also met 
with a fiivourable reception ; and in the 
following year Aikin published the first 
edition of his "Essays on Song- Writing ; 
with a Collection of such English Songs as 
are most eminent for poetical Merit" The 
first of these essays is on song-writmg in 
general, and the other three are on the par- 
ticular classes of songs into which the collec- 
tion is divided, which are — 1. Pastoral songs 
and ballads ; 2. Passionate and descriptive 
658 



songs; and 3. Witty and ingenious aoag^ 
This little work soon reached a seeond 
edition, and was again republished in 18 lO, 
with several additions, under the name of 
" Vocal Poetry." In 1 773 appeared, at War- 
rington, the first edition of a very popular 
volume entitled " Miscellaneous Pieces in 
Prose," by Aikin and his sister; in which 
work his was considerably the smaller share. 
In the following year he published a trans- 
lation, with notes, of the "Life of Agricola" 
by Tacitus ; and shortly afterwards a trans- 
lation of Tacitus on the " Manners of the 
Germans." He had intended to produce a 
translation of all the works of Tacitus, bnt 
he abandoned the design upon the announce- 
ment of Murphy's translation. 

For many years Aikin devoted consider- 
able labour to collecting information relative 
to medical history and biography ; and in 
1775 he published an essay entitled "A 
Specimen of the Medical Biography of Great 
Britain," which attracted much attention, and 
procured him many offers of assistance. 
This was followed, about five years later, by 
an octavo volume of " Biographical Memoirs 
of Medicine in Great Britain from the Re- 
vival of Literature to the time of Harvey;" 
but he never published any further portion 
of his projected work. While he resided in 
the country the difficulties attending the in- 
vestigation of the earlier periods of medical 
history were increased by the want of access 
to public libraries ; and it appears also that 
the plan did not meet with sufficient en- 
couragement Miss Aikin states, that ^ after 
repeatedly resuming and again laying aside 
this favourite task during nearly twenty suc- 
ceeding jjrears, he was compelled finally to 
abandon it as one which promised no adequate 
remuneration either in fune or emolument." 

About the year 1776 Aikin published some 
selections ih>m Pliny's " Natural History," 
as a school book ; and in the following year 
appeared, at Warrington, his " Essay on the 
Application of Natimd History to Poetry," 
which was dedicated to Pennant Shortly 
afterwards he was engaged to write an essay 
upon Thomson's "Seasons," to be prefixed 
to a new edition of that poem ; and in 1778 
he produced an English translation of Baume's 
" Manuel de Chymie." It was at this time, 
according to his daughter's narrative, that 
Aikin began to show himself a strenuous 
advocate of civil liberty ; and to the support 
of this dearly cherished cause he frequently, 
in subsequent years, devoted his pen and 
sacrificed his pecuniary interests. With the 
exception of his work on medical biography, 
before mentioned, he published no very 
important works during the next few years, 
although he was continually employed in 
literary pursuits during the intervals of lei- 
sure allowed by an extensive practice and 
the instruction of a few medical pupils. He 
also delivered chemical lectures to the stu- 



AIKIN. 



AIKIN. 



pento in the Warrington academy, among 
the tutors of which he found some friends 
of similar tastes to his own. This esta- 
blishment was dissolved at the end of 
1783, and the little company of literary 
friends who had bound him to the palace 
were dispersed. This circumstance, combined 
with the loss of his fiither, who died late in 
1780, and the advice of his fHends, who con- 
sidered a more extensive field to be desirable 
for the exercise of his talents, induced him 
to take the degree of M. D., with a view to 
removing from Warrin^n. He obtained 
this de^ee at the university of Leyden, which 
he visited for the purpose in July, 1784, 
taking with him a thesis entitled " De Lactis 
Secretione in Puerperis.** He wrote a journal 
of this tour, which is printed in his dan|^ter's 
" Memoir.'* After returning to Warrmgton 
for a few months. Dr. Aikin removed with 
his fiunily to Yarmouth: his mother was 
compelled to stop on the way by an illness 
of which she shortly died. A residence at 
Yarmouth for about a year led him to fear 
that the ground was too fully preoccupied to 
leave him a fiiir chance of success, and he 
therefore removed to Loudon ; but, just as 
favourable prospects were dawning upon him 
in the metropolis, one of his former com- 
petitors retired from practice, and he was 
induced by the pressing invitation of the 
principal inhabitants of Yarmouth to return 
thither after an absence of about four months. 
A circumstance which increased his satisfac- 
tion in this residence was the removal of his 
intimate friend. Dr. Enfield, from Warring- 
ton, to take the charge of a congregation at 
Norwich. 

To return to Aikin*s literary occupations 
in order of time, it should be stated that in 
1783 he was engaged by the proprietors of 
Lewis's " Experimental History of the Ma- 
teria Medica** to prepare an enlarged and 
corrected edition of that work, to which he 
devoted much time. It was published in 1784, 
in one volume, quarto ; and again, with ftoher 
additions by Aikin, a few years later. About 
the same time he was induced, by the age of 
his elder children, which then rendered the 
subject of education peculiarly interesting to 
him, to bestow considerable labour on books 
for the young, the first of which, entitled " The 
Calendar of Nature," appeared in 1784. 
About fifteen years later, this work was en- 
larged and republished by his son Arthur, 
under the title of " The Natural History of 
the Year." In 1788 was published the first 
edition of '* England delineated," a work con- 
taining a brief description of every county in 
England and Wales, which became very po- 
pular, and ran through many editions. It 
was remodelled in 1819, when the title was 
altered to " Enghmd described." 

The excitement produced by the French 
revolution, and more especially by the un- 
successftil attempts of the dissenters to obtain 
559 



the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, 
rendered Dr. Aikin's situation at Yarmouth 
very uncomfortable. Being deeply interested 
in the cause of the dissenters, by principle 
as well as by his connections, he issued 
two pamphlets on political subjects, one of 
which was called ^ An Address to the Dis- 
sidents of England on their late Defeat," 
published in 1790. These pamphlets were 
printed anonymously, but no attempt was 
made to conceal the authorship ; and m con- 
sequence of their appearance most of the 
clergy and many of the other leading in- 
habitants of Yarmouth considered themselves 
justified in secretly withdrawing their sup- 
port fh)m Dr. Aikin, and transferring it to 
another physician, whom the^ invited to 
settle there. Owing to these circumstances, 
Dr. Aikin again left Yarmouth and removed 
to London in 1792. During his residence at 
Warrington, as early as 1777, he had become 
acquainted with Howard the philanthropist, 
who was then superintending the printing, in 
that town, of his work on prisons; and a per- 
manent fidendship had been formed between 
them. Shortly before Howard's death, in the 
Crimea, in 1790, he gave directions for his 
memoranda to be forwarded to Dr. Price and 
Dr. Aikin for publication ; but the infirm 
health of Price incapacitated him from 
taking anj part in the task of arranging 
them, which was therefore performed by 
Aikin alone, who published them as an 
appendix to Howard's work on lazzarettos. 
He also issued, in 1792, a volume entitled 
•• A View of the Character and Public Ser- 
vices of the late John Howard, Esq., LL.D., 
F.R.S.," which contains an account of his 
valuable labours, especially in his investiga- 
tions into the condition of prisons, hospitals, 
lazzarettos, &c., as well as an able summary 
of his character, and narrative of the prin- 
cipal events of his life. Shortly before the 
appearance of this work. Dr. Aikin published 
a small volume of ** Poems." 

On his return to London, Aikin was en- 
abled to resume the society of some of his 
literary fHends, in connection with whom he 
engaged in a monthly publication entitled 
" Memoirs of Science and the Arts," contain- 
ing an account of the proceedings of learned 
societies in England and other countries; 
but, fh>m some unexplained cause, this work 
was soon discontinued. In 1792 he com- 
menced the publication of a very popular 
and instructive work designed for the benefit 
of the young, under the title of " Evenings 
at Home," of which the sixth and last volume 
appeared in 1795. This work, which, in 
addition to a very extensive circulation in 
England, has been translated into several 
foreign languages, was the joint production 
c^ Dr. Aikin and Mrs. Barbauld ; but the 
portions contributed by the latter amount to 
only about one twelfth of the whole. Another 
work, commenced shortly afterwards, under 
oo 4 



AIKIN. 



AIKIN. 



the name of *' Letters from a Father to a Son 
on variona Topics relatiye to Literature and 
the Conduct of Life,** is of a less elementary 
character ; the son to whom they were ad- 
dressed having completed his education and 
entered upon die duties of a profession; and 
the subjects as well as the mode of treating 
them being adapted for readers of mature 
age. This work is considered by his daughter 
and biographer, who gives a particular ac- 
count of its plan, to 1^ ** the most original, 
and in several respects the most important 
performance of its author/* A second vo- 
lume was published a few years later. 

During his residence at Warrington Aikin 
had issued proposals for a history of Lan- 
cashire, but he had laid aside the scheme for 
want of sufficient encouragement. His local 
knowledge was however turned to advantage 
in the production, in 1795, of a large onarto 
volume containing a ** Description of the 
country from thirty to forty miles round 
Manchester."' Shortly afterwards Dr. Aikin 
became editor of the literary department of 
the ** Monthly Magazine,*' which was esta- 
blished in 1796 ; and during the ten years 
in which he held that office he contributed 
many papers to the magazine. Towards the 
close of the same year he was engaged upon 
his greatest work, which is entitled " Ge- 
neral Biography ; or Lives, Critical and 
Historical, of the most eminent Persons of 
all Ages, Countries, Conditions, and Profes- 
sions, arranged according to Alphabetical 
Order.** Mus Aikin states that the design 
was not originally his own, although none 
could have coincided more happily with his 
talents, his acquirements, or the habits of his 
mind. Dr. Aikin's fitness for such a work is 
shown by the pre&ce to the first volume, in 
which the plan of the book is laid down, and 
some good remarks are made upon the selec- 
tion, compass, and arrangement d the matter. 
Considerable prominence is given by Dr. 
Aikin to the class of persons eminent as in- 
ventors or improvers in the various depart- 
inents of science and art ; and he expresses 
his anxiety to avoid any undue stamp of 
nationality in his selection of names. Con- 
ciseness, mipartiali^, and simplicity of style 
are especially aimed at ; and in order to m- 
snre the last quality, he always employed one 
of his fiunily to read the manuscript aloud in 
his own presence, and in that of such other 
members of his domestic circle as could be 
conveniently assembled, and he invited the 
freest strictures even from the youngest. 
Dr. Enfield was associated with Aikin at 
tiie commencement of tiiis work, and he 
undertook the articles on divines, metaphysi- 
cians, writers on natural and moral philoso- 
phy, and mathematicians ; but he died before 
the completion of the first volume, which was 
published in 1799 ; and in the latter part of 
the work this department was chiefly sup- 
I^ied by the Reverend Thomas Morgan. 
560 



Messrs. Nicholson and Johnston were the 
principal other contributors, but nearly one 
half of the work was written by Aikin him- 
sel£ It extends to ten cloaely-pHnted quarto 
volumes, (including a supplement and chro- 
nological index of royal personages, which 
fill more than half of the tenth volume^ of 
which, owing to circumstances which im- 
peded the publication, the last did not appear 
until 1815. Authorities are referred to sit 
the end of every article, and the initials of 
the writers are always given. 
The extensive lalxmn required during many 

Sears for the production of the ** General 
iography*' did not prevent Dr. Aikin frt>m 
undertaking several other literary works, 
especially after he was compelled by ill health 
to renounce his professional engagements, 
which he did in 1798, when, after a tempo- 
rarv sojourn at Dorking, he removed to 
Stoxe Newington, near London. About 1800 
he undertook the editorship of a new edi- 
tion of Johnson's Poets, comprising several 
new pre&ces and biographical notices, of 
which only fourteen volumes were published, 
containing the works of Spenser, Butler, Cow- 
ley, and Milton. In the course of his long 
literarv career he produced many short 
critical essays on the works of English poets, 
some of which are published in the appendix 
to his Memoir. A pleasing little work en- 
titled " The Arts of Life,** intended for the 
youn^ appeared in 1802; and in the same 
year Dr. Aikin produced a volume descrip- 
tive of British forest trees, under the name 
of " The Woodland Comi^on,** which has 
passed through several editions. Soon after- 
wards he wrote ** Letters to a young Lady 
on a Course of English Poetry,** and also a 
work in two small volumes entitled "Geo- 
graphical Delineations,** which gives an ac- 
count of the natural and political state of all 
parts of the world. In 1809, during a 
temporary suspension of the " deneral Bio- 
graphy,** he made an English translation <^ 
the Memoin of Huet, bishop of Avranches, 
from the or^;inal Latin by himself. Thia 
translation, with notes, was published in 1810, 
in two volumes, octavo. 

On the termination of Dr. Aikin*s connec- 
tion with the Monthly Magazine, in 1806, 
he commenced a new literarv periodical, 
called the ** Athensum,** which was aban- 
doned after two yean and a half; and in 
1811 he published a collection of some of his 
essays ftx>m these journals. About the same 
time he wrote the "Lives of John Sel- 
den, Esq. and Archbishop Usher,** which 
were published in one octavo volume in 
1812. In 1811 he became editor of Dods- 
ley*s " Annual Register," a work which em- 
ployed much of his time in ftiture yeara; 
and in 1816 he published the first edition of 
his " Annals of the Reign of George IIL,** 
in two volumes, octavo. This edition em- 
braced the period from 1760 to the peace of 



AlKIN. 



AIKMAM. 



181$ ; bat in a second the narrative was ex- 
tended to the death of George III. One of 
the hitest pablications of Dr. Aikin was a 
volome of '* Select Works of the British 
Poets," with biographical and critical pre- 
ftces, which appeared in 1820. In the course 
of the half century daring which he was 
employed in useftil and elegant literature, he 
executed sereral translations and other works 
not here enumerated, besides ** miscellaneous 
pieces, biographical, moral, and critical," a 
collection of which occupies the whole of the 
second and part of the first volume of the 
«• Memoir** published by his daughter, Miss 
Lucy Aikin, in two octavo volumes. The 
pre&ce to that work, and Watt* s ** Biblio- 
theca Britannica," contain a long list of the 
works of Dr. Aikin, of which the principal 
only have been noticed above. A dangerous 
attack of palsy deprived him of his ftculties 
for a time in 1817, but he in a great degree 
recovered from its effects. He died of apo- 
plexy, December 7. 1822, at Stoke Newington. 
In person Dr. AUdn was of nuddle stature, 
spare, erect, and much pitted with small-pox. 
His temper was cheerful and affectionate, 
and his diligence was unwearying ; constant 
employment appeared to be essential to his 
happiness. He was a carefiil writer, and, 
excepting in the case of the " General Biogra- 
phy," usuallv wrote everything twice, and 
sometimes oftener, before sendinf^ it to press. 
A portrait of him is prefixed to his daughter's 
** Memoir." (Memoir of John Aikin, M,D., 
by Lucy Aikin. There is also a short bio- 
graphical notice of Dr. Aikin, by his son 
ArUiur, in the GendemouCs Magazine for 
1823.) J. T. S. 

AIKMAN, WILLIAM, a Scotch painter 
of considerable merit, was bom at Caimey, 
in Aberdeenshire, in 1682. He was educated 
for the law, but his taste for the arts induced 
him to adopt painting as his profession, and 
he accordingly studied under Sir John Me- 
dina, when that painter was in Scotland, and 
soon mastered the practical difficulties of the 
art In 1707 he sold his paternal estate at 
Arbroath, in Forlkrshire, and set out for 
Italy, where he resided three years, chiefiy 
in Rome, devoting his time principally to 
the study of the great works of the Rcnnan 
achooL He then visited Constantinople and 
Smyrna ; and after a second sojourn at Rome, 
he returned, in 1712, to his native country. 
In Scotland, although he painted some por- 
traits ctf the Scotch nobility, Aikman found 
little to do, and he was persuaded by his 
patron the Duke of Arg^le to remove to 
London, whither he came m 1723. In Lon- 
don, with the patronage of the Duke of 
Argyle to assist him, he was not long without 
employment, and was soon much occupied in 
portrait pamtinff. He was commissioned by 
the Earl of Burlmgton to paint a lar^ picture 
of the royal fleunily. He, however, died before 
he had an opportunity of completing it He 
561 



died in London, in 1731, and his body was 
interred m Scotland, in the same grave with 
his only son. 

Aikman was a very accomplished man ; he 
was intimate with AUan Ramsay, whose por- 
trait he painted, and with the poet Thom- 
son, who wrote some verses on his memory. 
He was Thomson's first patron, for he in- 
troduced him to Sir Robert Walpole. He 
was on terms of intimacy also with Sir God- 
frey Kneller, in whose style he to a great 
degree painted. His portraits are sunple, 
and aim at no adventitious beauties. He 
painted the portrait of Gay, which is much 
praised by Virtue. His own portrait, painted 
by himselJ^ is now in the painter's portrait 
gallery at Florence. (Walpole, AnecdoUe of 
Tainiingf jpc.; Pilkington, Dictionary of 
PaintereJ) R. N. W. 

AILHAUD, JEAN, was bom at Lour- 
mian in Provence, in 1674, and was the pro- 
prietor of a very snocessftd quack medicine, 
which was long known as ** La poudre pur- 
gative d' Ailhaud." It was composed of resin, 
scammony^ and soot In the provinces he 
gained money enough to become a doctor, 
and go to Paris, where he obtained an ex- 
clusive privilege for the sale of his powder 
and realised a considerable fortune. He 
wrote his own praises, in a work entitled 
** Traits de I'Origine des Maladies et des 
Effets de la Poudre Pursative," (8vo. Paris, 
1740 and 1742, and Av^on, 1748,) which 
has all the ordinary characters of those works 
in which all diseases are described as de- 
rived from one origin, and curable by one 
medicine. He died in 1756, and left a son, 
Jean Gaspar Ailhaud, who for a time con- 
tinued his fiither's trade with equal advantage, 
and became Baron de Castelet. He wrote 
several works upon the virtues of the powder, 
of which the titles are given in the Biographie 
Midieaie, L 79. ; and in Querard, La France 
Littiraire, i. 19. J P 

AILI'NI, or AYLI'NI DE MANIA'Coi 
JOHANNES, author of an account of the 
war in Friuli from 1381 to 1388, occasioned 
bv the refusal of a strong party allied to the 
Venetians to acknowledge CaitUnal Alen9on, 
who had been nominated m commendam by 
Pope Urban VL to the patriarchate of Aqui- 
Icja. All that is known of him is to be 
gleaned from incidental allusions in his narra- 
tive, and from Muratori's prdkce to it in the 
third volume of his Italian Antiquities. He 
lived at Maniaco during the war, of which he 
has left an account, and had at that time a 
grandson who was about fourteen years of 
age. He was,by profession a notary, as his 
fr^er, grandfiiUier, and great-grandfather 
had been. He possessed considerable pro- 
perty. In consequence of his wealth, or his 
character, or his professional ability, he had 
great influence with his townsmen, and this 
he used on one occasion during the war to 
save the lives of the noblemen at the head of 



AILINL 



AILLAUD. 



the small party in Maniaco favourable to the 
claims of the patriarch. He held daring the 
war the office of provisor (it may be trans- 
lated secretary at war) in Maniaco ; and 
in the coarse of his narrative he contrives to 
give an exhaustive catalogue of his great 
services in that capacity, prefaced by a solemn 
declaration that he was reluctant to speak of 
his own warlike acts, because Cato has said 
that no man ought to praise himself. The 
history of the war of Friuli is rude in style, 
and sometimes barely intelligible : it con- 
sists of the kind of gossip which might be 
expected from the magistrate of a small pro- 
vincial town, in an age and country charac- 
terised by energy and enterprise, the absence 
of all refinement, and unbounded party spirit 
But its very defects in a literary point of 
view render it valuable as a picture of the 
burghers of the fourteenth century in the 
north of Italy — of the middle classes, the 
materials of which were composed the civil 
and military partisans of the Carraras lords 
of Padua or of the senate of Venice. The 
house of the Ailini seems to have enjoyed 
a long track of uninterrupted prosperity for 
the tumultuous period in which it flourished. 
Ailinus, the great-grandfather of Johannes 
the historian, was practising as a notary in 
1277 ; and a younger Johannes (the grand- 
son of the historian, according to Muratori, 
but, from a passage in the history, more 
probably his great-grandson), was a canon 
in the church of Udine in 1477. (Antigui- 
tates Italia Medii JEvi, Auctore Ludovieo 
Antonio Muratorio. Mediolani, 1740. torn. iiL 
0.1189—1220.) W. W. 

AILLAUD, PIERRE TOUSSAINT, was 
bom at Montpellier, in 1759. He entered 
the church, and was also professor of rhetoric 
in the college at Montauban, and keeper of 
the public library there. The Abbe Aillaud 
obtained a respectable name as a poet He 
died at Montauban, in 1826. His principal 
works were — 1. " Apoth^ose de Theresine," 
an elegiac poem, in five cantos. Montauban, 
1802. 8vo. Reprinted 1827. 2. "L'Egyp- 
tiade,'* an heroic poem, in twelve cantos. 
Toulouse, 1802, 8vo, ; Paris, 1813, 8vo. The 
subject is Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, 
and the model is the ** Jerusalem Delivered;" 
but the whole poem is a monotonous panegyric 
The abbe wrote four additional cantos, but 
Napoleon's downfSall occurring before they 
<K>uld be printed, they appeared under the 
new title of ** Pastes Poctiques de la Revolu- 
tion Fran9aise." Mont 1821, 18mo. 3. 
♦*Cleopatre k Auguste," an heroic epistle. 
Mont 1802, 8vo. 4. " Le Nouveau Lutrin," 
an imitation of Boileau's masterpiece. Mont 
1815, 8vo, 5. "Le Triomphe de la Revela- 
tion," in four cantos. Mont 1815, 8vo. 6. 
**Jean Jacques Rousseau Devoilo." Mont 
1817, 8vo. A refutation of Rousseau's opin- 
ions on education and society. 7. " Tableau 
Politique, Moral, et Litteraire de la France," 
562 



firom the days of Louis le Grand to 1815. 
Mont 1823, 8vo. 8. "La Nouvelle Hen- 
riade, Canto I." Mont 1826, 8va This was 
a publication of a few pages only, but Ailland 
proposed to rewrite the whole of VoUaii^'s 
epic in the same style. His specimen was pre- 
ceded b^ remarks on the original, in which 
its blemishes were pointed out, and the ne- 
cessity of its being rewritten by a oompetent 
hand insisted on ; but the abbe never pub- 
lished more than the first canto. Besides 
the works enumerated, Aillaud produced 
some other poems, and a version of fifteen 
odes of Horace, which, with the elegy on 
Theresine, &c., were printed in one volume, 
after the abbe's death; Montauban, 1827. 
(Rabbe, &c Biographie des Conten^ponatu, 
V. 7. ; Querard, La France LitUraire, L 19, 
20.) J. W. 

AILLEBOUSTor AILLEBOUT, JE AN. 
[Albo'sius.] 

AILLI, PIERRE D', was bom at Com- 
pidgne in Picardy in 1350, and his great 
talents presently made amends for the ob- 
scurity of his origin. In 1372 he entered 
into the college of Navarre, at Paris, and 
obtained early distinction by some treatises 
on Logic, in support of the doctrines of the 
Nominalists, and by his expositions of the 
" Sentences of Peter the Lombard," de- 
livered in 1375. Five years later he took 
the degree of doctor, and became canon of 
Noyon ; in 1384 he was promoted to the grand 
mastership of his college, where his pupils 
were extremely numerous, and among them 
were Gerson andClemangis ; and in 1389 to 
the chancellorship of the university of Paris. 
In return for these honours he caused a resi- 
dence for theologians to be added to his 
college, and at his death bequeathed to it his 
library and other property. But his laboun 
and distinctions were not confined to his 
university. He appeared before Clement VII., 
at Avignon, as the strenuous and successful 
advocate of the immaculate conception, 
against the error of John Montesson. At 
Genoa he preached before Benedict XIIL 
concerning the Trinity with so much power, 
as to induce that pope to establish in the 
church the festival of the Most Holy Trinity. 
By such exertions he merited the see of 
Cambray, to which he was advanced in 1395. 
Devoted to the interests of the church, he 
was afflicted by the great schism then pre- 
vailing, and unwearied in his endeavours to 
heal it For that purpose he undertook some 
missions; but it was his fixed opinion that 
the only hope of remedy was in a general 
council. His urgent remonstrances con- 
tributed to the convocation of that of Pisa, 
and there his sense and learning gave him 
much influence and augmented his great 
reputation. Two years afterwards, m 1411, 
he was raised by John XXIIL to the dignity 
of cardinal. In the council of Constance 
he found a still larger field for distinction. 



AILLL 



AILLI. 



£ 



He presided at the third session; and when 
the flight of John and most of his cardinals 
occasioned some doubts as to the validity of 
the council, he boldly upheld its authority, 
as superior to the papal prerogative. After- 
wards (June 15. 1415) he was placed, toge- 
ther with only two other cardinals, on the 
Committee of Reform. Yet his ecclesiastical 
principles were sufficiently lofky. He main- 
tained that all civil authority, whether of 
princes or magistrates, was subject to the 
spiritual power; and he was instrumental in 
the execution of Huss, as a rebel against that 
power. But at the same time he confessed 
and denounced the abuses and impurities of 
the church, the pomp of its ceremonies, its 
superfluous festivals, the multitude of its 
monks and of Its images, the imperfections of 
its prelates, the rapacity of the court of Rome, 
and especially argued that any effectual re- 
formation must begin with the head. And 
to these opinions it must be ascribed that his 
name was afterwards recorded along with that 
of Huss among the " witnesses of the truth,** 
whose honest labours are supposed to have 
>repared the path for Luther and Zwingli. 
;t is disputed whether he died in 1420 or in 
1425. It is certain that his ashes were trans- 
ported to Cambray and interred in that cathe- 
dral, and also thM he bequeathed large sums 
of money to various churches for masses for 
the repose of his soul. His title, according 
to the custom of the age, was, ** Tlie Eagle of 
France and the indefatigable Hammer o£ He- 
retics." Among his various works, those on 
judicial astrology, which are numerous, are 
perhaps the most singular; for in the warmth 
of his argument he does not fear to maintain 
that the deluge of Noah, the birth of Christ, 
and every other very remarkable event might 
have been predicted by astrology. These 
are the titles of some : — *' Vigintilogium de 
Concordantia Astronomicse Yeritatis cum 
Theologia;" **Tractatu8 de Concordantia 
Astronomies Yeritatis et Narrationis His- 
tories ; " *♦ Tractatus elucidarius Astrono- 
mies Concordiffi cum Theologia et cum His- 
torica Narratione;" ^ Apologetica Defensio 
Astronomies Yeritatis," &c. Of his other 
compositions some were logical, others theo- 
logiod. Others related to the constitution and 
condition of the church; such were his 
books "De Ecclesiastica Potestate;" "De 
Emendatione Ecclesis;*' "De Difficultate 
Reformationis in Concilio Universali," &c 
There remain, besides, a volume of tracts and 
sermons, and a life of Pope Celestine Y., 
from his pen ; and it is likewise true that he 
composed, in some thirty lines of French 
poetry, a description of the "Life of a 
Tyrant," which was paraphrased in Latin 
hexameters by his pupU Clemangis. A com- 
plete list of his works may be found in Lan- 
noi's "History of the College of Navarre," 
in the " Gersoniana " of Dupin, and in the 
" Biblioth^que Nouvelle des Manuscrits," by 
563 



D. Montfuucon ; and some of the most im- 
portant are contained in the "Fasciculus 
Remm expctendarum et fugiendarum," as re- 
published by Edward Brown, London, 1690. 
The particulars of his life are given by J^unoi 
and Dupin in the above worlu. G. W. 

AILMER, [Elmer.] 

AHiRED, an historical writer, and the 
author also of certain treatises on morals and 
divinity, was bom near the beginning of the 
twelfth century, it is supposed in ▲. d. 1109, 
and is said in the " Biographia Britannica " 
to have been abbot of the Cistercian monas- 
tery of Revesby, in Lincolnshire. But this 
statement, though it appears in other bio- 
graphical works, and receives some support 
from what we find in Leland respecting him, 
is incorrect, it being indisputable thnt not 
Revesby, but Rievaulx, another Cistercian 
house, was that over which he presided. 
This distinctly appears b^ the addition of 
Rievallensis to his name m the incipit and 
explicit of the treatises by him, published by 
Twysden, and by his own designation of 
bimself in the pr^&ce to two of his treatises, 
" Frater A., servus servorum Christi qui in 
Rievalle sunt" Rievaulx was a monastery 
in the North Riding of Yorkshire, not far 
from Helmsley or Hamlake, where was the 
castle of its founder, Walter Espec, a man 
of Ailred's time, and celebrated by him. It 
appears to have been some mistaken reading 
of the word Rievaulx which brought him 
into connection with Revesby. 

Leland, to whose account of AUred little 
has been added b^ any later writer, says that 
he was educated m S<K)tland, with Henry, son 
of David, king of the Scots ; and it is evident 
fW>m his own writings that this king was 
personally known to hum, and had commanded 
much of his veneration and esteem Leland 
has a conjecture that he might be bom in 
Scotland. 

The greater part of his life appears to have 
been spent at lUevaulx, then a newfy -founded 
house, some monks having been sent thither 
by Saint Bernard. The two first abbots were 
named William and Maurice, under whom he 
lived as a private monk ; and on the death of 
Maurice, succeeded him in his office of abbot, 
which he held till his death. The retired 
situation of Rievaulx was eminently &vour- 
able to the purposes of those who delighted in 
study and religious meditation. Ailred ap- 
pears to have been one of them. Though 
his merit was very great, and very generally 
known in the world, he was not to be seduced 
from the shades of Rievaulx, not even by the 
offer of a bishopric. He was buried in the 
church of his monastery, a great part of the 
walls of which now remain ; but there are at 
present no traces of his tomls which Leland, 
writing about the time of the dissolution of 
the religious houses, says that he saw richly 
adorned with gold and silver ornaments. 

The writings of Ailred may be divided 



AILRED. 



AILRED 



into two classes, the religious and the his- 
torical ; and also into those which have been 
printed, and those which are only to be 
found in manuscript Manuscripts containing 
writings of his are common in great libraries; 
but it does not appear that anything was 
printed professedly as his before the year 163 1. 

In that year Kichard Gibbons, a Jesuit, 
printed at Douay a volume containing the 
five following works : — 1. '* Sermones de 
Tempore et de Sanctis.'* 2. ** In Isaiam Pro- 
phetam Sermones XXXI.*' 3. ** Speculum 
Charitatis Libris IIL, cum Compendio ejus- 
dem.*' 4. ** Traotatus de Pnero Jesu duo- 
decennL" 5. ** De Spiritual! Amicitia.'* 
These works of Ailred were 8ubse<}uently 
included in the *' Bibliotheca Cisterciensis, 
and also in the ** Bibliotheca Patrum.** 

His historical writingB remained unprinted 
till 1652, when the chief of them were in- 
cluded by Sir Roger Twysden in his col- 
lection of early English chroniclers, entitled 
'* HistorisD Ajiglicanas Scriptores Decem." 
They are four treatises of no great length, 
filling fh)m column 333. to colunm 422. of 
Twysden*s work. Their subjects are — I. 
** De Bello Standardi tempore Stephani Regis ;" 
2. ** De Gtenealogia Regum Anglomm ;** 3. 
'* De Vito et Miraculis Edward! Regis et Con- 
fessoris ; *' and, 4. ** De quodam Miraculo 
Mirabili," or, " De Sanctimonial! de Watton.** 
It is in the first of these that he speaks of the 
deeds of Walter Espec; in the second, of 
David, king of Scotland. The other two be- 
long rather to the class of legendary writings 
than of chronicle or history; and on the 
whole, notwithstanding the high encomiums 
passed upon him by Capgrave and Leland, as 
an historical writer, he cannot be placed in 
the same rank with several other writers of 
the two or three centuries succeeding the 
Conquest. 

Three other treatises, which are now gene- 
rally believed to be his, have been printed ; 
namely, ^ Reguhe ad Indusas seu Moniales," 
which is printed among the works of St Au- 
gustine, as if by that fiither. The others are 
entitled ^ Tractatus de Dominica infira Oc- 
tavas Epiphaniie,** and " Sermones de Operi- 
bus Isais.** These are printed among the 
works of St Bernard. 

There has lately been published, in the 
** Reliquis Antiqus,*' by Messrs. Wright and 
Halliwell(voL ii p. 180—189.), acatalogueof 
the books which formed the library of the 
monks of Rievaulx in the fourteenth century, 
in which are many writings of St Augustine, 
of St Bernard, and of Ailnsd. Among those 
attributed to Ailred, is one entitled " De In- 
stitutione Inclusarum,'* which is probably 
*he tract attributed to St Augustine : there 
is also the " De Operibus Ysaise,*' given to 
Ailred ; and this ma^ be taken as some proo^ 
in addition to what is to be found in Tanner, 
of the wrong appropriation of those treatises. 
There is also in that catalogue a volume of ' 
564 i 



sermons among the works of Ailred. Con- 
sidering the connection of Ailred with this 
monastery, their collection of writings, said 
to be his, may be taken as being nearly a 
complete collection of the works reaUy his, 
and their testimony as being no mean proaf 
of his claim to works given to him. We add, 
therefore, that, besides the writings first men- 
tioned, there are in the Rievaulx catalogue 
the ** De Spuituali Amicitia," ** De ViU 
Sanctl Edward! ;" ** De Generoeitate et Mo- 
ribus et Morte Regis David,** which is pro- 
bably the treatise published by Twysden 
under the title ** De Genealpgia Reguni An- 
glomm,** or at least the former portion of 
It; ** De VitaSancti Niniani Episcopi ;'* ** De 
Miraculis Haugustaldensis EccLesis ;** " Epis- 
tolsB ; " De Anima ;** and " Speculum Chari- 
tatis,'* which, though not expressly said to he 
his, is so placed in the catalogue that it may 
reasonably be inferred the compiler meant it 
to be received as his, as Gibbons considered 
it There is also in this catalogue a ** Psal- 
terium Glossatnm*' by him. The original of 
this valuable catalogue is in the library of 
Jesus College, Cambridge. Of the treatise 
on the miracles of the church of Hexham, and 
the life of Saint Ninian, there are copies 
among Laud*s MSS. in the Bodleian. We 
proceed to notice other writings which are 
attributed to him by Pits and other writers : 
— 1. A Life of the Confessor, in Latm verse, 
addressed to Lawrence, abbot of Westminster. 
A copy of this is in the library of Cains 
College, Cambridge (Tanner). 2. " Vita S. 
MargaritSB Reginss Scotise." 3. ** De Fnn- 
datione Monaster!! S. Maries Eboraoensis, et 
de Fontibus,'* a copy of which is in the library 
of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. 4. ** De 
Prelatorum Moribus.** .5. ** De Ministrorum 
Officiis." 6. •* Sagittam Jonathse.'* 7. " Dia- 
logus inter Hominem et Rationem." There 
are a great number of other small treatises, 
each contained in one book, attributed to him 
by Pits, for which the rea4er is referred to 
his work. But he may be warned that there 
is danger of writings bemg attributed to Ail- 
red of Rievaulx which really belong to Edil- 
red, who was abbot of Warden. 

Pits says, without naming his authority, 

that Ailred died in a.d. 1166, bemg in his 

fifty-seventh year, and that his name was 

placed in the catalogue of the saints. Leland 

says that he was assisted in his writings by 

Walter Daniel the Deacon. J. H. 

AIMAR RIVAULT. [Atmar.] 

AIMAR VERNAL [Atmar.] 

AIMERI DE BELENVEL [Bblenvei.] 

AIMERI DE BELMONT. [Bblmont.] 

AIMERIC, or HAIMERIC, (called, in 

the ** Biographic Universelle," but we know 

not on what authority, Aimeric Malefiiyda, 

or de Malefaye,) third Latin patriarch of 

Antioch. In his own letters he writes his 

name Aimericus, but William of Tjrre gei|e- 

rally writes it Haimericus, and Baronins fol- 



AIMERIC. 



AIMERIC. 



lows him. Aimeric was a native of Limousin, 
and an illiterate person. On the deposition 
of Radolphus, or Ralph, patriarch of Antioch, 
A.D. 1 142, he was chosen to succeed him, partly 
through the patronage of Raymond, prince 
of Antioch; and partly, it is said, through 
the bribes distributed to the bishops of me 
diocese by Peter (called by William of T3rTe 
Petrus Armenius), commander of the garri- 
son of the city, and uncle to Aimeric. Ai- 
meric was at the time of his election one of 
the clergy of the cathedral of Antioch. Wil- 
liam of Tyre in one place calls him dean 
(decanum), in another, one of the subdeacons 
(quendam Qusdem ecclesiflB subdiaconum). 
He was iuYolved in a quarrel with Raynald, 
who had married the widow of Ra^ond of 
Antioch and succeeded to the prmcipality, 
and was by him imprisoned and treated widi 
the utmost cruelty. Cinnamus, the Byzan- 
tine historian, affirms that Raynald's olgect 
was to extort money fix>m the patriarch. 
(Cinnamus, History, book iv. c xviil) By 
the intervention of Baldwin III, king of Je- 
rusalem, he was set at liberty and his pro- 
perty restored to him; after which he left 
the diocese of Antioch, and withdrew into 
the kingdom of Jerusalem, where he resided 
some years. During this interval he cele- 
brated the marria^ of King Baldwin with 
Maria Comnena, mece of the Emperor John 
Comnenus. In the year 1180 he was in- 
volved in a quarrel with Bohemond, now 
prince of Antioch, who had repudiated his 
wife, and, in spite of the opposition of the 
clergy, taken another. For this Bohemond 
incuired excommunication, and in revenge 
plundered the property of the church and 
offered violence to the patriarch, who with 
some of his clergy was besieged in a fortified 
house belonging to the church. The dissen- 
sion was panially allayed after some time by 
the intervention of the patriarch of Jerusalem 
and the grand masters of the Hospital and the 
Temple. About this time Aimeric received 
the Maronites into the communion of the 
Latin church. He was the Pope's legate in 
the East After the battle of Tiberias, a.i>. 
1 187, Aimeric sent two bishops into the West 
to invoke the aid of the European princes. 
The letter which he wrote on this occasion 
to King Henry IL of England, and Henry's 
answer, are preserved by Benedict of Peter- 
borough {De Vita et Uestia Henrici IL et 
Bicardi /., Heame's edit, pp. 503, seq.) Ai- 
meric*s letter is given also by Baronius. 
Aimeric died a.d. 1187, before receiving, as 
it appears, the answer of the King of England. 
The order of Carmelite monks is said to owe 
its origin to him : he collected the hermits 
who were living in the Holy Land, formed 
them into a community, and fixed them on 
Mount Carmel, from whence the order spread 
into Europe. A letter of Aimeric to Hugo 
EAerianus, acknowledging the gift of his 
book on the procession of the Holy Ghost, is 
565 



given in Martene's ** Thesaurus Anecdoto- 
rum," voL i. p. 480. (Guillelmus Tyrius, 
(William of Tyre), Historia Belli Sacri, lib. 
XV. c xvi. xviii., lib. xviiL c i. xxii, lib. xxii. 
c. viL viiL; Baronii Amutles ad Ann. 1143, 
1181,1182,1187; L'Art de vfyijier les Dates, 
vol. iv.) J. C. M. 

AIMERIC DE PEGULHA, or AI- 
MERI DE PEGUILAIN, a troubadour of 
the thirteenth centnir, was the son of a dra- 
per of Toulouse. His poetry was, we are 
told, very bad, till he fell in love with a ci- 
tizen's wife of the neighbourhood, on whom 
he made many exoell^t songs. The lady's 
husband thought fit to meddle with him, and 
do him dishonour (** lo marit se mesclet ab 
lui e fes li desonor," are the words of the 
Provencal biographer), on which Aimeric 
avenged himself by dealing the husband a 
serious wound on the head with his sword, 
and was in consequence obliged to fly fh>m 
Toulouse. He took reftige in Catalonia 
with Guilems de Berguedan, himself a poet, 
who was so pleased with his talents, that 
he gave him his own palft^y and clothing, 
and presented him to King Alfonso of 
^Castile. The husband was cured of his 
wound, an event which seems to have been 
unexpected, and went on a pilgrimage to St. 
James of Compostella, probably to return 
thanks for his recovery. Aimeric felt desirous 
of profiting by his absence, to carry on his 
amour at Toulouse, and King Alfonso, on 
learning his wish, not only provided him with 
all he wanted, but sent an escort with him to 
assist him in his designs. The companions 
of Aimeric went to the house of the citizen's 
wife, told her that a cousin of the King of 
Castile, who was in their company on a pil- 
grimage, had ftdlen iU on the road, and soli- 
cited permission for him to lodge in her 
house. Under this pretence, Aimeric gained 
admittance, and was there ten days, after 
which he returned to his friends in Spain. 
He remained at the court of Alfonso till 
he was obliged to leave it on account of a 
satire which he had composed on Anselm, the 
royal steward, in which he accused him of 
stealing his master's gold cup. He then 
spent some time at the court of the Princess 
Beatrice, the heiress of Provence, before her 
marriage to Charles of Anjou, in 1245, an 
event which the poet deplored in verse as a 
great misfortune. The latter part of his life 
was passed in Lombardy, where his biogra- 
pher states that he is said to have turned 
heretic As he lived in the time of the con- 
test between the pope and the Albigenses, it 
is not improbable that this statement may 
have had a foundation in fiict, especially as 
Aimeric, in some of his poems, celebrates the 
Count of Toulouse, the defender of the Albi- 
genses, and the King of Aragon, the defender 
of the count In some of his verses, he al- 
ludes to himself as advanced in age, and, from 
the events that he mentions as contemporary, 



AIMERIC. 



AIMERY. 



it is evident that he liyed both at the ootn- 
mencement and towards the middle of the 
thirteenth century. He is said to have died 
about 1260. 

More than fifty poems by Auneric are still 
extant That they verc highly esteemed in 
his own time, is shown by the mention made 
of them by Dante, in his treatise " De Vnlgari 
Eloquio,'* book ii chap. 6. ; and b^ Petrarch, 
in his " Trionfo d*Amore ; " if, indeed, the 
Amerigo mentioned by Petrarch is Aimeric 
de Pegulha, which has been doubted. He 
was fond of, and thought to excel in satire ; 
but, to a modem reader, his poems do not 
appear to possess peculiar merit Several of 
his productions are printed by Raynouard, 
and a few by Rochegude. ( Lifts by a Pro- 
vencal biographer, in Ze Parnasse Occitanien, 
by Rochegude, p. 169, &c. ; and in Raynou- 
ard, Ckoix de» Pofyies originahs des Trou- 
badours, v. 8, &c. ; Histoire LitUraire des 
Tr/ndtakoursj by Millot, IL 232, Sec ; Life, by 
Nostradamus, with notes by Crescimbeni, in 
Crescimbeni, Camentarj intomo alia sua Isto- 
ria della volgar Poesia, u. 78, &c.) T. W. 

AIMERICH, MATEO, a Spanish Jesuit, 
bom at Bordil in the diocese of Gerona in 
Catalonia, a. d. 1715. He entered the so- 
ciety of Jesuits at the age of eighteen ; and 
after finishing his studies, became professor 
of philosophy and divinity in several of their 
colleges. He was chancellor of the university 
of Gandia at the time of the expulsion of the 
Jesuits from Spain (1767). He retu*ed into 
Italy and settled at Ferrara, where he died 
A. D. 1799, aged eighty-four. Aimerich was a 
man of extensive learning, and remarkable 
for the elegance and purity of his Latin style. 
Besides a variety of smaller works on philo- 
sophical and philological sul^ects, he published 
— 1. ** Nomina et Acta Episcoporum Barcino- 
nensium, 4to. Barcinone, 1760." 2. "Quinti 
Moderati Censorini de Vita et Morte Lingiue 
Latins Paradoxa philologica criticis non- 
nuUis Dissertationibus exposita, asserta, et 
probata, 8vo. Ferraris, 1780." 3. " ReU- 
tione autentica dell' Accaduto in Pamasso," 
8vo. Ferrara, 1782. This was a defence of 
the preceding work. 4. ** Specimen veteris 
Romans Litteraturs deperdits vel adhuc 
latentis, 4to. Ferraris, 1784." 5. ** Novum 
Lexicon Historicum et Criticum antiqus 
Romans Litteraturs deperdits vel latentis, 
&c. 8vo. Bassani, 1787." This is a sequel 
to the preceding work. He left a supplement 
to his Lexicon, and some other works in MS. 
(^Biographie Universelle, SupplHnent) J. C. M. 

AIMERY, or AMAURY DE LUSIG- 
NAN, king of Cyprus, and also of Jerusalem, 
in the twelfth century. He succeeded to 
Cyprus on the death of his brother Guy, 
A.D. 1 194, and in 1197 he obtained the titular 
kingdom of Jerusalem by his marriage with 
Isabella, daughter of Aimery I., a previous 
king. His brotlier Guy had acquired the 
same dignity by his marriage with Sibilla, 
566 



the elder sister of Isabella, and about the 
year 1189 had lost almost at the same time 
the greater part of his dominions by his un- 
successful wars with the Saracens, and the 
title by the death of his queen. Isabella, 
who had then, by claiming her inheritance, 
deprived the Lusignans of the title of king 
of Jerusalem, had successively conferred it, 
after her separation from her first husband, 
Humftvy of Toron, on Conrad of Mont- 
ferrat, and Henry of Champagne ; and now, 
by her fourth marriage, she transferred it a 
third time, and restored it to the family of 
Lusignan. Aimery, at the request of his 
queen, fixed his residence in Palestine, and 
intrusted the government of Cyprus to the 
knights of Saint John. His first operations 
against the Saracens were successftd; in 
spite of the formidable opposition of Malek 
Ar-adhil, the brother of Saladin, he took the 
city of Berytus or Beyrout, and was crowned 
there in the first year of his reign. The 
Christian forces next undertook the siege of 
Toron, a fortress between Mount Le^on 
and the sea, and would probably have suc- 
ceeded, but for treachery and dissension 
among themselves. Disgusted at this con- 
duct, the German crusaders, who formed 
the chief strength of the Christian army, 
availed themselves of the excuse for re- 
turning to Europe afforded them by the 
death of their emperor, Henry VI., to whom 
Aimery had acknowledged himself a vassal 
for the kingdom of Cyprus, for the purpose 
of obtaining assistance. Left to contend 
alone with tiie Mohammedans, the King of 
Jerusalem was only enabled to maintain the 
shadow of power by the internal disputes 
of the successors of Saladin. His hopes of 
assistance were revived by the tidings of the 
approach of a new force of crusaders ; but he 
was disappointed by its unexpected diver- 
sion against the Greek empire, which resulted 
in the conquest of Constantinople by the 
Latins, a. d. 1 202. As soon as this news 
reached Palestine, Aimery was deserted even 
by the crusaders who had hitherto remained 
with him, and was unable to effect anything 
more than an advantageous armistice with 
Malek Al-'ddil, who had a great respect for 
his character. He died at Acre, after an- 
other war and another armistice, on the Ist of 
April, 1205, a short time after his queen 
Isabella ; and at his death the kingdoms of 
Cyprus and Jerusalem were again disunited, 
to the great disadvantage of the Christian 
cause. Cyprus fell to Hugh, his son by a 
former wife, and Jerusalem to Maria, the 
daughter of Isabella by Conrad of Mont- 
ferrat (Art de verifier les Dates, folio edit 
i. 451. 459. ; Wilken, Geschichte der Xreuz^ 
zUge, V. 20, &c. &c Some statements made 
by Etienne Lusignan, Histoire des Princes 
de Hierusalem, Cypre, ^c, are at variance 
with other authorities, and have been disre- 
garded.) T. W. 



AIMO. 



AINE. 



AIMO, pOMfi'NICO, an Italian sculptor, 
called Varignana. He made some of the 
statues over the principal gate of San Pe- 
tronio at Bologna. He lived in the early 
part of the sixteenth century. (Cicognara, 
Stona deUa ScuUura. R. N. W. 

AIMOIN (in Latin, Aimoinus), a monk of 
the Benedictine abbey of Fleury, or St Benoit 
8ur Loire, near Orleans. He was a native of 
Aquitaine or Guienne, and was related by the 
mother's side to the lords of Aubeterre in 
Angoumois. He embraced the monastic life 
at the abbey of Fleury under Oylbold, a. d. 
970, and died a. d. 1007 or 1008. His prin- 
cipal work is his history of the Franks, 
dedicated to Abbon of Fleury [Abbon], suc- 
cessor of Oylbold. He wrote or designed to 
write four books, extending from the de- 
parture of Antenor (to whom he traces the 
origin of the Prankish nation) from Troy 
to the time of Pepin le Bref, father of Charle- 
magne ; but either he never completed his 
plan or part of the work has been lost 
Three books and part of the fourth are ex- 
tant The work is continued to the fifteenth 
year of Louis le Debonnaire by another hand. 
Aimoin professed to be only a compiler, " to 
bring together in one work, and to re-write 
in purer Latin, the deeds of the Prankish 
nation or kings, dispersed in various books, 
and recorded in rude style.*' The authorities 
to which he had recourse are enumerated by 
Bouquet (Becueil des Historieru dea Gaules et 
de la France^ torn, iil p. 20.). Aimoin wrote 
the life of Abbon of Fleury [Abbon] ; two 
books on the miracles of St Benoit or Bene- 
dict ; a sermon on the festival of that saint ; 
and some Latin hexameter verses on the 
translation of the bones of St Benedict, and 
the foundation of the abbey of Fleury. The 
verses are printed by Fran9oi8 Duchesne at 
the close of Aimoin's history, in the third 
volume of the ** Historic Francorum Scrip- 
tores." The style of Aimoin, though in- 
ferior to that of Abbon, is not so bad as that 
of many authors of the same age. (Dupin, 
NouveUe Bibliothique des Auteurs EccUsias- 
tiquet; Bouquet, Pre&tory Notice to Aimoin's 
History in the Hecueil des Uistoriens des 
Gaules et de la France.) J. C. M. 

AINE, AISNES, or DAINE, MARIE 
JEAN BAPTISTE NICHOLAS D', was 
bom at Paris in 1733. After filling the oflBce 
of maitre des requetes, he became successively 
intendant of Pau, Limoges, and Tours. He 
was a member of the Academy of Sciences 
and Belles Lettres of Prussia, and is described 
as a man remarkable for his probity, possessed 
of great information, and one whose con- 
versation was both amusing and instructive. 
He died on the 25th of September, 1804. His 
works consist of a translation of Dodsley's 
** (Economy of Human Life," published at 
Edinburgh in 1752, in 12mo., and of Pope's 
Eclogues: the latter translation is inserted 
in the second volume of ** La Nouvelle Bi- 
567 



garrure," p. 75. (Z< Moniteur, an. xiii. p. 30.; 
Querard, La France LitUraire, tit " Aine" 
and " Dodsley.") J. W. J. 

AiNEJl' SOLIMAN, grand vizir, sur- 
named Alneji, (the Crafty, or, literally, 
the "Mirror-man,)" from his address m 
deceiving both friends and enemies. He 
was bom in Bosnia, of Christian parents^ 
but he embraced Islam, and was employed 
as a ^Toom in the palace of the celebrated 
Koprili, whose kiaya or secretary he became. 
Having entered the army, he rose to the 
rank of general, and beat the Poles at Ba- 
batach in 1684. He was afterwards em- 
ployed in Hungary, and showed himself a 
subtle diplomatist in the civil troubles of that 
country. Kara-Ibrahim, the grand vizir, 
who amied at his ruin, named him com- 
mander-in-chief in Hungary ; but Aineji 
saw the snare, and hastily started for Con- 
stantinople. He there persuaded the diwan 
that the presence of the sultan himself, or at 
least of the grand vizir, could alone retrieve 
the state of stairs in Hungary. But the sul- 
tan durst not absent himself from Constanti- 
nople, and Ibrahim, an infirm and sickly 
man, was neither a statesman nor a soldier ; 
and Aineji succeeded in convincing the 
ministers of this. Accordingly, Ibrahim waa 
caught in the snare he had set for Aineji, 
who was appointed to supersede him as grand- 
vizir. Vigorous measures soon announced to 
the people the accession to power of a minister 
equally distinguished in the cabinet and in 
the field. Alneji's first step was to pay the 
troops the arrears, but in a debased money. 
He defended and saved Tbkoli, the usurper 
of the Hungarian throne, whose head had 
been called for by the adherents of the sys- 
tem of the late grand vizir who still possessed 
influence ; and he quelled the disorders of 
the Janissaries. He also stopped the frauds 
practised by the soldiers in obtaining their 
pay several times, which they did in tiie fol- 
lowing way : — each soldier had a ticket with 
his name written on it, and he was paid 
on showing the ticket to the cashier, who 
returned it without asking for a receipt, a 
measure of precaution which could not be 
practised in a country where the people can- 
not write their names. When a soldier was 
paid, he used to give his ticket to one of his 
comrades, who got the pay again on assuming 
the name which was written on it Aineji or- 
dered that the description of the bearer should 
be written on the back of each ticket ; but by 
this measure he excited the discontent of the 
army, for in that time no freeman in Turkey 
would allow a description of his person to be 
given on his papers, because this was equiva- 
lent to being classed among slaves. 

The French ambassador having demanded 
the cession of the Holy Sepulchre at Jera- 
salem to the Roman Catholics exclusively, 
Aineji received him with all courtesy, but 
refused to accede to his proposal It was in 



AINEJL 



AINSLIE. 



May, 1686, that ATneji Soliman started for 
Hungary, after obtaining fh>m the sultan a 
firman which promised mm life and liberty, 
vhatever might be the issue of the campaign. 
In this war ever^rthing depended on preyent- 
ing the Imperialists from taking Buda (Ctfen), 
then defended by Al>di Pasha against the 
Duke of Lorraine, in whose camp were col- 
lected nobles and soldiers from every nation 
in Europe. The grand vizir advanced to 
relieve the place, but the Germans gained a 
brilliant victory, and took Ofen by assault on 
the 2d of September, 1686. The Turkish 
army was obliged to retire under the walls of 
Belgrade. The following year Aineji had 
some partial successes near Essek, and the 
capital was already celebrating them by re- 
joicings and prayers in all the mosques, when 
every&ing was thrown into conftision by the 
news of the battle of Mohacs, in which, on the 
12th of August, 1687, the sultan's army was 
completely defeated by the Germans. Aineji 
Soliman saved himself with great difficulty, 
leaving in the hands of the Duke of Lor- 
raine his superb tent ornamented with four- 
teen turrets, each surmounted by a ball of solid 
gold. Fortress after fortress was lost, and 
province after province. Transylvania shook 
off the Ottoman yoke ; and to crown this series 
of disasters, Morosini landed in Greece with 
an army of Venetians, and overran the Morea 
in a single campaign. After all these mirfor- 
tunes, discontent and hatred began to gather 
over the head of the unhappy grand vizir. 
Aineji, takmg with him the standard of the 
empire, secretly left his camp, and fled to 
Constantinople. He showed tiie despairing 
sultan the finnan which guaranteed lum life 
and liberty. He was neverUieless arrested 
and thrown into prison ; but the artful minis- 
ter escaped fh>m confinement, ran through 
the streets calling out for a revolution, and at 
last concealed himself with a Greek who 
lived near the seraglio. His asylum was 
known only to the sultan and the Kislar- Agha. 
The army however demanded his death ; the 
sultan abandoned him, and he was led to 
execution, 1st Zilkide, a. h. 1098 (a. i>. 8th 
October, 1687). (Hammer, Gegc/Uchte des 
Osmanischen fetches, iv. 442, &c) W. P. 
AINSLIE, GEORGE ROBERT, eldest 
son of Sir Philip Ainslie, of Pilton, Edin- 
burghshire, by the daughter of Lord Gray, 
was bom at Edinburgh, m 1766. He entered 
the army in his eid^teenth year, served seve- 
ral campaigns in Flanders and Holland, and 
rose through the intermediate ranks to that 
of colonel m 1810. Two years after, he was 
appointed governor of St Eustatius, and, the 

J rear following, governor of Dominica. The 
egislature cf Dominica voted him their 
thanks, and a sword of the value of two 
hundred guineas, for his exertions in sub- 
duing the Maroons, a banditti formed from 
runaway slaves, who had ravaged the island 
for forty years. He was recalled in 1814, 
568 



to explain his conduct in the Maroon war, 
which had been questioned in Parliament, 
on which occasion he was warmly addressed 
by all classes of the inhabitants. He returned 
to Dominica, but soon after finally retired. 
He had attained the military rank of lieute- 
nant-generaL 

Peace being proclaimed, and his time un- 
occupied, Ainslie turned his attention to nu- 
mismatology, to which he became enthusiasti- 
cally devoted. He paid particular attention to 
the studjjT of the coins struck •by the English 
princes m France, and succeeded in forming 
a cabinet richer in coins of that class than 
any other collection, either public or pri- 
vate. He was especially fortunate in obttun- 
ing pieces of value for determining the dates 
of historical events; and in the pursuit of 
these he paid no regard to time, trouble, or ex- 
pense. He made repeated journeys to France 
with a view to their acquisition; and the parts 
most rich in such treasures being completely 
out of the track of ordinary English tourists, 
his foreign appearance, in some places, pro- 
cured him a ** tail " of girls and boys equal 
to that of a Highland chief In 1830 he 
published, in a handsome quarto volume, 
** Illustrations of the Anglo-French Coinage, 
from the Cabinet of a Fellow of the Anti- 
quarian Societies of London and Scotland, 
of the Royal Societies of France and Nor- 
mandy, and many others, British as well as 
Foreign.*' The work is admirably printed 
and embellished, and contains the best account 
we have of the coins referred to, which throw 
much light on English history of the time 
of our Edwards and Henrys. Shortly after 
the publication, a great part of the collection 
was sold by public auction, when some of the 
most interesting coins were purchased for the 
British Museum. General Ainslie died at 
Edinburgh, on the 16th of April, 1839, at 
the age of six^-three. (lUustratums of the 
Angto-French Coinage^ pref p. vi. viiL ; Gat- 
demon* s Magazine for 1839, New Series, xii. 
216.) J. W. 

AINSLIE, SIR ROBERT, BART., was 
bom in 1729 or 1730, and was the third son 
of George Ainslie, Esq., a Scotch gentleman 
of ancient descent, long settled as a merchant 
at Bordeaux, and of his wife Jane, daughter 
of Sir Philip Anstrather, of Anstruther, in 
the county of Fife, Bart Of his two elder 
brothers, the eldest, Philip, who was knighted, 
died in 1802, and George rose to be a general 
in the army, and died in 1804 : of five sisters 
four were married in France ; and Robert is 
also stated to have spent his earliest years in 
that country, although his father, who died 
in 1733, had returned to Scotland, and settled 
on an estate which he purchased in the county 
of Mid Lothian, in 1727. The first public 
mention which we have found of Robert is 
the announcement in the Gazette, under date 
of 20th September, 1775, of the appointment 
of ** Robert Ainslie, Esq. to be His Migesty's 



AINSLIE. 



AINSLIE. 



ainl)as8ador to the Ottoman porte, in the room 
of John Murray, £$q., deceased." He was 
now knighted, and took his departure in May 
of the rollowing year for Constantinople, 
which he reached in Novemher, and where 
he continued to reside as minister till 1792. 
In September, 1796, he received a grant of a 
pension of loboiL on the civil list, to be held 
during the joint lives of himself and His 
Majesty. The same year he was returned to 
parliament as one of the members for the 
close borough of Milbom Port (on the interest 
of the proprietors, the Earl of Uxbridge and 
Sir WOliam Cotes Medlyoott) ; and he sat 
till the dissolution of that parliament in June, 
1802 ; but it does not appear from the Par- 
liamentary History that he ever spoke in the 
House. In 1804 he was made a baronet, 
with renuunder, in de&ult of issue male of 
his own body, to his nephew, Robert Sharpe 
Ainslie (the son of General Ainslie), who 
was then one of the members for the borough 
of St Michael, and who eventually inherited 
the honour on the death of his uncle, at Bath, 
on the 22d of July, 1812. Sir Robert AJbslie 
bad the reputation while in Turkey of being 
a great fiivourite and boon companion of the 
SiStan Abdu-1 Ahmed [ Ahxed IV.] ; but his 
name is principally known in connection with 
an extensive collection of coins and other 
antiquities, drawings, and olijects in natural 
history, which he formed during his resi- 
dence in Turkey. Certain of the drawings, 
whieh were by Luigi Mayer, furnished the 
suljects for tiie ** Views in Egypt," the 
** Views in the Ottoman Empire, chiefly in 
Caramania," and the " Views in Palestme," 
which were engraved by Thomas Milton, and 
published by Bowyer, in 1801, 1803, and 
1804: the entire collection, consisting of 
ninetjr-siz plates, with letter-press, in elephant 
folio, is dedicated to Ainslie, in a short ad- 
dress, in which the drawings are stated to 
have been taken under his auspices. Many 
of the coins are described by the Abate 
Bomenico Sestini in various publications, 
especially in his "Lettere e Dissertazioni 
Numismatiohe sopra alcnne Medaglie rare 
della Collesione Ainslieana," 4 torn. 4ta, 
Leghorn, 1789; his ** Dissertazione sopra 
alcune Monete Armene dei Principe Rupi- 
nensi della Collesione Ainslieana," 4to., Leg- 
horn, 1790 ; and his " Descriptio Numomm 
Veterun ex Museis AinsUe," &c 4to. Leipzig, 
1796. The first-mentioned of these pub- 
lications is inscribed to Ainslie in a very en- 
comiastic dedication, in which the author 
extols him as his Mincenas, and as the pro- 
tecting genius of the fine arts; but they 
quarrelled after this, and in the prefiuse to the 
" Description Numorum Veterum," Sestini 
ass^ his former patron with the bitterest in- 
vective, as a mere trader in antiquities, who 
had gathered together the contents of his mu- 
seum with no oSier view but to make money 
of them, according, as Sestini is pleased to say. 



to the genius and character of his nation — < 
** secondo il genio et carattere della sua na- 
zione.** {Baronetage ofEnglandf 12ma 180G,' 
p. 531, 532. ; Burke's Dictionary of the Peer- 
age and Baronetage of the Britiih Enmire, 
1840; Gent Mag. tor August, 1812; Beat- 
son's Chronobgical Register, vol ii ; Annual 
Begietery xxxl 120, 138. ; xl. 179.) G. L. C. 

AIN8W0RTH, HENRY, one of the 
earliest leaders of the English sect of Inde- 
pendents, or, as they were at first called, 
Brownists. [Bbowne, Robert.] There is 
no mention of him till the year 1593, when 
he was in connection with a church which 
had been founded at Amsterdam by the 
Brownists, who had been exiled fh>m Eng- 
land in that year. We again find him at 
Amsterdam m 1596 : a letter written by him 
in that year is printed in Limborch's " Epist 
Viror. Prscstant et Erudit." p. 74. 

Ainsworth appears to have lived, like many 
of the other Brownists in Amsterdam, in very 
great poverty. It is stated that he hired him- 
self as a porter to a bookseller, and that he 
lived on ninepence a-week and some boiled 
roots. The truth of this statement, however, 
is strongly doubted by Mr. Hanbury. Ac- 
cording to Hombeck, he made a voyage fh>m 
Amsterdam to Ireland, and there made some 
converts to Brownism. 

The Brownist exiles at Amsterdam, though 
protected by the government of the united 
provinces, met with much opposition ftom 
the Dutch clergy, and especially from Ar- 
minius. Among the attempts which they 
made to conciliate their opponents, one of the 
most important was the correspondence of 
Ainsworth with Junius in 1596. These 
attempts foiling, the exiles put forth a state- 
ment of their principles under the fol- 
lowing title : ** The Confession of Faith of 
certain English People, living in the Low 
Countries, exiled." This document, in the 
composition of which Ainsworth had a con- 
siderable share, was first drawn up in the 
year 1596, and republished in 1598, with a 
dedication ** To Ihe reverend and learned 
men, students of Holy Scripture in the 
Christian universities of Leyden in Holland, 
of St. Andrew's in Scotland, of Heidelberg, 
Geneva, and other the like fiunous schools of 
learning in the Low Countries, Scotland, Ger- 
many, and France." It was reprinted, with 
some alterations, in 1602 and 1604. 

The pastor of the church to which Ains- 
worth belonged was Francis Johnson, and 
Ainsworth hunself held the office of teacher. 
In this church disputes soon broke out, in 
some of which Ainsworth supported the 
pastor, [Johnson, Fbancis,] but at length, 
about the year 1609, Johnson and he differed 
about certain points of church discipline, and 
especially about the power of the elders, 
Johnson maintaining that the absolute go- 
vernment of the church lay in their hands, 
and Ainsworth holding that the elders oughf 



AINSWORTH. 



AIIfSWOBTH. 



always to yield to the wishes of the body of 
the people. There were other points re- 
specting which they disagreed, namely, the 
call to the ministry ; rebaptising, or the in- 
Widity of the bi^tism derived through the 
Church of Rome ; and the propriety of 
taking counsel from sister churches. After a 
year or more spent in controversy, and after 
a fruitless attempt to settle the dispute by 
the mediation of the church at Leyden, 
Ainsworth and his party withdrew from 
Johnson's church on the 16th of December, 
1610, and founded another church in Am- 
sterdam, of which Ainsworth became pastor. 
The adherents of Johnson and of Ainsworth 
were from this time distinguished as John- 
sonians and Ainsworthians. 

In the midst of these disputes, and of 
other controversies with the enemies of the 
Brownists, Ainsworth published the great 
work on which his reputation mainly rests, 
*' Annotations on the Five Books of Moses, 
the Psalms, and the Song of Songs," which 
was first published, in separate parts, in 1612 
and the following years, and reprinted at 
London in 1627 and in 1639, in one volume, 
folio. There is a Dutch translation of the 
whole work, which was published at Leu- 
wanden in 1690, and a German translation 
of the commentary on Solomon's Song, 
Frankfort, 1692. This work displays a vei^ 
sound knowledge of Hebrew, and great cri- 
tical powers. It has always been held in 
very high esteem both in England and on the 
continent 

Ainsworth died suddenly in the year 1622 
or 1623. His death, according to an impro- 
bable story related by Neal, was suspected 
to have taken place from poison under 
singular circumstances. Ainsworth, having 
one day picked up a very valuable diamond 
in a street of Amsterdam, advertised for the 
owner, who proved to be a Jew, and who 
offered Ainsworth any reward he chose to 
ask. Ainsworth would accept of nothing but 
a conference with some of the Jewish rabbis 
on the prophecies of the Old Testament re- 
lating to the Messiah; and the Jew, not 
having influence enough with his brethren 
to obtain the conference, made away with the 
challenger by poison. Another version of 
the story is, that the conference was held, 
and that Ainsworth confuted the Jews, who 
poisoned him out of revenge. The story ia 
not mentioned by any of the editors of his 
posthumous works. 

Ainsworth was in all respects one of the 
first men of his party. His opponents have 
borne ver^ high testimony to his character 
and leammg. Bishop HaU, in his " Apology 
for the Church of England against the 
Brownists," often mentions him as the great- 
est man of his party, their doctor, their ohidE; 
their rabbi. 

His chief works, besides the annotations 
above mentioned, were — 1. '* Counterpoison: 
570 



(1) Considerations touchinff the P<HnU in 
difference between the godfy Ministers and 
People of the Church of England and the 
seduced Brethren of the Separation ; Ar- 
guments that the best Assemblies of the 
present Church of England are tme visible 
Churches, that the Preachers in the best 
Assemblies of England are true Ministers of 
Christ ; (2) Mr. Bernard's Book, intituled 
'The Separatists' Schism;' (3) Mr. Cra- 
shaw's * Questions,' propounded in his S^- 
mon preached at the Cross: — examined 
and answered, by H. A., 1608," 4to., re- 
printed in 1642. This work most not be 
confounded with another " Connterpoison" 
which is sometimes ascribed to Ainswortfa, 
but which was written by Dudley Fenner, a 
Puritan, before 1584. 2. " A Defence of the 
Holy Scriptures, Worship, and Miiiistry used 
in the Christian Churches separated from 
Antichrist, against the Cavils, Challenges, 
and Contradiction of Mr. Smith, &&, 1609." 
3. ** An Arrow against Idolatry, taken out of 
the Quiver of the Lord of Hosts ;" an attack 
on the Church of Rome, and one of the most 
powerful controversial works of the age» 
published at some period before 1612. 4. ** Ao. 
Animadversion to Mr. Richard Clyfton'a 
' Advertisement,' &c, 1613." This work re- 
lates to the differences in the church at Am- 
BterdauL 5. " The Communion of SaintB," 
published probably before 1617. 6. **The 
Book of Psalms : Englished both in Prose 
and Metre, Ac., 1612." 7. ** The trying cot 
of the Truth : begun and prosecntedin cer- 
tain Letters or Passages between John Ayns- 
worth and Henry Aynsworth ; the one 
pleading for, the other against, the present 
Religion of the Church of Rome, &&, 1615." 

8. ** A Reply to a pretended ' Christian Plea' 
for the Anti-Chnstian Church of Rome, 
published by Mr. Francis Johnson, &&, 1620." 

9. '* A Seasonable Discourse ; or, a Censore 
upon a Dialogue of the Aioabaptists, &e^ 
1623," reprinted 1644. 10. A posthumous 
work entitled "The Orthodox Foundation of 
Religion, 1641 :" prefixed to this is a strong 
testimony to Ainsworth's character, by the 
editor, Samuel White. Some other works by 
Ainsworth are noticed by Mr. Hanbury. 
His "Treatise on the Communion of the 
Saints," and his ** Arrow against Idolatry," 
were reprinted together in 1789, with an ex- 
cellent life of tbe author by Dr. Stuart 
(Neal's History of the iVtteiM, ii. 43. $ 
Wilson's Ditsenting Ckurchea, I 22. ; Brook's 
Lives of the Puritans, iL 299. ; Hanbnrjr's 
Historical Memorials relatimjf to the Indgpasr 
dentSf voL i. passim.) 

A new edition of the "Annotations" is 
now in course of publication in parts, 8vo., 
by Blackie and Son, Glasgow. Five parts 
have already appeared. (July, 1842.) P. a 

AINSWORTH, ROBERT, was bom in 
September, 1660, at Woodyale, in the parish 
oi Eocles, a few miles from Mmchester, and 



AIN8W0RTH. 



AINSWOBTR. 



wu educated at Bolton in Lancashire, where 
he afterwazda himaelf taught a achooL He 
came to London in or before 1698, and, having 
made himaelf known b^ a pamphlet on the 
suliject of edncation, he in that or the foUow- 
ing year opened a boarding-honse at Bethnal 
Omn. He soon after removed his establish- 
ment to Hackney ; and sabseqnently he is said 
to have had a school in other villages near 
London : but, having soon made money 
enough to enable him to dispense with the 
labour of teaching, he spent some of the last 
years of his life m literary leisure, much of 
which, it is related, he employed in making 
rounds among the shops of the brokers in all 
parts of the metropolis, searching for old 
coins and other antiquities and rarities, of 
which he had at last accumulated a consider- 
able collection at a small cost This he dis- 
posed of in single articles a short time before 
his death, which took place in London on 
the 4th of April, 1743. His wife and he 
were both buried at Poplar, under an in- 
scription, partly in Latin, partly in English 
verse, composed by himself. 

Ainsworth's first publication, as for as is 
known, was the tract already ^uded to, en- 
titled '* The most natund and easy Wav of 
Institution ; containing Proposals for making 
a domestic EducatKm less chargeable to 
Parents and more easy and beneficial to Chil- 
dren ; by which Method, Youth may not only 
make a very considerable Pro^press in Lan- 
guages, but also in Arts and Sciences, in two 
Years," 31 pagea 4to^ 1698. This is a very 
sensible little treatise, evincing that the author 
was considerably ahead of his age, and had 
arrived at much more correct views than 
were dien, or tiian indeed are yet, commonly 
entertained, more especially on the mode of 
teaching foreign languages, which he would 
have taught in schools to a great extent after 
the mode by which every child learns at 
least the essentials of its native language. 
Ainsworth did not place his name on the tide- 
page of the first edition of this pamphlet ; but 
he affixed it to ** The dedication addressed to 
Sir William Hustler, M. P.," that is. Sir WU- 
liam Husder, knight, then one of the members 
for Northallerton, with whom he appears to 
have been previously well acquahited. At the 
end is the following advertisement : — ** Such 
as desire to discourse the author of these pro- 
posals may hear of him at the booksellers, or 
at the Marine Coffiw House in Birchin Lane, 
after 'Change, who can inform them of under- 
takers." A second edition, ** with additions," 
(which, however, seaicely amount to a page 
in all,) appeared in the same form the follow- 
ing vear ; the author now giving his name 
on ttie titie-page, and there being inserted, in 
place of the advertisement, the date, ** From 
my house at Bednal Green, December the 22d, 
1698." Tlie existence of this second edition 
appears to have been forgotten when in 
1736, while the author was still alive, a new 
571 



impression of the tract was published in 8vo. 
(price 1«.) and called the second edition ; the 
publisher was the notorious Curil, of Rose 
Street, Covent Garden, and it was probably 
brought out without Ainsworth's knowledge 
or consent. Ainsworth appears to have sent 
nothing more to the press, unless it might be 
some Latin and English short poems which 
he is said to have pnnted, though their exist- 
ence is now unknown, till he published, in 
1720, an account in Latin of the classical 
antiquities ccdlected by the late John Kemp, 
Esquire, under the tide of " Monumenta 
Vetnstatis Kempiana, ex vetustis Scriptori* 
bus illustrata, eosque vicissim illustrantia ; 
in duas partes divisa ; quarum altera Mu- 
mias. Simulacra, Statuas, Signa, Lares, In- 
scriptiones, Vasa, Lucemas, ^uleta, Li^ides, 
Gemmas, Annulos, Fibulas, cum aliis Veterum 
Reliquiis ; altera Nummos, Materia Modoque 
diversos, continet" The author's name is 

' not on die tide-page, but at the end of the 
preface, in which he states that he had 
been prevailed upon to draw up the account 
at the request of Kemp's brother, a worthy 
man, but not conversant with such matters, 
notwithstanding that, besides his other defici- 
encies, a weakness in his eye-sight (ooolorum 
vitium) made him not very fit for the under- 
taking. Ainsworth is said to have been very 
short-sifted. He had evidendy taken no 
ordinary pains with his task. Besides the cata- 
logue, pn^hsely illustrated with classical refer- 
ences, the volume contains, in addition to die 
pre&ce, ten long dissertations on Egyptian, 
Greek, and Roman antiquities ; one bemg a 
disquisition on the Roman money, ** De Asse 
et Partibus ^us," which extendi to above 
seventy pa^es. There is a sumptuously bound 
copy of this volume in the British Museum, 
which appears to have been the presentation 
copy sent to Henry (Hare) Lord Coleraine, 
two manuscript letters addressed to whom by 
the author are pinned into it The first, 
written in a remarkably beantifbl hand, is 
dated April 14di, 1720 : it has not, as ihr aa 
we are aware, been printed, and containa 

I some matter which may be termed bio- 
graphical, besides affording a sample of Ains- 
worth's English style, which, although a litde 
pedantic, was not without elegance : — ** My 
lord, the relation between patron and client 
in ancient Roman times was so sacred that 
both were called by one common name, 
Amici ; and the jtciemtet andci treated the 
tentiea with a civility and respect suitable to 
the old maxim, AnuciHa avt mvenit out 
faeU pareg. Indeed in later and worse 
times the case was so much altered, that the 
client was esteemed litde better than a ser- 
vant, and used accordingly ; which treatment 
Juvenal in his fifth Satire severely lashes. 
But, my lord, that between your grandihther 
of blessed memory and myself was of the 

I former kind. He was a man ttnHqua tnrtutig 

I et fidei. He not only received my little 

» pp 2 



AINSWORTa 



AINSWbRTH. 



services with an air of one obliged, but also 
returned them with such kind offices as if he 
thought himself so, though they were far 
overpaid by his gracious acceptance, which 
was so delightflil and pleasing to me that I 
could correct Horace and read him thus : — 
Dvlcis et experto cvltura potentis amid. 
Marvel not, my lord, at these scraps of 
Latin. They are such as would not l^ar a 
translation, the English of this epistle being 
but a version of a dedication intended to have 
been prefixed to the book herewith presented 
to your lordship. For I could not endure 
to think of any other patron of a book of 
antiquities, whilst a successor to the name, 
honour, virtues, and learning of my noble 
patron, a fiunous antiquary, was living. I 
had therefore designed to entreat the honour 
of your shining name to illustrate a work the 
design whereof is to illustrate antiquity ; but, 
to my surprise, was lately acquainted by the 
owner of the antiquities here described that 
he intended to present a book to the king, 
which would not be accepted if dedicated to 
anv subject j which prevents my book's re- 
ceiving the desired honour and protection. 
Whether he has yet made his present I know 
not, but could no longer delay this of mine to 
your lordship. Your favourable acceptance 
thereof will highly honour and oblige, my 
lord, your devoted client and humble ser- 
vant, R. Ainsworth.** The other letter, veij 
neatly written in imitation of printing, is 
dated 15th May, 1720, and expresses Ains- 
worth's regret that although his ** very good 
friend" Mr. Samqel Benson had been three 
times to Tottenham with the book, he had 
never found his lordship at home, which had 
delayed the publication longer than was con- 
venient, because he had wished to put it into 
his lordship's hands before it should reach 
those of any other nobleman. He hopes that, 
in the circumstances, his lordship will excuse 
the delay, and accept the mean present A 
manuscript note in the volume, in the hand- 
writing of Dr. Birch, dated March 16. 1754, 
states that the greater part of Kemp's col- 
lection had been first brought together by 
Mr. John Goilhard, who had been governor 
to George first Lord Carteret ; he sold the 
articles to Carteret for an annuity of 200/. 
After Carteret's death, 22d September, 1695, 
Kemp bought a considerable part of the col- 
lection daring the minority of John Lord 
Carteret, then, when the note was written. 
Earl Granville. This account professes to be 
given on the information of Heneage Earl of 
Winchelsea, who had seen many of the ar- 
ticles in Goilhard's possession, at Angers in 
France, in 1676, and afterwards, incr^u«d to 
a much greater number, at Paris in 1683. 
The collection, as left by Kemp, Birch adds, 
was sold by auction at the Phoenix Tavern 
in Pall-Mali, on Thursday the 23d, the 24th, 
25th, and 27th of March, 1721, in 293 lots, 
fbr 1090/. 8«. 6(/. AinsworUi had been 
572 



elected a member of the Society of Anti- 
quaries, probably after the appearance of the 
** Monumenta Kempiana ;" and in 1724, when 
the society resolved to have an account drawn 
up of all ancient coins, the Roman coins were 
undertaken hj him and Roger Gale. His 
next publications were two short archaeo- 
logical tracts ; the one entitled "ISEION, 
sive, ex Veteris Monumenti Isiaci Descrip- 
tione, Isidis Delubrum reseratum," 4to. 1729, 
consisting of only four pages, besides the 
dedication to James West, Esq. ; the other 
entitled " De Clypeo CamUli antique," 4to., 
1734, which had previously appeared at the 
end of the ** Museum Woodward ianum," or 
account of the antiquarian collections of Dr. 
John Woodward, published after Woodward's 
death in 1728, under the superintendence of 
Ainsworth, bv whom it was in part drawn 
up. His Latm Dictionary, the work that has 
preserved his name, is said to have been 
suggested by the booksellers so early as about 
the year 1714 ; and the first edition of it ap- 
peared, with the title of " Thesaurus Linguie 
Latins compendiarius ; or, a Compendious 
Dictionary of the Latin Tongue, designed 
principally for the use of the British Nations," 
m one volume, 4to., in 1736. It was inscribed 
to Dr. Mead in a Latin dedication, written 
with Ainsworth's usual elegance of style. 
The republication of his early tract by Curll 
the same year was probably occasioned by 
the reputation to which Ainsworth was im- 
mediately raised hy this performance, which 
was certainly much superior to any work of 
the kind that had previously appeared in this 
country, and, with the improvements made 
upon it in successive editions, long continued 
to be our best Latin and English Dictionary. 
It appears that the sum Ainsworth received 
from the booksellers for this first edition, in 
which he is supposed to have been assisted 
by Dr. Samuel Patrick, was 666/. 17«. 6<i, 
and his executors were paid 250/. more for 
what he had contributed before his death to 
a second edition, which was brought out in 
1746, under the superintendence of Patrick, 
with a pre&ce containing a short biographical 
account of the deceased author. Dr. John 
Ward is also said to have assisted in this 
edition, which, like the former, was in one 
volume 4to. A third edition, Uttie if any- 
thing more than a reprint, followed in 1751, 
under the care of Mr. Kimber ; and a fourth, 
in one volume folio, in 1752, with great im- 
provements by the Reverend William Young 
(the Parson Adams of Fielding's " Joseph 
Andrews"), assisted by Ward. Young's 
edition was reprinted in 1761 ; in 1773 an- 
other edition, in two volumes 4to., was pro- 
duced under the care of the Rev. Thomas 
Morell (the learned author of the Greek 
Prosodiacal Lexicon); and several other 
editions have since appeared. The latest, we 
believe, is that published at London in one 
large 8vo. volume, revised by the Rev. B. W. 



AINSWORTH. 



AIO. 



B. Beatson, A. M., of Pembroke College, 
Cambridge, and farther revised and corrected 
by Willuun Ellis, Esquire, A. M., King's 
College, Aberdeen. There are also abric^- 
ments by Young and by Mr. Nathaniel 
Thomas. (Biog, Brit^ principally on the 
authority of Patrick's Preface to the Dtc- 
tionary ; Arckaoiogie^ rol I p. xzzyiL ; and 
Ainsworth's various publications.) O. L. C. 
AIO, AYON, or AJO'NE, younger son of 
Adelgisus, prince of Benerentum, succeeded 
his elder brother, Radelchis, a.d. 883, in 
consequence of a revolution. His reign vas 
a troubled one. He had to fight against Wido, 
duke of Spoletum, who took him prisoner, 
but he was afterwards liberated. Waider, 
nephew of Adelgisus, who had put lumself 
under the protection of the Byzantines, made 
also war against Aio, and, being supported 
by the Emperor Leo, took from him the 
greater part of his dominions. In 890 Aio 
died, and was succeeded by his infant son 
Ursus, and in the following year the By- 
zantines took possession of Beneventum, 
and put an end to the Longobard dynasty, 
which had lasted 830 years. (Oiannone, 
Storia Civile del Regno di NtxpoH; C. Pere- 
grinius, Historia Principum Langchardorum.) 

AIO was, according to the history attri- 
buted to Ingulphus, amonkof Croyland, who, 
when that monastery fell into decay on the 
death of King Athelstan, a. d. 941, retired to 
that of Bialmesbury, and remained there till 
recalled to his former place of residence by 
the abbot Turketul, hj whom the house at 
Croyland was re-established in 947, the second 
year of King Edred. Of the former monks, 
originally twenty-eight in number, there re- 
mamed at this time, besides Aio, only four 
other old men: brother Brunus, who had 
taken refuge in the monastery of Winchester, 
and brothers Clarenbaldus, Swarttingus (else- 
where called Swarlingus) and Thurgarus, 
who had never left Croyland. Aio is de- 
scribed as learned in the science of law (juris- 
peritus), and well acquainted with the ancient 
muniments of the monastery, and on that 
account he was appointed by Turketul to 
arrange an account of the house from its 
foundation, on the information of the other 
aged brethren, and especially of Thur^^anis, 
who had been brought up in it from his in- 
fancy and remembered the sacking of the 
place and the massacre of the monks by the 
Danes in the year 870. Another monk, 
named Swetmannus, was assigned to assist 
him in the work, who is described as an ex- 
cellent notary or scribe (optimum notarium), 
and whose duty was to be to take down 
the statements of the ancient brethren, that 
they might be afterwards arranged and put 
mto a good style, probably by Aio. The 
history is said to have been actually brought 
down to the fourteenth year of King Edgar, 
that IS, the year 974, in which both Aio and 
573 



Brunhs died. The'great age which ThurgaruS 
must have attained, who is represented as 
having survived Aio for two or three years, 
has been made an objection to this story ; but 
that is comparatively nothing. Ingulphus, or 
the writer of the history which passes under 
his name, is a very bold narrator. It is true 
that he makes Thurgarus to have died in 976, 
at the age of 115; but he has just before 
stated that Swarlingus died in 975, at 142, and 
Clarenbaldus, as well as Aio and Brunus, in 
974, at 168 (reduced in the more modest 
manuscripts to 148). No part of the his- 
tory prepared by Aio and his colleagues re- 
mains, although Ingulphus seems to speak 
of it as existing in his time. (Ingulphus, //»- 
toria Croyland^ in Gale, Rerum AngL Scrip- 
tores, p. 29, 30. 32. 48. 51.) G. L. C. 

AIR AY, HENRY, D.D., a divine of the 
Church of England, who has been ranked 
among the Puritans on account of his non- 
conformity to certain minor observances ap- 
pointed by the Church of England, such as 
bowing at the name of Christ He was bom 
in Westmoreland in 1560, and educated 
under Bernard Gilpin, by whom he was sent, 
at the age of nineteen, to Oxford, where he 
studied first in St. Edmund's Hall, and after- 
wards in Queen's College, of which he be- 
came provost He was vice-chancellor of 
the university in 1606, when Laud was called 
before him to answer for sentiments alleged 
to be popish, which he had expressed in a 
sermon at Oxford. Dr. Airay died on the 
6th of October; 1616, at the age of fifty-six, 
and was buried in the inner chapel of Queen's 
College. His religious opinions were Cal- 
vinistic, his piety was sincere and unaffected, 
his character was such as to draw upon him 
a degree of admiration from which his mo- 
desty shrunk, and his government of his 
college was most efficient His works were~- 
1. ** Lectures upon the whole Epistle to the 
Philippians, 1618.** 2. " The just and ne- 
cessary Apology touching his Suit in Law 
for the Rectory of Charlton on Otmore, in 
Oxfordshire, 1621." 3. ** A Treatise against 
bowing at the Name of Jesus." (Wood's 
Athena Oxoniensea^ i. 348. ; Brook's Lives of 
the Puritans, ii. 247.) P. S. 

AIROLA, ANGIOLA VERONICA, an 
Italian lady of a noble fiunily of Genoa, 
devoted herself to painting as a profession. 
She was the pupil of Domenico Fiasella of 
Sarzana, and executed several works of con- 
siderable merit An altar-piece which she 
painted for the church of Gesu e Maria at 
Genoa has been praised for its tasteful com- 
position. She painted also several pieces for 
the convent of San. Bartolomeo dell' Olivella, 
of which she was a sister, and in which she 
died, according to Orlandi, in 1670. (So- 
prani, Vite d^Pittori, ^c, Genovesi; Orlandi, 
Abecedario Pittonco,) R. N. W. 

AISNES. [AiNB.] 

AlSSE', MADEMOISELLE, a Circassian 
pp 3 



AISSE. 



AITINGER. 



by birth, was carried ofF^bj the Turkfl in 
the pillage of a Circassian town, and in 1698, 
when about four years of age, was sold to 
M. de Fftrriol, the French ambassador at 
Constantinople, for 1500 francs. She was 
immediately consigned to the sister-in-law of 
the ambassador, Madame de Ferriol, under 
whose protection she receiyed a careful edn- 
cadon in all the accomplishments of her time. 
When arrived at maturity she went to reside 
with M. de Ferriol, who at first treated her 
with the affection of a parent, but sub- 
sequently, abusing the powers and oppor- 
tunities which his situation gave him, suc- 
ceeded in seducing her. After the death of 
li. de Ferriol she received many solicitations 
from the Regent Duke of Orleans, who met 
her at the house of Madame de Parabdre, but 
which she steadily resisted. After a long 
struggle she yielded to her passion for the 
Chevalier d' Aydie, who appears to have been 
well worthy of her affection. As a knight of 
Malta he could not marry, but he was anxious 
to be freed from his vows in order that he 
might be united to her. This sacrifice of his 
interests she would never consent to. When 
she found herself likely to become a mother, 
she confided her situation to her friend Lady 
Bolingbroke, who, under the pretence ii 
taking her with her to England, placed her 
privately in a remote quarter of Paris, where 
the gave birth to a daughter. The infant 
was conveyed to England by Lady Boling- 
broke, and received her early education 
Uiere ; she was afterwards pUbced in a con- 
vent at Sens under the name of Miss Black, 
niece of Lord Bolmgbroke. Although living 
at a period when French manners were 
characterised by the extreme of profligacy. 
Mademoiselle Aiss^ appears always to have 
retained her purity en mind, and to have 
erred rather Uirough an excess of romantic 
generosity of temper than a want of moral 
principle, and some time after the birth of 
her daughter she resolved to live with the 
chevalier only as a sister. The same 
strength of mind which had enabled her to 
resist all sacrifices on his part supported 
her in her present purpose, and the remain- 
der of her life was spent in penitence. She 
died in the year 1733. Her letters, which 
are written in a very simple and pleasing 
style, and which display much depth of feel- 
ing, were printed at Paris in 1787, in 12ma, 
with notes by Voltaire. A subsequent edition 
was published at Paris in 1823, in 12ma, 
with a biographical notice by the Baron de 
Barante, and explanatory notes by L. 8. 
Auger. (Barante, Milanges Higtoriquet et 
ZitUrab'ea, iii. 333 — 342. ; Queraid, La 
FrcMce Littiraire,) J. W. J. 

AISTULPHUS. [A8TUi.PHua] 
AITINGER, SEBASTIAN, secretary to 
Philip the Magnanimous, Landgraf of Hesse. 
An interest attaches to hun, from the manner 
in which he threw away his life to preserve 
674 



his fidelilT to his master and the Protestant 
cause. Sebastian Aitinger was bom in 
Ulm, in 1508. He was bred a notary, and 
acted fbr some time as secretary to the town 
ooonciL On the occasion of some quarrel 
with his employers, he quitted their service^ 
and entered that of the Landgraf of Hesse. 
He was employed by that prince as his private 
secretary, and thus became acquainted with 
all the secrets of the league of Schmalkalden. 
When the Emperor Charles V. made Philip 
prisoner, in the beginning of 1547, an eager 
search was made by the Imperialists for his 
secretary, in order to extort frtnn him the 
secrets of the Protestant princes who were 
members of the league. Sebastian sought 
refuge in his native town, where, notwith- 
standing his former quarrel with the au- 
thorities, he was hospitably received; but 
haunted by a constant fear of fidling into the 
hands of the Roman Catholic princes, and 
being fiiroed to reveal the secrets with which 
he had been intrusted, he left the town, and 
lurked in the vicinity. He was attacked by 
a fever in the beginning of November, 1547, 
while stopping at Burloffingen, near Ulm. 
On the evening of the 8th, an alarm was 
given that twenty men at arms belonging to 
die Imperialist arm^ were ^proaching the 
village. Aitinger unmediately fled, sick as 
he was, swam across the Danube, and took 
refuge in the residence of a nobleman who 
protected hnn. Here his fever increased to 
such a degree as quickly put an end to his 
life. His devotion was long held in thankful 
remembrance by those who would have 
been compromised by evidence which torture 
might have forced from him. When Ai- 
tinger's son, many years afterwards, was 
pres^ited to the Landgraf Philip, he ob- 
served, ** This lad's father died for me ; 
would that there were more such servants.** 
(Ersch und Gruber^s AJUgemeine Encyelo- 
padie,) W. W. 

AITKEN, JOHN, M.D., was one of the 
surgeons of the royal infirmary of Edinburgh, 
and gave lectures in that city on the practice 
of phjsic, anatomy, surgery, midwifery, and 
chemistry. He was admitted member of the 
Colle^ of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 1770, 
and died in 1790. His works are numerous, 
and embrace many of the leading subjects of 
medicine ; and though several of them are 
merdj the text-books of his lectures, they 
contam much valuable information, are well 
written, and show him to have been fully con- 
versant with the literature and philosophy as 
well as the practical department of his pro- 
fession. He introduced an alteration in the 
mode of locking the midwifery forceps, so as 
to ** render this matter easier to the prac- 
titioner, and the whole instrument more safe 
to the mother and child ;'* and he invented a 
flexible blade to the lever. He likewise in- 
vented, and described in his ** Essays and 
Cases in Surgery," a pair of forceps for 



AITKEN* 



AITON. 



diyiding and diminiBlimg the stone in tlie 
bladder, vhen too large to be remored entire 
by the woond in lithotomy. His works are 
— ** Essays on several Important Suljects in 
Surgery, chiefly with regard to the Nature 
and Cure of Fractures." London, 1771, 8to: 
** Essays and Cases in Surgery." London, 
1775, 8va ** Conspectus rei Chirurgi©.** 
Edinburgh, 1777, 8vo. •* Medical Improre- 
ment : an Address to the Medical Society of 
Edinburgh." Edinburgh, 1777, 12mo. "Ele- 
ments of the Theory and Practice of Surgery," 
Edinburgh, 1779, 8yo., which was republished 
with the ** Elements cf the Theory and Prac- 
tice of Physic," thus forming two vols., en- 
titled ** Elements of the Theory and Practice 
of Physic and Surgery." London, 1783, 8vo. 
•• Outlmes of the Theory and Cure of Ferer." 
London, 1781, 12mo. "Principles of Mid- 
wiferf, or Puerperal Medicine." 1784, 8vo. 
"Osteology, or a Treatise on the Bones of 
the Human Skeleton." London, 1785, 8yo. 
"Principles of Anatomy and Physiology." 
Edinburgh, 1786, two toIs. 8vo. "Essays 
on Fractures and Luxations." London, 1790, 
8vo. CWviUfBibiwth, Britt.; Aitken's Works.) 

G. M. H. 

AlTOGHDI-ALP, the son of Gundus- 
AIp, and nephew of Osman first sultan of the 
Osmanlis, whose fiiTOurite he was on account 
of his valour. He fell by the hand of a 
Greek noble in the battle fought in a. h. 701 
(a. d. 1301) between Osman and Muzalus, 
general of &e Byzantine guards, whose army 
was defeated. Seventeen years after Osman 
arenged his nephew's death, hj beheading 
the son of the man that killed him, who had 
fiedlen into his hands at the taking of Brusa, 
of which town that young Greek was com- 
mandant. Altoghdi-Alp was buried near 
Brusa, where his tomb still remains, and is 
fhmous for the virtues which it is said to 
possess, of curing diseased horses that are 
led to look at it (Hammer, Gegchiehte (Um 
Oimanixhen Reicftes^ voL i. p. 68.) W. P. 

AITON, WILLIAM, was bom in 1781, 
at a small village near Hamilton in Scotland. 
He visited England in 1754, and became 
assistant to Mr. Philip MiUer, the author of 
the Gardener's Dictionary, who was at that 
time the curator of the Botanic Garden at 
Chelsea. "Whilst with Miller, he assiduously 
cultivated a knowledge of plants as well as 
then* practical management in the garden ; 
and in 1759 he was appointed by George III. 
to form and arrange a botanic garden at the 
ro^l residence at Kew. He continued in 
this situation till his death in 1793, and lost 
no opportunity which his favourable circum- 
stances afforded him of introducing new and 
rare forms of foreign plants. He had at one 
time under his care in this garden upwards 
of 6000 species of plants, and was remarkable 
for the success with which he managed them, 
and the improvements which he introduced 
into their cultivation. In 1783, on the death 
575 



of Mr. Haverfield, he was appointed to the 
superintendence of the pleasure and kitchen 
gardens. The opportunities that he possessed 
at Kew of becoming acquainted with new 
plants resulted in the publication of a de- 
scriptive catalogue of the plants grown there, 
under the title " Hortus Kewensis, or a 
Catalogue of the Plants cultivated in the 
Royal Botanic Garden at Kew.*' London, 
1789. 3 vols. 8vo. In this work a descrip- 
tion of each species is given, with much in- 
teresting incidental matter with regard to 
their introduction, cultivation, and other 
matters. Aiton received assistance in this 
work from Dr. Solander and Mr. Diyander, 
foreign naturalists residing in this country, 
and the whole of the work is arranged ac- 
cording to the system of Linnsus. 

A second e&tion of this work, in five 
volumes, appeared in 1810-13, edited by Mr. 
William Townsend Aiton, son of the suliject 
of this article and his successor in the royal 
gardens at Kew. This edition was revised 
b^ Robert Brown, and is enriched with ad- 
ditional matter by him. An epitome of the 
second edition of this work was published in 
London fai 1814. 

Aiton died on the 1st of February, 1798, 
leaving a wife and three children. His 
private character is represented as h^hly 
estimable. He numbered among his friends 
Sir Joseph Banks, who during the latter part 
of the last and the beginning of the present 
century was the preat patron of natural 
history in Great Britain. (Funeral Sermon by 
Smith ; Gentleman's Mag., 1793.) E. L. 

AITSI'NGERUS, MICHAEL, is inserted 
here under the designation with which the 
title-pages of his works have rendered readers 
most ^miliar. His real name, however, was 
Michael von Eytzing. His ihther, Christofer 
Freiherr von Eytzing, an Austrian nobleman, 
was aconomus, or maitre dliotel, to Maxi- 
milian, king of Bohemia, afterwards Maximi- 
lian II. of Germany. Young Eytzing, having 
received a good elementary education at 
Vienna, was sent by his fkther, in the year 
1553, to Louvaine, to study law. At this 
time a letter from Ramus, which has been 

S reserved, speaks of hhn as a yonth ( juvenis) ; 
ve years later, Mndsus designates him a 
young man (adolescens). These vague data 
are A that we have to enable us to con- 
jecture the time of his birth. Michael von 
E3rtzing was probably about seventeen or 
eighteen years of age in 1553. In the letter 
above alluded to Ramus speaks of hun as a 
lad of great promise. 

In 1556 negotiations were commenced for 
the sale of his step-mother's interest in the 
seignenrie of Conde to Anne Montmorency, 
the countess dowager of Lalaing. The 
management of this business was intrusted 
to Micfaafil. As soon as the transaction was 
concluded he returned to Louvaine ; but in- 
stead of confining hunseli^ as before, to the 
p p 4 



AIT6INGERUS. 



AITSINGERUS. 



law, ae began to turn his attention to hiatory ; 
and either at this time or previous to his 
leaving Vienna, he devoted a part of his lei- 
sure to the study of mathematics. The 
first fruits of his inquiries were a system <^ 
chronology so arranged as to serve the pur- 
pose of an artificial memory for students of 
history ; and a diagram of a perpetual ca- 
lendar to fiicilitate the finding of the true 
time of Eiaster in any year. 

In 1563 Michael von Kytzing undertook a 
journey to Trent for the purpose of sub- 
mitting his chronological compend and per- 
petual calendar to the cardinals and prelates 
there assembled. Thence he proceeded to 
Rome with a warm letter of recommendation 
from four of the cardinals present, to Car- 
dinal Boromeo, and a letter from the em- 
peror to Pius IV. He was allowed to explain 
the principle upon which he had constructed 
his perpetual calendar to Ae cardinal legate 
at Trent, on the 15th of July, 1663 ; and, 
atcording to his own account of the 
matter, it received, at a subsequent period, 
the formal sanction of Pope Pius V. In 
1565 he presented to the emperor his trea- 
tise on Austria and the emperors of the 
house of Austria. In 1566 he presented his 
inquiry into the age of the world to the 
electoral college, bi 1568 he was sent to 
Belgium on a mission to the Duke of Alba; and 
before his dewture he caused 112 copies of 
a map of the Holy Land, which he had com- 
piled, to be printed, for the purpose of dis- 
tributing them as fisu:ewell presents among his 
friends. 

The subsequent life of Von Eytzing can 
only be traced in the publication of his 
works. In 1579 he published his com- 
pendium of chronology, in a small quarto 
volume, at Antwerp, with the following title- 
page : " Michaehs Aytsingeri Austriaci 
Pentaplus Regnomm MundL Antwerpis; 
ex officina Clu-istophori Plantini Architypo- 
graphi Regii. 1579." In 1582, he published 
at Cologne his map of the Holy Land, en- 
graved by Francis Hogenberg, along with an 
historical and topographical account of the 
country. The lK>ok is a small quarto, the 
title-page as follows : — ** Terra Promissionis 
topographice atque historice descripta ; cum 
amplissimis duobus Locomm ac Temporum 
Indicibos, Per Micbaelem Aitsingerum 
Austriacum. In utilitatem omnium qui 
locorum in eadem terra inspectores, pariter et 
remm ibidem gestarum sectores esse cupiunt 
Francisco Hogenbergio concesso." The colo- 
phon informs us of the time and place of 
printing : ** ColonisB Agrippins excudebat 
Godefridqs Kempensis anno ab origine 
mundi 5542 ; k Christi verd Salvatoris nostri 
Nativitate ann. 1582." To this account of 
the Holy Land he added, as an appendix, the 
perpetual calendar above alluded to. It is 
uncertiun in what year the first edition of the 
historical and topographical i|ccount of the 
576 



Belgic lion appeared. The earliest edition, in 
the British Museum, printed at Cologne in 
1585, bears on the title-page to be an enltrged 
and improved edition. Some remarks in the 
table of errata seem to point to the conclusion 
that the first edition was published in 1583. 
This work, like that on the Holy Land, 
originated in a niap of Belgium, which the 
author had compiled, and Hogenbeig en- 
graved. In the pre&oe he informs us, that 
having been struck with the resemblance of 
the boundary line of the seventeen provinces 
of the Netherlands to the outline of the figure 
of a lion, he had compiled a map of them 
under this fimciful form ; and that Hogen- 
berg had engraved it ftur him, ^ not less 
beantiftiUy than he did that of Eun^ie, pre- 
sented to the Emperor Charles ux Italy, in the 
fipire of a vii^gin queen, Portugal being the 
diadem." In this his map Von Eytzing in- 
troduced horizontal parallel lines, distin- 
guished by the letters of the alphabet, wiA 
perpendiculars fidling upon them, distin- 
guished by the cardinal numbers, with a view 
to fiicilitate the finding of any place referred 
to in his narrative. And to add to the interest 
of his work, he resolved not to confine him- 
self to a dry list of proper names, but to add 
to the topography of Bel^um its history, 
from the accession of Philip IL in 1559, to 
the year 1583. For undertaking this task he 
felt he possessed peculiar advantages, having 
resided, one time with another, upwards of 
twenty years in the country. Suooeasive 
impressions of the work appeared in 1583^ 
1585, 1587, and 1595 ; each bringing down 
the narrative to the time of publication. The 
title-page of all these editions is, with very 
trivial variations, the same ; the date of each 
impression must be learned from the colophon, 
or in some cases from the year to which the 
annals extend. The title-page is to this 
effect : — ** De Leone Belgico, ejusque Topo- 
g^phica atque Historica Descriptione : liber 
quinque partibus Gubematorum Philippi 
Regis Hispaniarum ordine distinctus. In- 
super ex elegantissimi illius Artiflcis Fran- 
cisci Hogenbergii 142 Fignris omatus; 
rerumque in Belgicis maxime gestarum inde 
ab anno Christi 1559, usque ad annum 1585, 
perpetua narratione continuatus. Michaele 
Aitsingero Austriaco auctore. Francisco 
Ho^nbergo concesso. Auctior ac locupletior 
editia" In 1590 he published a catalogue of 
the reij^ing princes of Europe, with their 
respective genealogies. An improved edition 
appeared in 1591. The title-page of this 
second edition is as follows : — *' Thesaurus 
Principum hac JEtate in Europa viventium : 
libellus, jam multis locis correctior et Auc- 
tior quam antea editus. Chnnibus histori- 
arum studiosis non minus utilis quam neces- 
sarius. Per Michaelem Eyzinger Austri- 
acum : Colonis Agrippinse, apud Godefri- 
dum Kempensem. Anno 1591. 12mo." In his 
prefaces he mentions three other works, which 



AITSINGERUS. 



AITZEMA. 



ve haye not Been. The flnt of these is his 
treatise on Anstria and the emperors of 
the house of Austria ; the second he calls 
** Liber de Mundi PunctO}" it is probably 
the work which Jocher describes as an " in- 
quiry hovr long the world has really existed;" 
The third is a special topography of the 
Netherlands, with seyenteen maps, published 
both in Latin and Oennan : the Latm edition 
is entitled *' Itineramm Belgicum;" the Ger- 
man ** Chorographia yon Beljgiien." Besides 
these, Jocher attributes to hun a history of 
the Prankish kin^ (** De Regibus Franco- 
rum"), and '* A Historical RcSbstion of past, 
present, and Aiture Times." 

The year of Michael yon Eytsing's death 
is uncertain. A statement in the prefiuse to 
a oontmuation of his ** History of Belgium, 
from 1595 to 1605," seems to imply that he 
died soon after the dose of the former year. 
With all their defects his Bel^^ annals 
are yaluable. His personal intunacy with 
the most eminent leaders, both of the Pro- 
testant and Roman Catholic parties, and 
diplomatic appointments which he held at 
different times, afforded him ample opportu- 
nities for obseiryation. The aocuraey of his 
statements has been youched for both by 
Roman Catholic and Protestant contempo- 
raries. (The materials for this sketch haye 
been collected from the pre&ces and dedi- 
cations of Aitsioger's works, and from the 
introduction to the edition of his De Leone 
Belgico, published in 1585.) W. W. 

AITZEMA, FCPPIUS VAN, was a mem- 
ber of an ancient fkmily of Friesland, and an 
eminent jurist He held the professorship 
of law successiyely at the uniyersities of 
Leyden, Helmstiidt, and Wiirtemberg. He was 
resident for the United Proyinces at Hamburg 
until 1630, when he was sent on special mis- 
sions to the imperial generals Wallenstein and 
Tilly, and to the King of Denmark. In 1 636 
he was sent as enyoy to the Emperor Ferdinand 
IL, and made himself conspicuous by his en- 
deayonrs to bring about a peace between the 
Swedes and the emperor, in the course of 
which he asserted that he had been requested 
by the Swedish enyoy to use his good offices 
for that purpose, which the latter flatly de- 
nied. His motiye on the occasion is sup- 
posed to haye been a wish to ingratiate him- 
self with the emperor as a powerful Roman 
Catholic prince, Aitaema haying shortly be- 
fore, according to rumour, been conyerted to 
the fiuth of Rome. It being also reported 
that he had accepted the lordship of Ameland 
in Friesland as a fief of the empire, his 
masters recalled him to the Hague. Taking 
the alarm, he fled frt)m Hamburg, first to 
Prague and then to Vienna, where he soon 
after died. 

He published — 1. ** Poemata Juyenilia, 

Od», &c" Paris, 1605, 8yo. 2. "Disserta- 

tionum ex Jure Ciyili, Lib. II." Helmstiidt, 

1607. Reprinted in the sixth part of Meer- 

577 



mann's *' Thesaurus Juris." (Foppens, Bib^ 
liotheca Belaica, p. 280. ; Pufendorf, De Bebms 
Suecicis, hb. ix. 296. ; Kok, VuderlaHiUch 
Woordenboek, ii. 407, 410.) J. W. 

AITZEMA, LIEUW, or LEO, VAN, 
was bom on the I9th of Noyember, 1600, 
at Doccnm in Friesland, where his ftither, 
Meinard Van Aitzema, was secretary to the 
Dutch admiralty. He studied law at the 
uniyersity of Franeker, but for a time in- 
dulged also in lighter pursuits, as appears 
from a yolume of his *' Poemata Juyenilia," 
which was published in his seyenteenth year. 
He finished his education at Orleans, where 
he took his licence en droit on the S2d of 
January, 1622. On his return to FriesUnd^ 
he practised for some time at the bar ; but, 
in 1629, through the influence of his uncle, 
Foppius Van Aitzema, he obtained the post of 
counsellor and resident for the Hanseatic 
cities at the Hague, to which was afterwards 
added that of resident for Stralsund. The 
business of his office led him twice to Eng- 
landf where he remained for some time, and 
became intimate with most of the great 
officers of state, and also with CromwelL 
He has been accused of haying sought Crom- 
well's fayour by betraying to him &e secreta 
of his principsls ; but against this charge it 
must be urged that he retained their con- 
fidence to ibe dose of his career. Aitzema 
is best known as an historian; and as hla 
works are especially yaluable for the rare 
state documents which they contain, and 
which are generally not easily accessible, he 
has been charged with employing unjustifiable 
means to obtain them ; but the proof rests 
chiefly on the admissions of some of his pre- 
sumed accomplices, alleged to haye been 
made after his death. He died, unmarried, 
at the Hague, on the 23d of February, 1669. 

His works are — 1. ^ Poemata Juyenilia," 
Franeker, 1617. 2. ** Theses Inaugurales,** 
Orleans, 1622, 4to. 8. *'Verhaal yan de 
Nederlandsche Vredehandeling" (** Narratiye 
of the Dutch Negotiations for Peace"), 
Hague, 1650, 4to. ; reprinted Amst. 1653, 
2 yols. 4to. ; Leyden, 1654, 4to. A Latin 
translation appeared at Leyden, 1651, 4to. 
4. "De Herstelde Leeuw"C*The Lion re- 
stored"), a history of Dutch afiairs in the 
years 1650 and 1651. Hague, 1652, 4to. ; 
Amst 1654. 5. ** Historic oft Verhaal yan 
Saecken yan Staet en Oorlogh, &c." (** His- 
tory or Relation of Political and Military 
Aihirs, &c."). Hague, 1657—1671, 15 vols. 
4to. This is Aitzema's chief work. The 
collecting of materials for it occupied him 
many years. It includes the history of Hol- 
land fr^mi the conclusion of the truce with 
Spain, in 1621, to the year 1668. Another 
edition, under the editorship of Charles Van 
Roorda, by whose persuasion the work was 
originally published, appeared at the Hague, 
in 8 yols. folio, 1669 — 1672, the last volume 
containing a reprint of the ** Vredehandel '* 



AITZEMA. 



AJAX. 



and the ''Hentelde Leeaw." The first 
edition is, howerer, oooBidered preferable 
by some irriten, who assert that many 
alterations were made in the second, to 
salt the pr^ndiees of the author's fellow- 
coontrymen; but the biographer Kok states 
thai this o|»inion is n^onnded, and that 
the alterations are not of the slightest 
importance. It is a very Talnable work, 
and throws great light on the history of the 
seventeenth centnry. Thoogh rich m histo- 
rical materials, it does not rank hi^ as a 
composition. Wicquefort, indeed, speaks of 
it in that yiew with great contempt; bat 
many others hare a very different opinion of 
its merits, and Bayle considers Wicqnefort 
mneh too severe. An abridgment of the 
work was published by De Lange, and a 
eontinnation of it, to 1688, b^ Lambert van 
den Bosch, under the latimsed name of 
Sylvius. (Foppens, BibUatheca Bdgica, p. 
813. ; Goeihals, Leehtret rdaHoea d rHistoirt 
dea Seienees, ffc, en, BMqmej L 161 — 165.; 
Kok, Vada^ndaeh Woordenboek, il 412.; 
Wicqudbrt, De tJbnbanadeur^ L 172—44^ 

AJAX (A^of ). Two heroes of this name 
play a prominent part in the stories of the 
war against Troy. 

1. Ajax, the son of OOens and of Eriopis. 
His ihther Oileus was a king of the Locrians, 
whenoe the son Ajax is sometimes called the 
Locrian, or the Narycian, from his birth- 
place Naryz, in Looris. He is also called 
the Leaser Ajax, to distingnish him tram his 
greater namesake, the son of Telamon. In 
the Homeric poeoM the Locrian Ajax is 
always characterised by some distinguishing 
epitkiet, while the son of Telamon is frequently 
designated "bj the simple name of Ajax. Ac- 
cordmg to Homer, the son of Oiieus sailed 
to Tro^ with his Locrians in forty ships. 
He distmguished himself in the war with tiie 
Trqjans, and more especially in the ^^eat 
batde near the ships. He also assisted 
Achilles in rescuing the body of Patrodus 
and his horses by keeping the Trcjans en- 
gaged at a distance. In the funeral games 
at tiie pyre of Patroclus, Ajax contended 
with Odysseus (Ulysses) in the foot-race, and 
nearly won the first prise ; but Athena (Mi- 
nerva), who was un&vourably disposed to- 
wards hun, caused him to stumble, and he 
only gttiiied the second prize. On his return 
from Troy his ship was wrecked, through the 
infloenee of Athena, upon the Gyrasan rock. 
He himself escaped to the rock, through the 
fiivour of Poseidon (Neptune); but on his 
boasting that in spite of the gods he would 
escape all dangers, Poseidon split the rock 
with his trident, and Ajax perished in the 
sea. Homer describes him as small of stature, 
and only armed with a linen cuirass ; he was 
brave, and especially skilftil in throwing the 
spear, and, next to Achilles, he was the most 
fwift-footed of the Greeks. 
578 



Later poets and mythographers have em- 
bellished the simple sketch given in the 
Homedc poems. According to Hyginus, 
Ajax was die son of Otleus and of the nymph 
Rhene, and was one of the suitors of Helena. 
In the war against Troy he slew fourteen of 
the enemy ; and a tame dragon five cubits in 
length followed him about like a dog. After 
the taking of the city, Ajax penetrated into 
the temple of Athena, where Cassandra had 
taken refhge at the statue of the goddess. 
Ajax dragged her forth from the temple, and 
placed her among the other prisoners. Ac- 
cording to one tradition, Ajax ravished Cas- 
sandra in the temple of Athena. This aocount 
however is stated by some ancient authorities 
to have been untrue; for it was said that 
Agamemnon, through the instrumentality of 
Odysseus, spread this fidse report in order to 
raise the indignation of the people against 
Ajax, and thus to gain possession of Cas- 
sandnL Upon this calumny, however, Ajax 
was condemned to be stoned to death ; but 
he escaped by clearing himself of the charge 
by an oath. The anger of Athena, however, 
was provoked by the violation of her temple. 
On his voyage homewards, when Ajax came 
near the Caphaiean rocks on the coast of 
Eubcoa, his ship was wrecked, and he him- 
self was killed with lightning by Athena. 
His body was washed upon the rocks, which 
were henceforth called the rocks of Ajax. A 
third account of his death is given by Phi- 
lostratus, according to whom Agamemnon 
took Cassandra from Ajax, and spKsd the re- 
port among the Greeks that Athena threatened 
them with destruction unless Ajax were put 
to death. Ajax, dreading an ignominious 
sentence, put to sea in a small boat, which 
was upset by the waves, and he was 
drowned. When the Greeks received the 
itttelligenee of his death, they broke out in 
loud lamentations, erected a frmeral pile in 
the vessel in which Ajax had come to Troy, 
placed in it black cattle to be sacrificed to 
the deceased hero, and then set the whole on 
fire and let it float upon the sea. The shade 
of A^ax was supposed to dwell with that of 
Achilles and other heroes in the island of 
Leuoe. The Opuntian Ix>crian8 worshipped 
him as their national hero, and whenever 
they drew up in battle array against an 
enemy they left a place for him, as if his 
shade was to fight among them. Many of 
the Locrian coins contain the figure of a 
warrior in the attitude of attack, and armed 
with a helmet, shield, and sword, and this 
figure is generally supposed to be a repre- 
sentation of Ajax, the son of OUeus. (Besides 
the Homeric poems see Strabo, ix. 425. ; Ovid. 
Jfetam. xiv. 468. ; Hyginus, Fab, 97. 81. 
114. 116.; Apollodorus, ill 10. 8.; Philo- 
stratos, Her, viil 1. ; Virgil, JEn, iL 403. ; 
Euripides, TVoodL 70. ; Dictys Oretensis, v. 
12. ; Tryphiodorus, 647. ; Qmntus Smymeus, 
xiii 422. ; Lyoophron, 860. with the scholia ; 



AJAX 



AJAX. 



x.dl. 1.; X.S6. 1.; iiL 19. 11.; 
CoDon, NarraL 18.) L. a 

2. Ajaz, the son of Telamon, king of 
fiUamU, and of PeribcBa or Eribosa. He 
was descended from JEacos, and is frequently 
diftingoished from the Loerian Ajax by the 
epithets **the Telamonian," or ''the Great." 
According to Homer, the Telamonian AJaac 
led his Salaminians in twelve ships against 
Troy, where, next to Achilles, he was the 
most distinguished among the Greek heroes. 
In stature he exceeded ail the Greeks, and in 
beanty he was only second to Achilles. When 
Hector challenged the brarest of the Greeks 
to single combttt, the lot fell upon Ajax ; and 
when he approached his adyersary. Hector 
himself began to tremble. Ajax wonnded 
Hector, and struck him to the ground with a 
huge stone. But when both the combatants 
were on the point of making use of their 
swords, the heralds interposed and separated 
them. On this occasion they conceired such 
esteem for one another, that when they parted 
they exchanpod presents, and the Greeks 
rewarded their champion with a feast During 
the retirement of Achilles, when the Greeks 
were hard pressed by the Trojans, Ajax was 
one of the messengers sent to Adulles to 
persuade him to l^id his assistance to the 
Gre^s. In the attack of the Trojans upon 
the fertifications of the Greeks, Ajax was 
one of the most active in its defence, and he 
prevented Hector from taking the armour of 
Amphimachus, who was slain. But he dis- 
tinguished himself most in the battle near 
the ships, in which he hurled a stone at 
Hector with such force that his adyersary fell 
senseless on the ground. When the Chreeks 
were driven to their shipsy and the Trcgans 
were on the point of settmg fire to them, 
Ajax again feught with Hector. He showed 
the same courage in the fi§^ about the body 
of Patrochis : he and the Loerian Ajax re- 
pelled the enemy, while Menelaus and Me- 
riones carried off the body. In the games 
at the Ameral pile ci Patroclus he wrestled 
with Odysseus, but the victory remained 
undecided. He also fought with Diomedes 
Ibr the shield and helmet which Patrodns 
had taken fttnn Sarpedon, and for the sword 
which Achilles had taken from Asteropeusi 
After the death of Achilles, when his mother 
Thetis proposed to give his armour to the 
bravest among the Greeks, Ajax disputed 
it with Odysseus, who obtained it This 
slight was the cause of the death of Ajax. 
Homer does not say in what manner he died. 
Odysseus, on descending into the lower 
worH met the shade of Ajax, and in vain 
endeaivonred to conciliate hun : his indigna- 
tion at his si^posed wrong continned un- 



This sketch of the story of Ajax contained 

in the Homeric poems has been filled up by 

kter writers wiUi a variety ci incidents, but 

more especially his death. Pindar and Apol- 

579 



bdoms rel^ the birth of Ajax in the lbllow<« 
ing manner : — When Hercules invited Tela« 
mon to the expedition against Troy, he found 
him at a feast, and was hospitably received. 
In return for this kindness, Hercules prayed 
to Zeus to give to Telamon, who had hitherto 
been childless, a son courageous and invul- 
nerable like tiie skin of &e Nemean lion 
which he himself was wearing. As a sign 
that the prayer was granted, Zeus sent an 
ea^e (al«r^r)i >i^ Hercules advised Telamon 
to call his son frxmi this sign Ajax (Afas). 
According to another account, Hercules hhn- 
setf made the child invulnerable by wrapping 
it up in his own lion skin, with the exception 
of one part of the body which was acci- 
dentally not covered by it. When a young 
man, Ajax sued for the hsnd of Helena, but 
without success. During the war against 
Troy he made several expeditions into the 
neighbouring countries. He invaded the 
Tlunadan Chersonesus, where he got rich 
spoils, and took Polydoros, the son of Priam, 
who had been intrusted by his father to King 
Polymnestor. Ajax went thence to Phrygia, 
whve he slew King Teuthras, or Telentas, 
in sing^ combat, and also took Tecmessa, 
the king's daughter, who became his fevourite. 
After uie death of Achilles, Ajax disputed 
the poss e ssi o n of his armour with Odysseus ; 
and when Agamemnon, at the sugsestion of 
Athena, adjudged it to Odysseus, Ajax went 
mad. In the night he fell upon tiie sheep 
belonging to the Greeks, killed many of 
them, and dragged both dead and living sheep 
into his tent in triumph, iirfagining that he 
had been slaying his enemiea. In the morning 
he awoke fknt his frenzy, and put an end to 
his life with the sword which he had received 
as n present from Hector. According to 
Dictys Creteniis» Odysseus, Agamemnon, and 
Menelaus were suspected of having murdered 
him. According to Dares Phrygius and 
others, he died of a wound which he received 
in a contest with Paris, or was stoned to 
death b^ the Trojans, as he could not be 
killed with swords. His half-brother, Teucer, 
on his return to fialamis, was accused hj 
Telamon of frvtricide, but he cleared kimseu 
of the charge. Some traditioiis state that 
Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, put the 
remains of Ajax, in a golden urn, i^khb the 
RhoBtean 04)0 on the coast of Troy; whereas, 
according to Sophocles, his body was buried 
by his brother Teucer, against the will of 
Agamemnon and Menelans. Philostratus, 
who considers Ajax as an Athenian hero, 
says that the Gre^ chiefe exhibited the 
corpse of Ajax for three days to all the 
Greeks ; that Menestheus delivered a funeral 
oration over it, and that each of the heroes 
threw a lock of hair on his tomb. Dictys 
states that Odysseus, in tears, broug^ the 
armour of Adulles to the tomb to conciliate 
the deceased, but that Teucer prevented it 
being deposited there. Paosanias rdates that 



AJAJL 



AJILJON. 



irhen Od^rsseiis was shipwrecked, tlus ftrmoar 
wts carried by the waves to the tomb of 
Ajaz, as if to reconcile his shade, which was 
believed to dwell in the island of JLeuce. In 
the time of the Emperor Hadrian the sea is 
said to have opened the tomb, and gigantic 
bones were found in it, which the emperor 
ordered to be buried again. 

The Salaminians worshipped the Tela- 
monian Ajax as the guardian hero of their 
island. A temple was erected to him, adorned 
with a statue of ebony, and an annual festival 
was celebrated in honour of him, which was 
called iBanteia. At Athens also he was 
worshipped as one of the eponymic heroes, 
one of Uie Attic tribes being called .£antis 
after him. His statue at Athens stood near 
the Tholos. Not fiur from the town of 
Rh<Bteon, on the cape of the same name, 
there was likewise a sanctuary of Ajaz, with 
a statue, which "NL Antonius carried to Egypt, 
but it was restored to its original place by 
Augustus. By his wife Glauca Ajax had a 
son called iBantides, and by Tecmessa he 
had another son, Eurysaces. Miltiades, 
Cimon, and Alcibiades traced their pedigree 
to the Telamonian Ajax. Various scenes of 
the story of Ajax were represented by the 
ancient artists, and some beautiftd specimens 
of art, of which this hero is the subject, are 
still extant. (Besides the Homeric poems, see 
ApoUodorus, iii. 12. and 10. ; Pausanias, L 
42. 4. ; Pindar, Istkm. vi 43. and 45, &c ; 
Strabo, ix. 394. ; SchoL to Lycophron, 455. ; 
Hyginus, Fab, 81. 114. ; Dictys Cretensis, ii 
18. V. 15, 16. ; Sophocles, AJf^i Ovid^Metam. 
xiii 1, &c ; Dares Phrygius, 35. ; Quintns 
Smymsus, v. 125, &c ; Pausanias, i 28. 
12. ; L 35. 2, &c ; iiL 19. 11. ; Philostratns, 
Her. xi. 3. ; Strabo, xiii 595. ; Pausan i as, iL 
29. 4. ; Plutarch, Alcib, 1., and numerous 
other passages.) L. S. 

AJELLI, ANTONIO. [Agelu, Anto- 
nio.] 

AJILJON, R. SOLOMON BEN JACOB 

(aar a n*^'*« no^^g nX » ^ Portuguese 
raoDi, who succeeded R. Jacob Abendana as 
chief rabbi of the synagogue of London in 
the year ▲. m. 5449 (a. d. 1689). He appears 
to have first exercised the rabbinical flmc- 
tions in the Levant, as he was called from 
Salonichi, the ancient Thessalonica, to under- 
take the charge of the synagogue of London, 
which he retained for eleven years. In the 
year a. m. 5460 (a. d. 1700) he left England 
for Amsterdam, where he took charge, as 
chief rabbi, of the Portuguese synagogue in 
that city, in which office he continued until 
his des^ on the first day of the month Jiar 
or Jjar, A.M. 5488 (the 10th of April in the 
year 1728). He has left no works that we 
can discover, but his ** Censune" are affixed 
to various Hebrew works, such as the edition 
of the Talmud printed at Amsterdam, a. m. 
6474 (a. d. 1714). He has been greatly 
blamed by many Jewish writers for having 
580 



aflbted his rabbinical approbation to thtf 
writings of Abraham Michael Cardoso and 
Nehemiah Chaija Ch^jon, who are considered 
heretics by the Jews. (Wolfius, Biblioth. 
Hebr, Ui. 1026. iv. 974.) C. P. H. 

AKA'KIA, ACAKIA,or ACACIA, the 
surname of several physicians and professors 
of medicine and surgery in the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries. 

The eldest of them, Martin Akakia, of 
Chylous, is believed to have adopted and trans- 
mitted to his descendants this name as a 
Greek translation of that of Sans-malice, 
which before belonged to his fiunily. He 
studied medicine under Brissot at Paris, and 
was admitted doctor of the faculty in 1526. 
He was appointed one of the physicians to 
Francis I.; and in 1530, when the Royal 
College was established, he was made pro- 
fessor of medicine in it. He died in 1551. 
His works consist of translations of Galen, 
with practical commentaries ; and they prove 
him to have merited the high reputation 
which he enjoyed ; for they are written in a 
dear style, and his remarks give evidence of 
a closer observance of fiicts than was usual 
among the p^rsicians of his time. Their 
titles are—** Claudii Galeni Pergameni, Ars 
Medica quss et Ars parva.*' Paris, 1538; 
Venice, 1544, &c. ** Galeni de Ratione cu- 
randi ad Ghinconem Libri Duo." Paris, 1538 ; 
Venice, 1547, &c. ** Synopsis eorum qun 
quinque prioribus Libris Galeni de Facul- 
tatibus Sunplicium Medicamentorum conti- 
nentur." Paris, 1555. 

The second Martin Akakia, a son of the 
preceding, was bom about 1539, and became 
doctor of medicine at Paris in 1572. In 1574 
he was made Regius Professor of Surgery 
in the Royal College, and in 1576, second 
physician to Henry IIL He died in 1588, 
havinjBf some time previously been obliged, 
by his constant occupation in practice, ta 
resign the professorahip to his son-in- 
law, Pierre Seguin. [Sbouin.] Bayle has 
shown, by the researches of Drelmcourt, 
that this Martin Akakia was the author 
of two works commonly ascribed to his 
&ther. One of these, entiUed **De Morbis 
Muliebribus, libri duo,** treats of nearly 
all the peculiar diseases of women in both 
the ordinary and the puerperal states. It is 
chiefly collected from the works of Galen, 
Hippocrates, and others of the ancient writers, 
and was first published after the death of the 
author by Israel Spachius, in his ** Gynse- 
ciomm," Strassburg, 1597, p. 745. The other 
of his works consists of two " Consilia,*' that is, 
long prescriptions, stating the general nature 
of the disease to be treated, and ordering the 
plan to be pursued, both in diet and medicine, 
which are published in the ** Consiliorum 
Medicinalium Liber" of L. Scholtzius, Ha- 
nover, 1610, p. 896. Their titles are — *• In 
Nephritide," and «* Canones Observandi in 
Renom Affectibus." 



AKAKIA. 



AKBAH. 



A third Martin Akakia, son of the second, 
hecame doctor in 1598, having been a student 
at MontpeUier, and in the following year 
succeeded his brother-in-law, Seguin, in the 
profesBorahip of surgery. He died in 1605. 

j£Aif Akakia, another son of the second 
Martin, was made doctor of medicine at Paris 
in 1612, and dean of the fiumlty in 1619. He 
was physician to Louis XIIL, and accompanied 
him with the armv into Savoy, where he died, 
in 1630. He left several children, one of 
whom, a fourth Martin Akakia, became pro- 
fessor of surgery in 1644, but had the mis- 
fortune to close in disgrace the honourable 
career through which lus fiunily had passed. 
He was guilty of some breach of professional 
etiquette, for which he was suspended from 
the honours and emoluments of his calling 
for six months. The result of his sentence 
was, that he died of grief; and his son chose 
another profession. (Bayle, Dictionnaire His- 
torique et Critique; Haller, in his BihUotheca 
MediciiuB Practical gives an account of the 
several editions of the works of M. Akakia 
cfChAlons.) J. P. 

AKBAR (JaUU-nd-din Mohammed), the 
greatest and the wisest of all the monarchs 
who have swayed the sceptre of Hindustan. 
At the early age of thirteen he succeeded his 
&ther Hnmayun on the 15th of February, 
1556. Most of the few years which he then 
numbered had been passed in the school of 
adversity. About the time of Akbar's birth, 
his father Hum&yun, a mild and lenient 
prince, was deprived of his kingdom through 
the restless ambition of his bro&ers Kimran 
and HindaL The dissensions thus excite^ ^plan 
enabled Sher Khan, a Patlm or Afghan chief; ' 
to usurp the government of India. Humayun, 
attended by a few fiuthful adherents, became 
a wanderer and an exile. In his flight 
through the western desert towards the banks 
of the Indus, he and his little band experienced 
a train of calamities almost unparalleled. 
The country through which they fled being 
an entire desert of sand, they were in the 
utmost distress for water. Some went mad, 
others fell down dead. At length those that 
lived reached the town of Amerkote, where, 
on the 14th of October, 1542, the wife of 
Humiyun, one of the few survivors of his 
party, gave birth to a son, Akbar. Hum&yiin 
sought shelter in Persia, where he was hos- 
pitably received by Shah Tahmasp. After 
twelve years exile, he was once more restored 
to his fiither*s throne at Delhi, but in less 
than a year he fell down as he was about to 
descend the marble stairs of his palace, and 
was so severely hurt that he died in a few 
days. When Akbar ascended the throne 
the whole empire of India was in a very dis- 
tracted state ; and though he was possessed 
of unusual intelligence for his age, he was 
inca^ble of admmistering the government 
Sensible of his own inexperience, he conferred 
on Bahram Khki, a Turkoman noble who 
681 



had ever proved &ithfhl to his late fitther, a 
title and power equivalent to that of regent 
or protector. At the same time he required 
of that chief to swear on his part, by the soul 
of the late Humayun and by the head of his 
own son, that he would be faithful to his 
trust Bahram for some time proved him- 
self worthy of the ^oung king's choice. His 
experience in military affairs and the bold- 
ness and vigour of his government enabled 
him to surmount difficulties which would have 
overwhelmed a man less determined. But 
Bahram was more of the soldier than states- 
man, and there were numerous complaints of 
his arbitrary, if not cru^ dispositioxi, though 
these qualities were essential for maintaining 
subordination in his army, which consisted 
of licentious adventurers, and for quelling the 
rebellious chieft who aboimded in every pro- 
vince of the empire. In the course of a few 
years the energy of Bahram succeeded in 
restoring the country to comparative tran- 
quillity. Hitherto his domination was sub- 
mitted to even by Akbar himself, because 
the general safety depended on his exercise 
of it ; but now that tranquillity was restored, 
the pressure of his rule became less tolerable. 
The king, now advancing towards manhood, 
began to exhibit his impatience of the in- 
significance in which he was held by his 
haughty minister, and openly expressed his 
indignation at the injustice of some acts of 
his arbitrary power. He therefore in 1558, 
at the age of sixteen, made a successful effort 
to deliver himself fhmi the thraldom which 
he had hitherto endured. He concerted a 
with those around him, and took occa- 
sion, when on a hunting party, to make an 
unexpected journey from Agra to Delhi on 
the plea of the sudden illness of his mother. 
He was no sooner beyond the reach of his 
minister's influence than he issued a pro- 
clamation announcing that he had taken the 
government into his own hands, and for- 
bidding obedience to any orders not issued 
under his own seal The proud Bahram 
perceived, when too late, that his authority 
was at an end. He endeavoured to establish 
an independent principality in Malwa; but 
after two years of unsuccessful rebellion he 
came, in the utmost distress, to throw him- 
self at the feet of his sovereign. Akbar, 
mindftd of his former services, raised him 
with his own hands, and placed him in his 
former station at the head of the nobles. He 
gave him his choice of a high military com- 
mand in a distant province or an honoured 
station at court Bahram replied that the 
king's clemency and forjnveness were a suf- 
ficient reward for his former services, and 
that he now wished to turn his thoughts 
fhnn this world to another. He therefore 
begged that his migesty would afford him 
the means of performing the pilgrimage to 
Mecca. The king assented, and ordered a 
proper retinae to attend him, at the same 



AKBAR. 



AKBAR. 



time MBigning him a penskm of fifty thoaaand 
rapees. 

Akbar had now takea upon himaelf the 
sole management, or rather re-eftabliihment, 
ci the Mognl empire ; and it required all his 
great qualities to accomplish the task. Sereral 
of the proTinces that had belonged to his 
predecessors had assumed the name of inde- 
pendent kingdoms, some were in open re- 
bellion, and even those that had felt the efiPect 
of Bahrim's sway were ready to shake off 
their allegiance whenever an occasion offered. 
The whole empire was distracted, and the 
people harassed by the perpetual wan and 
feuds of petty princes and turbulent nobles. 
Akbar, at the early age of eighteen, formed 
the noble design of putting himself at the 
head c£ the whole Indian nation, and of 
forming the rarious inhabitants of that vast 
territory into one peacefol community. In 
the course of his long reign he had the 
^^ratification of seeing ^is enUghtened policy 
m a great measure realised. He appointed 
to situations of trust only men of merit, with- 
out any distinction of race or reliffion. ^ The 
hitherto despised and oppressed Hindu was 
freely admitted to every degree of power. 
The consequence was ib^t Akbar won the 
loyalty and affection of that numerous race, 
who formed bv far the greater portion of his 
subjects. This, however, required years of 
unremitting labour and enlightened adminis- 
tration. 

The first objects of Akbar's attention were 
to establish his authority over his chie&, and 
to recover the various portions of his empire 
that had been lost during so many revolutions. 
When he ascended the throne, his territory 
was limited to the Paigab and the provinces 
of Agra and DelhL In the fortieth year of 
his reign, according to Abu-1-faal, the em- 
pire comprised fifteen fertile provinces, ex- 
tending firom the Hindu Kush to the borders 
<^ the Dekkan, and from the Brahmaputra to 
Kandahar. These provinces were not re- 
covered without great efforts and the sacri- 
fice of many lives ; yet we have no reason 
to attribute this career of conquest to mere 
restless ambition on the part of Akbar. The 
countries which he invaded had been fiir- 
merly subject to the throne of Delhi, and he 
would have incurred more censure than 
praise among his contemporaries if he had 
not attempt^ to recover them. To every 
province thus recovered, a well-qualified 
subahdar or vxwToy was appointed, whose 
duty it was to administer justice and give 
protection to all, without any regard to sect 
or creed. Thus his conquests, when once 
concluded, were permanent, for ^ood govern- 
ment is the surest safeguard agamst rebellion. 
Of the vi^bmce with which Akbar watched 
the proceedings of his viceroys, and the ex- 
treme attention which he paid to the ad- 
ministration of his more remote provinces, 
we have ample proofs in his letters preserved 
582 



\ij Ab<i-l-f!uL Unlike most eastern princes, 
his ikme is founded on the wisdom of his 
internal policy, not on the vainglorious title 
of subduer of regions. One of the most 
striking traits in Us character as a Ifoham- 
medan prince was the tolerant spirit which 
he displayed towards men of other religions. 
There is no doubt that he was educated as 
an orthodox Moslem, and during the eariier 
part of his reign he was assiduous in visiting 
holy shrines, and in attendance on men <^ 
sanctity ; he even contemplated a pilgrimage 
to Mecca : but about the twen^-fourth year 
of his a« he seems to have relaxed in his 
seaL The more bigoted Moslems saw with 
alarm that he listened without ]ntgudice to 
the doctrines and opinions of all men ; and it 
is not improbable that the fiery zeal <xf those 
of his own faith disposed him to question the 
inihllible authority of the Koran. Be this as 
it may, Akbar seems to have thenceforth 
lived without attafthing himself to any par- 
ticular creed ; at the same thne he tAt great 
interest in all inquiries respecti n g the religious 
belief and forms of worship prevalsnt among 
mankind. In the sommer of 158S he wrote 
a letter to the ** wise men among the Franks,** 
that is, the Portnguese ecdesiastics at Goa, 
requesting them to send him a few of their 
more learned members with whom he might 
converse req>ecting the Christian religion. 
This curious document is preserved in Abu* 
l-fhsl's collection, and was translated by 
Fraser in his History of Nadir Shah. Fraser 
makes a mistake, however, m saying that it 
was addressed to the King ci Forto^ His 
copy seems to have had it ** To the governor 
of the Franks," which at best means the 
viceroy of Goa ; but in all the copies which 
we have seen it is merely ** To the sages of 
the Franks," which the context and all the 
other circumstances prove to be the oonect 
reading. The following extract speaks 
volumes with regard to Akbar's chancter. 
He says, ** Most people, bemg enchained by 
the bonds of constraint and fiishion, follow 
the customs of their ancestors, relations, and 
acquaintances. Without examining any ar- 

Sments or reasonings, thev give an implicit 
th to that religion in which they have been 
brought up, and remain excluded ftom the 
beauty of truth, the investigation of which ia 
the pr<mer end of reason. Therefore, at fit 
times, I converse with intelligent nwn- of all 
religions, and re^i advantage from the dis- 
courses of each. It has also reached my 
ears that the heavenly books, vis. the Pentar 
tench, the Gospels, and the Psahna, have been 
translated into Arabic and Persian. Should 
there be a translation of these books, or 
should you have any others that may be of 
fieneral benefit, let them be sent." Accord- 
ingly, on the 3d of December following, three 
learned padres, by name Aquaviva, Mon- 
serrate, and Enriques, departed on this im- 
portant mission. Travelling by easy stages* 



AKBAR. 



AKBAB. 



by way of Sunt, Bfandoo, and Ujjaiii, they 
reached Agra in about two months. They 
were immediately admitted into the pretence 
of Akbar, who gaTe them a most gracious 
rece^on. The missionaries then soUeited a 
public oontroTersy with the Mullas or doctors 
of the Mohammedan religion,which was readily 
granted. Of this disputation the Christians 
and Mohammedans give different accounts. 
Akbar, who is strongly suspected to have 
sought amusement as weU as instruction £ram 
these discussions, informed the padres that an 
eminent MuUa had undertaken to leap into a 
fiery furnace with the KorILn in his hand, to 
prove b]^ this ordeal the superior excellence 
of his fiuth, and he trusted that they would do 
the same with the Bible. The worthy Others, 
who had during the discussion made some 
pretensions to supernatural powers, were con- 
siderably embarrassed by this proposal, which, 
however, they wisely declined. Abii-l-&xl 
says that '* the disputants having split on the 
divini^ of their respective scriptures, the 
Christian offered to walk into a flaming 
furnace bearing the Bible, if the Mohamme- 
dan would show a similar confidenoe in the 
protection of the Koran ; to which the Moslems 
only answered by a torrent of abuse, which 
it required the emperor's interference to stop. 
He reproved the Mullas for their intemperate 
language, and expressed his own opinion 
that Ood could only be worshipped by fol- 
lowing reason, and not yielding implicit iiedth 
to any alleged revelation.** The missionaries, 
seeing that Akbar showed so little partiality 
to the Mussulman religion, naturally con- 
cluded that they had made him a convert 
At that time, however, his attention was dis- 
tracted IrjT disturbances in Kabul and Bengal, 
and his visitors returned under a safe con- 
duct to Qoa, which they reached in May, 
1683. It appears that Akbar requested anid 
received two other similar missions m the 
course of his reign, which, after going through 
the same round as their predecessors, returned 
without any ftirther remiH. It would appear 
also that at Akbar's request one of the 
missionaries, Jeronymo Xavier, remained at 
Agra for the purpose of translating the 
Gospels into Persian. He was aosisted inhis 
task by Mnlana 'Abd-ul-sitar ben K£sim of 
Lahore, and the work was completed in 1602. 
It is very much on the plan of our Dia- 
tessaron, and divided into fbur booksi The 
first book is entirely occupied with the his- 
tory and life of the Virgm Biary, and our 
Saviour's inftncy. These pnenle legends 
have beoi long declared apocr]rphal even by 
the church cf Borne, and it is difllenlt to 
conceive why the worthy padre should have 
ventured to mterweave them with the sub- 
lime truths of the Gospel : yet this compilation, 
snoh as it is, has had considerable circulation 
among the Moslems of India, who have 
naturally viewed it as a standard authority 
in jndgmg of the Christian religion, firom the 
583 



circumstanoe of its being issued Ibrth under 
the patronage of Akbar. 

Of the encouragement which general 
literature received under this enlightened 
monarch there are numerous monuments 
extant He established schools throughout 
the country, at which Hindu as wdl as 
Moslem children were educated, each ac- 
cording to his circumstances and particular 
views m life. He encouraged the translation 
of works of science and literature from the 
Sanscrit into Persian, the language of his 
court In this he was ably seconded by the 
two brothers Faiai and Ab(i-l-fhzl; the 
former the most profound scholar, and the 
latter the most accomplished statesman, then 
existing. Faiai was the first Moslem who 
applied himself to the language and learning 
of the Brahmins. Assisted by qualified per- 
sons, he translated into Persian two works on 
algebra, arithmetic, and geometry, the ** Bqa 
Ganita," and ''Lilivati,^* from the Ssnscrit 
of Bhaskara Acharya, an author of the twelfth 
century of our sra. In the ** B^a Ganita " 
there are several analytical discoveries which 
were, even at that period (1580), unknown 
in Burope. In the *'Lilavati" we have the 
approximate ratio of the diameter of the 
circle to its circumference, 1350 : 3927 
(which is exactly 1 : 3.1416), known among 
die Hindis for hundreds or even thousands 
of years, for Bhaskara compiled his works 
from more ancient sources. Under Faizi*s 
able superintendence were also translated the 
Vedas, or at least the more interesting por- 
tions of them, the great epics of the Maha- 
bhioataand Bamavana, and also a curious 
history of Kashmir during the 4000 years 
previous to its conquest by Akbar, remark- 
able as the only specimen of historical com- 
position in the Sanscrit language. Ab6-l-fkBl 
lon^ held the highest rank, bo>Ui military and 
dvil, under Akbar. His great woik, the 
** Akbar Nama," is a lasting monument of 
his master's fluaie, and of his own distin- 
guished talents and industry. Manuscript 
copies of it have been multiplied in abun- 
dance, particularly the third volume called 
the ** A^-i- Akbari,'* which is descriptive of 
the Indian empire. In a very recent bio- 
graphical work, under the name of ** Abul 
Fazil," (which means Abii-1-fiisl,) it is stated 
that ** a portion only of this great work has 
been translated into English by Mr. Glad, 
win, and his book is very scarce. There is 
only one copy of the original, and it is in 
France.** Now there are at least fifty copies of 
the ** Aym-i- Akbari,** in the original Persian, 
in Great Britain, and Mr. Glailwin*s trans- 
lation is common enough on our book-stalls. 

For a more ample and detailed account 

* We ha? e here followed Mr. Elphinrtone's autho- 
rttj, although we are not aware that Falsi made any 
translation of the " Blja GaniU," the exiaUng Persian 
version of which did not appear till 1634 hy Ata Allah 
Rashldl. It may however have been commenced or 
prelected bf Falzi« 



AKBAR. 



ktBAt. 



of the many admirable works, origmal and 
translated, which were written under the 
patronage of Akbar, the reader ia referred to 
the first volume of Gladwin's ** Ayin-i- 
AkbarL" But of all the measures of Akbar's 
reign, perhaps there is none which redounds 
more to his true glory than his humane and 
liberal policy towards the Hindus, who 
formed, as already stated, the minority of his 
subjects. This injured race had long been 
subjected to a capitation tax, termed jazia, 
imposed upon them by their haughty con- 
querors as a punishment for what they were 
pleased to call their infidelity. This odious 
impost, which served to keep up animosity 
between the people and their rulers, was 
alx^hed early in Akbar's reign* He at the 
same time abolished all taxes on pilgrimages, 
observing, " that it was wrong to Arow any 
obstacle m the way of the devout, or of in- 
terrupting tiieir mode of intercourse with 
their Maker." But though Akbar showed 
every indulgence to the EQndus in the exercise 
of their religion, he was not blind to the 
abuses of the Brahminical system. He for- 
bade trials by ordeal, and the slaughter of 
animals for sacrifice. He also enjoined widows 
to marrv a second time, contrary to the Hindu 
law. Above all, he positively prohibited the 
burning of Hindii widows against their will, 
and used every precaution to ascertain, in the 
case of a suttee, that the resolution was f\ree 
and uninfluenced. It is stated in the Akbar 
Kama that on one occasion, hearing that the 
nga of Jodpur was about to force his 8on*s 
widow to the pile, he mounted his horse and 
rode with all speed to the spot in order to 
prevent the intended sacrifice. It may be 
observed, that all those cases in which A!kbar 
interfered with the religion of the HindCis 
were r«dly abuses originating with the cor- 
rupt priestcraft of latter times. Such pro- 
hibitions being of a purely benevolent nature 
would nowise afiect the loyalty and attach- 
ment of the great body of the people. In 
fiict, we have an interesting memorial of the 
impression made upon the Hindus by the 
mild sway of Akbar in a spirited remon- 
strance, addressed, a century after, to the 
bigoted Aurungzebe, bv the descendant of 
the very riga of Jodpur above mentioned. 
The then raja says, ** Your ancestor Akbar, 
whose throne is now in heaven, conducted 
the afEairs of his empire in equity and security 
for the space of fifty years. He preserved 
every tribe of men in ease and happiness, 
whether they were followers of Jesus or of 
Moses, of Brahma or of Mohammed. Of 
whatever sect or creed they might be, they 
all equally eigoyed his countenance and 
fiivour; insomuch that his people, in grati- 
tude for the indiscriminate protection which 
he afforded them, distinguished him by the 
appellation of * Ghiardian of Blankind.' '* 

In the revenue department Akbar effected 
vast reforms. He established a uniform 
584 



standard of weights and measures, and caused 
a correct measurement of the land to be made 
throughout the empire. He ascertained the 
value of the soil in everj inhabited district, 
and fixed the rate of taxation that each should 
pay to government He strictly prohibited 
his officers fW>m farming any branch of the 
revenue, the collectors being enjoined to deal 
directly with individual cultivators, and not 
to depend on the headman of a village or 
district For the administration of justice he 
appointed courts composed of two officers 
with different powers; the one for conducting 
the trial and expounding the law, and the 
other, who was the superior authority, for 
passing judgment These were enjoined to 
be sparing of capital punishment, and, unless 
in cases dT dangerous sedition, to inflict none 
until the proceedings were sent to court, and 
the emperor's confirmation returned. He 
also enjoined that in no case should capital 
punishment be accompanied by an^ additional 
severity. Akbar was fblly sensible of the 
importance of commerce, which he greatly 
promoted. He improved the roads leading 
to all parts of the empire, and rendered 
travelling safe by the establishment of an 
efficient police. Above all, he abolished a 
vast number of vexatious imposts which 
merely fettered trade without enriching the 
treasury. He strictly prohibited his officers 
from receiving fees d any kind, and thus cut 
off one great source of abuse. Among the 
numerous efforts made by Akbar for the im- 
provement of his country, perhaps the least 
successful was his attempt to promulgate a 
new religion. On this subject the reader 
will find ample information in the *' Tnns- 
actions of the Literary Society of Bombay," 
vol. iL, contributed by Colonel Kennedy of 
that presidency. Suffice it here to say, that 
Akbu's new faith was a species of pure 
deism, too refined and spiritual for his age 
and country. It maintained that we ought to 
reverence and serve God, on account of his 
goodness, which is manifest in all his works: 
that we ought to seek for our own future 
happiness hj subduing our evil passions, 
and by practising such virtues as are bene- 
ficial to mankind : that we ought not to 
adopt a creed or practise a ritual on the 
authority of any man, as all are liable to 
error like ourselves : ^t priests, and publie 
worship, and restrictions about food were 
unnecessary : that prayer was unnecessary, 
because God knew our wants better than we 
did ourselves. It does not appear that Akbar^s 
taith made any great progress beyond the 
precincts of his palace. In fact, it had num- 
berless foes to encounter among the priest- 
hood both of Mohammed and Brahma, who 
throve by the existing superstitions of their 
respective flocks. Hence on Akbar's death 
it expired of itself, and the Mohammedan 
faith resumed all its splendour and intolerance 
under Jahangir. Akbar had three sons, by 



AKBAJL 



AKEN. 



-whose miflcondnct the latter days of his life 
were embittered. Two of them were cat ofF 
in earl^ youth through habits of dissipation, 
and Selim, the surriyor (afterwards Jahangir), 
repeatedly raised the hand of rebellion against 
his faUier. These aflUctiona, together with 
the loss of many of his intimate friends, began 
to prey upon Akbar*s mind. He died in 
September, 1605, in the sixty-fourth year of his 
age, after a prosperous and beneficent reign of 
half a century. In person Akbar is described 
as strongly built, with an agreeable expres- 
sion of countenance and yeij captivating 
mauners. He was possessed of ^eat bodily 
strength and activity ; temperate m his habits, 
and indulging in little sleep. He frequently 
spent whole nights in those philosophical 
discussions of which he was so fond. His 
-early life abounds with instances of romantic 
courage, better suited to a knight errant than 
the ruler of a mighty empire. The first half 
of his reign required almost his constant 
presence at the head of his army, yet he 
never neglected the improvement of the civil 
government ; and by a judicious distribution 
of his time he was enabled not only to dequtch 
all essential business, but to e^joy leisure for 
stud^ and amusement Of his character as 
a prmce nothing needs to be said ; it shines 
conspicuous in every act of his reign, which 
will descend to the latest posterity as a signal 
blessing bestowed upon mankind by Him 
who is the King of kings. (^Aytn-i-Akbari ; 
£lphin8tone*s History of India i Ferishta's 
History; and Transaetions of the Literary 
Society of Bombay, vol. iL) D. F. 

AKEN. There appear to have been four 
or five Dutch artists of this name, of whom, 
however, our information is very scanty and 
very confbsed. 

Jan tan Aken, a painter and engraver, 
bom in the early part of the seventeenth 
century. He haa been frequently confounded 
with the celebrated German pamter Johann 
van Achen of Cologne ; it is, however, cer- 
tain that there was a Dutch artist of this 
name, but the exact date and the place of his 
birth are uncertain. Nothing is known of 
his paintings ; but Bartsch enumerates twenty- 
one of his etchings, which are touched in the 
■manner of Saftleven ; they are very slight, 
but display great mastery. Heineken de- 
scribes an etching by him from his own 
design, which he says is very scarce. He 
terms it the Travellers on Horseback. It is 
marked, " J. V. Aken, inv. et fee," Among 
those al»ve mentioned are six horses after 
Laer.or Bamboccio, and six views of the 
Rhine after Saftleven. 

Joseph Van Aken, a painter of Antwerp, 
of the early part of the eighteenth century, 
excelled in painting embroidery, stufis, and 
draperies. He came to England and was 
.known among artists as tailor Van Aken, a 
.name which he acquired throujgh his great ser- 
vices in assisting them in painting the draperies 

VOL.1. 



and other parts of their pictures connected 
with dress. He died in this oountrf, in 1749, 
aged about forty; and Hogarth etched a 
humorous plate of his funeral procession, in 
which he introduced various groups of me- 
lancholy and despairing artists, to illustrate 
the dilemma in which many of them were 
placed by his decease. He left a brother, 
according to FioriUo, who also practised as 
drapeiT pamter ; but was a different person 
fhnn AsNOLD Van Aken, who painted small 
conversation pieces and landscapes, and who 
also lived in this country about the same 
period. He published a set of copper plates 
of fish, &c., which he termed '* Wonders of 
the Deep." Fiorillo says that he had a brother 
who was an engraver, and Strutt says that 
Arnold himself etched some frontispieces to 
plays and other works, for booksellers. 
(Heineken, Dictionnaire des Artistes, ^c; 
FioriUo, Geschickte der Mahler^, vol. v.; 
Fussli, ABgemeines Kunstler Lexicon ; Bartsch, 
Le Petnire Graveur; Strutt, Dictionary of 
Enaravers.) R. N. W. 

AKENSIDE, MARK, was the second son 
of Mark Akenside, a butcher of Newcastle on 
Tyne, and of his wife, Mary Lumsden, and 
was bom in the street called Butchers' Bank 
in that town, on the 9th of November, 1721. 
The Rev. John Brand, who was also a native 
of Newcastle, states, in his " Observations on 
Popular Antiquities," that a halt which Aken- 
side had in his gait was occasioned by the 
falling of a cleaver from his Other's stall 
upon him when he was a boy ; and " this," 
adds Brand, who was himself bred a shoe- 
maker, *'must have been a perpetual re- 
membrance of his humble origin." It is said 
that Akenside was far fh)m regarding the 
ever-present memento either with com- 
placency, or even with the most philosophic 
composure. The butcher was a strict Pres- 
byterian ; and young Mark's original destina- 
tion was to be a clergyman in that commu- 
nion, with which view, according to the 
common account, he was sent to a dissenting 
academy in his native town, whence, at about 
the age of eighteen, that is to say, probably 
in November, 1739, he proceeded to the 
University of Edinburgh. But it appears 
from a memoir of Richard Dawes (the author 
of the ** Miscellanea Critica") by the Rev. 
Mr. Hodgson, in the second volume of Uie 
** Archffiologia ^iana," 4to. Newcastle, 1832, 
that Akenside was a pupil under Dawes, who 
was appointed head master of the Royal 
Grammar School at Newcastle, in July, 1738. 
If this was the case, his attendance at the 
school could not have been long, llie ex- 
pense of his residence at Edinburgh, or part 
of it, was defrayed by the Dissenters* Society. 
But after studying divinity for one session, 
he determined to change his intended pro- 
fession, and the remaining two years of his 
attendance at college were given to the me- 
dical classes. He afterwards returned tlijL* 



AKENSIDE. 



AKENSIDE. 



money he had received from the DiuenteiV 
Societj. In 1742 he went to finish his medi- 
cal conne at Leyden, And he was admitted by 
the uniyeraity to the degree of M.D. on the 
16th of May, 1744, onwhich occasion he pub- 
lished a thesis, or Latin inaugural discourse 
on the human fcetus (!>« Ortu et Incremento 
Fashu Humam), in which he is said to hare 
displayed eminent scientific ingenuity and 
judgment in attacking some opinions of 
Lieeuwenhoek, and oilier authorities of the 
time, which have now been generally or uni- 
Tcrsally abandoned. But if the date of his 
graduation (given by Johnson, and copied by 
all his subsequent biographers) be correct, 
Akenside had already made a brilliantly 
successful literary debut before the appear- 
ance of this professional essay. His English 
didactic blank verse poem, in three bM>ks, 
entitled '"The Pleasures of Imagination," 
which, according to one account, he had 
beg^nn, and even, it is absurdly said, finished, 
while he was on a visit to some relations at 
Morpeth, before he went to college at Edin- 
burghf was published at London in Feb- 
ruary, 1744. He had taken to verse- 
makmg at an early age ; in the seventh vo- 
lume of the Gentleman's Magazine, pub- 
lished in 1737, is a poem entitled *< The 
Virtuoso, in imitation of Spenser's S^le and 
Stanza," dated from Newcastle, having the 
signature of Marcus, and stated to be the 
production of a writer in his sixteenth year, 
which is undoubtedly his ; this was followed 
by other poetical contributions to the same 
miscellany ; and while at Edinburgh he had 
written some of the odes and otikier minor 
pieces which have since been printed among 
his works. But he had as yet published 
nothing in a separate form or with his.name, 
and was consequently altogether unknown, 
when he took or sent his "Pleasures oi 
Imagination" to Dodsley the bookseller, 
with a demand of 120i. for the copyright 
Johnson, who mentions this, says that he had 
heard Dodsley himself relate uiai, hesitating 
to give so large a price, ** he carried the work 
to Pope, who, having looked into it, advised 
him not to make a niggardly offer, for this 
was no every-day writer." Pope, who died 
in the end of May of the year in which it 
appeared, lived nevertheless long enouffh to 
see his judgment ratified by the extraordinary 
success of the poem. It reached a second 
edition in May, and continued in constant 
demand : the edition before us, published by 
Dodsley, in 1763, is called the sixth. The 
poem was at first published anonymously, 
and a story is told by Boswell, on Johnson's 
authority, of the authorship being claimed by 
a person of the name of Holt, who is even 
said to have had an edition of it printed in 
Dublin with his name on the title-page ; but 
in England, at least, the name of the true 
author appears to have been very well 
known all along. Akenside was certainly 
586 



in England before his poem was published : 
if the date of his graduation be cor- 
rect, he probably returned to Leyden to 
go through that ceremony. His first at- 
tempt to commence practice as a physician 
was at Northampton ; but he only continued 
there for about a year and a half^ during 
which he appears to have written more 
poetry than prescriptions. It seems, how- 
ever, to have been before he settled at 
Northampton that he wrote his ** Epistle to 
Curio," a satire on Pulteney, recently created 
Earl of Bath, which was published by Dods- 
ley in a quarto pamphlet in 1744. While at 
Leyden, Akenside had formed an intimacr 
wiUi one of his fellow students, Jeremiah 
Dyson, a man of fortune, who afterwards 
became clerk of the House of Commons, then 
one of the members for Horsham, subse- 
quentlv secretary to the Treasury and a 
lord of the Treasury, and ultimately cofferer 
to the household, and a privy councillor^ 
They had returned from HoUimd together, 
and on Akenside, shortly after the publica- 
tion of his great poem, being attacked by 
Warburton in a pre&ce to a new edition of 
his "Divine Legion," for something he 
had said in a note in support of Shaftesburjr's 
notion about ridicule being a test of truth, 
D^Bon took up his pen in defence of his 
friend, and published, anonymously, "An 
Epistle to the Reverend Mr. Warburton, 
occasioned by his Treatment of the Author 
of the • Pleasures of Imagination.' " War- 
burton took no notice of this appeal ; but he 
afterwards reprinted his strictures at the 
end of his Dedication to the Freethinkers 
of another edition of his work. Dyson now 
gave Akenside -a more substantial proof of 
his friendship by making him an allowance 
of 3002. a-year, to be continued till he should 
be able to live by his practice. Thus secured 
in an^ income, he came up to London, and 
established himself in the first instance at 
Hampstead, where, at Northend, Dyson had 
bought a house, and where he exerted him- 
self to make his friend fiivourably known 
amon^ the inhabitants, with a view to his 
establishment in his profession. His efforts, 
however, were not very sucoessfril; and 
after being two years and a half at Hamp- 
stead, Akenside removed to London, and 
fixed himself in Bloomsbury Square, where 
he resided till his death. This change of 
residence occurred in 1748. In 1745 he had 
published, m 4to., ten of his odes, under the 
titie of "Odes on several Subjects;" his 
** Ode to the Earl of Huntingdon " appeared 
in 1748 in the same form ; and several others 
of his poems appeared afterwards from time 
to time in "Dodsley's Collection," then in 
course of publication. An "Ode to the 
Country Gentiemen of England," 4to., 1758, 
and an " Ode to Thomas Edwards, Esquire, . 
on the late Edition (by Warburton) of Mr. 
Pope's Works," foL 1766, are almost his only 



AXENSIDE. 



AKENSIDBl 



•epante poetical pTodnctionB after this dateT 
Besides being admitted by mandamus to the 
degree of M. D. in the University of Cam- 
bridge, he became in coarse of time phy- 
sician to St Thomas's Hospital, a fellow of 
the College of Physicians, and one of the 
physicians to the queen ; but he iras probably 
mdebted for these honours as moch to hu 
literary as to his professional reputation. 
The support of his friend Dyson, also, was 
no doubt of use to him. His practice is said 
Beyer to haye been considerable. The late 
Br. John Aikin, who himself attempted to 
combine the pursuit of literature with the 
practice of physic, says, in his '^ Select Works 
of the British Poets," *" It is affirmed that^ 
Dr. Akenside assumed a haughtiness and 
ostentation of manner which was not calcu- 
lated to ingratiate him with his brethren of 
the fiiculty, or to render him generally ac- 
ceptable." Another account thkt has been 
given is, that his manner in a sick room was 
so grave and sombre as to be thought more 
depressing and ii^urious to his patients than 
his advice or medicines were serviceable. 
Yet his latest and most elaborate biographer, 
Mr. Bucke, has noted that he had practice 
enough to enable him, with his pension, to 
keep a carriage ; and he also sustained his 
reputation at a respectable point by various 
professional publications. In 1755 he read 
the Gulstonian lectures before the College of 
Physicians ; and an extract from them con- 
taining some new views respecting the lym- 
phatic vessels being afterwards read before 
the Royal Society (of which he was elected 
a fellow in 1753) was published in the 
"Philosophical Transactions "for 1757. This 
publication drew Akenside into a controversy 
with Dr. Alexander Monro of Edinburgh, who, 
in a pamphlet entitled ^ Observations Anato- 
mical and Physiological," both accused him 
of some inaccuracies, and also insinuated a 
charge of plagiarism from a treatise of his 
own published the preceding year. Aken- 
side replied to these charges in a small pam- 
phlet published in 1758. In 1759 he delivered 
the Harveian Oration befi>re the College of 
Physicians ; and it was published by Dodsley, 
in 4to., in the beginning of the next year, 
imder the title of " Oratio Anniversaria, &c. 
An ** Account of a Blow on the Heart, and 
its Effects," by Akenside, appeared in the 
Philosophical Transactions for 1763. In 
1764 he published, in 4to., what is accounted 
the most important of his medical works, 
his treatise on dysentery, in Latin, *'De 
Dysenteria Commentarius," — "considered," 
says Johnson, ** as a very conspicuous speci- 
men of Latinity, which entitled him to the 
same height of place among the scholars as 
he possessed before among the wits." It has 
been translated into English both by Dr. Denis 
Ryan and by Motteux. To these perform- 
ances are to be added several papers in the 
first volume of the Medioal Transiictions, 
587 



published by the College of Physicifu&s bk 
1767 ; and, having been appointed Krohnian 
Lecturer, he also delivered three lectures 
before ihe college on the history of the 
revival of learning, which have not heen 
printed. He might probably have risen to 
greater professional eminence and more ex- 
tended practice if his life had been protracted ; 
but he was cut off by a putrid fever on the 
23d of June, 1770, in his forty-ninth year. 

As a poet, Akenside has been very differ- 
ently estimated. He must be judged of prin- 
cipally by his ** Pleasures of Imagination," 
which is admitted on all hands to be' his 
greatest work. Johnson, who hated both the 
kind of verse in which it is written, and the 
politics of the author, which, always whig, 
were at the time when it was composed 
almost republican, admits that ** he is to be 
commended as having fewer artifices of dis- 
gust than most of his brethren of the blank 
song;" but seems to regard the poem on 
the whole as having more splendour than 
substance, more sound than sense. *' The 
reader," he observes, " wanders through the 
gay diffusion, sometimes amazed, and some- 
times delighted ; but, after many turnings in 
the flowery labyrinth, comes out as he went 
in. He remarked little, and laid hold on 
nothing." There is some truth, as well as 
some exaggeration, in this account of the 
matter. iULenside had a warm and suscepti- 
ble, but not a creative imagination ; there is 
probably not in his whole poetry a thought 
which can be property called his own, or 
even a new and striking image or metaphor, 
or a felicity of expression not borrow^ or 
imitated. He interests and affects his readers , 
chiefly through the sympathetic glow which 
he excites by his enthusiasm in behalf of 
truth and b^ty, and other elevating con- 
ceptions ; and the sort of admiration he wins 
from those who admire hun most is hardly 
more critical or intellectual than what is 
commonly drawn forth by the mere enuncia- 
tion of any generous or popular sentiment 
from an audience in a theatre, or other simi- 
larly constituted assembly. His compositions 
for the most part are, in met, rather eloquence 
in verse than poetry. He has no touches of 
nature, no pathos, no dramatic power, little 
or no invention; and even his pictures of 
natural scenery, which are, perhaps, what he 
has done best, are brought out always by an 
elaborate accumulation of details ; never by 
those happy characteristic strokes which flash 
forth at once the lineaments and spirit of a 
scene like sudden sunshine. All is operose, 
cumbrous, and cloudy, with abundance of 
gA^ colouring and well -sounding words, but 
filling the eye oftener than the imagination, 
and the ear oftener than either. Something 
of all this was natural enough in a poem 
written at so early an age as ttie " Pleasures 
of Imagination ; " and Akenside himself, after 
.a time, became so dissatisfied with the ^ork, 
QQ 2 



AKENSIDE. 



AKERBLAD. 



tihat lie proceeded not so mncli to rewrite it 
as to compose a new poem on the same snb- 
ject Of this second poem, wluch was to 
have been mnch more extended than the 
first, he had finished three books and part of 
a fourth before his death ; and he had even 
printed the first and second books, though he 
did not publish them. Both poems were pub- 
lished by his friend Mr. Dysoir, in a complete 
edition of Akenside's works, 4to., and also 8 vo., 
London, 1773; but his admirers have con- 
tinned to prefer their original favourite, its 
rapid flow being felt to have more of plea- 
surable excitement than the greater correct- 
ness and more matured thought of the later 
composition. Akenside*s minor pieces have 
the same beauties and defects with his chief 
worlu They are mostly odes and hymns, 
and are fixll of lofty sentmients and swelling 
verse, which are fiu^er made impressive by 
a spirit of earnestness and ardour coming 
from the thorough conviction and sincerity 
of the writer. A few are in a less ambitious 
style, consisting of plain sense neatly ex- 
pressed ; but, although he sometimes at- 
tempted the gayer flights of the muse, he 
had no wit or humour, and what he has done 
in this way is wholly unsuccessfViL (Kippis*s 
Bhgraphia Britannica; Johnson's JUveaofthe 
Poets ; Buckets Life, Writings, and Genius of 
Akenside, 8vo., London, 1832). G. L. C. 

AKERBLAD, JOHN DAVID, a cele- 
brated orientalist, distinguished for his re- 
searches into hieroglyphical, Coptic, and 
PhoBnician literature and inscriptions. He 
was by birth a Swede, but the place and 
precise date of his nativity are not known, 
, although he must have been bom in 1760. 
At an early age he was attached to the 
Swedish embany at Constantinople, and 
during his appointment visited Jerusalem in 
1792, the Troad in 1797, and in one of his 
dissertations he mentions having been in 
Cyprus. In 1800 he retired to Gottingen, 
and employed himself in adding valuable 
geographical notes to the German translation 
of Lb Chevalier's •* Voyage dans la Troade.** 
He was soon after appointed Swedish charg6 
d'afEures at the court of France, and employed 
the leisure of his diplomatic Amotions in 
researches into Phoemcian inscriptions and 
Coptic literature. He employed himself on the 
Coptic manuscripts which had been removed 
fh>m the library of the Vatican to the present 
Biblioth^que du Roi. In 1801 he published, 
in the ** Magasin Encydop^dique,*' voL vii 
1801, a letter entitled ** Lettre k M. Silvestre 
de Sacy sur I'Ecriture cursive Coptique," in 
which he gave a cursive Coptic alphabet till 
then unknown. In 1802 his '* Inscriptionis 
Phcsnicis Oxoniensis nova Interpretatio, 
Par. an. x. 1802," in 8vo., presented, as was 
universally admitted, a for better analysis 
and interpretation of one of the twenty-three 
PhcBuician inscriptions found by Pococke 
than hadbeen previously made by Barthelemy, 
fi88 



In the same year he resumed the researchea 
into the second inscription of the trilingual 
stone of Rosetta, which contains an Egyptian 
decree in hieroglyphica], enchorial or demotic, 
and in Greek characters : see his ** Lettre sur 
rinscription E'gyptienne de Rosette addressee 
k M. Silvestre de Sacy, Paris, an. x. 1802," 
in 8vo. It is on this work that his reputation 
is chiefly founded, and it possesses the merit 
of being the first rational attempt to analyse 
the cursive writing of the ancient Egyptians, 
called in the Gr»co-Egyptian decrees en- 
chorial ; by Herodotus, demotic; by Clemens, 
epistolographic ; and in the hieroglyphic ver- 
sion of the Rosetta stone (last line), " the 
writing of the books." He employed for this 
purpose the same means which Barthelemy 
had previously used for deciphering the 
Palmyrene, and De Sacy the Pehlvi, by 
analysing proper names, and then the groups 
of characters about them; and he endea- 
voured, with considerable success, to advance 
the knowledge of the demotic, of which De 
Sacy had only deciphered the names of Alex- 
andria and Ftolemy. His labours were how- 
ever much embarrassed by the erroneous bn- 
pression under which he laboured, that this 
writing was purely alphabetic, while it is in 
reality a very cursive or tachygraphic form of 
the hien^lyphic, introduced about the sera of 
the Psammetichi, and of a mixed nature, partly 
ideographic, partly phonetic. Neither was 
he aware of the suppression of medial vowels 
as in other Semitic languages. His labours 
however laid the foundation of the researches 
of Young and Champollion into the Demotic, 
and advanced the inquiry. In 1804 he pub- 
blished a pamphlet entitled " Notice sur deux 
inscriptions en caract^res Runiques trouvees 
k Venise et sur les Varanges ; avec les re- 
marques de M. d'Ansse de Villoison," Paris, 
1804." This is on the Runic inscription on 
two colossal marble lions at the gate of the 
arsenal at Venice, which he attributes to the 
people called Varanges, supposed to be the 
Danes, English,Celts, or Icelanders. It is how- 
ever chiefly valuable for the erudite notes 
of Villoisin. Discontented with the political 
changes in Sweden, Akerblad relinquished 
his diplomatic employment, and left Paris to 
reside at Rome, where, supported by the 
Duchess of Devonshire and other admirers of 
his talents, he was enabled to devote his 
remaining days to literature. He renounced 
all connection with his country, and always 
passed himself off as a Dane. He here took 
pleasure in acting as cicerone to his friends, 
and published two dissertations, one en- 
titled '* Inscrizione Greca sopra una lamina 
di Piombo trovato in uno Sepolcro nolle 
vicinanxe d'Atene," 4to, Rome, 1813, on 
a lead plate found by Dodwell in a ceme- 
tery at the Pirceus, and now in the Dod- 
well museum, at the foot of the Capitol ; and 
another, entitled ** Lettre sur une Inscrip- 
tion Ph^nicienne trouvee k Athenes ; Rome, 



AKERBLAD. 

1817,** which was defeated to Us friend the 
Count Italinski, and relates to a bilingual 
monument, in Greek and Phoenician, on a 
native of Citium, who was buried at Athens. 
He was preparing a new edition of the pre- 
"vious work on the Greek inteription at the 
time of his death, which took place on the 
8th of February, 1819. He was buried close 
to the pyramid of Cestius. Akerblad was 
corresponding member of the Institute of 
France, of the Royal Society of Gottingen, 
and of the Academy of Stockholm. Can- 
dour, modes^, and jud|gment characterise his 
writings. He is said to haye read and 
spoken several European and Eastern lan- 
guages. {Biographie c^mverjefle, §uppltmmUi 
CoHveraations Lexicon ; Biographie aea CoH' 
temporains ; Champollion, Gram, Egypt, pre- 
fece.) &B. 

AKERBOOM, aDutoh landscape painter, 
distinguished for the g^^eat care with which 
he finished his pictures. He painted prin- 
cipally views of towns and villages. A view 
of Toumay by him is spoken of as an ex- 
cdlent painting. (Fvuaa^ Allgemeines Ktbuder 
Lexicon.) R. N. W. 

AKEREL, FRIEDRICH, a Swedish en- 
graver, bom in Sodermanland, in 1748. He 
first studied with Akermann at Upsala, and 
then entered the academy at Stockholm. He 
engraved maps, portraits, and landscapes. 
He engraved the portraits of many eminent 
and distinguished Swedes ; and he executed, 
besides many other landscapes, the plates for 
Skjeldebrand's ** Voyage pittoresque au Cap 
Nord ;" also the best plan of TroUh&tta was 
engraved by him. He died in 1804. (Fiissli, 
AUgemeines KunstUr Lexicon,) R. N. W. 

AKERHIELM, ANNA mAnSDOT- 
TER AGRICONI A, aleamed Swedish hidy. 
She was bom on the 18th of March, 1642, at 
the parsonage-house of the parish of Aker, in 
Sudermania, where her fkther, Magnus Jonie 
Agriconius, the author of a few small works, 
in allusion to whose name she was called 
Mansdotter, or Magnus's daughter, was at 
that time minister. At the age of sixteen 
she was left an orphan, with a brother three 
years older than herself^ Samuel M&nsson 
Agriconius, and two sisters. The fiunily 
lived in the strictest union. The three sisters 
spared as much of their little inheritance as 
they could to enable their brother to pursue 
his studies and to travel abroad ; and he, as 
soon as he was able to make his way, acted 
towards them as a father, and also as a pre- 
ceptor. Anna displayed the greatest talents 
for literature, and became, under his guid- 
ance, an excellent Latinist ; after which she 
made herself mistress, unassisted, of several 
of the modem languages. In 1671 the bro- 
ther became secretary to Count Ma^us 
Gabriel Delagardie, chancellor of the kmg- 
dom, and procured a situation for Anna as 
hoQungfrau, or lady in waiting on the Prin- 
cess Maria Euphrosyna, in consequence of 
589 



AKERHIELM: 

which she became so well acquainted with 
Catharina Charlotta Delagardie, one of the 
count's daughters, that on that lady's mar- 
riage with Field-Marshal Count Otto Wil- 
helm Konigsmark, she accompanied the bride 
as companion, and remained with her till her 
death. She was with the countess on a jour- 
ney to Venice, and afterwards to Greece and 
the Morea, where the count commanded the 
Venetian forces. On Konigsmark's death in 
1688 she returned with the countess to Ger- 
many, and paid a visit to Sweden in 1691, 
where she presented the Prhicess IHrica 
Eleonora, afterwards queen, with a little 
Turkish girl, named Elemina, whom she had 
had educated, and caused to be baptixed. 
She returned to Germany, and died at Bremen 
on the 1st of February, 1698. Her brother, 
who had risen to be secretary of legation 
to England and Holland, at the treaty of 
Nimeguen, was ennobled by the name of 
Akerhielm, a Swedish translation of his 
original name Agriconius, which he had 
formed fW>m the Greek ; and Anna was also 
allowed to take the same title. 

Anna Akerhielm kept a diary of her resi- 
dence in Greece, of which some fhigments 
remain, and were printed by Qjorwell in his 
" Swenska Bibliotek." They are very brief, 
and by no means remarkable for vivacity or 
observation. What would have been the 
most interesting portion, the account of Ko- 
nigsmark's conquest of Athens, whidi was 
brought about by the destraction of the 
Turkish powder magasine in the Parthenon, 
appears never to have been written for want 
of leisure ; and she declines attempting an 
account of the antiquities of Athens because 
''there are so many descriptions already." 
The only &ct in connection with the con- 
quest of Athens that she deems it worth 
while to put on record is, that the victors 
established a Lutheran church there, to which 
they gave the name of the Church of the 
Holy Trinity. Gjorwell also published five 
letters written finom Greece by Anna to her 
brother, in one of which, bearing date 18th 
October, 1687, and written ther^ore but a 
few days after the destmcdon of the Par- 
thenon, she says, " The fortress stands on 
a mountain, and was said to be very hard to 
take, because it could not be mined. His 
Excellency was very unwilling to destroy the 
beautiful temple, which had stood for three 
thousand years, and was called the temple of 
Minerva; but it was all of no use ; the bombs 
did their work, and that temple can never be 
built up again in this world." (Gjorwell, Det 
Swfngka BiblioteAet, iil 25—66.) T. W. 

AKERHIELM, SAMUEL, son of Samuel, 
the brouier of Anna, who died at Stock- 
holm m 1702, in the post of secretary of 
state. The son was bom at Stockholm in 
1684; accompanied Charles XII. in all his 
expeditions ; and in 1741 accepted the situ- 
ation of upper marshal (ofverste marskalk), 
QQ 3 



AKERHIELMl 



akhshid: 



from which, in 1747, he was dismissed at his 
own request, in consequence of the disregard 
with which his views in finance were treated. 
In 1765 the states requested him to resume 
his office, but he declined, principally on ac- 
count of his advanced age. - The states, on 
that occasion, ordered a medal to be struck 
in his honour, and to be presented to him 
by three of their body. He died in 1768. 
(Gezelius, FiSrsdk til et Biographiakt Lexicon 
dfver Svenske Man, iii. 437— 440. ) T. W. 

AKERMANN, ANDREAS, a Swedish 
engraver, bom at Upeala, in 1718. He en- 
graved principally maps and portraits. He 
executed also some pli^fbr the publications 
of Linnteus. He died in 1778. (Pussli, 
AUgemeines KwutUr Lexicon,') R. N. W. 

AKEROYD, SAMUEL, was a native of 
Yorkshire. His songs are in the fbnr col- 
lections published by John Playford in 1685, 
1686, and 1687, under the title of the 
" Theatre of Music," to which Purcell, Blow, 
and Lock were contributors. With such 
musicians, Akeroyd, it must be confessed, 
was very unequ^y associated. It would 
seem, by some commendatory verses that are 
prefixed to the "• Amphion Anglicus," that 
he was a pupil of Dr. Blow : — 

** Take the thankt of one whose heart 

Is ftill of gratitude as fours of art. 

The GiTours yoa bare done me speak them due. 

And the unwearied goodness you pursue ; 



While in acknowledgments my thoughts contend. 
And own the patron where I find the friend.'* 

(Playford, Theatre of Music; Dr. Blow, 
Amphion Anglicus.) E. T. 

AKERSLOOT, WILLEM, a painter and 
engraver of Haarlem, of the early part of the 
seventeenth century. He engraved portraits 
and historical pieces. The following are his 
best prints ; we have no mention of any of 
his paintings : Peter denying Christ, and 
Christ loaded with Chains, after Molyn ; 
Christ taken in the Ghirden, and Peter in 
Chains, after Hondius; and portraits of 
Frederic Henry, prince of Orange, and his 
wife, after Yander Venne; and of Pope 
Urban YIIL, after Vouet. (Heineken, Die- 
tionnaire dee Artistes, ffc. ; Filssli, AUgemeines 
Kunstler Lexicon,) R. N. W. 

AKHSHI'D, or, as Ibn Khallekim pro- 
nounces it, IKHSHI'D, was descended ftx>m 
the Khakans or chiefs of Ferg&iah, the ca- 
pital of the Turkish hordes of Transoxiana. 
He was bom at Baghdad, a. h. 268 (a.i>. 881), 
and received at his birth the name of Mo- 
hammed. His grandfather Joff was the first 
of his ancestors who settled at Baghdad. He 
had been invited by the Khalif Al-motassem, 
the son of Hardn Ar-rashid to enter with a 
corps of Turkish soldiers into his service. 
When he arrived at the khalirs court, he 
was received with the greatest distinction, 
and the khalif gave him valuable estates 
near Samturra (Sermenray). Togj, the father 
of Akhshid, was one of the most popular 
leaders of the Turkish mercenaries, who 
590 



formed at that time the gnard of the kbali£ 
The Turks being then very powerful, their 
leaders divided the provinces of the empir« 
among themselyes, and were frequentiy at war 
with each other. As Tog}, who was assisted 
b^ his son Akhshid, decided in most cases the 
victory for the party that he assisted, he was 
a man of great importance ; but finally he 
fell a victim to the machinatioDs of Al-*abbas, 
the vizir of Motawakkel, and was cast into 
prison at Baghdad, where he died. His son 
Akhshid, who had shared the fiune of his 
fiither, suffered with him the same misfor- 
tunes. It was long after the death of his 
father that he was released ftrom prison, his 
party having become victorious. His name 
soon attracted a great number of men who 
wished to enlist under his command. Ac- 
cording to Mohammed Ben 'Abdullah of 
Hamadan, his army consisted of four hundred 
thousand men, besides a body-guard of eight 
thousand Mamluks, two thousand of whom 
were constantly on duty. The khalif, under 
these circumstances, was obliged to court his 
friendship and to employ him against his 
less subordinate vassals. In a.h. 306 (a.d. 
918), Al-moktader made him governor of the 
province of Ramlah. Two years later he 
added Damascus to his possessions, and in 
A. H. 324 he was acknowledged by the khalif 
Ar-radhi as viceroy of Egypt, Syria, Arabia, 
and Mesopotamia. The same khalif gave him 
the name of Akhshid, or Ikhshid, which was 
originally the title of his ancestors, the chiefs 
of Ferganah, and signifies king of kings. He 
died at Damascus in a. h. 334, (a. d. 945), and 
left his kingdom, which was but nominally 
dependent on the khaltf, to his two sons, and 
to Kafur their tutor. (Ibn Khallekan, MS, 
of the British Museum, No. 7342. and 7343. ; 
Abu-1-feda, Annahs Muslemici, ii. 368. 441. ; 
Ibn Kethir, MS. of the British Museum, No. 
7318.) A. S. 

AKI'BA BEHR BEN JOSEPH ("1 
fpV p Tj;2 «3*pK), a German rabbi, the son 
of R. Joseph of Vienna ( Vindobonensis), was 
living in the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. In the latter part of the seventeenth 
century he exercised the office of rabbi of the 
synagogue of Zinkendorf in Hungary (Wolff 
has Zickendorf), whence he removed to 
Schnaitach in Bavaria, and finally to Gun- 
zenhausen, where he not only exercised the 
office of chief rabbi, but was also Hebrew 
judge of the district of Anspach. His works 
are— " Sepher Abodath Bore " (** The Book 
of the Worship of the Creator"), a col- 
lection of prayers for various occasions, 
partiy original and partiy extracted ftom the 
works of other Jewish writers. They are 
divided into five parts, each of which has a 
separate title. The titie of part 1. is •* Abo- 
dath Elohim" ("The Worship of God"); 
2. •* Kirmath Hammittah " ("The Arousing 
firom the Bed";); 3. "Jechur" ("Exciting 
to Zeal"), which consists of praises and 



AKIBA. 



AKIBA. 



-thanksgivings; 4. *< Bi^ith Jehovah **(** The 
House of the Lord*]) ; and 5. '* Hashulchan" 
(** The Table "). The initial letters of these 
five titles form the name of the author, 
Akiba ; and the initial letters of the gene- 
ral title of the work ** Abodath Bore" are 
the initials of his name and surname, Akiba 
Behr. It was first printed at Wilmersdorf 
(WUhermsdorf) in Franconia, A.M. 5448 
(a. d. 1688), 4ta; and at Berlin, a. m. 5460 
(a. d. 1 700^ 4ta It was printed at Snbibach, 
A.M. 5467 (A.D. 1707X by Aaron ben Uri 
Lipman, with corrections and additions by 
the author hnnself, who on the title to this 
latter edition is adied R. Simeon Akiba 
Behr, by which it i^ypears that he had assumed 
the additional prsenomen of Simeon after the 
publication of Uie former editions of his work ; 
a practice not uncommon among the Jews, 
who were accustomed to assume names in- 
dicative of some great mercy received or 
aflOiction suffered, as well as sometimes the 
name of a deceased relative, whose memory 
they wished thus to perpetuate. 2. **Fi 
Shenigim" (''The Month of Two, or a 
Double Portion") {Deut zxi. 17.)f is a col- 
lection firom the Tabnnd and other Jewish 
writmgs, in which he was assisted by Seelig- 
man I^yi, or, as he is called in the Censura 
affixed to this book, Isaac SeUgman, whence 
thetitle *« The Mouth of Twa** It treats of 
various matters connected with Judaism, and 
is arranged in alphabetical sections, as Abra- 
ham, Adam, and so forth : it was printed at 
Sulsbach by Aaron ben Uri Lipman, a. m. 
5463 (A.i>. 1702), in 4to. On the title Akiba 
is said to have written several othor works, 
but we meet with only one more in print, 
which is, 8. " Abir Jaaoob" (" The Strong 
God of Jacob") iOenuU, xlix. 24.), which 
is a German-Hebrew commentary on the 
paragraphs (parashas) of the book of Genesis, 
extending to the paragraph chap. xlviL v. 28 : 
it is made up of yarious traditions and stories 
from the Talmud and other Rabbinical works. 
It was printed at Sulsbach by the same printer 
as his other works, A.H. 5460 (a.d. 1700), 
4ta, and afterwards at Fnrth, by Salman ben 
Bonfed Schneior, A.H. 5489 (a.i>. 1729), 4to. 
(Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr. L 957, 958. iii. 889. 
iv. 948.) C. P. H. 

AKI'BA BEN ELEAZAR Q2 na^pP n 
"^TP^KX ^ German rabbi who lived in the 
beginning of the sixteenth centuir ; he was 
the grandfather of Akiba of Frankfort He 
is the author of ** Kinah" (** A book of La- 
mentations, or Songs of Sorrow"), which, 
with others of the same kind, by his fither 
or grandfather, R. Eleaser, are at the end of 
the collection called **Kinoth" (** Lament- 
ations "X printed at Lublin in Poland, a. m. 
5377 (A. IX 1617X 4to. (Wolfius, Biblioih, 
Hebr. liL 889.) C. P. H. 

AKFBA OF FRANKFORT (Ha^py "1 
tDn)DP^nK&D), a rabbi, who is also called 
Akiba Giinsbiirg, was a native of Frankfort 
591 



on the Mdn, and the chief preacher in the 
synagogue of his native city dnrinff the latter 
part of the sixteenth century. He died at 
Frankfort a.x. 5357 (a.d. 1597), according 
to the continuation of the ''Tzemach David," 
and this date is confirmed by aftmeral sermon 
preached for him by R. Levi of Prague, 
which was printed with the "Pesack al Agu- 
bah," of R. Jacob Polack at Frankfort on 
the Main, A.M. 5479 (a.d. 1719), in 8vo. 
His works are— 1. ** Techinnoth Becol Jom" 
(" Prayers for every Day "X in a rythmical 
form. They were collected and published 
by R. Elias ben Moses Loans, and printed at 
Basle bj Conrad Waldkirch, a. v. 5359 (a. ix 
1599), m 8vo. The same volume contains — 
2. "Zemiroth ve Shirim" (<* Hymns and 
Songs") for the Sabbath, some of which are 
accompanied with a German-Hebrew trans- 
lation and a Hebrew exposition ; and 3. ** Ve- 
cuach H^^in re Hamajin" (**A Contro* 
versy between the Wine and the Water "), in 
Hebrew yerse, with a German-Hebrew ver- 
sion and Hebrew commentary. The Sabbath 
Hvmns of Akiba were also printed alone, 
with the title «* Zemiroth Leligil Shabbath" 
(** Songs for Sabbath Evening"), at Berlin, 
A.M. 6473 (A.D. 1713), 8vo. (Wolfius, Bib- 
UotK Hebr. I 957, 958. iii 888.) C. P. H. 
AKFBA BEN JOSEPH Q2 fia^py "1 
^D1^), an ancient rabbi, one of the early 
Tanaite or Mishnic doctors, who was fkmous 
in the land of Israel during the greater part 
of the first century of the Christian lera, and 
the beginning of the second ; but he was 
most celebrated during the reigns of the 
emperors Titus and Hadrian, when he be- 
came a principal actor in the tragical events 
of those times, bywhich his nation suffered 
so grievously. He was bom, according to 
the Jewish chronologists, in a. m. 3760, 
which answers to the year in which the 
Saviour Jesus Christ was bom, or a. d. 1. 
According to the same authorities, he was of 
Hebrew descent by the mother's side only, 
his fitther having been a proselyte of justice * 

• There were two kinds of proselytes (Oerim) ad- 
mitted into the Jewish nation by the Uw of Motet. 
The proselyte of justice or righteousnett ( Ger Tiedefc ), 
oidledalso a proselyte of the covenant (Ger Berlth), 
received circumcision and engaged himself to obtenre 
the whole law of Moses, in return for which he was 
admitted to eat the passo? er and to all the prlyilefM 
of a true son of Abraham (Eznacb), belna thereby 
made one of the people of God. All protoytet who 
pretented themseWet for drcurndsioo were strictly ex- 
amined as to the motives of their conversion, and, if 
admitted, they went through a threefold ordeal, bap- 
by Immersion, drcumcblon, and sacriflce; femalea 



were baptixed and offpred tacriflce. The tecond 1 
of proselyte was called a proselyte of the gate (Ger 



Shear) ; also an Inhabiting proselyte (Ger Tothab). 
Such proselytet merely bound themselves by an oath 
to observe the seven precepts of the children of Noah : 



namely, 1. obedience to the lawftil princes and magis- 
trates, which of course included a submission to the 
whole moral code ; 2. the worship of Jehovah and the 
abandonment of all idolatrous practices; S. the ab- 
juring all blasphemiet and iUse-swearing ; 4. all incet- 
tuous and unnatural lusts wrre to be utterly abjured ; 
6. also bloodahed, murder, wounds, and mutilation oi 
men or anfanals ; 6. thefts, cheating, or lying ( 7. th^ 
were not to eat any part of any living animal. To 
QQ 4 



AKIBA. 



AKIBA. 



of a noble Syrian ftmll^r, descended, accord- 
ing to tradition, from Sisera, the general of 
Jabin, king of Canaan, who perished by the 
hand of Jael the wife of Heber the Kenite. 
{Judgesy iv.) According to the Ghemara, 
as well as the Juchasin, Tzemach David, and 
the other Jewish historians and chronolo- 
gists, he lived 120 years, of which the first 
forty years were devoted to business, the 
second forty to study, and the third forty 
years to the instruction of his nation. The 
tradition of the manner in which he passed 
the first forty years of his life is, that he kept 
the flocks anid herds of Calva Sheva, a rich 
inhabitant of Jerusalem ; and that, having 
become enamoured of his master's daughter, 
she consented to marry him if he quitted his 
servile employment and became a learned 
doctor of the law. Stimulated by this pro- 
mise, he entered the colleges and applied 
himself to learning with such energy for 
twenty-four years tibat he not only gained his 
wife but the esteem of the Jewish nation, by 
whom he was considered the most learned 
man of his time. He also travelled in pur- 
suit of knowledge into Arabia, Oaul, Africa, 
Egypt, and other countries. He studied first 
under R. Eliezer, the son of the great Hyr- 
canus, and afterwards under Gfumaliel, the 
preceptor of St. Paul, whom he succeeded as 
president of the school or synagogue of Javna 
or Jafna, a town three miles from Joppa called 
Jamneia (*Ia/AV€(a) by Josephus and Strabo, 
and by R. Beigamin of Tudela (Bei]gamin 
ben Jonah), in his Itinerary, Ebalin. Of 
this synagogue he was the third ruler, having 
been pr^eded by the two Gamaliels; and 
here he became so famous for his learning 
that the Bereshith Rabba says he had 11,000 
disciples, which number subsequent Jewish 
writers have magnified into 24,000. After 
the death of his first wife he married (ac- 
cording to the Talmud) the widow of Tur- 
nus or Tyrannus Rufus, the Roman general 
whom the Emperor Hadrian had sent against 
the rebellious Jews, and who fulfilled the pro- 
phecy of Jeremiah by causing the plough to 
pass over the site of the temple of Jerusalem. 
{Jeremiah, xxviL 18.) When Akiba was, 
according to the Jewish chronologists, 120 
years old, he joined the standard of the im- 
postor and pseudo-messiah Bar Cokeba (the 
son of the star), also called in derision Bar 
Cozeba (the son of the lie), who called him- 
self king of Israel, and began his reign in 
the city called Bither or Bethara, a. m. 3880 
(a. D. 120). Akiba declared that this was 
the star of Jacob predicted by Balaam {Num- 



such progelytes belonged Naaman the Syrian, Corne- 
lius the centurion, the eunuch baptized mr PhiUp, and 
others. They are the persons alludtnl to in the fourth 
coinmandment as bound to the observation of the 
sabbath-.'* and the stranger (Gor) that is within thy 
gates." They considered theraselves as in the way to 
eternal life, and were permitted to dwell in the land 
of Israel, and to share in the outward prosperity of the 
people of God. 
592 



Aer^, TL±r7, \1.\ and conseqnentljr the' trab 
Messiah ; and he not only anointed him 
king, as Samuel had done for the two first 
kings of Israel, but became his armour or 
sword bearer. These confederates, at the 
head of an immense multitude of fiuiatical 
Jews, attacked the Roman province of Judsea, 
and committed enormous cruelties, more 
especially on the Christians ; but, being at- 
tacked by a regular Roman army, they were 
utterly defeated, their pretended Messiali 
slain, and Akiba taken prisoner and put to 
a cruel death hj the Roman general; his 
flesh was torn off by iron combs. His body 
was buried by his disciples near the top of a 
mountain near the city of Tiberias, and his 
sepulchre became a place of pilgrimage to the 
Jews, who considered him a holy martyr, 
and paid annual visits to his tomb betwecM 
the passover and the feast of pentecost. The 
Ghemara says that his eleven thousand 
disciples were interred on the same mountain 
below their master 

R. Akiba is looked upon by the Jews as 
one of the greatest of theur Mishnic fiithers or 
authorities for the oral law ; indeed R. Be- 
chai, in his commentary on the Law, says 
that revelations were made to Akiba which 
were withheld from Moses. The Shal- 
shelleth Hakkabbala says that the greater 
part of the Mishna was dictated by him, and 
Abraham Zacuth, in the Juchasin, goes still 
further, and gives him the merit of the whole 
work. 

The works attributed to Akiba are — I. 
" Othioth shel R. Akiba" (« The Letters or 
Alphabet of R. Akiba"), which is a cabba- 
listical and allegorical explanation of the 
Hebrew alphabet. This little book was first 
printed at Constantinople, without date, but, 
according to De Rossi, early in the sixteenth 
century, m small 4to. There was a copy of 
this edition in the library of R. Oppenheimer. 
It was next printed at Venice, a. m. 6306 
(a. d. 1546), by Marco Antonio Justiniani, in 
8vo. ; and, according to the Siphte Jeshenim, 
at Cracow, with additions, a. h. 6339 (a.h. 
1679), in 8vo. Bartolooci says that this 
edition has added to it " Perush Aruk" (•• A 
Diffuse Commentary "). Wolff also cites two 
editions printed at Amsterdam a.m. 5367 
and 5468 (a.d. 1607 and 1708), m 8vo. It 
is also printed at fWl in Hebrew and Latin, 
but without the commentary, in the (Edipus 
-Sgyptiacus of Father Kircher (vol. u.), 
and m the admirable Bibliotheca of Father 
Bartolocci (vol. iv.). The text of Bartolocci 
is printed fh)m a vellum MS. in the libiary 
of the Duke of Parma at Rome. De Rossi 
says that besides the first edition, which is 
very rare,^ he had in his possession four manu- 
script copies, all varying in some pomts, and 
none of which had been used for the printed 
editions. There is among the Pococke MSS. 
in the Bodleian library, a manuscript on 
paper in a very legible Hebrew character 



AKIBA. 



AKIBA. 



containuig six tracts, of which the first is the 
alphabet of R. Akiba, with this title, *' Seder 
Othioth Shel R. Akiba" (" The Order of the 
Letters of R. Akiba''). 2. "* Sepher JeUira 
or Jezira'' Q* The Book of the Formation or 
Creation*'), which is usually attribnted by the 
rabbis to the patriarch Abraham ; but b^ the 
more enlightened Jews, as well as Christian 
writers, it is received as the work of R. 
Akiba. This work is the great fountain of 
the Cabbala and mystic theology of the Jews, 
from which all subsequent writers on these 
subjects have drawn their notions. The 
great respect which the Jews have for this 
work is ^wn by their attributing it to the 
patriarch Abraham, whose name always ap- 
pears on the title. It is divided into six 
heads, and each head into sections, in all 
thirty-two, which are called paths or ways 
(" Ncthiboth") and which, under the twenty- 
two letters of the alphabet and the ten se- 
phiroth, treat of divine wisdom and the 
mystic power of the divine names. It was first 
printed at Mantua by Jacob Cohen, ▲.]!. 
5322 (a. d. 1562), in 4to., with five com- 
mentaries by Haravad (Abraham ben Dior 
Halevi), Haramav (R. Moses Botnl), Ha- 
ramban (R. Moses bar Nachman), Saadia 
Gaon, and R. Eliezer de Gannisa. It has a 
double pre&ce, one by Haravad and the other 
by Hanunav. The text is printed in the 
square Hebrew character, and the com- 
mentaries in the Rabbinic^ letter ; it is a 
very elegant and^ carefiilly printed edition. 
The text is also given by itself at the end of 
the book ; but accordiug to Wolff and De 
Rossi, it differs in some degree from that 
given with the commentaries, a diversity 
which is found in all the ancient MSS., and 
which has been continued in all the subse- 
quent editions, of which there are severaL 
Wolff coDJectures, with his usual sagacity, 
that this diversity of text has arisen from the 
transcribers having in the course of ages 
introduced the interpretations of the com- 
mentators into the text De Rossi says that 
this double text is found even in the modem 
edition printed at Constantinople ▲. m. 5484 
(a. j>. 1724), which was in his possession, and 
which had an abridgment of the commentary 
of Haravad, and the whole of that of Ha- 
ramban, with a part of that of R. Isaac Lnria. 
De Rossi had also among his manuscripts an 
unedited copy of the Jetzira, with a com- 
mentary by Jacob ben Nissim, bound up 
with the commentary of Saadia Gaon. There 
are two Latin translations of the Jetzira, one 
by Postellus, printed at Paris a. d. 1552, and 
one by Joh. Steph. Rittangelius, printed at 
A msterdam by the Jansons, a. i>. 1 642, in 4to., 
which has the Hebrew text, and is far more 
esteemed than the former. R. Ghedalia aben 
Jachija, in the Shalshelleth Hakkabbala, 
supposes the Jetzira of R. Akiba to be a 
different book from that of the patriarch 
Abraham; but R. Shabtai and the other 
593 



Jewish writers acknowledge only one Jetzirft 
8. " Sepher MekUta" (" The Book of the 
Measure or the Bushel"), which is a very 
ancient commentary on Exodus, written 
either by Akiba or one of his disciples. 
There are two other Mekiltas, one by R. 
Ismael and the other by R. ben AzaL 4. 
The Shalshelleth also attributes to him an* 
other work called ** Mekiltin,*' a commentary 
on the ceremonial law of the Pentateuch, 
which Wolff and De Rossi think is not to be 
distinguished from the Mekilta. 5. ** Hab- 
daUah" C* The Separation "X & cabbaUstical 
treatise on the ceremonial of the sabbath, and 
principally concerning the ceremonies in 
which a lamp was lighted on the sabbath 
evening to mark the transition ftt>m day to 
nig^t, and the consequent departure of the 
sabbath, which ceremony is called Habdul- 
lah by the Jews. This work is cited in the 
Noveloth Chocmoh and the preftoe to the 
Emeck Hammelek, as a manuscript by R. 
Akiba. De Rossi says that it was among the 
MSS. in Oppenheimer's library. The cde> 
brated works called Siphra, Siphri, and To- 
saphta are all said by the Jews to have been 
written by disciples of Akiba, and conse- 
quently to be replete with his doctrines. The 
Jewish prayer which begins *' Abinu Mal- 
kinu" (" Our Father, our King") is said 
to be by R. Akiba. Vorstius, in his notes 
on the Tzemach David, makes Akiba, the 
author of the Jetzira, to be a different 
person tram the author of the Othioth, and 
says that neither of the two must be con- 
founded with the Akiba who was the asso- 
ciate of Bar Cokeba, and that they are both 
authon of a more modem date. But as he 
seems only to be hazarding a mere coigec- 
ture, and produces no proofs, we prefer the 
testimony of the whole Jewish body of chro- 
nologists and historians. Paul Pezron, in his 
" Antiquite des Temps Retablie et Defendue," 
says that Akiba was the fint who introduced 
corrupt readings into the sacred text in fovour 
of Judaism and against Christianity ; but Wolff 
has successfully combated this absurd opinion 
in his second volume, where he treats of the 
canon of Scripture. This rabbi is called, 
by St. Jerome and by Epiphanius, Barakiba. 
(Wolfius, Biblioth. Hebr, i. 25. 955—957. iL 
1025. iii. 887, 888. iv. 948. ; Ottho, Historia 
Doctor, Muchnicor, p. 132—147. ed. Wolff; 
Bartoloccius, BibUoth, Mag. JRabb, L 15. iv. 
272—281. ; De Rossi, Dizi<mario Storico de^i 
AutoriEbrei, I 41, 42. 169. ; Imbonatus,^!^ 
lioth, Lat. Htbr. 66. 419. ; Uri, Cat MSS, 
Orient BiUioth, Bodl, I 68. ; Jo. Lightfoot, 
Hora: Hebr, et Talmud, i. 98. ; Bayle, Diet 
Histor. Crit I 130. art. " Akiba," ed. Rotterd. 
1702 ; Ghemara, Cod, JRoah Hashana, Ket- 
vroth, Jevamoth ; Basnagc, Histoire des Juifs, 
vii. 346. ; Petitus, Miaceiiauea, ii. 63.) 

C. P H 

.AKIBA BEN JUDAH LOW (Ha^py n 

2^7 min^ P), a German rabbi who was 



AKIBA. 



AKRISa 



fiying at the beginning of the last century. 
He wa£ the author of *« Haohel Olam" (" The 
Eyerlasting Tabernacle"), which title in 
Hebrew corresponds by Qematria (note, 
p. 156.) with the name Akiba, the letters of 
each being eqairalent to the number 187. It 
is a commentary on the book called ** Ketn- 
Toth" (''Matrimonial Contracts"), which is 
the third book or treatise of the order ** Na- 
shim " (" Women ") of the Talmud. In the 
preface the author says that he wrote this 
book while a youth. It was printed at Frank- 
fort on the Main, a. m. 5474 (a.d. 1714), in 
folio. (Wolfius, BihUotiLHehr. ill 889, 890) 

C P bl 

AKIMOV, IVAN AKIMOVICH,* a 
Russian artist, bom in 1754, was one of the 
earliest pupils of the Academy of Fine Arts 
at St Petersburg, where he studied under 
IVofessor Anthony Losenko, an historical 
painter who died in 1773. On quitting the 
academy he was rewarded with a gold medal 
of the first class, and was then sent abroad 
(1773) with a trayelling pension. Shortly 
after his return he was i^pointed teacher of 
historical design (1779), was made an acade- 
mician in 1782, and adjunct professor in 
1785 ; and was director of the academy fh>m 
1796 to 1800. He died August 15th (27th), 
1814, and left to the academy his collection 
of engrayings, and a bequest of 15000 rubles. 
Owing to his time being so much engaged 
by his official duties, his works are incon- 
siderable in number, but gire eyidence of 
great ability and talent, more especially in 
regard to drawing and 4h6 arrangement of 
his draperies, in colouring he was by no 
means so sncoessful, although his latter per- 
formances show some improyement in this 
respect Among his chief productions are 
his Death of Hercules, in the possession of 
the academy; the Ikonostas, in the church 
of the Alexandroneyska3ra Layra ; and two 
paintings in that of the Mother of Qod 
of Smolensk. The academy has a portrait 
of him painted by Lampi the younffer. (Gri- 
goroy ich, in EnttUdop, Lexikon ; Khudozhett- 
vennaya GazeteL) W. H. L. 

AKOUI. [Akwel] 

AKRISH, R. ISAAC BEN ABRAHAM 
BEN JUDAH, called Ashkenazi, **the Ger- 
man" Qsrncv min^ p Dn"Q« p pn^ 'n 

^T^Dfi^), a German rabbi, or of German 
parentage. De Rossi caUs him a natiye of 
the Leyant (Leyantino), who exercised his 
rabbinical functions in the Leyant, and prin- 
cipally at Constantinople, during the sixteenth 
century. Haying heard much from others con- 
cerning the remnant of the ten tribes of Israel 
who were dwelling beyond the fiibulous riyer 
Sabba^on, he undertook a journey fh>m Con- 
stantinople to Egypt in the year a.m. 5322 
(a. d. 1562), chiefly for the purpose of yisiting 
this people and ascertaining their actual state ; 
after which he wrote his celebrated work 
called ** Maasse Beth Dayid B^eme Malcuth 
594 



Peres** (** The History of the Houm of Dayid 
in the C^ys of the Kingdom of Persia"). In 
this work the author undertakes to proye that 
eyen in their present exile and dispersion the 
Jews yet possess a country in which they 
exercise the kingly power and supreme dcH 
minion. The work is diyided into three 
parts, the first of which is called *^ Maasse 
Shel R. Bosthenai " (** The History (Acts) of 
R. Bosthenai*'), which celebrates his maryel- 
lotts deeds in fayour of the Jews in Persia ; 
the second part treats of the remnant of the 
ten tribes dwelling on the further side of the 
riyer Sabba^on ; and the third part giyes 
the history of Kinff Joseph of the Coearsans, 
called by Buxtorff King Alcoxar, with the 
epistle of R. Chasdai to that kixig and his 
answer. [Chasdai ben Isaac Shipbdt.] 
This third part is ffenerally called *<Koi 
Mebasher*' ("The Voice of the Herald or 
Crier "), because it begins with those words, 
which circumstance M Wolff, in his first 
yolume, and De Rossi, who seems to haye 
followed him altogether, to call the whole 
work **Kol Mebasher.** But this error 
Wolff corrected in his third yolume, when, 
haying exanuned the work, he found Barto- 
locci as usual correct, and the title as we 
haye giyen it aboye ; which is also the title 
giyen in the ** Siphte Jeshenim." Bartolocci 
says that it was first printed at Cracow, but 
he giyes no date; also in German-Hebrew 
at Basle, by Waldkirch, without date, in 4ta 
This first edition is also, noticed by^ Plui- 
tayitius. It was also reprinted in Hebrew 
with the '*Iggereth Orchoth 01am*' or 
Hebrew Itinerary of Abraham Perizol at 
Offenbach, a.m. 5480 (a. d. 1720), 12ma 
There is also a German-Hebrew translation 
of this little book by Dayid ben Joseph cf 
Toplitz (Teplicensis), printed at Frankfort 
on the Main, A. M. 5465 (a.d. 1705), 8yo. 
Wolff says that he saw an edition, printed 
at Constantinople, in Oppenheimer*s library, 
but he does not name the year of publication 
or the form of the book. (Wolfius, BibUoth, 
Hebr. i. 644, 645. iii. 548. ; Bartcdoccius, Bib- 
lioth, Mag. Rabb. iiL 918. ; Baxtorftus» 71^- 
taunu Grammat Hebr. 662. ; De Rossi, JH- 
zionario Storico degU Autori Ebr, i. 42. ; Plan- 
tayitius, BibUoth. Rabbm. 891.; FlenrOeg, 
Rabin, 698.) ^ C. P. H. 

XK-SHEMS-ED-DIN, or AK-SHEMSU- 
D-DIN, that is, the white sun of belief; was 
a Turkish sheikh, renowned for his great 
knowledge of medicine, music, and mystical 
philosophy, but still more for his extra- 
ordinary prophecies. He was bom in Syria, 
A. H. 692, (a. d. 1389). He became a dis- 
ciple of the great sheikh H^t Beyram, and 
afterwards followed the Turkish army on 
its march to the last siege of Constanti- 
nople. His eloquence, and the oracular cha- 
racter of his words, often put into ecstasies 
the fonatical bands assembled by Sultan Mo- 
hammed IL under the walls of old Byzan- 



AK-8HEM8-ED-DIN. 

tram. This great'inooareh dutiBgiushed Ak- 
shems-edHliii among the crowd of common 
sheikhs, and availed himself of his eloquence 
for the purpose of rousing the energy of his 
ministers, who, disoonraged by the obstinate 
resistance of the Greeks, endeavoared to per- 
soade the sultan to abandon the siege. The 
erafW sheikh imitated the example of Peter 
the Hermit. In the same way as the Christian 
monk pretended that the Apostle Andrew had 
shown him the spot where the holy lance 
was hidden, so the Mohammedan sheikh pro- 
claimed, one day, that Eyuh, the standard- 
bearer of the Prophet, had conducted him to 
his tomb, the situation of which had, until 
that day, been unknown to the believers. He 
then preached on a suitable text taken from 
a tradition concerning the Prophet, and pre- 
dicted the day, and even the hour, of the fidl 
of Constantinople. The hopes of the Turks 
had been more than once frustrated during 
the preceding sieges of that city; but now the 
name of Ak-shems-ed-din seemed to warrant 
a happy issue to their undertaking, and the 
army enthusiastically called out for the as- 
sault When the 39th of May, 1453, arrived, 
the sultan commanded the assault to be made. 
The Turks were sncoessftil, and Constanti- 
nople from that time became the centre of 
the Mohammedan religion. The ihme of 
Ak-shems-ed-din's prediction spread over all 
the East ; but he retired from public aflkirs, 
and, in contemplative solitude, taught the 
mjrstical philosophy of Sheikh Beyram. The 
most distinguished of his numerous disciples 
were his own sons, seven in number, who 
were all called by the name of Mohammed, 
and among whom two were well-known poets. 
After having made seven pilgrimages to 
Mecca, Ak-shems-ed-din died about a. d. 1472, 
and was buried at Koniah, where numbers of 
pious Mohammedans still annually visit his 
tomb. (Von Hammer, GesckkhU dies Os- 
mamsehem Reiche», i. 523, &c, who cites 
Shakiak, Aali, foL 143., and a manuscript bio- 
graphy entitled MemUdbi Akshemt'ed-din,) 

W. P. 
AK-SUNKUR (Abu Saldlbn 'AbdiUah), 
saniamed K&simu-d-danlah (the partner m 
the empire), but more generally known by 
the title <k H^ib (chunberlain), was the 
&ther of 'Imidu-d-^Un Zinki, the founder of 
the dynasty of the Atabegs at Mosul. Ak- 
sunkur had been the mamluk of Bfalek Shah, 
son of Alp-anlan, third sultan of the race of 
'Ir&n Seljuk. In a. H. 478 (a. d. 1085), when 
Tigu-d-diEiulah Tutush, son of Alp-arslan, 
obtained possession of Aleppo, he left Ak- 
sunkur as his lieutenant in that city, thinking 
he could place reliance on one who had been 
his brother's (Malek Shah) mamliik. Ak- 
ennkur, however, revolted in a. h. 487 (a. d. 
1094), and Tutush marched against him and 
fKve him battle near a villa^ called Riiylm, 
m the vicinity of Aleppo, m the month of 
Jumida the first, a. h. 487 (a. d. 1094). The 
595 



AK-5UNKUIL 

conflict terminated in the utter defeat and 
death of Ak-sunknr. Another of Malek 
Shah's mamKiks, named Buzan, who had 
assisted Ak-sunkur in his revolt, was taken 

Srisoner and beheaded. When 'Imadu-d-din 
iinki obtained possession of Aleppo in a. h. 
522 (A.D. 1128), he caused the body of his 
ftthcar to be transferred from the cemetery at 
Mount Kamebiya, where it was at first 
buried, to a madrisah or college in the quarter 
of the city called Zijjajiyah. Ak-sunkur is 
a Turkish name, meaning ** white falcon." 
(Ibn Khallekibi, Bioff, Diet I 226. ;«Frey- 
tag, Sdecta ex Hialaria Haldn, p. 75.; AbCi- 
l-fcdi^ Ann, MuaL iii. 290.) P. de 6. 

AK-SUNKUR (Abu Sa'id), sumamed 
Al-ghasi (the warrior), Kasimu-d-daulah 
(partner in the empire), Sejfu-d-din (sword 
of religion^, and Al-bureoki, because he was 
a manumitted sfaive of a mamluk named 
Bursok, was prince of Mosul, Rahaba, and 
the nei^hbourmg districts, of which he got 
possession after the death of fsfahsahtr Mau- 
diid, who governed them in the name of Mo- 
hammed, son of Malek Shah, fourth sultan of 
'Iran of the race of SeQiik. In a.h. 449 
(a.d. 1057-8.), Ak-sunkur, who was then 
shahnah or lieutenant of that sultan at Bagh- 
diUU received orders to lay -siege to Tekrit, 
then in the possession of a chieftain named 
KaykoUML Ibn Hazarasb the Dilamite, who 
was reported to be a partisan of the doctrines 
of the B&tinites or Isma'ilians, commonly 
called assassins. In pursuance of his orders, 
Ak-sunkur arrived before Tekrit, which he 
besieged till Moharram a. h. 500 (Sept A. d. 
1106)w He was on the point of reducing 
that city, when Seyfb-d-daulah Sadakah, 
whose assistance Kaykobid had implored, 
came up at the head of considerable forces 
and saved his ally fh>m destruction. Ak- 
sunkur raised the siege and retired to Mosul, 
of which i^ace he had been appointed gover- 
nor some time before. No sooner, however, 
had he established his authority there, than 
he was directed to march against the Franks 
in Sjrria, whom he forced to raise the siege 
of ^eppo. He returned to Mosul, where he 
continued to reside till his death, which hap- 
pened in the month of Dhi-1-ka'dah, a.h. 520 
(Nov. A. D. 1126), in the following manner : 
Some Ismallians, whose relatives Ak-sunkur 
caused to be executed, swore to revenge their 
death. As he was one day sitting in the 
maks6rah, or railed inclosure of the mosque, 
the assassins, who were stam^g near him in 
the disguise of Sufis, sprang upon him and 
stabbed him. He was a wise and enlightened 
ruler, and his loss was greatlv felt by his 
subjects. After the death of Ak-sunkur, the 
government of Mosul mssed to his son 'Izsu- 
d-din Mas'ud. (Ibn Khallek^ Biog, Diet, 
iL 228. ; Abii-l-fedi, Ann. MusL, iiL) 

P. de G. 

AKWEI, a distinguished Chinese general 
and prime minister in the reign of KcenLoong, 



AKWEL 



AKWEL 



whicli lasted from a.d. 1736 to 1796^ He 
was of a good Tartar family, and held an 
hereditary command in the Red Banner, one 
of the eight standards into which the Manchoo 
Tartar nation, which conquered China in 
1644, is divided. He lived however at Pekin 
in a private capacity for some time, engaged 
in the study of Chinese literature, in which 
from his youth he had made great progress. 
Becoming accidentally known to the prime 
minister Foo>han^, who conceived a high 
opinion of his abilities, he was sent to serve 
onder Foo-tay, a celebrated general, in the war 
against the Eleuth Tartars, in 1757, and also 
charged with the duty of sending reports of 
the state of afOurs to ike minister, who was in 
the habit of showing them to the emperor 
himsell The war against the Eleuths ter- 
minated so successfully for the Chinese that 
Keen Loong employed the French Jesuit At- 
tiret to execute a series of historical paint- 
ings of the principal events, with portraits of 
the leading officers, and had them engraved 
at Paris. The next war in which Akwei was 
engaged had very different results. The 
Burmese, called in Chinese the Meen nation, 
had succeeded in repulsing and cutting to 
pieces the invading armies of China. In 
1769 a last effort was made by the Chinese, 
and a force, which the Burmese historians 
represent as amounting to 50,000 horse and 
500,000 foot, entered Ava under the command 
of three generals, called by the Burmese 
Thu-koun-ye, A-koun-ye, and Youn-koun- 
ye, in the second of whom we may re- 
cognise Akwei^ though erroneously called 
the son of the Chinese emperor. After re- 
peated defeats by land and water, the Chinese 
commanders were obliged to summon a 
council, in which they proposed to send a 
mission to the Burmese camp to open nego- 
tiations for a safe return to China ; and on 
the 13th of December, 1769, a trea^ to that 
effect was concluded. The then king of 
Burmah, called by the Burmese Tshen-lyn- 
yen, and by Symes Shem-Baun, was highly 
displeased with his general for allowing the 
Chmese army to escape, and Akwei appears to 
have suffered no diminution of the emperor*s 
fiivour from his conduct on this occasion. 
In 1772 Keen Loong appointed him to the 
command of the expcSlition against the tribes 
called the Meaou-Tsze, promoting him over 
the heads of many more experien^ officers, 
and among others of his old commander 
Foo-tay. The Meaou-Tsze consisted of a 
few tribes in the province of Sze-chuen, said 
to be of Tibetian ori^y^ who ftora time im- 
memorial had paid little more than nominal 
obedience to Chinese authority ; and now, on 
having been interfered with more than was 
customary, set it at open defiance. They had 
repeatedly succeeded in repulsing the troops 
sent against them, and Akwei was induced, 
therefore, to adopt a slow and cautious system 
of attack. It is said, in one account of the 
696 



war, that he often remained fbr two or three 
months at the foot of one of the rocks on 
which the rude fortifications of tiie Meaou- 
Tsze were constructed, awaiting a night of 
fog, on which he might have a chance of 
assailing it without loss. In another Chinese 
account his proceedings are stated to have 
borne a character of more energy and ra* 
pidity ; and in both it is maintained that his 
course of action was crowned with complete 
success. Father Amiot wrote, in 1776, after 
describing the sanguinary executions of the 
captive chiefs of the rebels, ordered and wit- 
nessed by Keen Loong, that nothing remained 
of the unfortunate nation of the Meaou-Tsse 
but some few persona of low rank, who had 
been given as slaves to the victorious officers. 
Davis, on the other hand, states in 1836 that 
Amiot's narrative was taken fh>m official 
papers ** not more correct or veracious than 
Napoleon's bulletins," and adds that the Meaou- 
Tsze " still remain nearly as independent as 
ever;" "a body of mountaineers who defy 
the Chinese in the midst of their empire." It 
appears however to have suited the policy of 
Keen-Loong to treat the triumph as complete. 
He receiveid Akwei with extraordmaiy 
honours, and granted him the privilege of 
wearing the personal decorations generally 
confined to prmces of the blood. The jealousy 
of his old commander Foo-tay was aroused 
at seeing his own honours surpassed, and he 
preferred accusations against the loyalty of 
Akwei, the investigation into which ter^ 
minated in the condemnation and execution 
of the accuser as guilty of falsehood and an 
attempt to deceive the emperor. In the next 
year, 1777, Akwei was named prime minister. 
One of the most important acts of his admi- 
nistration was the improvement of the dykes 
of the river Hwang-ho, the inundations of 
which are a source of perpetual alarm and 
calamity to the Chinese. While engaged in 
this useful work he was again summoned to 
war by the revolt of the Mohammedan in- 
habitants of the province of Kan-suh, which 
he suppressed witii vigour. As a punishment 
for the crime of ing^ratitude, Kcen-Loong 
ordered the slaughter of every Mohammedan 
above the age of fifteen in Kan-suh, and 
Akwei is said to have fiuthftilly executed his 
orders. This is the last occasion on which 
his name is found mentioned, although it has 
been supposed that he survived the abdication 
of Keen-Loong in 1796. (JSUtoire de la Chme, 
tradvite du Tong-kien-kang-mou, by Mailla, 
&C. xL 591, &c. &c ; Eeduction de» Miao- 
Taie, in Mimoires concemani les Chinau, iiL 
387, &c. ; Outzlaff, Sketch of Chmese ETutoiy, 
il 53, &c i Davis, The Chinese, i. 153. ; Bur- 
mese historians translated by Capt Burner 
in Asiatic Journal of Bengal for 1837, vi« 
121. 406, reprinted in Asiatic Journal of Lon- 
don for 1838, new series, xxvi. 327. xxvii. 
62, &c.) T. W. 

ALA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, organist 



ALA. 



ALABASTER. 



•ft Milan, bom at Monza in 1580 and died in 
1612. The following works were published 
after his deaUi : — 1. Two sets of Madrigals 
and Canzonets. Milan, 1617. 2. Concert! Ec- 
desiastici for one to four yoices. Milan, 1618. 
He was one of the earliest of the Italian 
oomposers who attempted the composition of 
an opera. Two of these were printed at 
Milan, ^'Armida abbandonata'* and "Amante 
OGCulto." (Mazsuchelli, Scrittori <f Itali€L) 

E.T, 

A'LABA ESQUIVEL, DIEGO DE, a 
natiye of Vittoria, and educated at Salamanca, 
where he prosecuted with distinction the study 
of law. Aiter acting as judge in more than one 
tribunal, he was made president of the supreme 
court of Granada) an appointment which he 
resigned on being elected bishop of Astorga. 
While he occupied this see he attended five 
sessions of the council of Trent In the last 
of these sessions (1547) he boldly denounced 
the efibrts of the Italian prelates to support 
the practice of bestowing a plurality of bene^ 
fices upon the same person, and the granting 
of bishoprics m commendam as attempts to 
screen offenders in high places at the ex* 
pense of degrading the character of the 
church. In 1548 he was transferred to the 
see of Avila, subsequently to that of Cordova, 
along with which preferments he was allowed 
to hold the office of president in the supreme 
court of Granada. He died on the 16th of 
February, 1562. Diego de Alaba Esquivel 
was author Oi a work on ecclesiastical councils 
and their defects : the title of the edition 
described by Antonio is " De Conciliis Uni- 
Tenalibus, ao de his quse ad Religionis et 
ReipnbliciB ChristiansB Reformationem insti- 
tuenda videntur. Granatse, 1582," fol. An 
edition of this work, with additional illus- 
trations, was published by Francisco Ruiz de 
Vergara y Alaba, at Madrid, in 1671. {Bib^ 
Uatheca Nova Hiapana^ a D. Antonio Nicolao 
Hispalensi, Romie, 1783, fol., in voce **Di< 
dacus de AJaba Esquivel ; " Historia del Con- 
cilio Tridentino di Pietro Soane Polmo, in 
Londra, 1619, foHo, p. 248, 249.) W. W. 

ALABARDI, GIOSEFFO, called Schi- 
oppi, a Venetian painter of considerable 
merit towards the end of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. He executed several works in fresco 
in the Sala de' Conviti, in the ducal palace in 
Venice, but there is at present scarcely any 
thing of his remaining. (Zanetti, Delia Pit" 
tura Veneziana; Guarienti, Abecedario Pit' 
torico.) R. N. W. 

ALABASTER, WILLIAM, is stated by 
Fuller to have been bom at Hadlei^h in 
Suffolk, and to have been ** by marriage," 
(that is, we suppose, through Still*s wife,) 
nephew to Dr. John Still, bishop of Bath 
and Wells. His birth must have taken place 
in 1567, if we may trust to the circumscrip- 
tion about an engraving of his head given in 
one of his books. He studied in Trinity 
College, Cambridge, and he took his degree 
597 



of M.A. at that university ; afterwards he 
was, 11th July, 1592, incorporated of the 
university of Oxford. In June, 1596, he ac- 
companied the expedition sent against Cadis 
as chaplain to the Earl of Essex, the com- 
mander-in-chief of the land forces, and while 
in Spain he became a convert to the Roman 
Catholic faith. His biographers do not seem 
to be aware that he remained abroad and a 
Roman Catholic till the year 1610 ; but it 
appears firom his own books that if he ever 
came home firom the continent before that 
date, he went back again, and he did not 
return to the Church of England till 1610. 
He appears to have published something 
in defence of his change of religion soon 
after it took place; and his pamphlet, or 
pamphlets, gave rise to a controversy, which 
seems still to have been going on so late as 
1604. About four years after he became a 
Roman Catholic, as appears again ftt>m the 
inscription to his portrait, he took to the 
study of cabalistic divinity, or the secret 
theology (arcana theologia), as he calls it ; 
and in 1607 he publish^ in a 4to. volume, 
at Antwerp, a singular treatise ftdl of that 
sort of learning, under the title of " Appa- 
ratus in Reve£&tionem Jesu Christi.** This 
performance was condemned and put into 
the " Index Librorum Prohibitorum " by 
the ecclesiastical authorities at Rome in the 
beginning of the year 1610 ; Alabaster him- 
self, if we may believe his own account, 
having been previously induced by some 
fraudulent promises of the Jesuits to come 
up to that city, was thrown into the 
prison of the Inquisition, and only released 
under an order to confine himself within 
the city for the next five years. It seems 
to have been this treatment that caused 
his re-conversion : he made his escape 
ft-om Rome, not, as he says, without the 
greatest danger of his life ; and, returning 
to his native country, r^oined his originid 
church. These facts we learn ft-om the pre- 
face to a work which he published in 4to. at 
Ix)ndon, in 1633, entitled ** Ecce Sponsus 
Venit } Tuba Pulchritudinis," &c. ; the object " 
of which is to determine the date assigned to 
the existence of the world, and also that of 
the Church of Rome, against which he was 
now greatly envenomed. It is in ^is work 
that tibe engraving of his head is found. After 
his reconversion, having taken his degree of 
D.D., he was made a prebendary of St Paul's, 
London, and he also became rector of what 
Fuller calls " the rich parsonage " of Thar- 
field in Hertfordshire. He died in the be- 
ginning of April, 1640. Another of his 
works is a dictionary or vocabulary in five 
languages, entitled " Lexicon Pentaglotton, 
Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum, Tal- 
mudioo-Rabbinicum, et Arabicum," fol. Lon. 
1637 ; and there are some other theologicnl 
treatises attributed to him in die catalogue 
of the Bodleian library, in Watt's Bibiio" 



ALAJ9 ASTER. 



ALABASTER. 



iheea, and by Chalmen in his Biographi- 
cal Dictionary, which we have not seen. 
But the only production for which Alabaster 
is now remembered is a Latin tragedy, en- 
titled ** Rozana," which was acted in Trinity 
College Hall, Cambridge, probably in or 
before the year 1592, but was not published, 
and seems to have been generally forgotten, till 
a surreptitious impression of it was brought 
out at London in 1632, and a more correct 
edition by the author the same year. Atten- 
tion was drawn to this tragedy by a remark 
of Johnson in his Life of Milton, ** that if 
we produced anjrthing worthy of notice [in 
Latin yerse] before the Elegies of Milton, it 
was, perhaps, Alabaster's Rozana.*' Dr. Jo- 
seph Warton, in a note published in his bro- 
ther's collection of Milton's Smaller Poems 
(2d edit p. 430.), noticing this criticism, 
obsenres ^at the Rozana, far from being 
entitled to be placed on a level with Milton's 
Latin poetry, ** is written in the shrle and 
manner <^ the turgid and unnatural Seneca." 
** It is remarkable," he adds, ** that Mors, 
Death, is one of the persons of the drama." 
In his dedication to Sir Ralph Freeman, Ala- 
baster affects to speak of the play as a de- 
funct trifle which had been the work of a 
fortnight, anddesigned only for the amusement 
o£ a night ; and he expresses himself with 
great indignation in regard to the jplagiary 
(plagiarius) as he designates the pubhsher of 
the other edition, who, having got hold of a 
corrupted copy, had sent it to the press. 
But he gives no hint of a little flict which 
is mentioned in a MS. Latin note, in a hand 
of the seventeenth century, on a copy of his 
own edition in the British Museum, that the 
Roxana is, to a great extent, merely a trans- 
lation from the Italian tragedy of '* La Da- 
lida," written by Luigi Groto, commonly 
called The Blind Man of Hadria. This 
has been lately noticed, we believe for the 
first time, by Mr. Hallam, in his '* Introduc- 
tion to the Literary History of Europe," iiL 
624. Groto's tragedy, which was first printed 
in 1572, but which, as he tells us in his 
dedication, had been written many years 
before, when he was very young, had un- 
questionably served as the groundwork of 
Alabaster's composition. The story, a fiction, 
the scene of which is laid in Bactria. and which 
appears to be of Groto's invention, is followed 
in nearly all its details by Alabaster ; the con- 
duct of the dramatic action is for the most part 
closely copied ; even some of the names of 
Groto's characters are retained, though others 
are altered ; and not only D^Uh, but other 
similar allegorical or shadowy personages, 
act the same parts in the one drama as in the 
other : such as Jealousy, which Groto calls 
Gelosia, and Alabaster Suspicio, and a spirit 
or ghost (Ombra di Moleonte in the Italian, 
Umbra Moleontis in the Latin play). Each 
drama also has a chorus. It might be going 
too far indeed to say that the dialogue in the 
598 



one is generally a translation of that in th« 
other ; Alabaster rather appears to have 
exercised ji good deal of his own ingenuity 
in this part of his task ; he has at any rate 
everywhere greatly compressed his original, 
in which the speeches are throughout long- 
winded in the extreme, and the mere rhe- 
torical gladiatorship intolerably protracted ; 
and we doubt not that he has fi^qoentlj 
thrown in some poetry and passion of his 
own in Ueu of the wearisome verbiage and 
cold conceits of his original But, after all 
deductions, his play must be considered as 
borrowed from thi^ of Groto to an extent 
which made it imperative on him to acknow- 
ledge his obligations ; and his not having 
done so may go ftr to entitle him to the 
credit of having been more sincere than he 
might otherwise have been thought in his 
wi& that the production should have been 
forgotten. Mr. Hallam considers Groto's 
play as the better production of the twa 
Alabaster, however, had a high poetical 
reputation in his own day, founded on other 
grounds than his Roxana. Fuller, referring 
to that performance, calls him ** a most rare 
poet as any our age or nation hath pro- 
duced," an expression which Anthony a Wood 
(or his printer) intending to transcribe, 
has transformed into ** the rarest poet and 
Grecian that any one age or nation produced." 
Herrick, in his Hesperides, has celebrated 
him in various passages; and Spenser, to 
whom he ^>pearB to luive been alM person- 
ally known, has in his ** Colin Clout's Come 
Home Agam " (probably written in 1594), an 
elaborate passage about him (v. 400—415.), 
in which he speaks of his poetry in terms of 
unmeasured admiration. The performance 
to which Spenser particularly refers is an 
unfinished Latin epic poem of Alabaster's, 
in celebration of Queen Elisabeth, the full 
title of which is, ** Elisoeis, Apotheosis Poetics, 
sive De Florentissimo Imperio et rebus tes- 
tis augustissimsB et invictissimie principis 
Elizabethie, D. G. Anglise, Francise, et Hi- 
bemicB Reginse." It was designed to have 
been extended to twelve books ; but no more 
than the first was ever written, and of that 
the author's manuscript, left by him to his 
friend Theodore Hake (the physical experi- 
mentalist), is now in the library of Em- 
manuel College, Cambridge. Two English 
sonnets by Alabaster were found by M^one 
in a MS. in the Bodleian library, and pub- 
lished by him in some annotations on Spen- 
ser's poem in his edition of Shakspere ; and 
Mr. Collier, in his '^ History of Dramatic 
Poetry " (ii. 432.)f has printed two others 
from a MS. in his possession, containing 
seventeen in all, entitled ** Divine Medita- 
tions, by Mr. Alablaster " (for so the name 
appears slso to have been written). (Fbller, 
Worthies of En^and, 2 vols. 4to. Lon. 1811, 
iL 343. ; Wood's Fasti Oxonienses, in Athente 
OxmueMMes^ 4 vols. 4to. Lon. 1815, i. 259. 



ALABASTER, 



ALA-ED-DEWLET. 



and AAeMB, i 613., and, ir. 280. ; Bftyle^ 
Dictumnaire CriUque i Works of Edmund 
Speiuer, by Todd, L cl) G. L. a 

, ALACOQUE, MARGUE'RITE, after- 
wards MARIE, a holy mm of the convent 
of La Viaitation Sainte Marie of Paray le 
Monnial in Charolaia. She was bom at 
Lwitheooar in the diocese of Autnn on the 
22d of Jnly, 1647, and waa christened by the 
name of Mtfgo^rhe, to which ihe afterwards 
added that of Marie in gratitude to the Holy 
Virgin, to whom ihe attributed her core 
firom a severe attack of rheumatism and 
paralysis under which ihe had laboored fit>m 
the eighth to the twelfth year of her age. 
AcoordOng to her biographer, Lancet de la 
Villenenve de Gerg|y, bishop of Soissons, she 
gave very early signs of a vocation to a 
cloistered Ufe, manifesting at the age of three 
years a remarkable abhorrence of all sin, and 
at four ^ears of age delighting in mental 
commumngs with the Deity. She took the 
veil on the 6th of November, 1672, and is 
stated to have been gifted with prophecy as a 
reward for her distinguished piety ; to have 
had revelations, visions and trances, and, in 
opposition to the prediction of her physi- 
cians, to have fbretold correctly the tmie of 
her own death, which took place on the 17th 
of October, 1690. Many miracles are related 
concerning her, amongst which might be 
included the ind&ble pleasure which she de- 
clares that she experienced while carving 
upon her breast in large characters the 
name of the Saviour with a penknife. The 
ISte du Sacr6 Ccenr de Jesus Christ was in- 
stituted by her through the instrumentality 
of the Jesuit De la Colombi^re, in obedience, 
as she declares, to a divine ujunction. She 
is the authoress of a production entitled ** La 
Devotion du Cceur Jesus." Her life has been 
written by the bishop Languet mentioned 
above, under the title of ^ La Vie de la veri- 
table M^re Marguerite Marie, religieuse de 
la Visitation Samte Marie, &c., morte en 
Odeur de Saintet^ en 1690.'* Paris, 1729, 4to. 
The credulity displaced by the author in the 
various absurd stones he admitted into his 
work exposed him to much ridicule. The 
** veritable Mdre " is more indebted to Gres- 
set for the notice he has taken of her in the 
IbUowing lines, which occur towards the 
commencement of the chant second of his 
poem of *• Vert- vert : " — 

** Yert-f ert kUAi un jwrroqiMt d^vot 
• • • • • 

Ke dltolt one an imroodetto mot : 

Ifaic en reranche U kstoU dei cantiquet, 

Dm Oramuf, det eoUoquM mystlquei : 

11 diflott blen ton MdMIcIU 

Et Notre Mireet Votre Charit£ ; 

U icarott mtoie un peu de loHloque 

Et oet tnJtt flat de Marie i le Coque.*' 

{Encyehpidie dea Gent du Monde, 1833 ; 
Pierer, Umvergal Lexicons Qu^ra^d, La 
FrtMce LitUratre, art *' Languet de la Vil- 
lenenve de Gergy ; " Gresset, (Euvree, Lond. 
1765, L 8.) J. W. J, 

699 



'ALA'-ED-DEWLET, the last of the 
Turkoman dptasty of Zulkadr, occupied an 
eminent position among the oriental princes 
of the fifteenth century. The dynasty of 
Zulkadr was fbunded a. h. 780 (a. d. 1378) 
by Se!n-ed-din Kariya Zulkadr, who con- 
quered the present province of Mer'ash on 
the north frontier of Syria, and whose grand- 
son was Soliman, who ascended the throne of 
Mer'ash in 1442. Soliman gave his daughter in 
marriage to Mohammed ue Great, the con- 
queror of Constantinople, and, at his death 
in 1453, left four sons, Arslan, Shah-Suwar, 
Budak, and 'Ala-ed-dewlet, among whom 
Arslan was r&oognised as his successor. 
After a reign of twelve years, the new sultan 
was murdered by his third brother Budak, 
who was expelled by his elder brother Sh4h- 
Suw^, in 1467, and obliged to seek a reftige 
at the court of Sultan Kaitbal of Egypt. 
This powerftil prince immediately arm^ in 
the cause of Budak, entered Uie state of 
Mer'ash, and completely defeated the army 
of Shah-Suwir, who had implored in vain 
the help of his brother-in-law, the great 
Sultan Mohammed. Wandering in the moun- 
tains, the ftigitive usurper was betrayed by 
one of his vassals and delivered to KaitbaT, 
who ordered him to be hanged in die public 
market-place of Cairo. In the mean time 
the Sultan of Egypt did not reinstate Prince 
Budak, as he had promised, but kept Mer'ash 
by the right of conquest But it was soon 
taken fttmi him by Sultan Mohammed, who, 
although he had disdained to participate in 
all these crimes and intrigues, would not 
allow the extensive state of Mer'ash to be- 
come the prey oi so powerful and ambitious 
a neighbour as Sultan Kaitbai. Accordingly 
in 1480 he reccignised 'Ali-ed-dewlet, the 
youngest of the four brothers, as sovereign 
prince of Mer'ash and the dependent coun- 
tries. A war broke out between Mohammed 
and Kaitbai; and after their death their suc- 
cessors, Bayazid IL in Turkey, and Usbeg ia 
Egypt, continued the war ; the one on behalf 
of Budak, the other on behalf of *Ala-ed- 
dewlet, and both for their own ambition. 
This real cause of the war, however, was 
not unknown to 'Ala-ed-dewlet, who was as 
Pithless as his brother. He entered into nego- 
ciations with Usbeg, and, by separating his 
forces fttnn those of Bayasid, caused the 
total defeat of the Turkish army by the 
troops of Usbeg and his ally the prince of 
Caramania. 

Meanwhile prince Budak, the guilty victim 
of Kaitbafs selfishness, had secretly left 
Egypt for Constantinople, and implored the 
mercy of Bayazid, who gave him the pa- 
shalik of Wise, and sent him with a body 
of chosen troops against his own brother 
'AU-ed-dewlet. The armies were in sight 
of each other, when the Ught horsemen 
of 'AUL-ed-dewlet seised a messenger, on 
whom they found a letter written by Budak 



ALA-ED-DEWL^T. 



ALA-ED-DEWLET. 



to one of his lieutenants, the commander of 
a detached corps, whom he ordered to join 
the main army, which, as he sud, was not 
strong enough to stand alone against the 
enemy. ' Ala-ed-dewlet, as cunning as he was 
brave, altered the letter with a skilful hand 
by a simple transposition of the word not, 
which can be easily done in Turkish, and 
sent it to the lieutenant, who of course re- 
ceived it as an order not to join the main 
army, which was strong enough to stand alone 
against the enemy. Thus deceived, Budak 
was suddenly attacked by the superior army 
of his brother ; his troops were defeated, 
himself fell into the hands of the victor, and 
was delivered up to the Sultan of Egypt 
The battle took place in 1490, and was the 
first of the numerous defeats of the Turks in 
this campaign. At last their conmiander-in- 
chie^ the fkmous Herzek Ahmed Pasha, 
[Hebzek Ahmed Pasha] fell into the hands 
of *Ala-ed-dewlet and Usbeg, who pursued 
the routed Turks to the fortress of Kaisarieh, 
the old Csesarea, where they owed their 
safety to the mediation of the ambassador 
of Tunis. Peace was concluded in 1491. 
Egypt retained the conquests which she had 
made in Arabia, and ' Ala-ed-dewlet, admired 
by the whole East for his cunning and his 
tidents for war, became sole master of the 
vast dominions of the house of Zulkadr. 

From this time all good faith between 
Constantinople and Mer'ash was at an end. 
A war having broken out between the Porte 
and Miirad, the last Turkoman sultan of 
Persia of the dynasty of AlL-ko-yunli, or 
the "* White Sheep,*' 'Ala-ed-dewlet assisted 
the latter with a body of troops, but could 
not prevent the tragical end of that prince, 
A. H 914 (a. D. 1408). Bayazid was enraged 
at this assistance given to the Persians, but 
for the moment he suppressed his anger. 
About the same time 'Ala-ed-dewlet refused 
the hand of his daughter to Ismael, a young 
Persian prince, who, infuriated at this af- 
ront, ravaged Mer*ash, and among the pri- 
soners who were carried off into slavery 
there were one of the sons and two of the 
grandsons of 'AU-ed-dewlet. Such was the 
barbarian's thirst for revenge that he ordered 
them to be roasted alive, and his savage 
Persian horsemen devoured them. Ven- 
geance roused the aged *Ala-ed-dewlet ; but 
when Selim L, the successor of Bajrazid II., 
proposed to him to attack Persia with their 
united forces, in spite of his personal feelings, 
he refbaed the alliance as contrary to his 
political interests. This, however, seemed a 
new insult to Uie Sultan of the Osmanlis, who, 
deeming it a &vourable occasion to briiig 
down the pride of the house of Zdlkadr, 
which was still allied with the sultans of 
^STP^ created a son of Shah-Suwar, the 
brother of 'AU-ed-dewlet, saigack of Kat- 
aarieh and Baiuk, although these towns and 
.the dependent country belonged to the state 
600 



of Mer*ash. No sooner had the allied Bo\re* 
reigns protested against such an open breach 
of peace, than 'Aia-ed-dewlet was suddenly 
threatened by 10,000 Janissaries commanded 
by Sinan Pasha and 'Ali Bey the son of the 
new sanjak of Kaisarieh. He had hardly 
time to place his harem and his treasures in 
a stronghold on the steep peak of Mount 
Tama-dagh, and to occupy the defiles at the 
foot of this mountain, when he was attacked 
by Sinan Pasha on the 12th of June, 1515. 
His army was destroyed, 'Ala-ed-dewlet 
himself was slain, and his four sons, who 
were made prisoners, fell victims to the rage 
of the Osmanlis. His brother-in-law 'Abd- 
er-rezzak alone was not put to death, bnt» 
together with the heads of his unhappy kins- 
men, was presented to Sultan Selim, who was 
encamped in the neighbourhood. The head 
of * Ala-ed-dewlet was immediately sent to 
Cairo to terrify Sultan Usbeg, and at the same 
time an ambassador was sent to Venice to 
communicate to the senate the news of this 
important victory. Selim was now enabled to 
take Egypt, which he conquered in 1517; 
he also acquired the extensive country 
bounded on the north by Armenia and the 
upper part of the Kizil-Irmak, on the east by 
Kurdistan, on the south by Syria and the 
Gulf of Cyprus, and on the west by the pro- 
vince of Caramania. The history of the 
dynasty of Zulkadr was little known in 
Europe until Hammer discovered it, almost 
entirely in Turkish sources. Deguignes in 
his " Histoire des Huns " does not speak of 
it, and although Leunclavius or Lowenklau 
in his genealogical tables has mentioned it, 
his account is incomplete and very erro- 
neous. (Hammer, Geachichie da Omtaniachen 
Retches, ii. 177, seq. 294. 300. 345. 426.) 

W.P. 
'ALA'-ED-DI'N, the younger son of Os- 
man, the founder of the empire of the Os- 
manlis, was one of the greatest statesmen 
recorded in history; Turkey owes to him 
several civil and military institutions, which 
for five centuries have been the ground- 
work of all her political strength. After 
the death of Osman, a. h. 726 (a. d. 1326), 
his eldest son, Urkhan, succeeded him, pur- 
suant to the last will of the late sultan, who 
wished to prevent any division of his con- 
quests between his two sons. Neverthe- 
less Urkhan offered his brother half of Os- 
man's private property, but 'Ala-ed-din, 
obedient to the will of his father, refhsed to 
accept even half of his flocks, and contented 
himself with the revenue of one village in 
the environs of Brusa in Bithynia. Ad- 
miring his generosity and modesty, '* Well, 
my brother,'^ cried Urkhan, " as you refuse 
the flocks, be the herdsman of my people, 
and share with me the burden of govern- 
ment : be my grand vizir." (The word vizir 
signifies, literally, the bearer of a burden.) 
'Ala-ed-din accepted the offer, and soon 



ALA-ED-DIN. 



ALA-EB-DIN. 



showed his ability to perform these high 
functioDS. While Urkhan extended the em- 
pire by conquest, 'AJa-ed-din consolidated it 
by wise reg^tions concerning the mint, the 
dress of the different chisses of the people, 
and especially concerning the arm^r. The 
right of coining money is one of the priyilegee 
which the Islun gires to sovereign princes ; 
bat down to the year a. b. 729 (a. d. 1328) the 
money of the Turks Osmanlis had been 
coined under the name of the sultans of the 
Turks of Koniahy who assumed a kind of 
supremacy oyer all the other Turkish princes 
in Asia Minor. But as soon as Urkhan had 
succeeded his fiither, ' AU-ed-din advised him 
to coin money in his own name, and thus to 
put an end to that shadow of vassalage which 
still subsisted between him and the sultan of 
Koniah. With the same view, and in order 
to strengthen Urkhan's political power, he 
persuaded him to order the khutbeh, or the 
public prayers, to be said in his own name, 
and thus to assume the second of the pri- 
vileges of Mohammedan sovereignty. [Ah- 
med Pasha, the Traitor.] His regiUations on 
dress principally related to the stuff and the 
colour of the turbans and other head-dresses 
which in the East have always formed a 
characteristic distinction between different 
classes and nations. 

Ertoghrul, Osman, and other Turkish 
princes had carried on all their wars with 
armies exclusively composed of light horse- 
men called Akiigi, or ** runners on horse- 
back,'* one part of whom was levied among 
the vassals of the princes, and the rest 
were volunteers. They were under arms 
only in time of war, and were disbanded as 
soon as peace was concluded ; but this mili- 
tary organisation was insufficient for a nation 
which felt the necessity of consolidating its 
conquests. Such were the circumstances 
under which *A]a-ed-dm conceived the plan 
of creating a standing army ; and he carried 
it into effect a foil century before Charles VIL 
of France established a similar force, which 
has generally been supposed to be the first 
regular standing army since the &11 of the 
Roman Empire. The new army thus created 
by 'Ala-ed-din was first composed of a large 
bod^ of regular infantry which was called 
•* Piade," or footmen, trom the Persian word 
^ pal," foot. Lands, which were afterwards 
constituted into fieft, were given on condition 
that the occupiers should keep in repair the 
public roads that ran along their grounds. In 
the performance of this duty they became so 
skilful, that European nations applied this 
name (piade) to troops employed m similar 
labours, and they are still called pioneers. The 
second main body comprised the regular 
horsemen or sipahi, a name which is still 
used, and which at that time was assumed as 
a title of honour by the warlike clans of the 
Kurds. Part of these also were rewarded 
with fie& ; and as they did not pay any taxes, 

VOL. I. 



they received the name of Mosellem or **tha 
exempt from taxes." The whole regular 
army, the cavalry as well as the infantry, 
was divided into sections of tens, hundreds, 
and of thousands, each of which were com- 
numded by an officer. There was also a 
strong body of irregular footmen, the Ashab 
or fii^men, and the above-mentioned irre- 
gular cavahry which still preserved its old 
name of akiiji. Besides the jproduce of their 
lands, the piades and the sipahis had the daily 
pay oi an akje, or about three fiirthings, a 
very considerable sum at that time, in a 
country where money was scarce. But this 
pay became the cause of great disorder among 
these soldiers. They spent their money in 
debauchery, became haughty and insolent, 
and at last so fiur disre^urded all military 
discipline that *Ala-ed-dm determined to 
create a new body of troops. Before he had 
fixed upon any plan, the grand judge of the 
army, Kira Khalil Chendereli, a near kins- 
man of the two royal brothera, proposed to 
them to enlist young Christian prisoners, 
after first compelling Uiem to adopt the Mo- 
hammedan religion. ** For,** said the subtle 
judge, ** as die Koran teaches that the germ 
of the Islam is contamed in the soul of every 
child from the very moment of its birth, we 
are doing a highly deserving action by con- 
verting them to our religion ; and we may 
do so with the greater right as they are our 
slaves and legitimate property. Having nei- 
ther relations nor countrymen among us, 
they will not be under the influence of any- 
body, and they will fight as well and obey 
better than our stubborn Turkomans. Their 
example will be followed by scores of brave 
foreigners, who will increase our army, so 
that in future our victories shall no longer be 
purchased with the loss of so many true Os- 
manlis, and even our defeats will always be a 
sensible loss for our enemies, who will only 
triumph over their own countrymen.'* Urkhan 
and 'Ala-ed-din approved of this plan, and 
'Ala-ed-din carried it into effect with that 
practical skill which distinguished all his 
reforms. These converted soldiers, when 
organised, received the name of " Yeiii-cheri,** 
or the new troop. This was the origin of that 
famous band known in Europe by the cor- 
rupted name of Janissaries, which for five 
centuries has been the bulwark of the Turkish 
empire : the]^ took Constantinople, they filled 
up with their bodies the ditches of Afalta, 
and they twice assailed the capital of the 
German empire. From the holy cities of 
Mecca and Medina, from the pyramids of 
Egypt to the forests of Poland, and from the 
loli^ peaks of the Caucasus to the ruins of 
Carthage, the nations trembled when the 
war-cry ** AUah I Allah I *' announced the ap- 
proach of the Janissaries. And when at last 
the;^ degenerated, and the ruins of this power- 
ful institution were broken by the late Sultan 
Mahmnd, their fidl left Turkey in a state of 
a B 



ALA-ED-DIN. 



ALA-ED-DIN. 



military diMoIution ; and its regeneration can 
only be e£fected by another ' Ala-ed-din. 

Ab soon as the new troops were organised, 
*AUl-ed-dm, in order to assure them of being 
as well paid and fed as the piades, gave to their 
officers names derived from the Tarioua 
duties of the kitchen : their colonels were 
called chor-beshi, or soup-makers ; the ma- 
jors, aslge-bashi, or first cooks ; the captains, 
saki-bashi or cup-bearers ; and their palla- 
dium was the largest kettle in the kitchen, 
round which they not only assembled to take 
their dinner, but also to dLscuss political and 
military afiEairs. The new organisation soon 
showed its advantages. In 1370, when 
'A14-ed-din was appointed commander-in- 
chief of the army against the Greeks, he 
gained the fiunous victory of Philocrene over 
the Emperor Andronicus the younger, and took 
Nicffia, the bulwark of the Greek empire in 
Asia. The year of the birth as well as of 
the death of *Ala-ed-din is unknown ; but 
his name is immortalized in the annals of the 
Turks, and in the history of modem warfare. 
(Hammer, Greachichtedes OsmaniachenReicket, 
i. 77—81. ; KnoUcs, History of tftc Twrkiah 
Empire^ 6th edit 125 — 130. ; Robertson, A 
View of tfte State of Europe, ^c. ; D'Ohsson, 
Tableau de V Empire Ottoman^ 8 vo. edit vol iiL ; 
De Tott, Mimoire sur les Turks et les Tatars; 
Marsigli, Stato MiUtare deW Imperio Ottomano ; 
Paulus Pater, Insignia Turcica, Jense, 1683, 
foL W. P. 

»ALA'-ED-DrN KEY'KOBA'D I., son 
of Ghay-yath-ed-din, Key-khosrew, prince of 
the Turks Seljuks of Rum in Asia Minor, 
ascended the throne in a.h. 617 (a.d. 1220^, 
after the death of his elder brother Ased-ed-dm 
Key-kaus. During the reign of this prince, 
' Ali-ed-din revolted against his brother (about 
1204), but was made prisoner, and was pu- 
nished by a confinement of five years ; after 
his delivery he was banished, and took reftige 
at Constantinople. Connected with statesmen 
and generals, and in constant intercourse with 
the Byzantine poets and philosophers, he de- 
veloped the brilliant gifts with which he was 
endowed by nature, and thus attained to that 
eminent position which he afterwards occu- 
pied among the princes of the East. As soon 
as he was on the throne, he made an alliance 
with Melik Eshref, king of Armenia, and 
with his assistance defeated the Turkish 
emirs of Amid and Mesopotamia, whom he 
obliged to do homage to him. He then 
turned his arms against Jellil-ed-din, the king 
of Khowliresm or Khiwa, who had surprised 
the governor of Akhl&th, a nephew of 
' Ala-ed-din, and fbrced him to take the oath of 
allegiance. In a. d. 1229 the Kin^ of Khiwa 
was defeated in one of the bloodiest battles 
recorded in Mohammedan history, and ^Ala- 
ed>-din would have conquered all Khow&resm 
if Melik Kimil, sultan of Eg^'pt, had not 
obliged him to defend his southern states. 
Melik K&mil also was defeated, and as earl v as 
602 



1234 *Ala-ed-dm was master of the extensive 
state of Khiwa and of the northern provmcea 
of the Egyptian empire as far as the gates 
of Syria. After these glorious campaigns 
*Ala-ed-din employed a long peace in restrain- 
ing his turbulent subjects by severe laws. 
He also erected numerous mosques, convents, 
and schools, and embellished nine large towns, 
but especially Amasia and Koniah or Ico- 
nium, where he held his court. About this 
time Jellal-ed-din, a famous mystic poet, fled 
fVom his native country of Bokhara, which 
was overrun by the Mongols, and took re- 
fUge at Koniah. A great number of Persian 
writers and artists foUowed his example, and 
all eigoyed the generous protection of 'Ala- 
ed-din, who distinguished himself among the 
scholars of the East by that taste in arts and 
knowledge which he had acquired among the 
Greeks. Koniah, although a Turkish town, 
became the centre of Persian literature. 
*Ala-ed-din*s renown as a philosopher, as a 
legislator, and as a great captain spread over 
all the East ; and such was the glory of his 
name, that Nasir-ed-din Lillah, the khalif of 
Baghdad, sent him a diploma by which he 
conferred upon him the title of Uie greatest 
sultan of his age. When the khalif 's am- 
bassador approached Koniah, ' Ala-ed-dm, at 
the head of all the ulemas and sheikhs, and 
followed by a body of five thousand horse- 
men, went out from the town to receive re- 
spectfully the messenger of the chief of the 
faithfhl. 'Al&-ed-din performed his duties 
with most remarkable zeal. He only slept four 
hours, and divided the remainder of his time 
into three parts, one of which he devoted to 
state affairs, the second to intercourse with 
scholars and artists, and the third to the 
study of history, theology, and morals, as 
well as to acts of devotion. He was poisoned 
by his son, Ghayyath-ed-din Key-kobad II., 
in 1237, after a reign of seventeen years. His 
unnatural son did not long enjoy the fhiits 
of his crime. Sacrificing the interests of his 
kingdom to shameful pleasures, he was sur- 
prised, in 1247, in the midst of his orgies, by 
a swarm of Mongols, who strangled him in 
his own palace. (Hammer, Genchichte des 
Osmanisenen Belches, i. 25, &c. ; Deguignes, 
Histoire des Huns.) W. P. 

' AL A'-ED-DI'N MOHAMMED succeeded 
to the throne of Khow^ezm in a. h. 596 
(a. d. 1200). He was the sixth sovereign of 
his dynasty, which he represented about one 
hundred years after it had been founded. In 
the biography of an oriental king it is im- 
portant to observe how old his dynasty was 
when he reigned, for dynasties are founded 
by chieft of warlike tribes, or- by enter- 
prising leaders of mercenaries, who occupy 
the throne of a weak country and give to 
their soldiers the privileges of a feudal 
nobility. As long as they are poor they are 
warlike, and their leader has no means to 
provide for them except by leading them to 



ALA.ED-DIN. 



ALA-ED-DIN. 



wir and booty ; Imt as soon as a habit of 
eigojing the luxuries of wealth and the com- 
forts of settled life has enervated them, they 
become subjugated by new adyentorers. 
For this reason every dynasty has to go 
through comparatively short periods of 
gTow& and decay which have been com- 
pared by Ibn KhaldCin to the natural life of 
mdividuals. 

In the dynasty of the Khowluresm-Shahians, 
to which 'Ala-ed-din belonged, these periods 
are particularly observable. His ancestors 
rose in the steppes of Khowirezm, they 
thence extended their power over Khorasan, 
conquered Ghaznah and part of India, and 
they made themselves masters of the treasures 
which had been accumulated by the Ghaznar 
wides who first pillaged the temple of Multan 
and other sacred places of the Brahmins. 

In the first part of *Ala-ed-din's reign, his 
dynasty had attained the acme of prosperity. 
At his court assembled all the learned men 
of his age, and he himself was well versed 
in law and in the literature of the Arabs and 
Persians. His energies were called forth by 
his contests against Ghayyath-ed-din and 
Shehab-ed-din, the representatives of the 
Ghaorian dynasty, who disputed with the Kho- 
w4rezm-Shahians the dominion of central 
Asia. Soon after the death of Takkesh the 
fiither of ' Ala-ed-din, they invaded Khorasiin 
and wrested this province from him. *Ala- 
ed-din undertook an arduous and long-pro- 
tracted campaign against them, in which he 
recovered Khoras&n, and took nearly the 
whole of the Persian empire. Whilst he 
was engaged in the western provinces of his 
dominions, his governors beyond the Oxus 
made themselves independent with the aid of 
Giirkhanthekingof&ariEhatay. InA.H. 
607 (a. d. 12 10) he crossed the Oxus, put the 
governor of Bokhara to the sword, and pro- 
ceeded to Samarkand. Sultan Othman met 
him to do him homage, and surrendered the 
town to him. *A]a-ed-din advanced with- 
out delay and in great force towards the 
territory of Gurkhan. He was opposed by 
a formidable army, which was commanded 
by Tainku Teraz, the vizir of Gurkhan. In 
the month of Rebi'ah the first, a. h. 607 (a. d. 
1210) a decisive battle terminated in the 
total defeat of the Kara Khatayans and the 
captivity of their gpneraL In consequence 
of this signal victory the city Otrar sub- 
mitted to 'Ala-ed-din. He made one of his 
generals governor of Otrar, and returned to 
Khowarezm without pushing his victory fur- 
ther, as policy would have required it, for 
this campaign was not lucrative enough and 
too fiaigaing for his rapacious soldiers, who 
were accustomed to rich booty and easy vic- 
tories. The dynasty of *Ala-ed-din had al- 
ready passed the zenith of its power. En- 
couraged by this want of energy, Gurkhan 
soon after invaded Mawarannahr (Transoxi- 
ana of the ancients), ^pok Samarkand, and 
603 



would most likely have crossed the Oxus with 
his army, if Kishlek, a prince of royal blood, 
had not rebelled against him. Although 
Gurkhan had to contend with two enemies, 
he was victorious over 'Ala-ed-din, who 
would have lost his life, if a cloud of dust 
which rose towards the end of the battle had 
not rendered all fhrther contest impossible. 
'Aia-ed-din, disguised in the uniform of the 
enemy, made his escape, although he had 
been surrounded, and he succeeded in cross- 
ingthe Oxus. 

The intrigues of the khalif Nasir with the' 
Ghaurians were a pretext for 'Ala-ed-din to 
push his victories further in Western Asia. 
With this olject he procured a fetwi, or 
legal decinon of the unams, that the khalbT 
was acting against the interests of the Islam, 
and that it was the duty of every Mohamme- 
dan prince to put him down. He began his ex- 
pedition inA.H. 614 (a. D. 1217). He was, 
however, called back fh>m it before he had 
seen his enemy, by the inroads of Genghiz- 
khin, the cause of which oriental historians 
assign unanimously to the perfidy of 'Ala- 
ed-din. Perhaps uie progress of the arms of 
Genghiz-khan might, even after the com- 
mencement of hostilities, have been stopped 
before he entered the Moslem territory, if 
'Ala-ed-din's inarch had not been retarded by 
debauchery and intoxication. When he had 
passed the Oxus to meet his enemy, he chose 
his position between two canals ; but what 
must have been his surprise on finding the 
ground covered with dead bodies I Only one 
soldier, who was mortally wounded, was found 
alive, and he explained to him the awful 
scene. It was the army of Tiikia Khan, one 
of the princes of Turkistin, which had been 
slaughtered by a detachment of Genghiz- 
khan's forces. 'Ala-ed-din upon this has- 
tened in pursuit of the Moguls, whom he 
overtook the following day. Juji Khan, the 
commander of the detachment, informed 
'Ala-ed-din that it was against his orders to 
engage in battle, but if he was attacked he 
would know how to defend himself. 'Ala- 
ed-din attacked him, and although he was 
not defeated, he was so disheartened by the 
firmness of the Moguls that he retreated to 
Samarkand, where he assembled no less than 
four hundred thousand horse. But the as- 
trologers advised him not to engage again 
during that year in battle against Genghiz- 
khan. Accordingly he broke up his army 
into little detachments, which he dispersed all 
over the country, and continued his retreat to 
Khor^uin. At the same time he wrote to 
his mother Tiirkin Khatiin, to seek reftige 
with his family in Mazendar&n, the moun- 
t^nous district on the south-east coast of the 
Caspian. He was undecided what he should 
do ; at first he intended to take refbge in his 
Indian provinces ; but when he had reached 
Balkh he was prevailed upon to go to 'Irik« 
and he once more returned to Khor^s&n. At 
B R 2 



ALA-ED-DIN. 



ALAIMO. 



Kishapur he received mtelligence that a corps 
of Moguls had crossed the Oxos after taking 
BokhJ&a. He gave orders to his family to 
secure an asylum in the fortresses of Karun- 
dezh and Eblal, and he himself sought refuge, 
after many adventures, in an island near 
Aboskfin. The unfortunate Turkan, the mo- 
ther of 'A14-ed-din, was soon obliged to sur- 
render to the Moguls, and with her ten mil- 
lions of mithsals of gold, a thousand ass loads 
of silken goods, and jewels to a prodigious 
"amount feU into the hands of the besiegers. 
'Ali-ed-din did not long survive the news of 
this intelligence ; he died in ▲. h. 617 (a. d. 
1220). (Abd-l-fedlL, Annales MuaL voL iv. ; 
Price, M(^mmedan Hi8toty, voL u. ; Nowairi 
MSS. of Leyden.) A. S. 

ALAGON, LOUIS D', BARON ME'- 
RARGUER, was a nobleman of Provence, 
who lived in the time of the league and of 
Henry IV., and of whom the records of 
history have transmitted nothing beyond the 
plot which he expiated with his blood. In 
the ^ear 1605, the seventh after Henry IV. 
obtained fidl possession of the French crown, 
while the intrigues and emissaries of Spain 
rendered his tlmme very precarious, Alajg^on 
entered into a plot for delivering the city 
and port of Marseille into the hands of the 
Spaniards. The Duke of Guise, governor of 
Provence, apprised of his treasonable pro- 
jects by one of his associates of mean birth, 
communicated them to Henr^ ; and Alagon, 
having proceeded to Paris, m order to con- 
cert measures with Zuniga, the Spanish am- 
bassador, was arrested at a secret conference 
with that minister's secretary, on whose 
person were found documents containing un- 
deniable proofii of their conspiracy. Bru- 
neau, the ambassador's secretary, was thrown 
into the Bastile; and Alagon imprisoned, 
first in Le Ch&tel^ and afterwards transferred 
to the Conciergerie. Both prisoners were 
interrogated ; and Bruneau made a full con- 
fession. Bruneau was liberated upon the 
remonstrances of the ambassador, who ap- 
pealed to the law of nations; but Alagon 
was brought to trial before the parliament of 
Paris and received judgment of death. He 
was executed at the Place de GrSve in 
December, 1605, his body quartered, and his 
head sent to Marseille and fixed on the ^tes. 
Alagon was allied to the noble families of 
Joyeuse and Montpensier. (Mczerai, His- 
toire de France ; Daniel, Histoire de France.') 

H. G. 

ALAI'MO of Lentini in Sicily, lord of 
Ficarra, was one of the leaders of the con- 
spiracy against the French which produced 
the Sicilian vespers. Foreign historians have 
mentioned Giovanni da Procida alone as the 
leader in that transaction. Procida was the 
originator of the plot, but he was effectually 
seconded by several leading nobleman of 
Sicily ; among whom were Alaimo, Palmerio 
lord of Favognana and Carini, and Gualterio 
604 



I of Calatagirone lord of Giarratana. Accord- 
ing to the Sicilian chroniclers Alaimo un- 
dertook to revolutionise the Val Demone, or 
province of Messina. The signal was given 
by the people of Palermo on Easter Tuesday, 
1 282. On that day many of the citizens went, 
according to custom, to hear vespers at a 
church outside of the walls, when a French- 
man called Drouet grossly insulted on the 
road the wife of Roger Mastrangelo, a noble 
of Palermo, under the pretence of seek- 
ing for concealed weapons. The husband 
and his attendants immediately killed Drouet, 
and the cry of " Uccide, uccide ! " resounded 
through tne multitude, who fell upon the 
French or Provencals and massacred them 
alL As the report of the occurrences at 
Palermo reached the other towns, the people 
followed the example of the capital, for it is 
not true that the insurrection burst out every 
where on the same day. Messina was the 
last town to rise, and this was neariv a month 
after the outbreak at Palermo. Heribert of 
Orleans, vicar-general of King Charles of 
Ai^jou, escaped to Calabria. Alaimo was 
appointed one of the regents of the kingdom 
till the arrival of King Peter IIL of Aragon, 
to whom the crown of Sicily was offered by 
the nation. In the following July Charles 
of Anjou, with a large land and sea force, 
laid siege to Messina, which was bravely de- 
fended by the citizens under the guidance of 
Alaima Charles, unable to take Messina 
either by force or by the terror of the ex- 
commumcation launched against the town by 
Pope Martin IV., who was in the interest of 
the Anjou king, tried to bribe Alaimo, who 
however remained faithful to the national 
cause. Peter of Aragon, being crovmed 
king of Sicily, rewarded Alaimo by making 
him grand justitiarius or chief justice of the 
kingdom, and gave him three fiefs, Palazzolo, 
Buccheri, and Odogrillo or Drillo. Gualtiero 
of Calatagirone, who had received from the 
king the fief of Butera, not thinking himself 
sufficiently rewarded, conspired against Peter; 
but his treason being discovered, he shut 
himself up in the town of Butera and refused 
to surrender. He was surprised by Alaimo, 
taken prisoner, condemned, and executed, 
with several of his accomplices, in 1283. 
Soon after, however, Alaimo himself con- 
spired with his two nephews, the lords of 
Mazarino and Mineo, at the suggestion of his 
wife, an ambitious woman, who complained 
that King Peter treated those who had given 
him the crown not as friends and companions 
but as subjects. The Infante Don Jayme, who 
was regent of Sicily in the absence of his 
£Bither, having suspicions of Alaimo, thought it 
best to send him with his nephews to Aragon 
on a mission to King Peter, and he then ar- 
rested his wife and shut her up in the castle of 
Messina. Afterwards, some treasonable cor- 
respondence of Alaimo bein^ intercepted, he 
was arrested in Spain with his two nephews. 



ALAIMO. 



ALAIN. 



Uit King Peter spared hb life on consider- 
ation of hie former services. After Peter's 
death, in 1285, his elder son, Alfonso, king 
of Aragon, detained Alaimo in prison tiU 
1287, and was on the point of releasing him 
when, at the demand of his brother, Don 
Jayme, king of Sicily, who was alarmed at 
the discovery of some fresh conspix^y, he de- 
livered him up to him. Alaimo and his nephews 
were embarked in a vessel bound for Sicily, 
and were thrown into the sea near the island 
of Maretimo. (Aprile, Cronohgia della 
SicUia, and the old chroniclers therein 
quoted.) A. V. 

ALAIN, or ALAN (Latinised AL ANUS), 
a French prelate of the twelfth century, 
sometimes called by modem writers Alain 
of Lille ; and in that case distinguished fh>m 
another Alain of Lille by the epithet of 
•* the elder." He was probably bom in 
Flanders and near Lille, m which town, if 
we may trust the Liber Sepulcrorum of 
Clairvaux Abbey^ (where he was buried), he 
was brought up.* The year of his birUi is 
unknown, but it is probable that it was near 
the end of the eleventh or the beginning of 
the twelfth century. Having embraced the 
monastic life under St. Bemard at Clairvaux, 
he was made (▲. d. 1140) abbot of the newly 
founded Cistertian abbey of La Rivour, near 
Troyes in Champagne ; and twelve years 
after (a. B. 1152) he was elected bishop of 
Auxerre bv the unanimous voice of the 
chapter. The see had, through the dissen- 
sions of the electors, been vacant for a year ; 
and the pope had appointed three com- 
missaries, of whom St Bemard was the 
chief, to settle the dispute ; it was probably 
by the influence of the saint that Alain was 
enoeen. The same influence was exerted, 
and, as it appears, with good effect, to re- 
move the objections urged by Louis VII. 
king of France a^nst the election. Alain 
exercised his episcopal funqtions fourteen 
years, with prudence and good reputation; 
and then resigned his bishopric (a. d. 1167) 
without previously asking the consent of the 
pope, Alexander IIL, who expressed his dis- 
content at the omission. Alain's motive 
appears to have been the love of monastic 
seclusion, to exgoy which he retired to his 
former abode at La Rivour, where, he re- 
sided for many years ; he then withdrew to 
Clairvaux, where he occupied the cell which 
had belonged to St Bernard, and where he 
died and was buried. His death is placed by 
Mabillon and others in 1181 or 1182, but hie 
was alive, as the authors of the Qallia Chris- 
tiana have shown, in 1185 ; and it is pro- 
bable he was then at La Rivour. Fabricius, 
who confounds him with the other Alain of 
Lille, places his death in ▲. d. 1202, but this 
is an error : it is not likely that he lived much 
after a.d. 1185, if indeed he survived that 
year. He is chiefly known by his Life of St 
Bernard, in which he abridged the more ample 
605 



memoir commenced by GuiUaume or William 
then of Signy in Champagne, and continued 
by Emald of Bonneval in Beaune, and by 
Godefrid or Gaufrid, St Bernard's notary. 
Alain arranged the &cts of the narrative m 
chronological order, and made some other 
corrections : he has frequently, however, re- 
tained the language of the original writers. 
He inscribes his work to Pontius abbot of 
Clairvaux, which enables us to fix pretty 
nearly the date of its composition ; for 
Pontius succeeded to the abbacy in 1168, 
and held it for four years. This is the only 
work of any importance which is indisputably 
his ; but some of his letters are extant, and 
the substance of his will is recorded in a 
document given in the " Instramenta ** of the 
diocese of Auxerre, in the Gallia Christiana. 
The commentiLry on the prophecies of Merlin, 
by Alain of Lille, has been by some writers 
ascribed to this Alain, but without just 
foundation. The writer of the commentary 
states that he was a " little boy " (pueralus) 
in 1128, which is inconsistent with the age 
of Alain who was made abbot of La Rivour, 
an office supposing mature age, only twelve 
years afterwards, added to which there is 
difficulty in supposing that Alain possessed 
the learning which the commentary displays. 
{Histoire LitUraire de la France, voL xiv. ; 
GaUia Christiana^ vol. xii. ; Mabillon, St. 
Bemardi Opera ; De Visch, BiblioUuea 
Scrwtorum Ordinis Cixtercientis ; Foppens, 
BiMiotheca Bdgica ; Dupin, Nouvdle Biblio- 
thique det Auteura Eccliaiastiqvet.) J. C. M. 
ALAIN, DCKX8 OF BRETAGNE. [Bre- 

TAGNE.] 

ALAIN-CHARTIER, [Chabtier.] 
ALAIN of LILLE (Latiniaed ALA- 
NUS DE INSULIS), an ecclesiastic of the 
twelfth century, of such renown as to have 
acquired the tiUe of " the universal doctor," 
(" doctor universalis,**) but of whose history 
we have scarcely any authentic record. If, 
as there is reason to believe, he is the author 
of the Commentary on the Prophecies of 
Merlin, he was bom, according to his own 
statement, at Lille in FUmders, and was "^ a 
little boy " (puerulus) in the year 1 128. He 
died, acoordmg to the chronicle of Alberic 
of Trois Fontaines in the diocese of Chalons 
(Albericus Trium Fontium), aj). 1202, in 
the abbey of Citeaux. Henry of Ghent 
(Henricus GandavensisX who died near the 
close of the thirteenth century, states in his 
work '*De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis,** that 
he was rector of the ecclesiastical school at 
Paris : but this statement is liable to some 
doubt fh>m the fiict that he is not noticed by 
other writers of that time, who would have 
known, and probably have mentioned him, 
had he occupied so conspicuous a post 
Without however denying that therfe is some 
fbrce in the objection, we think considerable 
credit is due to a writer who lived so near 
the time as Henry of Ghent In defkult of 
R R 3 



ALAIN. 



ALAIN. 



any authentic record, there is a sufficient 
store of legends, the most remarkable of 
which is that Alain, self-convicted of j 
presumption in having undertaken to ex- ' 
plain the mystery of the Trinity, retired in 
disguise to the abbey of Citeaux, -was re- i 
ceived there as a lay brother, and had charge 
of the flocks belonging to the community. 
It is farther added, that having in a menial 
capacity accompanied the abbot who was 
summoned to attend a council at Rome, and 
having secretly obtained by his favour and 
connivance admission to the council, he spoke 
so convincingly in refutation of some heretics 
who had appeared there, that their leader 
declared "he must either be Alain or the 
devil." Alain, thus discovered, received 
marks of the highest respect both from the 
abbot and the pope. Without ^ving full cre- 
dence to these legends, especially to that of 
AIain*8 attending the council, we are in- 
clined to think that the story of his retreat 
to Citeaux may have. a foundation in fact ; 
and that Alain, convinced of the vanity^ of 
human applause and of the unsatisfying 
character of the learning of that day, may 
have exchanged the literary bustle and 
rivalry of the schools for the religious seclu- 
sion of the convent An inscription on a 
tomb erected to him at a subsequent period 
(probably a d. 1487 •) in the cloisters of 
Citeaux, states, that he had, as lay brother, 
the charge of the flocks of the convent, and 
that he died a.d. 1294 ; and although the 
date assigned to his death is a proof of the 
ignorance that prevailed with respect to him 
at a period 8ul»equent to that in which he 
lived, it may be regarded as a confirmation 
of the account of his retirment to Citeaux, 
and, perhaps, of his giving up literary pur- 
suits. 

The authors of the " Histoire Littcraire de 
la France" (xvi. 396, seq.) are disposed to 
identify Alain of Lille with Alan (Alanus) 
canon of Ben«vento, and afterwards prior of 
Canterbury and abbot of Tewkesbury, men- 
tioned by Gervase of Canterbury (Gervasius 
Dorobomensis), and Ralph (Radulfus) de 
Diceto ; but though they adduce some plau- 
sible reasons in support of their opinion, 
it cannot by any means be regarded as 
established. Indeed, a considerable dif- 
ficulty arises fW>m the circumstance that 
Gervase distinctly states that Alan was an 
Englishman by nation, while, according to 
Alain himself, he was bom at Lille ; nor is 
this difficulty satisfactorily obviated by the 
supposition that he was of English parents 
though bom abroad. 

The writings of Alain are numerous. Some 
of them were comprehended in a large 
volume of his works, edited by Charles de 
Visch (foL Antwerp, 1653) ; others, though 

• The part of the inscription here referred to ft la*- 
pecCed by some to be of later date than the tomb itcelf, 
perhaps as much as two centuries later. 
606 



not then included, were already in print : the 
remainder were either in MS., or had pre* 
viousl^ been lost Fabricins gives an enu- 
meration of eleven works included in the 
edition of De Visch ; (to which Mansi in his 
edition of Fabricius adds a twelfth, omitted 
by Fabricius through mistake;) of five 
(including the Life of St Bemard, by Alain 
bishop of Auxerre, and assigned to our 
author by Fabricius, who erroneously iden- 
tified the two Alains) published by others ;. 
and of a number of unpublished works 
enumerated by Trithemius, De Visch (Bib- 
liotheca Scriptorum ordinis Cisterciensis) or 
Oudin ; or which Fabricius thought were to 
be ascribed to Alain. The list of the works 
of Alain in the " Histoire Litteraire de la 
Prance" diflPiers in some respects from that 
of Fabricius ; and it is certain that neither is 
accurate, for two works enumerated by both 
as unpublished (viz. " Regulse coelestis Juris," 
or "Maximae Theologise,** and "Liber de 
Distinctionibos Dictionum jtheologicalium,**) 
are in print ; and copies, in very ancient 
type, without date or place or printer's name, 
are in the British Museum, and are now be- 
fore us. The principal works of Alain are 
— 1. The " Anticlaudianus," or Encyclo- 
pedia, a moral allegory in Latin hexameters, 
in nine books. It has been published se- 
veral times. The poem is an imitation of 
CIaudian*s poem against Rufinus, whence 
its title of Anticlaudianus. 2. **Doctrinale 
minus " (sometimes called ** Doctrinale al- 
tum,** a title which properly belongs to 
another work of the same writer) "seu 
Liber Parabolarum ;*' a collection of pro- 
verbs and maxims in elegiac verse. The 
maxims relate sometimes to morals, some- 
times to natural philosophy, and are often 
weighty and well expressed. A translation 
in French verse was published at Paris, 
▲. D. 1492, in 4to. 3. A treatise against 
heretics and unbelievers, in four books. 
The first two books were printed by Jean 
Masson, 8vo. Paris, 1612 ; and again, with 
the beginning of the third, in the collection 
of Alain's works by De Visch. The authors 
of the *♦ Histoire Littcraire de la France," 
vindicate Alain's claim to the authorship <^ 
the Commentary on Merlin's Prophecies, in 
opposition to several writers of good repu- 
tation, who ascribe it to Ahan bishop -•€ 
Auxerre. The work, from internal evidence, 
was written by a member of one of the 
monastic orders, and between the years 
A.D. 1167 and 1183. It shows considerable 
acquaintance with English history. Alain's 
poetical works are his best His controver- 
^sial pieces are also considered good, but his 
"^other theological works have little in them 
that deserves notice. (Histoire LitUraire 
de la France, vol. xvi. ; Fabricius, Bib- 
liotheca Latina Medim et Infimcs ^tatis; 
De Visch, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Ordinis 
Cistereiencis ; Foppens, Bibliotheca Belgica ; 



ALAIN. 



ALALEONA. 



Dapin, NomveOe BibHothique det AiUeurs 
EocUnastiques.} J. C. M. 

ALAIN, ROBERT, the son of a saddler, 
was bom at Paris in the year 1680. His 
father, intending him for the clerical profes- 
sion, gave him a liberal education. He made 
considerable progress in his studies, but oon- 
ceiring a dislike for theology, determined 
ultimately to follow the trade of his fitther. 
The mechanical details of his business did 
not, howerer, extinguish his love for polite 
literature, and in conjunction with Le Grand 
he wrote a **comedie," in one act and in prose, 
called ** L*£preuve Reciproque," which was 
played with great success. It is related that 
Lamotte the dramatist, who was present at 
the representation of the piece in 1711, and \ 
thought it too short, said to the author, in 
allusion to his trade of a saddler, ** Alain, 
tu n*a8 pas assei allong6 la courroie.** The 
love of pleasure led him into excesses which 
destroyed his constitution, naturally delicate, 
and he died in the month of September, 1 720, 
at the age of 40 years. {Annalet Drama- 
tiques, L 13$. ; De Mouhy, TabUUes Drama- 
tiques, 32. ; TTtidtre dea AtUeura du Second 
Ordre, 297.) J. W. J. 

AL-AKHFASH (the Purblind) is the 
surname of three Arabian writers, so called 
because they were short-sighted. All three 
became celebrated as grammarians of the 
school of Basrah, which was (^posed to that 
of K<i&h. Their names were ' Abdu-1-hamid 
Ibn *Abdi-l-m€gid, a native of Hiyjr in 
Arabia, who was the master of the celebrated 
grammarians Sibanyah and Abu 'Obeydah ; 
Abu-1-hasan 8a*id Ibn Mas'adah Al-mi3ga- 
aba'i of Basrah, who was the author of 
several works on prosody and grammar, and 
died in a. h. 215 (a.d. 830); and, lastly, 
Abu-1-hasan 'All Ibn Suleyman Ibn Al-fadhl, 
who died at Baghdad in a. h. 315 or 316 
(a. d. 927-8). In order the better to dis- 
tinguish these three grammarians, all of whom 
belonged to the school of Basrah, the Arabian 
writers have sumamed the first Al-kebir 
(the Great) ; the second, Al-ausatt (the Mid- 
dling) ; and the third, Al-asghar (the Small). 
The lives of the first and second are in the 
" Biographical Dictionary" of Ibn Khal- 
lekjin. D'Herbelot mentions only one of 
them. (D*Herbelot, Bib, Or., sub. voc. 
«« Akhfiwch ;" Ibn KhalJpkim, Biog. Diet.) 

P. de G. 

ALALECKN A, GIUSEPPE, son of Fulvio 
Calnccio Alaleona and Lodovica Bartolocci, 
both descended from noble families of Ma- 
cerata, was bom in that city on the 20th of 
May, 1670. He studied law, literature, and 
Roman history in the university there ; too^ 
the degree of doctor in 1689, and was not 
long after appointed professor of law. He 
devoted much of his tune to poetry and 
criticism ; was one of the founders (in 1692) 
of the colony of the Arcadians, which took 
the name of Elvia; contributed a jocular 
607 



addition to the number of pamphlets elicited 
by the controversy on the strictures pro- 
nounced bv Pdre Bouhours on Italian poetry 
(•< Life of the Marchese Giovan Giosefo Orsi ") 
in the form of a dialogue in 1711 ; 
and published in 1714 several orations and 
poems in honour of Violante, princess of 
Tuscany. In virtue of an ancient compact 
the auditor of the rota of Pemgia was se- 
lected from among the lawyers of Macerata, 
and the auditor of the rota of Macerata 
from among the lawyers of Perugia ; in 1718 
Giuseppe Alaleona was appointed auditor of 
the rota of Perugia. He held the office only 
three years, being called in 1721, by the in- 
fluence of Peter Grimani, afterwards doge 
of Venice, to be lecturer on the institutions 
of Justinian in the university of Padua. 
In 1728 he was promoted to the principal 
chair of civil law in the same university. 
He died on the 5th of April, 1749. His 
juridical publications are — 1. '* Pnelectio ad 
Titulum Institutionum de Hsreditatibus quis 
ab Intestato deferuntur. Patavii, 1728," 4to. 
This lecture on the succession to intestates 
is dedicated to the Reformatori of the uni- 
versity ; and in the dedication the author 
expresses an intention to publish a complete 
commentanr on the institutions. 2. ** Dis- 
sertazione Istorica Legale recitata nella Aca- 
demia de* Ricovrati di Padova in Tempo del 
suo Principato V anno 1737," 8vo. 3. **Disser- 
tazioni del Signor Giuseppe Alaleona Ma- 
ceratese PubUco Primario Professore di 
Ragion Civile nell' Universita di Padova; 
a Profitto de' Giovanni studiosi della me- 
desima Faccolta ; dedicate dall Autore al 
Serenissuno Principe Pietro Grimani Doge 
di Venezia; in Padova, 1741," 4to. In one 
of these dissertations (p. 153.) the author 
announces a work to be entitled " Collatio 
Juris Veneti et Romani," which is said to 
have been left complete at his death. The 
dissertations are not calculated to create a 
belief that any serious loss has been sustained 
in consequence of its not having been pub- 
lished. They possess an interest, however, 
as showing the discussions which at that 
time occupied the attention of the academical 
jurists of Italy. They seem to have been 
divided into the disciples of Hobbes and 
Grotius. It is worthy Qf remark Aat our 
author, who was a zealous adherent of the 
Roman Catholic frdth, avails himself almost 
exclusively of quotations frY>m the Protestant 
Grotius for the purpose of combating the 
doctrines of the philosopher of Mahnes^y. 
Alaleona's other published works are — 
** Orazione e varie Poesie sopra Violante Gran 
Principessa di Toscana; in Macerata, 1714." 
"La Vagliatura tra Bigone e Ciancone Mugnai 
della Lettera toccante le Considerazioni sopra 
la Maniera di ben pensare, scritta da un 
Academico * * al Signor Conte di * ^ Dialogo 
del Signor Giuseppe Alaleona Maceratese:" 
first edition, Lucca, 1711 ; second edition, 
R B 4 



ALALEONA. 



AL-AMIN. 



in the second yolume of the second edition 
of " Considerazioni del Marchese Giovan 
Oiosefo Orsi Bolognese sopra la Maniera di 
ben pensare ne* Comparimenti gia publicata 
dal Padre Domenico Bonhours ; in Modena, 
1735;" third edition in Padova, 1741. 
This work displays an elegpant and playful 
Tein of humour: the consideration of the 
subject belongs properly to the life of the 
Marchese Orsi, or of P^re Bouhours. A 
sonnet by Alaleona published in the fourth 
yolume of Crescimbeni's work leaves a 
£[ivourable impression of his talents for ver- 
sification. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori tT Italia; 
Crescimbeni, Storia delta Poesia Volgare, 
voLiv. p. 281. The ** Dissertazioni," &c. 
mentioned above.) W. W. 

ALALEONA, PA'OLO, a canon in the 
church of the Vatican, and master of cere- 
monies under several successive popes, at the 
close of the sixteenth and beginning of the 
seventeenth centuries. Petrucci's collection 
of the letters of the Abbate Grille contains 
two addressed to Paolo Alaleona, from which 
we learn that he was "Camcriere Segreto** 
to Paul V. Mandosius, in his ** Bibliotheca 
Romana" (voi ii. p. 256.), mentions that Ala- 
leona had composed eight volumes (MS.) of 
Ephemerides, which contained many things 
worthy of notice, and were regarded as au- 
thorities by the masters of ceremonies of his 
day (1682). Montiaucon mentions a manu- 
script Diary of Paolo Alaleona, in one thick 
volume, extending from the 15th December, 
1582, under Gregory XIIL, to the com- 
mencement of the pontificate of Sextus V. 
Mandosius states that Alaleona died during 
the pontificate of Urban VIIL (Mazzuchelli, 
Scrittori <r Italia; Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum 
Mantucriptorum, a R. P. D. Bernardo de 
Montfaucon, Parisiis, 1739, i. 200. ; Biblio- 
theca Romana Authore Prospero Mandusio, 
RomsB, 1682, ii. 256.) W. W. 

ALAMANNL [Alemanwi.] 
ALAMANNL [Cmvelu, Cabix).] 
AL-AMI'N'ALA DI'N-ILL AH (the firm 
in the true frdth) MOHAMMED, snmamed 
Abd * Abdillah, and also Abd Musa, the sixth 
khalif of the house of 'Abbas, was bom at 
Baghdad in a. h. 170 (a. d. 786-7). He was 
the son of Hardn Ar-rashid, at whose death, 
which happened aX/TdB, on Saturday, the Sd 
of Jumada the second. A, h. 193 (March, 
A. D. 809), he succeeded to the khali&te. 
Some time before his death, Harun Ar-rashid 
appointed Al-amin his successor, on condition 
that Al-mamiin, another of his sons, should be 
left in command of the army assembled at 
Tus, and in possession of tUl the treasure 
amassed at that place ; that he should have the 
government of Khoras&n, and should have 
moreover to succeed to the khalifate at the 
death of his brother. No sooner, however, 
had the news of Hariin's death reached Bagh- 
dad, where Al-amin was then residing, than, 
disregarding his fiither's last will, that prince 
608 



sent a secret message to Fadhl Ibn Rabi', his 
father's late vizir, at Tus, and by promises of 
great reward, succeeded in gainmg him over 
to his party, and inducing him to conduct the 
army to Baghdad, as well as the treasures 
amassed by his fii£her. This being done, a 
messenger was despatched to Al-mamun, who 
was then residing at Mem, in Khorasan, 
urging him to have the authority of his 
brother Al-amm acknowledged in that pro- 
vince. Al-m&mun was well aware of what 
his brother had done, but not considering 
himself yet strong enough to resist, he stiBed 
his resentment, and caused his brother to be 
proclaimed fit)m the pulpit of the great 
mosque of Meru, at the same time that he 
sent him an embassy, with a splendid present, 
consisting of horses, arms, and slaves. Wish- 
ing, however, to consolidate his power in 
Khoriisiin, and to provide for his own defence 
in case he should be attacked, Al-miimun 
secured the attachment of the people of that 
province by governing them with justice and 
moderation, and remitting the payment of 
all arrears of taxes. In a. h. 194 (a. d. 8 1 0% 
Al-amin, at the mstigation of Fadhl Ibn 
Rabi, whom in acknowledgment of his 
services he had raised to the post of prime 
vizir, caused his own son Muaa, then an 
infant, to be proclaimed ** Wali-l-ahd" or 
presumptive heir to the khalifiite, and ex- 
cluded his brother Al-m&nun frt>m all right 
to the succession. He then deposed his 
brother from the government of Khoraslm ; 
but as it could not be supposed that Al- 
miimun would tamely submit to the spoliation, 
an army of forty thousand men was despatched 
against him under the command of an ex- 
perienced general named Ibn Mah&n (*Ali 
Ibn 'Isa) in March, a.d. 811. Meanwhile, 
Al-mamun was not inactive. Having put his 
province in a state of defence, he gave the 
command of his forces to Tahir Ibn Huseyn, 
who was subsequently the founder of* the 
Tahirite dynasty in Khorasan, directing him 
to march with the utmost expedition to Ray, 
and secure that important city. In com- 
pliance with Al-mamun's orders, Tahir ad- 
vanced by forced marches upon Ray, which 
he fortified ; and, having soon after en- 
countered the khalif *s troops in the neigh- 
bourhood of that place, he gained a most 
complete victory, and slew their general with 
his own hand (July, a. d. 81 1). The news of 
the defeat and death of Ibn M&him caused 
a violent commotion among the people of 
Ba^hdiid ; Al-amin was openly charged with 
having incurred the wrath of Heaven by his 
treacherous behaviour towards his brother, 
and^ the troops, when ordered to march 
against the enemy, refused to leave the 
capital. At last the distribution of a large 
sum of money among the soldiers overcame 
their scraples, and they marched to Khorasan 
under 'Abdu-r-rahman Al-anb4ri. This chief 
was not more fortunate than his predecessor 



AL-AMIN. 



AL-AMIN. 



in command. Having been defeated at a 
place between Ray and Hamadan, he was 
compelled to throw himself for protection 
behind the walls of Hamadan, and was at 
last killed in an attempt to surprise the 
enemy's camp (a.d. 812). Tihir now led 
his army to Belashan, and, having crossed 
the pass of that name without opposition, 
took possession of HulwHn, where he waited 
for aome reinforcements which Al-mamun 
had promised him. Mis march was here 
opposed by a fresh army of forty thousand 
• men under the command of two experienced 
officers named Ahmed Ibn Mand and Ab- 
dullah Ibn Hamid ; but owing to a well- 
planned stratagem of Tahir, the troops under 
their command dispersed and returned to 
Baghdad. Huseyn, the son of Ibn Mahan, was 
next intrusted by Al-amin with the prose- 
ention of the war ; but he also retreated upon 
Baghd^ On the very day of his entrance 
into the metropolis, Huseyn received a mes- 
sage from his sovereign requiring his attend- 
ance. Fearing Al-amm's resentment, Huseyn 
reftised to obey his summons, declaring that 
he would not appear at the palace otherwise 
than at the head of his troops. In the course 
of the night Huseyn received a second 
message from Al-amin, requesting his pre- 
sence, as he had matters of serious importance 
to conmiunicate. To this Huseyn replied 
that he was neither a minstrel nor a buffoon 
to wait upon him at night, and that, as the 
khalif could have nothing to communicate to 
him but what related to war, he would on 
the next day appear in front of the palace at 
the head of his troops. At the same time 
Huseyn sent for his chief officers, and having 
acquainted them with what had passed, he 
asked them whether they felt disposed to 
change their master ; to which they unani- 
mously replied that they were tired of Al- 
amm's rule, and would willingly have him re- 
placed by another ; and they ended by offering 
their assistance and that of the troops under 
their orders. With this assurance, Huseyn 
proceeded to the royal palace at the head of 
a chosen body of troops, and, having over- 
powered the guards, seized the khalif, and 
confined him to a dungeon. The Insurgents 
next proceeded to proclaim Al-mamun ; but 
a portion of the troops of Baghdid having 
shortly after declared for the dethroned 
khalif Huseyn was defeated and put to death, 
and Al-amin re-established in his full au- 
thority. In the mean time the party of Al- 
rnarndn daily grew stronger in the provinces. 
His generals lud made themselves masters of 
Ahwaz, Basrah, KiifUi, W&sit, Mosul, and 
the greater portion of Arabian 'Irak ; and 
the victorious Tahir was fiut advancing 
against Baghdad, which he ultimately be- 
sieged in A.H. 197 (a.d.812), in concert with 
Harthemah, another of Al-mamiin's generals, 
who took his post at Neherwim. Al-amin, 
having strengthened the gates of Baghdad, ' 
609 ' 



retired into the citadel, and there awaited the 
result of the siege. After an obstinate de- 
, fence, which lasted several months, and during 
I which the garrison and citizens of Baghdad 
I fought with desperation, the besieging forces 
, took possession of the gate of Basrah and 
• penetrated into the city, where a succession 
i of skirmishes for some time arrested their 
' progress. At last, the besiegers having ef- 
fectually cut off the garrison from its com- 
' munication with the Tigris, the city was re- 
duced to the last extremi^, and desertion 
began to manifest itself among the khalif 's 
troops. In this extremity Al-amin came to 
the resolution of giving himself up to the 
generals of his bromer ; but as he had every 
reason to fear the cruel and vindictive dis- 
position of T&hir, he determined upon apply- 
ing to Harthemah. For this purpose he de- 
spatched a message to that general, offering 
to go over to Um and surrender himself, 
provided it could be done without the know- 
ledge of Tahir, and on condition that Har- 
themah would engage to conv^ him in safety 
to his brother Al-mamfin. Harthemah ac- 
cepted ; and it was accordingly arranged 
that he should approach the palace in a beat, 
and that Al-amin should come out to meet 
him. The correspondence, however, was 
not conducted with such secrecy as to escape 
the vigilance of Tahir, who immediately 
determmed to disconcert their plans. He 
accordingly posted himself with a consider- 
able body^ of troops along the right bank of 
the Tigris, and having embarked 200 men 
on board some river craft, gave them the 
necessary instructions. At the appointed 
hour, Harthemah, with a handful of resolute 
followers, repaired to the spot agreed upon ; 
Al-amin, in the disguise of a slave, and his 
head muiSied up in his cloak, stepped into the 
boat. Scarcely, however, had they gained 
the middle of the Tigris, when they were 
surrounded by those whom Tihir had sta- 
tioned on the river. Harthemah and his 
followers resolutely defended themselves for 
some time ; but the assailants, having trans- 
fixed their firagile bark with their spears, it 
soon filled with water and sunk beneath the 
stream. One of the crew seized Harthemah 
by the arm, and conveyed him safe to the 
shore ; Al-amin also, after considerable ex- 
ertion, succeeded in gaining the eastern bank 
of the Tigris, opposite to the city. No 
sooner, however, had he put his foot on 
shore than he was seized by some soldiers 
and conveyed to the tent of Ibrahim Ibn 
Ja'ikr, one of Tahir's officers. As soon as 
Tahir was apprised of the capture of Al-amin, 
he secretly despatched one of his black slaves, 
named Koraysh, with instructions to bring 
him the khalif 's head. The slave, finding 
his victim alone and unprotected, drew his 
sword, and, after some resistance, cut off his 
head, which he carried to his master. The 
death of Al-amin happened, according to 



AL-AMIN. 



ALAMOS. 



Ad-diyarbekri, on Saturday, the 25th of Mo- 
harram, A.H. 198 (September, ▲.d. 813), at 
the age of twenty-eight, and afler a precarious 
soyereignty of four years and about six 
months. He is described by the Mohamme- 
dan writers as having a fiiir complexion, being 
tall, broad-shouldered, with small eyes, a full 
black beard, and a prominent nose. He was 
of a kind and beneyolent disposition, and very 
liberal ; but his nep^lect of the duties of his 
high station, and hu excessiye indulgence in 
pleasure of all kinds, even in the midst of 
the dangers by which he was surrounded, 
rendered him an object of contempt to his 
subjects. (Abu-1-feda, Aim, Mum, ii. sub 
propriisannis; £lmaein,£rut Sarac, p. 124. ; 
Price, Chronol, Eetrospect il 90. ; Ad-diyar- 
bekri, Oen, Hist M& ; D'Herbelot, Bib, Or, 
yoc •* Amm," •* Almamoun," &c) P. de G. 

A'LAMOS DE BARRIENTOS, BAL- 
TAZAR, was bom at Medina del Campo, 
in Old Castile, about the middle of the six- 
teenth century, and studied law at the uni- 
versity of Salamanca. He contracted a warm 
friendship with Gonaalo Perez, secretary of 
state to Philip IL, and afterwards with the 
minister's son Antonio, who succeeded him in 
the same situation. The disgrace of Antonio 
Perez brought ruin on AJjBunos, who was 
imprisoned for twelve years in consequence 
of the unfortunate connection. In 1598 
Philip IL died, leaving directions in his will 
that Alamos should be released ; and in the 
succeeding reign, though not employed, he 
was looked on with favour by the ministers, 
especially the Duke of Lerma, who supplied 
him with the means of subsistence. On the 
accession of Philip IV., through the influence 
of the Count-Duke Olivarez, who highly 
esteemed his talents, he obtained several valu- 
able places about the court, and was ulti- 
mately made a member of the councils of the 
Indies and of the royal patrimonpr. He died 
at the advanced age of eighty-eight, leaving 
behind him several daughters, one of whom 
was married to Don Garcia Tello de San- 
doval, himself a writer of some celebrity. 

Alamos is known by his translation of 
Tacitus, which he originally undertook to 
rdieve the tedium of imprisonment It 
b the most complete version of the author 
extant in the Spanish language. The prin- 
cipal portions were executed entirely in 
prison, as appears flrom Philip II. having 
granted a licence for their publication in 1594, 
four years before Alamos was released; but the 
translations of the Manners of the Germans 
and the Life of Julius Agricola were the fruits 
of his labours when at large. The whole ap- 
peared in one voL 4to. at Madrid, under the 
title of *' £1 Tacito Espanol illustrado con 
Aforismos," in the year 1614. The transla- 
tion is scrupulously accurate, but Alamos has 
unfortunately not imitated the energetic 
brevity of the original, and is reproached 
with having overloaded his author with a 
610 



superfluity of words. The ** Aforismos** are 
alike deficient in brevity and point, occupying 
almost as much space as the text, and con- 
sisting of such choice reflections as " old 
monairchs are often led astray by fair ladies," 
and the like. They have been spoken of 
slightingly enough by several critics, among 
others Amelot de la Houssaie ; but they have 
also met with their admirers, one of whom, 
Juan de Oiiate, collected and arranged them 
as the^ were afterwards published by Don 
Antonio Fuertes, under the title of *' Alma o 
Aphorismos de Comelio Tacito, ** Antwerp, 
1651, 8ya This collection was translated 
into Italian by Girolamo d*Anghiari, and 
published with Politics version of Tacitus, 
Venice, 1665, 4to. 

Besides his great work. Alamos wrote 
several treatises which remain in MS., called 
respectively, — 1. ** Advertimientos al Go- 
viemo," addressed to his patron the Duke of 
Lerma at the bennning of the reign of 
Philip IIL ; 2. ** El ConquistadGr,** relating 
to expeditions in new countries; and, 3. 
'* Puntos PoliticGM, o de Estado." He also 
wrote commentaries on Tacitus, which were 
licensed for publication, but omitted in the 
book on account of their length. (Pellicer, 
Enaayo de una Bibliotkeca de TVaductoree 
Eqtakolee^ p. 24. 28. ; N. Antonius, Biblio- 
tkeca Nova Hiepana, edit of 1783, i 180. ; 
Prologue, Dedication, &c. to the Tacito Eg- 
panoL) J. W. 

ALAN, abbot of Farfa in Italy in the 
eighth century, wrote in Latin an enormous 
book of Homilies, the prefiu^ to which is 
published by Bernard Pezius in the "' The- 
saurus Anecdotorum," tom vi. part L p. 83. 
(Mosheim, Ecckeiaetical Hiatoiy.) A. T. P. 

ALAN, bishop of Caithness, was appointed 
Chancellor of Scotland in the year 1 29 1 . Upon 
the death of Alexander IIL, king of Scotland, 
when the seal deputed for die government of 
the kingdom of Scotbmd was given into the 
hands of Edward L, king of England, till the 
right of succession should be decided, Ed- 
ward on the same day (the 12th of June, 129 1 ) 
conferred it upon Alan, bishop of Caithness. 
The royal mandates in this year exhibit an 
increase in the chancellor's pay from twenty 
marks a month to a mark a day; and to- 
wards building his cathedral of Caithness 
he received fh>m Edward, on the 26th of 
October, forty oaks. Bishop Alan died 
before he had eigoyed his dignity seven 
months; for the mandates of January the 
8th and June the 20th, 1292, grant to his 
brother all the goods and chattels in Scotland 
belonging to the late bishop, to be distributed 
for the benefit of the soul of the deceased 
(** Rotuli Scotiffi in Turri Londinensi, et in 
Domo Capitulari Westmonasteriensi asser- 
vati **). These acts of Edward, particuburly 
the last, done ** from observation of his fiiith- 
ftd service" as chancellor, (** intuitu fidelis 
obaequii,** lib. cit. Mandate, June 20th, 1292,) 



ALAN. 



ALAN. 



seem at variance with the acoount of Tanner 
in "Biblioth. Brit. Hib.," who, following 
Dempster, says, " At first he favoured the 
side of the English, but afterwards attached 
himself to the Scottish party.** Tanner states 
that he was the author of ^ Super Regalita^ 
tem Roberti Bmsii, Lib. L ;" ** Epistoin ad 
Robertom Ross, Lib. L" (Dempster, Hu- 
ioria Ecclewuiica GentU Scotontm ; Tanner, 
BibliothecaBriianHico-Hibenuca; Holinshed's 
ChnmicU, iL 803. ed. 1577.) A. T. P. 

ALAN DE BECCLE8, ALANUS 
BELLOCLIVUS, ALANUS BEAUCLIF. 
Leland, Pits, Bale, and Tanner, have nnder 
one or other of these titles celebrated for his 
literary acquirements and criticism on the 
sacred writers, a native of Suffolk, who was 
professor of philosophy at Paris in the early 
part of the thirteenth century. Leland refers 
to Matthew Paris for corroboration, in whose 
** Historia Mijor " (p. 354. ed. Londini, 
1640), we find that this ** famous English- 
man," with others of the umversity, quitted 
Paris in 1229, because they could get no re- 
dress for an injury which one of their mem- 
bers had sustained in a riot with the citisens. 
Under the same name is found (lib. cit 
p. 536.) an archdeacon of Sudbury, in 1240, 
and (lib. cit p. 606.) a Norwich archdeacon, 
in 1243, who meets a sudden death after 
invading the righU of SL Alban's Abbey, 
by which two last names the same person has 
been supposed to be meant In die papers 
of Thomas Blunville, bishop of Norwich, 
Alan Beccles, archdeacon of Sudbury, is 
mentioned as that bishop's officiaL These 
papers are in die possession of the Dean and 
Chapter of Canterbury. The titles of his 
works have not been discovered. (Tanner, 
Biblhiheca BritamUco-Hibemica,) A. T. P. 
ALAN, JOHN. [AixEN.] 
ALAN OF LYNN, prior of the house 
of Carmelites at Lynn Regis in Norfolk, 
which is also supposed to have been the place 
of his birth. He was admitted to the degree 
of doctor in the university of Cambridge, 
and was in great esteem in his time, both as 
a philosopher and divine. He lived in the 
reigns of Richard IL and Henry IV. ; he 
died in 1420, which appears to be the only 
ascertained date in his history. 

He is TMher to be regarded as a compiler 
than an original author, though several small 
works in philosoj^ and divinity are at- 
tributed to him. But his labours seem to 
have been chiefly directed to the reducing 
mto summaries (which are called by no 
higher term than indexesX the writings of 
many eminent persons, including some of the 
sacred writers, with Josephus, Augustine, 
Basil, Gregory, and several later writers, 
among whom is Hoveden and other authors 
of chronicles or historical works. A large 
catalogue of his indexes is given in Bale 
and Pits. Bale says that he foond many of 
hla writings in the library of the Canneutes 
611 



of Norwich. There is a long and valuable 
note conoeming the manuscripts of his work* 
in Tanner. It does not appear that any of 
them have been printed. J. H. 

ALAN OF TEWKESBURY, an histo- 
rical writer of the latter part of the twelfth 
century, a friend of Thomas (Becket) arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. He was first a monk 
in the Benedictine monastery of Saint Saviour 
of Canterbury, and afterwards prior of that 
house ; but at length was made prior of the 
great monastery of Tewkesbury, whence the 
addition to his name of Alan. He had 
studied at Oxford, where he was admitted to 
the degree of doctor, and was greatly cele- 
brated both for learning and piety. It was 
these qualities which recommended him to 
the archbishop by whom he was greatly 
beloved. He wrote a treatise on die bfe and 
exile of the archbishop (** De Vita et Exilio 
ThomsB Cantuariensis**), of which Vossius 
says there was a MS. in the Vatican library 
cited by Baronius. There is also an historical 
woris, entided ** Acta Clarendonensia," attri- 
buted to him, and several books of episdes. 
A few other writings are also attributed to 
him. Pits says he saw some of his works 
in the library of John Fenn, an Englishman 
living at Lovain Abrun. He is one of the 
four writers out of whom was compiled the 
» Quadrilogns De Vita et Processu S. Thomsa 
Cantuariensis et Martyris super Libertate 
Ecclesiastica," printed at Paris in 1495. 
The library of Corpus Chrisd College, 
Cambridge, contains, among other works of 
Alan, an ** Epistola ad Baldwenum Archiepis* 
copum de Archiepisoopi Cantuariensis jure 
et poCestate." J. H. 

ALAND, SIR J. F. [Fortescue.] 
ALA'NO, HENRI'CUS DE, a professor 
of law in the university of Padua at the 
dose of the fourteenth and beginning of the 
fifteenth centuries. His name has l^n pre- 
served neither by his writings, of which none 
are known to exist, nor by his skill as a 
teacher, of which it is only vaguely recorded 
that he was distinguished in his profession, 
but by the part he was called upon to take 
in the transfer of the city of Padua from the 
sway of the Carrara family to that of the 
republic of Venice. Henricns de Alano, a 
nadve of the Trevisan, was appointed pro- 
fessor of law in the university of Padua 
some time between 1379 and the close of the 
century. In 1405 he was nominated dictator 
of Padua by the party among the citixens 
attached to the Venetian interest, for the 
purpose of effecting their submission to the 
sovereignty of Vemce in due legal form. In 
conformity with the statutes of the univer- 
sity, he was obliged, on accepting this ap- 
pomtment, to relinquish his professorship. 
Two years elapsed before the arrangements 
of the new government were completed : at 
the end of that time, the dictator resigned 
his authority, and was re-appointed professor, 



ALANO. 



ALANSON. 



with a liberal salary. The year of his death 
is unknown. (^Fasti Gymnani Patamni, Ja- 
cobi Faeciolati Studio atque Opera CoUecti, 
Patayii, 1757, 4to. ; Nicolai Comneni Papa- 
dopoli, Historia Gymnasii Patavini, Venetiis, 
1726, fol.) W. W. 

ALANSON, EDWARD, was the son of 
John Alanson, Esquire, of Newton in Lan- 
cashire, where he was bom in 1747. In 
1763 he was apprenticed to Mr. Pickering, one 
of the surgeons of the Liverpool Infirmary, in 
whose family he resided for fiye years. He 
then went to London and was a pupil of John 
Hunter for two years, at the end of which 
time he returned to Liverpool to commence 
practice, and was in the same year, 1770, 
elected surgeon to the infirmary. He held 
the office for twenty-four years, but ill health 
obliged him to resign it and to limit his 
practice. For the latter purpose he retired 
in 1800 to Aughton, near Ormskirk, where 
he practised as a consulting surgeon for 
seven years. Many of his old patients 
followed him thither, and many more came 
from a distance, especially from the northern 
counties, and took up their residence for a 
time at Ormskirk. In 1808, desirous of re- 
turning to his old neighbourhood, he pur- 
chased a residence at Wavertree, near Liver- 
pool, where he lived practising among his 
friends till within a short time of his death, 
which occurred in 1823. 

Mr. Alanson introduced several important 
improvements in the mode of amputating 
limbs. The chief designs of his method of 
operating were to obtain a sufficient quantity 
of the integ^nments to cover the stump at 
once, and to avoid necrosis of the end of the 
bone by securing an immediate union of the 
wound. To effect his purpose he used, after 
dissecting back and drawmg up the integu- 
ments, to ** apply the edge of the knife under 
the edge of the supported integuments, and 
cut obliquely through the muscles, upwards 
as to the limb and down to the bone, so as to 
lay it bare about three or four fingers* breadth 
higher than by the usual perpendicular cir- 
cular incision, and continue to divide (or 
dig out) the parts all round the limb by 
guiding the knife in the same direction." 
{Practical Observationt, ed. 1779, p. 12.) The 
stump thus formed had somewhat of the 
shape of a hollow cone with the bone at its 
apex, and waa supposed to be less likely than 
any other to permit a subsequent protrusion 
of the bone. 

This method of incision, though generally 
described as the only peculiarity of Mr. 
Ahmson's operation, was in reality its only 
objectionable part To make an incision of 
this kind with any regularity was found so 
tedious and painAil that the attempt was soon 
generally abandoned. Bat succeeding years 
have more and more confirmed the advan- 
tages of the other changes of plan which 
Mr. Alanson at the same time tugged, and of 
612 



which the chief were the discontinuance of 
the tape or roller which used to be applied 
tightly round the limb at the part where the 
incision was to be made, the reflection of the 
integuments before cutting through the 
muscles, the exact ligature of the arteries 
without including any of the adjacent tissues, 
the careful cleansing of the sur&ce of the 
wound, the bringing forward of the skin 
over the stump immediately after the opera- 
tion, and the avoidance of all tight and warm 
dressings. Some of these measures, indeed, 
were recommended by a few of the surgeons 
before Mr. Alanson's time, but thej were not 
coDunonly adopted, and he menCs all the 
honour of having, by combining them, 
brought the operation to its present state. 
With the exception of the peculiar method of 
dividing the muscles, his plan does not in any 
important respect differ ftom the circular 
mode of amputation now usually adopted ; 
and there is probably no better account of 
the chief circumstances to be observed in 
the treatment of patients afler operations 
than is to be found in his " Observations.*' 

The first description of Alonson's opera- 
tion was published with the title ** Practical 
Observations upon Amputation and the after 
Treatment," London, 1779, 8vo. A second 
edition, greatly enlarged, was published In 
1782, and contains **Fuither Histories and 
Cases in proof of the foregoing Doctrine." 
He wrote also ** An account of a simple frac- 
ture of the tibia in a pregnant woman, in 
which case the callus was not formed till 
after delivery,** in the " Medical Observations 
and Inquiries,** voL iv. 1771. (MS. com- 
munication.) J. P. 

ALA'NUS DE FIFEDALE, a Scotch- 
man of the Augustin fraternity, who died in 
Rome, A. D. 1421. He wrote " Ix>gicalia 
Axiomata, Lib. I.;" "In Parva Natural ia, 
Libu L ; *' ** Epitaphium .£gidii Romani, Lib. 
I. ; '* ** Epitaphium Archiepiscopi Bituriguui, 
Lib. L ; '* and ** ^gidii Romani Testamcntum.** 
(Tanner, Biblioweca Britannico-Hibtmica ; 
Dempster, Historia EcclenasUca Genti* Sco- 
torttm,) A. T. P. 

ALA'NUS, JOHANNES JANI, is the 
Latin form of the name of a Danish writer, 
all whose works were composed in Latin. 
He was bom on the 18th of August, 1563, in 
a town called Ala, near Langholm in Hal- 
land. During the Swedish war in the reign 
of Frederick II. his mother fled with him to 
Seeland, where a lady of the nameof Birgitte 
Gioe sent bun to Herlovshohn school^ of 
which in 1597 he became rector, after having 
pursued his studies at home and travelled 
nine years abroad. In 1 602 he was appointed 
" pedieigogio professor*' at the university of 
Copenhagen, and subsequently professor of 
rhetoric, of the Greek langua^, of logic, and 
of the Greek language again, at the same 
university. He died on the 1 2th of February, 
1631. His writings are — 1. ** Disputa- 



ALANUS. 



ALAECON. 



tiones XI Lo^cse," or eleyen dissertations 
on Logic, published at Copenhagen flrom 1610 
to 1621, in 4to., one apparently in each year. 
2. Two disputations " De Sermone," or on 
language ; in the first of which he treats of 
the diversity of languages ; in the second, 
of the variations of the Greek dialects, Co- 
penhagen, 1608-9, 4to. 3. Two disputations 
^ De Fronuntiatione Grseca,'* on the much- 
iUsputed question of the ancient Greek pro- 
nunciation, Copenhagen, 1622-3, 4to. 4. Two 
disputations *' Miscellanearum Qusestionum,** 
or on miscellaneous questions, Copenhagen, 
1624-5, 4to. 5. ''Responsio brevis ad Joh. 
Goropii Becani et aliorum similinm Crimina- 
tiones objectas Saxoni Gnunmatico," a reply 
to the objections brought against the history 
of Seao Grammaticus by the Dutchman Go- 
Topius Becanus and others, Copenhagen, 
1627, 4to. 6. *' Disputatio de Gentium qua- 
rundam Ortu," a dissertation on the origin of 
certain nations, and in particular of the origin 
and migrations of the Cimbrians until their 
settlement in Denmark, Copenhagen, 1628, 
4ta The subjects selected by Alanus are all 
of some degree of interest, and he appears to 
have treated them with ability. (Witte, Dia- 
riwn Biographicum, anno 1631 ; Worm, For- 
ada til et Lexicon over daruke, norske oa 
idandske lardt Mand, L 14.) T. W. 

ALA'NUS, called TURONENSIS, either 
fh>m living some time in the greater monas- 
tery of Tours, or from being a Benedictine 
monk of the congregation of Tours, a class 
once very common in Scotland, was living 
in A. D. 1350. He was the auUior of the 
following works : — ** Historia Comitum de 
Galweia, Lib. L;** "Fundationes Csnobio- 
rum. Lib. I.;** " Rhythmi Latini, Lib. L" 
(Dempster, Historia Ecclesiaatica Gentia Sco^ 
torvm; Tanner, Bibliotheca Britannico-Hi- 
bemica.) A. T. P. 

ALARCO'N, DON ANTONIO SU A'REZ 
DE, a knight of Calatrava, who fought under 
his father, the first Marquess of Trocifiil and 
Count of Torres Vedras, against the Moors 
at Ceuta in AfHca, and afterwards wrote the 
genealogical work alluded to in the article 
Don Fernando de Alarcon. Lady Fanshaw 
names among those who showed her most 
attention at Madrid in 1666, three personages 
of this illustrious family. W. C. W. 

ALARCO'N, FERNA'N MARTI'NEZ 
DE, a Spanish captain of the twelfth century. 
His family name was originally Zevallos, but 
having signalised himself in the reign of 
Alphonso yill. of Castile, by taking from 
the Moors the strong fortress of Alarcon in 
the province of Cuenca, and having been ap- 
pointed to its command, he assumed the name 
and transmitted it to his posterity. There 
were latterly two titled branches of this fiimily, 
Suarez de Alarcon and Ruiz de Alarcon, 
members of which disting^dlshed themselves 
in arms in the warlike reigns of Ferdinand 
and Isabella, and Charles V. ; and in letters 
613 



in that of Philip IV. A curious heraldic 
illustration appears connected with the ori- 
ginator of this name. He gained his renown 
on St Andrew's day in 1176, and as a me- 
morial of his prowess his shield received an 
augmentation, a border of golden saltires, or 
Saint Andrew's crosses, or, (aspas de San 
Andres de oro,) on a red ground, gules. 
He was buried in the church of Alarcon, and 
in 1578 his banner was still pendent over his 
tomb. (Argote de Molina, Nobleza de An- 
dalucia,) W. C. W. 

ALARCO'N, DON FERNANDO DE, 
Marques del Valle Siciliana y^ de Renda, a 
Spanish military commander in the wars of 
Granada and Italy. Commentaries on his 
life and exploits (**elegan8 et magni pretii 
liber," says Emesti,) were written by An- 
tonio Suarez de Alarcon, and published at 
Madrid in 1665. To this distinguished no- 
bleman, then general of the infantry, was 
intrusted the custody of Francis L of France 
after the battle of Pavia. He was, says 
Robertson, an officer of great bravery and 
strict honour, and remarkable for that severe 
and scrupulous vigilance which such a trust 
required. He had also, after the taking of 
Rome in 1527, charge of the person of Pope 
Clement VII. Thus, adds the historian, the 
same man had the custody of the two most 
illustrious personages who had been made 
prisoners in Europe during several ages. 
(Emesti, Bibliotheca Hiapanica Genealogica^ 
^. ; Robertson's Charles the Fifth.) W. C. W. 

ALARCO'N Y MENDaZA, DON 
JUAN RUrZ DE, a Spanish dramatic 
writer of the reign of Philip IV. Of the 
writers of Spain, unless pre-eminent in re- 
putation as well as talent, biographical notices 
are by no means abundant. Nicolas Antonio 
did not know the place of his birth nor the 
time of his death, but supposed him to have 
been a native of Mexico. His time is gene- 
rally fixed about the middle of the seven- 
teenth century ; but in a prefiuse to a second 
volume of his Comedias, published in 1634, 
he says that he is the author of twenty 
pieces, and complains that some of them had 
been attributed to others, as indeed they had, 
by certain booksellers, to Lope de Vega and 
Montalvan. This fact carries back his 
labours to a much earlier date, and places 
him among the competitors of the most cele- 
brated dramatists of his countnr ; and it also 
indicates the reputation he enjoyed. It has 
been conjectured that he was an actor ; but 
of this there is no shfiicient evidence. He 
was a licentiate, a jurisconsult, by profession, 
and instances appear in his dramas of re- 
search into the ancient laws of Spain. 
Though without positive data, we have a 
strong persuasion that he was a cadet of the 
noble family of Ruiz de Alarcon ; but his 
best history is in his works. They show, 
not only that his attainments were of a 
very high order, but that he was deservedly 



ALABCON. 



ALARCON. 



esteemed for hu noble qualities and gene- 
rosity. It is generally admitted that the best 
picture of Spanish manners during the 
reigns of the Philips is contained in the 
Spanish dramatists. Traitors to the divine 
unities, as Botlean and La Uarpe de- 
nounced them, they neyertheless truly ** held 
the mirror up to nature, and showed the 
▼ery age and body of the time, his form 
and pressure ;*' and they were also no mean 
historians of the chivalrous ages which pre- 
ceded them : they gave the b^ parts of the 
vigorous chroniclers of their ancestors in 
their own sonorous and mfljestic verse, for 
every Spanish drama is a piece of lyrical 
poetry. Alarcon has left many portraitures 
of that dignified deportment, that generous 
and manly sentiment, that punctilious sense 
of honour, and that horror o{ breach of fisdth, 
which characterised the old nobility of his 
country (aquellos Cristianos vi^os) ; and 
he has sketched them with no less fidelity 
and spirit than Lope, Calderon, and De Cas- 
tro. No writer has ever more beautiftdly 
delineated that true and delicate regard for 
female character in the high-bom Spanish 
cavalier, for which he has been and is still 
distinguished. 

There Lb moreover in most of his dramas 
a tone of morality which does him honour, 
and places them unquestionably among the 
best examples of this branch of literature. 
It has been truly observed by a Spanish 
annotator, ** His pieces not only amuse, but 
generally convey a useM moral. '* The 
chastisement of the Backbiter in ** Las Pa- 
redes oyen" (" Walls have Ears'*), and of the 
Liar in " I^a Verdad sospechosa" (" Lies like 
Truth "), are examples of this. It is no small 
proof of the merit of the last-named piece, that 
ComeiUe, who, to use his own phrase, partly 
translated partly imitated it for the Parisian 
stage, under me title of " Le Menteur," 
affirms that he had often said he would give 
two of his best pieces if he could call the 
invention of that drama his own. Alarcon's 
plots are ingenious, his characters well 
marked, his style nervous pure and elegant, 
and his versification easy and harmonious. 
His pieces are also free fh>m the affected and 
extravagant Gongorisms [Gonooba] which 
disfigure the works of most of his contem- 
poraries, and the object of which seems to 
have been to mystify and teaze, rather than 
to instruct and delight Among the nume- 
rous Spanish poets of this class, none could 
be more fitly selected as a model for a 
real national drama than Ahircon. Huerta 
gives the titles of thirty of his comedies. 
The " Granar Amigos," " La Verdad sospe- 
chosa," " Las Paredes oyen," and *' £1 Examen 
de Maridos,*' are best known. The ** Tc^edor 
de Segovia" was very popular. Like Schil- 
ler's "Robbers," to which it bears a great 
resemblance, it has been the subject boUi of 
much censure and much praise. No com- 
614 



plete edition of Alarcon's works has ap- 
peared, nor any volumes except the two 
mentioned in the article. His pieces are 
only found in miscellaneous collections. 
(Nicolaus Antonius, Bibliotheca HUpana ; 
Coleccion general de Comedias^ Madrid, 1826- 
34.) W. C. W, 

ALARCCN Y BEAUMONT, DON 
LUIS RUrZ DE, second son of the Count 
Valverde, a member of the university of 
Alcala (Complutensis), and genealogical 
writer of the reign of Philip IV., highly 
commended by Joseph Pellicer. His work is 
entitled ** Escrituras de la Casa de Alarcon," 
a folio volume, published at Madrid in 1651. 

W. C. W. 

ALARD, FRANCIS, a Protestant theo- 
logian whose life is more remarkable than his 
writings. He was bom at Brussels about the 
beginning of the sixteenth century, and was 
the twentieth and youngest son of William 
Alard de Cantier, a zealous Roman Catholic 
of a good fjEunily, who was desirous that one 
of his children should embrace a religious 
life, but was disappointed by all the preceding 
nineteen. Francis was sent b^ his own con- 
sent to a convent at Antwerp m his sixteenth 
year, and in his twenty-second entered the 
order of Preachers. A young Hamburg 
merchant who heard him pr^ich was so 
pleased with his manner that he sought his 
acquaintance, and with some difficulty per- 
suaded him to read the works of LuUier, 
which he lent to him. Returning to Ant- 
werp next year, the merchant found the 
moxik a complete Lutheran, and assisted him 
to escape ftom the convent and make his 
way to Germany to study the doctrines of 
the Reformation. The death of the mer- 
chant, who supported Alard at the university, 
which was that of Jena according to Lam- 
bert, of Wittenberg according to Nicholas 
Alard, reduced the young convert to such 
poverty that he determined to return to 
Brussels to appeal to the kindness of his fk- 
ther, whose favourite son he had been. His 
mother met him accidentally in the street 
in Brussels and denounced him to the In- 
quisition, which, after vainly endeavouring 
to persuade him to recant, determined to put 
him to death by poison, to spare his &mily 
the shame of a public execution. Alard took 
the poison, and immediately felt a violent 
thirst, which he was enabled to appease by 
letting down his cap through the grates of 
his prison to a well outside, and the draught 
of water he took produced such a vomitmg 
that the poison &iled to kill him, though he 
felt the effects of it till his death. On find- 
ing that he still survived, the Inquisition de- 
termined on bringing him to the stake, and 
his mother offered to furnish three loads of 
wood towards the pUe. On the eve of the day 
appointed for his execution Alard escaped, 
and a strange story is told, apparently ^m 
his own mouth, of his having heard a voice 



ALARD. 



ALARD. 



calling to him thrioe, ** Fnmcisce, sur^ et 
Tide, ** Francis, arise and go ;" immediately 
alter which he diaoovered by the light of 
the moon a hole in the wall of his dungeon 
large enough for him to make his waj 
through. He fled to the house of one of his 
four sisters, who received him with the harsh 
welcome of ** Whence do you come, heretic ? 
do you wish to bring me into misfortune as 
well as ^urself ? ** Her husband was more 
compassionate, and by his assistance Alard 
escaped to Oldenburg, where the Count of 
Oldenburg appointed him preacher at the 
castle, when the members of the Protestant 
fiuth at Antwerp obtained freedom of religion, 
he returned home and officiated as preacher 
there ; but he was compelled to leave the coun- 
try a second time by the persecution of the 
Duke of Alba, and retired to Holstein, where 
Christian IV. king of Denmark appointed 
him pastor of Rolenkarchen. He was again 
recalled to Antwerp about 1566, and had 
the gratification of persuading his father to 
adopt the Reformed faith. The successes 
of the Duke of Alba compelled him to take 
to flight once more, and he arrived **poor and 
naked ** at Holstein, where he was appointed 
pastor of Wilster, and died there of the plague, 
after twelve years* residence, on the 10th of 
September, 1578. By his wife, Gertrude 
Bening, who survived him and lived to the 
a|ge of 94, he had three sons, Thomas, Wil- 
liam, and Francis. 

The works attributed to Alard hj Nicholas 
Alard, the biographer of the fiunily, are as 
follows : — 1. ** Confessio Antverpiensis," 
Antwerp, 1566, 8vo., a confession of fldth 
drawn up by Alard in conjunction with 
other ministers, and frequently reprinted 
both in the original Latin and in French 
and Flemish translations. 2. " Ministrorum 
Jesu Christi in Ecclesia Antverpiensi queB 
Augustanie Confession! adsentitnr Adhortar 
tio,'* Antwerp, 1566, Svo., an exhortation by 
the Protestant ministers at Antwerp to re- 
pentance and prayer, which is signed by the 
whole body, among whom Alard's name 
stands first. 3. ** Antwerpische Agenda und 
Kirchen Ordnung," Smalkald, 1567, 8va, 
an account of the church discipline at Ant- 
werp. 4. "Defensio Confessionis Minis- 
trorum Ecclesis Antverpiensis," Basil, 1567, 
8vo., a defence of the Confession, published 
apparently in the name of all the ministers, 
but attributed by some to Flacianus, by 
others to Alard. 5. '* Die Catechismns op 
Frage enn Antwoorde ^estellt,'* Antw. 1568, 
8vo. ; the Catechism m question and an- 
swer. 6. " Bewyss nth Gude's Worde unde 
den Schriften des diiren Mannes Doct Mar- 
tin Lutheri dat de Erif-Siinde nicht sy des 
Menschen Wesent, syne Seele und Lyff,*' 
Lubeck, 1575, 4to. ("Proof out of God's 
Word, and the Writings of that dear Man 
Doct Martin Luther, that Hereditary Sin is 
not Man's Essence, Soul, and Life.") This 
615 



last work gave rise to a warm answer on the 
part of Cyriac Spangenberg, published in 
1577. (Life by his great-grandson Lambert 
Alard in nSnuche Bibliothec, vi. 310—326. ) 
Life by another great-grandson, N. Alard, 
Decas Alarchntm^ p. I — 7. Moller, Cimbria 
Literata, iL 28.) T. W. 

ALARD, LAMBERT, a son of William 
Alard, was bom on the 27th January, 1602, 
at Crempe in Holstein, of which his father 
was pastor ; and he studied in Germany. On 
fiuling to obtain a professorship at Leipzig, 
which was the o1:()ect of his ambition, he 
returned home and acted as his father's col- 
league till 1630, when he was appointed by 
Christian IV. of Denmark pastor of Briins- 
biitteL He discharged the duties of his mi- 
nistnr forty-two years, and died on the 29th 
of May, 1672. He is said by Moller to have 
poraessed real merits, which were obscured by 
ridiculous vanity. Nicholas Alard enume- 
rates thirty-one of his works, of which the 
most important appear to be — " De Vetemm 
Musica Liber singularis," Schlesin^en, 1636, 
l2mo., a dissertation on the music of the 
ancients ; " Commentarius perpetuus in C. 
Valerii Flacci Setini Balbi Argonanticon," 
Leipzig, 1630, 8vo., a commentary on the 
Argonantics of Valerius Fbccns, in which a 
comparison is made between that author and 
Apollonius Rhodius ; and ** Laurifolia, sive 
Poematum juvenilium Apparatus," Leipzig, 
1627, 12mo., a collection of his juvenile 
poems. He also wrote, under the title of 
" Nordalbingia," a history of the principal 
events in Holstein fh>m Uie time of Char- 
lemagne to the year 1637, which is errone- 
ously stated \rv Hendreich to have been 
published by Alard in 1643, in German, 
but was in reality first printed in Latin in 
Westphalen's " Monumenta inedita Rerum 
Germanicarum," Leipzig;, 1739, 4to. The 
writings of Alard are in four languages: 
German, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. (Moller, 
Cimbria Literata^ L 7, &c ; N. Alard, Decas 
Akurdonan, p. 21, &c ; Westphalen, Monu- 
menta, i. 1749—2006.) T. W. 

ALARD, NICHOLAS, was the son of 
Nicholas Alard, a preacher and writer, who 
was bom at Suderauf on the 17th of Decem- 
ber, 1644, and died at Hamburg on the 3d 
of October, 1699. The second Nicholas was 
bom at Tonningen on the 6th of September, 
1683, studied at Kiel, became pastor of va- 
rious congregations, and finally of that of the 
cathedral at Hamburg in 1738, and died in 
1756, according to some on the 13th of 
February, and to others on the 19th of 
January. His principal work was entitled 
** Decas Alardorum Scriptis clarorum," Ham- 
burg, 1721, 12mo., a biographical account 
of ten of his namesakes of literary merit, 
chiefly of his great grandfiuher, Francis 
Alard [Aulrd, F.] and his descendants. 
When it is considered how limited the sub- 
ject is, and how familiar the author might be 



ALARD. 



ALARDUS. 



expected to be with it, the work appcan re- 
markable for its deficiencies. Alard was also 
the author of " Dissertatio de Misericordia 
Dei fortuita," Wittenberg, 1705, 4to., a dis- 
sertation on the fortoitous mercies of God, 
extracted fW>m Luther*s commentary on 
Genesis ; " Bibliotheca Harxnonico-biblica," 
Hamburg, 1725," a biblical harmony ; and 
« X/eichenpredigt anf Herm H. HoUe," Leip- 
sig, 1736, folio, a fhneral sermon on H. 
Holle. He left in manuscript historical no- 
tices x>f the monastery of Reinbeck. (Jocher, 
AUgemeines Gtlehrten-Lextctm, i. 186. ; Ade- 
lung, Fortgetzung m JScher^s Oelehrten- 
Lexico, i. 390.) T. W. 

ALARD, WILLIAM, a son of Francis 
Alard, was bom on the SSd of November, 
1572, and lost his ftther in his sixth year. 
He studied at Wittenberg, and returning 
home in 1575 was appointed eonrector of the 
school at Crempe, <^ which place he was 
finally appointed pastor, and where he re- 
mained ail the rest of his life, though tte- 
?uently invited to preferment in other places, 
le died on the 8th of May* 1645. He was 
twice married, and befbre his death had seen 
twenty children, fbrty-two grandchildren, and 
two pt<«t-grandchil<h«n. 

>\ illiam Alard was much more celebrated 
as an author than Francis. His works, as 
vnunierated by Nicholas Alard, are forty- 
five in number ; they are in prose and verse 
and in thrt»«» languages, Latin, High German, 
and Low German. They are all of a reli- 

C* »U9, almost all of an ascetic character. His 
tin p()etry was thought so highly of, that, 
as his biographer and grandson teUs us with 
exultation* he was twice presented with the 
imp^'rial laun>U onc« by Anthony Count of 
\Vitt'r»h««im« chancellor of the counts of 
Si'haueuburg; and the second time by Chris- 
tian ThiHMion> Sohosser, historiographer of 
the ("ItH'tors of Brandenburg. The list of 
his works Is given not only by N. Alard 
but by Mi4Wr, and, with some incorrectness, 
by IWudrt'ich. (^N. Alard, l)tcas Ahrdorwm^ i 

iWmirt'ich, i\iii<Jiit*l<e Bramhmburyic^, p^ 77, I 
7J*,^ T. W. 1 

A L A HUri^ .liMSTELRED AMUS. bora 
at Amst^'nlam of a respectable ftmily to- | 
wanU th« close of the fifWenth c«ntury. 
AvHH^nUng to Melehiiu' Adam, he prosecuted 
hU Utv'rarv studii^s at first at Cologne, and 
subs^u^^utXv at Umvain. Alardus, in a 
Wttv'r Mldr^akHl to Rut^rus Rescius, men- 
ti\xw» that in very early lit^ he gave instnac- " 
tii^n iu th«» beli^ l«Mtr«« in the grammar- . 
iKluna at AlkuMiar, ak«ig with Bartokwueos j 
l\U\M\u*iws. In a Wtter addressed to Petros 
N^uwiUxH he T^mimis that eminent scholar . 
thAt x»hiK* at Alkttiaar he explained the Rhe- . 
t%>ri\' \a;' IWivnuiiis to him. la the letter to 
R'^M^uk AUr^lu^ meniKHis that daring his 
''^^ in Alkmaar h«^ had Unixht. at a high 
P«>«^ ftvuu Harbanw the daughter of Aaio- ' 



nins Sosatensis, a number of the essays, lef- 
ters, and other minor works of Rudolphus 
Agricola. The next incident in his life of 
which a record has been preserved, and the 
first to which even an approximative date 
can be attached, is a visit which he paid to 
Deventer, at considerable expense and tlie 
hazard of his life, at a time when the district 
was rendered insecure by war, in the hope of 
procuring a complete and accurate copy of 
Agricola's treatise on DialcKstic. This was 
in the year 1515 or 1516. The MS. was 
both imperfect and inaccurate ; bad as it 
was, however, he deemed it most advisable 
to give it to ihe worid with all its fiiults in 
the mean time, and to embrace the earliest 
opportunity of publishing an amended edi- 
tion. The work appeared, in consequence, 
in 1516, at Louvain, in folio, from the press 
of Theodoricus Alustensis ; and soon after it 
appeared, Alardus delivered a course of lec- 
tures explanatory of it His place of resi- 
dence and pursuits between 1516 and 1525 
are uncertain. During that time he appears 
to have visited Cologne for the purpose of 
superintending the printing of an amended 
edition of Agrioola*s Dialectic, and to 
have been frightened from the city by the 
breaking out of the sweating sickness^ For 
some time previous to 1525 he resided in Lou- 
vain, and according to Melchior Adam was 
a housemate of Bfartinins Dorpius (Mar- 
tino Dorpio contubernalis). After the death 
of Dorpius, which occurred in that year, 
Alardus yielded a reluctant consent to the 
solicitations of Meynardus Mannius, abbot 
of Hecmund, to accompany him to Hc^land. 
It was expected that the eloquence and skill 
in dialectic for which Alardus had ob- 
tained so high a reputation in the schools 
might be turned to account in an attempt to 
arrest the progress of the Reformed doctrines 
in Holland by his preaching. The attempt was 
a fidlure ; and in 1526 Alardus wrote to a 
friend from Hecmund that he had retamed to 
the life of learned leisure which the suggcstioiis 
of his friends had tempted him to rdinqnish ; 
and that though he ooofeFsed more hoooar 
and worldly profit lay within the grasp of 
the pc^Milar preacher, his own mode of life 
had greater charms for him. In this year he 

Sblished the original Greek of an epistle of 
ppocrates of Cos to Damagetns, aecosn- 
P|anied by a Latin paraphrase. His cnth*- 
siastie admiration of Rudolphus Agricola, 
which had indnced him to expend saadi 
money and incur personal risk to pio c sm? 
any works of that author he could hcnr ai, 
remained unabated. From the publication of 
the first inaccurate edition of the Dialectie 
in 1516, his search after a mon perfiect copy- 
was unremitted. In 1528 he Warned fitMs 
Pompeius Occo that a copy cf the work 
which he had inherited frtMu hi$ uncle Adol- 
phos* and which had been m«siog, hai b««n 
recovered. On this tnteil:^nc« he dvw to 



ALARDUS. 



ALARDUS. 



Amsterdam, and finding the book complete 
and accurate, persuaded Occo to intrust it to 
him for publication. The letter from Alar- 
dus to Petrus Nannius above alluded to is 
dated horn. Amsterdam in 1529 : in it he 
speaks of his exertions to spread among his 
countrymen of Holland a conviction of the 
importance of elementary schools ; criticises 
yriib. much judgment the mode of teaching 
at that time prevalent ; announces that he 
has with difficulty procured three scholars 
for his correspondent (at that time a school- 
master in Alkmaar) from among the many 
worshippers of Mammon in Amsterdam, and 
had but slender prospects of being able to 
send him more for some time, but mentions 
a young orphan whom he intended to in- 
trust to his care. A letter addressed in 
April, 1529, firom Cologne bv Johannes 
Phrissemius to Alardus, assures him that he 
will find it easy to make a profitable arran^- 
ment with a printer there for the publication 
of the book, and invites him, in order to 
avoid expense, to reside in his house till a 
bargain is completed. Something must have 
occurred to prevent Alardus from under- 
taking the office of editor at that time. An 
edition was published soon after by Phris- 
semius, but it was not till 1539 that Alardus 
published it, with voluminous scholia, in a 
pretty complete edition of the works of Agri- 
cola. The dates of his various publications 
are the only events by which we can trace 
his existence from 1529 till 1539 ; it would, 
however, be rash to infer that he resided in 
the towns named upon the title-pages of these 
books in the years when they appear to have 
been published. Of the few letters of Alar- 
dus which have been preserved nearly one 
half are dated in the year 1539, and from 
Cologne, and relate to his publication of the 
collected works of AgricoUL In the same 
year he published Marbodieus' work on 
gems, with scholia ; and in the dedication to 
tiie Bishop of Hecmund he mentions that 
the book had attracted his attention while 
ransacking the episcopal library, in the years 
immediately preceding, for information re- 
garding precious stones, with a view to a 
contemplated edition of the works of St 
Augustine. He died at Louvain, according 
to one account in 1544, but more probably 
in 1541. The talents and acquirements of 
Alardus are highly spoken of by his con- 
temporaries : even Melanchthon bears testi- 
mony to his literary eminence. His advice 
was much in request with parents and guar- 
dians who were anxious to secure a good 
education for the voung men intrusted to 
their care. Notwithstanding his success as a 
lecturer on rhetoric, it is apparent that he 
was unsuccessful in his attempt to become a 
popular preacher. His zeal in the cause was 
not in fault, for he continued through life a 
determined opponent of the Lutherans. He 
seems to have belonged to that party in the 

VOL. I. 



Romish church whose cultivated taste made 
them feel the necessitv of abandoning some 
of the grosser superstitions which had grown 
up during the dark ages. He was rather 
deaf, and had the reputation of being talk- 
ative. Erasmus said he made himself amends 
by his tongue for the defect in his ears ; and 
the same idea has been amplified in an 
anonymous epitaph. But whatever be the 
judgment passed upon him in other respects, 
he IS entitled to respect and gratitude for the 
unremitting enthusiasm with which he sought 
out every firagment of Rudolphus Agricola*s 
writing and for his services in the cause of 
education. Notwithstanding that there is 
reason to believe, from the mention of a 
nephew in his letter to Nannius, that he had 
surviving relations, he bequeathed his library 
to the asylum for orphans in his native town. 
The library of the British Museum contains 
the following publications b^ Alardus : — 
1. ''Rodolphi Agricolffi Phrisu Lucubrationes 
aliquot lectu dignissinue in banc usque diem 
nusquam prius editae, cseteraque cjusdem viri 
plane divini omnia quae exstare creduntur 
opuscula, plusquam depravatissime ubique 
jam olim excusa, nunc demum ad autogra- 
phorum exemplarium fidem per Alardum 
.£mstelredamum emendata et additis scfao- 
liis illustrata. Eptstola Johannis Phrissemii. 
Erudita cumprimis Philippi Melanthonts 
Epistola, Mores, Eruditionem, Vitamque Ro- 
dolphi Compendio perstringens. Cum aliis 
cognitu perquam necessariis quse versa de- 
prehendes pagina. Colonis, apud Johannem 
Gymnicum," 4to. There is no year men- 
tioned either in title-page or colophon ; it is 
however well known to have been published in 
1539. 2. "Epitome primi Libri de Inven- 
tione dialectica Rodolphi Agricolas Pfarysii, 
acyectis sane quam appositis in singulos locos 
exemplis per Alardum ^mstelredamum. 
Parisiis, apud Christianum Wechelum, 1539," 
12mo. lliis is a reprint : we have not been 
able to ascertain when it was first published, 
but firom the dedication it appears to have been 
composed in Louvain. 3. *hnroKp4rovs I&6ov 
wpibs Ac^idytrrotf ^EwurroK-fi, Hippocratis Coi 
Epistola cumprimis erudita juxta ac salutaris, 
interprete simul et paraphraste Alardo ^m- 
Btelredamo. Salingiaci, 1539.** This also is a 
reprint : the first edition appears to have been 
published in 1526. 4. " Marbodaei Galli 
Csenomannensis de Gemmarum Lapidumque 
pretiosorum Formis Naturis atque Viribus eru- 
ditum cumprimis Opusculum, sane quam utile 
cum ad Rei medics, tum Scripturse sacra) Cog- 
nitionem : nunc primum non modo centum 
versibus locupletatum pariter et accuratius 
emendatum, sed et scholiis quoque iUustra- 
tum per Alardum iEmstelredamum. Cujus 
studio additffi sunt et prsecipua gemmarum 
lapidumque pretiosorum explicationes ex 
vetustissunis ^uidem auctoribus coacte. 
Cum scholiis Pictorii Villengensis. Colonis, 
1539,** l2mo. The list cSf his remaining 

8 8 



ALARDUS. 



ALARIC. 



works we are under the neceflsity of taklDg 
from Valerias Andreas, whose catalogue has 
been servilely copied by ever^ subsequent 
writer. It is extremely deficient: several 
works are omitted altogether, and in the case 
of others reprints are mentioned instead of 
the original publications. 5. ** Ritus edendi 
Agnum Paschalem, cum x Plagis Egypti, 
carmine heroico. Amstelodami, 1523." 6. 
" Caroli V. Panegyris et Paraceleusis, sen 
Exbortatio ad Ecclesis Reformationem,! 532.** 
7. " Encomium Hospitalitatis Abrahs, cum 
Ad^unctis Poematis :*' time and pUce of 
printing not mentioned. 8. " Commentarium 
in Progymnasmata AphthoniL Colonise, 
1532.*' 9. ** Matthsei Philadelphiensis Preca- 
tiones pise et ad Sumtionem Dominici Cor- 
poris non panmi conducentes, Latinitate 
donatse. Colonise Agrippinensis, 1532.*' 10. 
" Parasceve ad SS. Eucharistise Sacramenti 
Perceptionem : additis Orationibus piis de 
Passione Christi e Sanctis Patribus aliisque 
coUectis. Coloni®, 1532.*' 11. " Dissertatio 
contra Anabaptismum. AntverpiaB, 1535,"8vo. 
12. "De Eucharistise Sacramento, Lib. I. 
Lovanii, 1537,"8vo. 13. " Ecclesiastes sive 
Concionator, juxta locos Rudolphi Agricolsp. 
Colonise apud Gymnicum ; Parisiis apud 
Wechelem.*' The year of neither edition is 
mentioned. 14. " Descriptio Hseretici, secun- 
dum Locos Rudolphi Agricolse. Salingiaci, 
1539," 8vo. 15. **Bapti8mus Christianus et 
Matrimonium descriptum per Dialectical Locos 
Rudolphi Agricolse. Salingiaci, 1539," 8vo. 
16. " Erasmi Bucolicon, cuititulusPamphilus, 
cumscholiis. Colonise, 1539." 17. **Mulier, 
sive Uxor juxta Inventionis Dialecticse Locos 
explicata. Colonise, 1539." 18. " Disserta- 
tiunculse tres, advers. Hserelicos : quarum L 
de Peccato originali ; II. de Justificatione per 
Christum ; IIL de Justorum Operibns et Me- 
ritis. Antverpise, 1541." 19. " Oratio de 
Matrimonio. Lovanii, 1543." (Fite Ger- 
manorum Philosopkorunij coUect^e a Melchiore 
Adamo, Francofurti, 1663 ; Decas Alardorum 
ScripH^ Claronan^ coUecta a Nicolao Alardo 
Pastore Steinbeccensi, Hamburgi, 8vo.; Bayle's 
Dictionary^ voce ** Agricola, Rudolphus ;*' and 
the letters of AUrdus and his fi-iends scat- 
tered through the complete edition of Agri- 
cola's works, or prefixed to the other three 
publications of Alardus mentioned above, as 
contained in the library of the British Mu- 
seum.) W. W. 

ALARIC. This name occurs in the ge- 
nealogies of the Saxon kings, as that of an 
illegitimate son of Ida the first king of 
Northumbria, and consequently as being 
brother to Adda : his sera, the middle of the 
sixth century. Nothing is known of him. 

J. H. 

ALARIC L, a king of the Visigoths in the 
5th century a. i>. He was descended from 
the noble race of the Balthi, and in his 
youth learned the art of war under the Em- 
peror Theodostus. I. In 895 he became the 
618 



leader of the Visigothic insurrection ; he 
marched fW>m Thrace into Greece in 396, and 
reached Athens without a check. He de- 
vastated the whole of Attica, and exacted the 
greater part of the wealth of Athens as the 
ransom of its inhabitants. He then took 
Corinth, Argos, and Sparta, plundering the 
cities and enslaving the inhabitants. 

In 397, Stilicho, the general of Honorius, 
landed in the Peloponnesus with a large army 
from Italy to oppose Alaric. An engagement 
took place near Corinth, in which, after an 
obstinate resistance, the Goths were defeated, 
and, retreating to Pholoe, a mountain on the 
frontiers of EUs, were there blockaded by 
Stilicho. Alaric, taking the Romans by sur- 
prise, broke through the entrenchments with 
which they had surrounded him, and forced 
his way into Epirus. He secretly, upon this, 
made a treaty with the court of Constantinople, 
and Stilicho was compelled to abandon Greece 
by the command of the Emperor Arcadins, 
who appointed Alaric master general of the 
Eastern lUyricum. He availed himself of 
the advantages of this post by obtaining arms 
for his own troops from the different maga- 
zines of arms within his government. He was 
made kmg of the Visigoths by his own people, 
and he alternately cajoled with promises 
the courts of Rome and Constantinople. 
Meanwhile he formed the project of invading 
Italy, which he put into execution a.d. 400. 
We are not well informed as to the circum- 
stances of his passage across the Alps and 
his conquest of the provinces of Istria and 
Venetia, or how he employed himself in the 
interval between the date of his invasion and 
the year 403, when he appeared before Milan, 
where the Emperor Honorius was then re- 
siding. His advance excited the greatest 
alarm. Honorius fled, not darmg to trust 
the strength of Milan ; and in the absence of 
Stilicho, who had been called away to quell 
an insurrection in Rhsetia, was besieged by 
Alaric in Asta, a town of Liguria. He was 
rescued by the return of StiBcho, who sur- 
rounded file Goths on every side by en- 
trenchments, cutting off their retreat Alaric 
still preserved his undaunted determination 
to conquer Italy. The Roman general, avail- 
ing himself of the time when the Goths, 
celebrating the festival of Easter, were un- 
guarded, attacked them at PoUentia, near 
Turin, and defeated them with great slaughter, 
taking prisoner the wife of Alaric The 
Gothic chief still persisted in his determin- 
ation to force his way to Rome ; but being 
intercepted by Stilicho, he concluded a treaty 
with him, and agreed to quit Italy. In his way 
back, making an attempt on Verona, he was 
surprised by the troops of Stilicho, and sus- 
tained great loss, after which he was allowed 
to retreat fh>m Italy with an army mucli 
diminished by slaughter, desertion, and £unine. 
After this expedition Alaric abandoned the 
service of Arcadius, and concluded a treaty 



ALARIC. 



ALARIC. 



with the Emperor of the West, by the terms 
of which he was made master general of the 
Roman armies in the prefecture of Illyricam, 
in order to aid Stilicho in wresting the eastern 
division of this country from the Eastern 
Empire. In this post he made many daims 
on Honorius for alleged services, and threat- 
ened war on the non-fiilfihnent of his de- 
mands ; a subsidy of 4000 lbs. of gold was in 
conse<^uence granted to him. After the death 
of Stibcho, ▲.!>. 408, Alaric, availing himself 
of the disaffection which ensued, appeared on 
the Italian frontiers. His offers for further 
negotiation having been rashly rejected by 
the court of Ravenna, he advanced by bold 
and rapid nuirches from the Alps to Arimi- 
nium (Rimini), plundering on his way the 
cities Aquileia, Altinum, Concordia, and Cre- 
mona. Hence, following the course of the 
Flaminian way, he proceeded through Um- 
bria to Rome, and investing the city closely, 
he soon reduced it to a state of ikmine. 
The Romans made offers of surrender on 
honourable terms, bidding him beware, if 
he rejected this alternative, of the courage 
of a despairing people. Alaric, with scorn- 
ful pithiness, replied, ** The thicker the 
hay, the easier it is mowed." His terms were 
at first so severe as to leave the inhabitants 
little beside their lives; but he afterwards 
agreed to raise the siege on condition of an 
immediate payment of 5000 lbs. of gold, 
30,000 lbs. of silver, 4000 robes of silk, 3000 
pieces of scarlet cloth, and 3000 lbs. of 
pepper. On receiving this tribute, which 
was raised with some difficulty, Alaric drew 
off his troops into Tuscany. The slaves 
deserted to him in great numbers, and he 
received a large rc-inforcement of Goths and 
Huns under Ataulphus, his wife's brother. 
Though occup3riDg so strong a position in Italy, 
Alaric, for reasons which we cannot at this 
distance of time attempt to exphun, was very 
moderate in his demands upon Honorius. 
His stipulations were, to receive an annual 
subsidy of com and money, and to occupy 
with ms people Dalmatia, Noricum, and Ve- 
netia. It was further suggested hj Jovius, 
the minister of Honorius, tibat Alanc should 
be made master-general of the armies of the 
West But the follpr and wickedness of the 
ministers of Honorras prevented the accept- 
ance of offers apparently moderate, and a 
letter fh)m the emperor, agreeing to the 
annual payment demanded by Alaric, but 
haughtily refusing to a barbarian the com- 
mand of the arm^, was imprudently shown 
by Jovius to Alanc, who, exasperated at the 
moment beyond his usual moderation, im- 
mediately set out from Ariminium to Rome. 
On his route he despatched a solemn embassy 
of the bishops of ^e towns of Italy, mode- 
rating his terms and imploring Honorius to 
accept them before it was too late. His warn- 
ing was unheeded; and actuig with great 
promptitude, he seized upon the port of Ostia 
619 



and, once in possession of the com magazine 
there, immediately compelled Rome to surren- 
der. On his entrance into the city he invested 
Attalus, the prefect of the city, with the im- 
perial purple. But this usurper soon proved 
himself unworthy of the high station to whioh 
he had been exalted ; and the failure of the 
expedition sent by him to Africa against 
Heraclian, and his general incapacity either 
to govern or obey, induced Alaric to depose 
him. Renewing, after this, his negotiations 
with the court of Ravenna, the Gothic king 
was finally provoked to fresh hostilities by 
the attack made upon him by Sams, one of 
his own nation, in the pay of Honorius, who 
cut to pieces a considerable body of his 
troops. Alaric a^in marched from the 
neighbourhood of Ravenna, whither he had 
gone to urge in person his offers of treaty on 
the emperor, to Rome ; the city was imme- 
diately surrendered by traitors within, and 
delivered to be sacked, a.d. 410. The Chris- 
tian piety of Alaric spared the churches 
amid the general plunder. In a few days 
the Goths, laden with booty, were led off by 
their chi^ into Campania, and thence into 
the south of Italy, ravaging all the country 
in their course. Extending his views of 
conquest, Alaric now planned the invasion 
of Sicily, purposing to make that island his 
stepping-stone in the passage to Africa. Hav- 
ing marched to the southern extremity of 
Italy, he proceeded to embark his troops; but 
a tempest destroyed some of his ships, and 
he was arrested by death in the midst of his 
preparations, a. d. 410. The Goths turned 
the course of the river Busentinus, near 
Consentia or Cosenza, in the territory of the 
Brattii, and placing the remains of their 
king in the bed of the river restored the 
water to its original channel ; and that the 
spot might be for ever concealed, they mas- 
sacred the prisoners employed on the work. 
(Claudian, De Belio GeticOj and In liu- 
Jmvmj ii.; Jomandes, De Bebu* Geticis, 
c. 29. ; Zosimus, Historic, vi ; Sozomen, 
Hist Eccle*iasiica, vii and viii. ; Socrates, 
Hist Ecclesiastical vii. ; see also Gibbon, v., 
and the authorities quoted by him ; Green- 
wood, First Book of the History of the Ger- 
mans.) C. N. 
ALARIC IL, king of the Visigoths, ninth 
m descent from Alaric L, succeed while 
very young to the dominions of his father 
Euric in France, a.d. 484. Soon after his 
accession he came m contact with the growing 
power of the Franks* Clovis their king had 
defeated Sjagrins, a. d. 488, who, with the 
title of kmg, or, perhaps, to speak more 
accurately, of patncius, governed Soissons 
and part of the second Belgic, in which sub- 
jects of the Roman empire yet remained. 
(See Biet, Swr VJSpoque de VEtaNissement des 
Francs dans les Gauks, p. 178, et seq.) Sy- 
agrius fled to Alaric, who was compelled by 
Clovis to surrender him. The Visigoths 

8 8 2 



ALARIC. 



ALARIC. 



professed Arianism, and on the pretext of 
destroying this heresy the Prankish king 
formed the design of conquering their 
country. The biuiishment of Volusianus, 
hishop of Tours, on account of his non- 
conformity with Arian tenets, was made a 
grievance by Clovis, and led to disputes, the 
settlement of which was vainly attempted by 
the mediation of Theodoric, and by a con- 
ference of the two kings on a small island in 
the Loire, on which occasion Clovis is said 
to have made false tenders of peace. Alaric 
continued to persecute his refractory bishops, 
till, invited by the general discontent in the 
Gothic kingdom, Clovis marched through 
Tours and crossed the Loire at Poitiers. 
Alaric had not neglected the means of de- 
fence ; he had collected an army, numerous 
but unused to active service. At the passage 
of the Vienne, swollen at the time by an 
accidental flood, the Goths opposed the march 
of Clovis, who was however enabled by the 
discovery of an unguarded ford to cross the 
river. Alaric, who was expecting promised 
aid from his fiither-in-law Theodoric, king 
of the Ostrogoths, urged by the precipitate 
counsels of his younger warriors to give battle, 
still hesitated, till he was attacked about ten 
miles from Poitiers by the Franks. In the 
battle which ensued the Goths fought bravely, 
but were defeated with great slaughter, and 
Alaric encountering Clovis in single combat 
was killed by him, a. d. 507. From this 
event may be dated the foundation of the 
Merovingian dynasty in France. Alaric left 
two sons, Giselic, a bastard, and Amalaric, 
the fruit of his marriage with Theudicote or 
Theodogothe, the daughter of Theodoric, king 
of the Ostrogoths, whose ally he had been 
against the Ueruli. Giselic reigned for a 
short time over the remnant of the Gothic 
kingdom; Amalaric was afterwards placed 
on ue throne by Theodoric, and died a. d. 53 1 , 
when the dynasty of the Visigoths in France 
was finally extinguished. (Gibbon, vL c. 38. 
8vo. ; Gregorius Turonensis, lib. iu in Bou- 
quet, Recueil des Hiatoriens dea Gaules^ ^c. 
vol. ii ; Procopius, De BeM. Gotfu lib. it 
c 12. ; Jomandes, De Rebus GeticU^ c. 58.) 

C. N. 
The reign of Alaric IL was signalised by 
an attempt to form a body of law for the use 
of his Roman subjects, which is generally 
known under the name of the Breviarium or 
Breviarium Alaricianum. The only authority 
for the history of this legislation is the Com- 
monitorium prefixed to the code, of which 
Savigny has given a corrected text In the 
twenty-second year of his reign Alaric com- 
missioned a body of jurists, probably Romans, 
to make a selection from the imperial con- 
stitutions and the writings of the Roman 
jurisconsults. The compilation was made 
in the city of Aire (Aduris) in Gascony, and 
was confirmed by an assembly of bishops 
and nobles; and a copy of it, signed by 
620 * 1 



Anianus, the refercndarius of Alaric, was sent 
to each comes, with instructions to allow the 
use of no other hiw under pain of heavy 
penalties. The circumstance of the copies 
being signed by Anianus (Anianus . . . hunc 
codicem . . . edidi atque subscripsi) has given 
rise to the unfounded notion tlmt he was the 
compiler of the code ; but his signature was 
only the official evidence of the authority of 
the copies. This compilation had no appro- 
priate name : it was called Lex Romana, and 
at a later period it was called Lex Theodosii, 
Corpus Theodosii, frt>m the title of the code, 
which forms an important part of it The 
name Breviarium or Breviarium Alarici- 
anum is comparatively modem. 

The Breviarium consists of the following 
materials arranged in the order here enume- 
rated :— 1. The sixteen books of the Theo- 
dosian Code. 2. The Novelise of Theo- 
dosius II., Valentinian, Marcian, Biajorian, 
and Sevems. 3. The Institutiones of Gains 
in two books. 4. The Receptse Sententis of 
Paulus in four books. 5. Codex Gregorianus, 
thirteen titles. 6. Codex Hermogenianus, 
two titles. 7. A short extract from Pa- 
pinianus. Lib. I. Responsorum. 

In the commonitorium or general instruc- 
tions prefixed to the compilation (which is 
not found in all the MSS.), and also in the 
compilation, the materials of which the code 
of Alaric consists are referred to two ge- 
neral heads. Leges and Jus. The term Leges 
comprehends laws properly so called, that is, 
imperial constitutions ; and Jus comprehends 
the writings of the Roman jurists, such as 
the Institutiones of Gaiiis, and the com- 
piUtions made by private individuals, as the 
Codex Gregorianus and Hermogenianus. The 
parts selected for this compilation have nearly 
always been given without any alteration, 
with the exception of the Institutiones of 
Gaius, which were epitomised, and various 
alterations were introduced into the text 
AH the parts of the compilation, except 
Gains, are accompanied by an interpretation, 
which appears to have been made by the 
compilers, and was found necessary because 
the original text, so far as it was adopted, 
was given entire, and would often either be 
obscure or ill suited to the condition of the 
inhabitants of Gaul. As Gaius was com- 
pletely remodelled, there was no occasion for 
an interpretation there. It is obvious that 
the Breviarium is of little use for correcting 
the text of Gains, but it often shows what 
subjects were treated in those passages of 
Gaius which are defective in the Verona MS. 
Some parts of this epitome of Gaius are not 
taken from the Institutiones. 

The Breviarium has considerable value 
for the history of the Roman law, as it con- 
tains sources which are otherwise entirely or 
partially unknown — the Receptse Sententise 
of Paulus and the first five books of the 
Theodosian Code. But juristical learning had 



ALARIC. 



ALARY. 



greatly declined at the time when this com- 
pilation was made, as we most infer from 
the fiict that no use was made of Ulpian, 
very little of Papinian, that Gains was 
epitomised, and that the best works of Paulus 
were not selected by the compilers. 

There are numerous MS8. of the Brevi- 
arium ; but the only complete edition of the 
Breviarium alone is that of Sichard, Basle, 
1528, foL The whole Breriarinm, together 
with other things, is contained in the Jus 
Civile Antejustinianeum, Berlin, 1815. (Sa- 
vigny, Geachickte de» Rdm, Reckts im Mit- 
tMier, ToL iL ; Zimmem, Gesckichte deaRlfm. 
PrivtUrechta; Gaius, PrafaL prima editpra- 
m»«a.) u. L. 

ALART, BARTHELEMY, was bom at 
Grasse in Provence about ^e middle of 
the seventeenth century, and for some time 
practised as an apothecary in his native place. 
He is reputed to have been the first of that 
class of pharmaceutists who are distinguished 
bv the rale of secret remedies for particular 
diseases, and to have introduced this species 
of empiricism by vending lozenges for the 
cure of intermittent fevers, which he declared 
would quickly and certainly yield to their 
influence. The direct action of these reme- 
dies was to excite vomiting, to promote per- 
spiration, and many of the other secretions of 
the body. They were composed of angelica, 
contrajerva, antora, black hellebore, gentian, 
various salts, and arsenic Hiving practised 
with success upon Jean Raibaut, an anatomist 
and surgeon of some reputation at Grasse, 
Alary went to Paris in or about the year 
1680. The wife of Aauin, chief physician to 
Louis XIV., was at this time suffering under 
an intermittent fever, which had resisted all 
the medicines then usually employed ; appli- 
tation was made to Alary in her behalf^ and 
two doses of his nostrum were sufficient to 
effect her cure. This success, in so well- 
known a person, of course quickly gave repu- 
tation to the remedy. Royal patronage was be- 
stowed upon the inventor, and the king made 
him a handsome present, directed the lozenges 
to be used in all the French hospitals, and 
ultimately purchased the secret To so great 
a height had the confidence in the efficacy of 
this remedy attained, that Louvois, one of 
the ministers of Louis XIV., was thought to 
confer a great service on the French army 
by presenting them with 20,000 of these 
lozenges. Alary established a mart at Paris 
for the sale of his medicine, and produced a 
work entitled *' La Gucrison assuree des 
Fifevres Tierces, double-tierces en deux jours, 
quatres et double-quatres en quatre jours, 
par le remMe de B. Alary, fait et distribue 
par privilege du Roi." Paris, 1685, 12mo. 
In this work he describes the mode in which 
the remedy is to be administered, the regime 
to be followed during the time of its employ- 
ment, and the different effects which it pro- 
duces ; at the same time he repels the 
621 



charges brought against its universal utility 
by phvsicians, and gives some general direc- 
tions for the hygienic management of patients 
suffering under fevers. (Mangetus, Biblio- 
theca Med. ; Acta Erttdituram, 1685.) 

G. M. H. 

ALARY, E'TIENNE AIME', a sol- 
dier-priest distinguished for his piety and 
bravery, was bom at Montpezat in the pre- 
sent department of Ardi^che in the month of 
September, 1762. He studied theology at 
the seminary at Viviers, and took holy orders 
in 1785. Oq the breaking out of the revo* 
lution he attached himself to the fortunes of 
the royal family, was outlawed, and forced to 
emigrate in 1792. He was afterwards ap- 
pointed aumonier du quartier general of the 
Prince of Condc, and successively confessor 
of the Dukes of Angoulcme and of Berri. 
He accompanied the army of the Prince of 
Conde through the campaigns of 1792, 1793, 
1794. 1795, 1796, 1797, 1799, and 1800, was 
present at every engagement in which it 
took part, and displayed the greatest cou- 
rage in rendering spiritual consolation and 
assistance to the wounded. He was himself 
wounded before Munich in 1796, and had a 
horse killed under him in the engagement at 
Constance in 1799. In 1803 he ventured to 
return to France, bbt was arrested in the 
following year, and kept in confinement for 
several years, first at St. Pelagic, and after- 
wards at the Temple. Again an exile, he 
followed Louis XVIII. in his wanderings, 
and returned with him to his native country 
on the final abdication of Napoleon. His 
death is stated, in the supplement to the 
** Bio^phie Universelle,** to have taken 
place m 1819. {Biographie des Hommes Vi- 
vans.) J. W. J. 

ALARY, GEORGE, abb^, director of 
the seminary for foreign missions at Paris, 
was bom at Pampelonne, in the diocese of 
Alby on the 10th of January, 1731. Having 
determined to devote his labours to the difTu- 
sion of the Christian reli^on in foreign 
countries, he quitted Paris m 1763 for the 
mission to Siam, at which place he arrived 
on the 8th of September in the following 
year. He had resided at Mergui four months 
when that city was sacked, and Alary, after 
being stripped of everything and cruelly ill 
treated, was led away captive with the greater 
part of the inhabitants to Rangoon, a mari- 
time city of the kingdom of Ava. This 
event opened to him a new field for ex- 
ertion ; he effected many conversions amongst 
the heathen inhabitants of the place, and was 
of great use to the Christians there, who 
were at that time without a pastor. After a 
captivity of nine months he obtained per- 
mission to embark on board an English 
vessel, which carried him to Bengal, whence 
he proceeded to Pondicherry, and afterwards 
to Macao. In 1768 he entered China, and 
preached the Gospel with much success in 

8 8 3 



ALARY. 



ALARY. 



the proYince of Sa-Tchuen, and afterwards 
in that of Kouei-Tcheon, which latter plaee 
had not been Tisited by missionaries for a 
considerable period, and where he also made 
many conTerts. Having been recalled to 
Paris in order to undertake the directorship 
of the seminary for foreign missions, he left 
China in 1772 and entered upon his office 
by the express desire of Clement XIV. He 
continued in the zealous discharge of his 
duties until 1792, when the rerolution driving 
him from his country he took refuge in 
England. In 1802 he returned to France, 
and succeeded in pocuring the re-establish- 
ment of the seminary in 1804, which he 
again superintended until its final dissolutiofn 
in 1809. From this time he lived in retire- 
ment until his death, which took place on 
the 4th of August, 1817. (Xe Moniteur, 
1817. p. 895.) J.W.J. 

ALARY, JEAN, a poet and advocate of 
the parliament of Toulouse, in which city he 
was bom in the btter half <^ the sixteenth 
century. His Anther, who was president of 
the Presidial of Toulouse, was much esteemed 
by Catherine de Medicis and Henri III., 
who intrusted to him the management of 
many affairs of importance, and on his pre- 
mature death continued their protection to 
his children. Jean Alary being involved in 
a long and intricate law -suit was obliged to 
take up his residence for several years in 
Paris, and while there, in order to spend his 
time usefully as well as profitably, he pub- 
lished a long discourse entitled ** Abrege des 
longues etudes ; ou, Pierre Philosophique des 
Sciences.'* Tliis work, which made much 
noise at the time, was addressed to all princes, 
ecclesiastics, ambassadors, and others who 
might be desirous of supplying in a short 
period the deficiencies of their early educa- 
tion. The author proposed to communicate 
his science by certain new and infallible rules, 
and he soon obtained many disciples. Thirteen 
of his rules having been stolen ftt>m him, he 
presented a memoriid to the king in 1620 
demanding justice for the theft. His com- 
plaints made so strong an impression upon 
several persons, that one prelate offered to 
allow him 800 fhmcs per annum, and to re- 
pair an old abbey for the reception of the 
poor scholars to whom he was desirous of 
imparting his science ; and another, to pay 
him annually 12,000 fhmcs towards the ac- 
complishment of his great projects in favour 
of education. That these projects were not 
carried into effect may be presumed from the 
absence of any evidence upon the subject 
Little more is known concerning him be- 
yond what may be gathered from the titles 
of his works: by one it appears that he had 
been obliged to quit France and abandon his 
property through the machinations of the 
Jesuits ; and by another, that he had visited 
England. The time of his death is not 
known. He was very whimsical in his 
622 



dress, and was commonly called bv tbe 
lower orders **le philosophe crottc (the 
dirty philosopher). His works are — I. 
^Recueil de Recreations Poetiques." Paris, 
1605, 4to. 2. '^Le Lys fleurissant pour la 
Migorite du Roy." Toulouse, 1615, 8vo. 3. 
** Abrege des loupes E'tudes." 4. *" Sur les 
Louanges, Maladie et Guerison de tres-hant 
Seigneur Messire Greorge de ViUiers, Due de 
Buckingham ; " printed about 1623. 5. ** Con- 
ceptions Poetiques, sur les Morts du tres- 
aug^uste Jacques, Roy de la Grande Bre- 
tagne, et du tres-valeureux Maurice, Prince 
d'Orange ;" printed about 1625. This tract 
contains ** Continuation des Conceptions 
Poetiques, par le meme auteur, depuis son 
retour en ^gleterre." 6. ** Sur la Louange 
de tres-illustre Seigneur le Prince d'Orange, 
et Si^ge de Breda : ode par Jean d* Alary, 
monstrant les deux perfections du B9avoir, 
par rinvention de son art qui Ta contrainct 
de quitter la France et ses biens par Tenvie, 
&c. des Jesuites.** The last three works 
have escaped the notice of his previous 
biographers. 7. ** La Vertu triomphante de 
la Fortune." Paris, 1622, 4to. The circu- 
lation of his works is supposed to have been 
very limited, he having printed them at his 
own expense and been his own publisher. 
(Barbier, Examen Critique des Dictionnaires 
Historiqttest ^c, i. 19.) Barbier states that he 
has taken his account of Alary from an un- 
published work of great reputation entitled 
" Histoire des Poetes Fran9ai8,** by Guillaume 
Colletet (Goi:Oet, BiUioAique Franfoiae, xv. 
35. ; Le Long, Bibliotheque Historique de la 
France, ii. 784.) J. W. J. 

ALARY, PIERRE JOSEPH, prior of 
Goumay-sur-Mame, was the son of an apo- 
thecary and bom at Paris in 1689. His 
amiable disposition and his ardent desire for 
knowledge procured him the friendship of 
the learned Abbe de Longuerue, who took 
pleasure in instructing him, and always spoke 
of him as one of his best scholars. Under 
such excellent tuition he acquired an accu- 
rate knowledge of ancient and modem lan- 
guages, and became well acquainted with 
history, and particularly with that of his own 
country. Notwithstanding the quiet and stu- 
dious life led by AJary, he was accused of 
participation in the Cellamare conspiracy 
which was formed in 1718. The regent, 
Philip of Orleans, permitted him to defend 
himself, and was so well persuaded of his 
innocence, that he siud to him, ** Your ene- 
mies have conferred an obligation upon both 
of us in affording me the opportunity to 
know you ; " he also intrusted him with an 
important share in the education of the king, 
Louis XV., that of teaching him history. 
Alary had early been made prior of Gournay- 
sur-Mame, and on the 30th of December, 
1723, he was elected a member of the French 
Academy. This election aroused the jealousy 
of many who coveted the distinction, and the 



ALARY. 



ALASCO. 



poet Roi published so gross a libel against 
the society in general, and Alary in par- 
ticular, that the king committed the author 
to prison, and the Academic des Inscriptions 
et Belles Lettres struck him out of their list 
of members. In 1 724 Alary formed a species 
of political academy, under the name of 
" Societe de TEntresol," which continued in 
existence until 1731. Many details concern- 
ing this society will be found in the corre- 
spondence between Alary and Lord Boling- 
broke. He is said to have imitated his pre- 
ceptor Longuerue in his philosophic indiffer- 
ence for literary reputation, and has in fact 
left no work behind him, with the exception 
of a portion of a history of Germany, which he 
laid aside when he became tutor to the king. 
It is probable that his philosophic indifference 
was fostered by the possession of an income 
of about 40,000 liyres per annum. He is 
described as a man who loved all the conve- 
niences of life, and above all, good cheer, 
but whose morals were as pure as his dispo- 
sition was amiable. He died on the 15th of 
December, 1770. (D'Alembert, Uiatoire des 
Membrea de VActidhnie Fran^oiae^ tL 315. ; 
Letirea Hiatoriquea, Folitiquea et Particulierea, 
de Lord Bolinghroke^ depuia 1710, jitaqu' en 
1736, ii. 439. iii. 451.) J. W. J. 

ALASCO, or a LASCO, JOHN. His 
real name was John LasckL He was bom 
in the year 1499 in Poland, and belonged to 
a family of very high rank in that country. 
After his elementary education was com- 
pleted at home, he visited the most cele- 
brated universities on the continent of 
Europe, especially those of Italy, France, 
and the Netherlands. At Ziirich he became 
acquainted with Zwingli, who exhorted him 
to a careful study of the Scriptures. In 

1525 he stayed for some time at Basel, where 
he formed an intimate friendship with (Eco- 
lampadius and Pellicanus, but more espe- 
cially with Erasmus. During his stay in 
Switzerland he imbibed the doctrines of the 
Swiss reformers ; but he did not make an 
open profession of his belief till some time 
afterwards. On his return to his country in 

1526 he was appointed provost of Gnesen, 
and afterwards of Lenczicz also. Ten jears 
later, two bishoprics were offered to hmi at 
once, that of Weszprim in Hun^^ary, and of 
Cujavia in Poland ; but the religious opinions 
which he had in the mean time formed in- 
duced him to declare that he could not con- 
scientiously undertake the duties of either of 
these high offices. Sigismund L, then king 
of Poland, acquiesced in this declaration, and 
gave Alasoo permission to pay a second visit 
to foreign countries, by means of which 
Alasoo hoped partly to extend his know- 
ledge, and partly to be enabled to pursue 
and carry into practice his religious views 
with less restraint than in his own country. 
In 1537 he stayed for some time at Mainz, 
and then spent two years at Louvain, where 

623 



he married. In the course of these two 
years he also visited Wittenberg, and became 
acquainted with Melanchthon. Soon after 
1540 he went to Emden in East Friesland, 
where he found a sphere of action suited to 
his talents and religious views. Count Enno, 
and after his death the Countess Anna, fre- 
quently consulted him on public, especially 
ecclesiastical affairs, and he was so well 
satisfied with his position there, although he 
held no public office, that in 1542, after a 
short visit to his native country, he returned 
to Friesland. At the urgent request of the 
government and of the Protestant community 
at Emden, he accepted the office of preacher, 
together with the superintendence of all the 
newly-established Protestant communities in 
the country. The Reformation in this part of 
Holland owes to Alasco its completion and 
final settlement He had great obstacles to 
overcome, but he succeeded in making many 
new arrangements in the forms of public 
worship, in removing images from the 
churches, in abolishing various superstitious 
practices, in introducing a strict church dis- 
cipline, and in reorganising the establish- 
ments for education. He wrote a manual of 
the Reformed doctrines, in which he followed 
the views of the Swiss reformers. Albert, 
duke of Prussia, made him a brilliant offer, 
and invited him to settle in his dominions ; 
but Alasco would not give up the view 
which the Swiss reformers took of the Lord's 
supper, and this prevented him from accept- 
ing the duke*s proposal. The Augsburg In- 
terim also placed many obstacles in the way of 
his operations in Friesland. In 1548, being 
invited by Archbishop Cranmer, at the re- 
quest of King Edward VI., he came over to 
England. The great object of his visit was 
to regulate the affairs of the congregation of 
foreign Protestants which had been formed in 
London, principally consisting of those who 
had been obliged to leave their homes. In 
1554 this congregation consisted of upwards of 
3000 members, and Alasco not only undertook 
to organise the body, but drew up an admirable 
constitution for them, which was printed at 
London in 1550. He was not well satis- 
fied with the ceremonial part of the Reformed 
English church, and he thought it wrong 
that the lord's supper was not taken by the 
communicants in a sitting attitude. In 1553, 
after the death of Edward VI., the foreign 
Protestant congregation being obliged to quit 
England, Alasco sailed with above 300 per- 
sons to Denmark, where he hoped to find a 
place of refuge for them. But as he attacked 
the manner in which the Lord's supper was 
administered in that country, and openly 
declared his disapproval of the ritual adopted 
in Denmark, he was obliged, in the winter of 
1553, to leave the countrj'. The king, how- 
ever, provided him and his ft-iends with all 
that was necessary for their journey, and also 
allowed Alasco's two sons with their m- 

8 8 4 



ALASCO. 



AL-ASHARL 



stmctor to remain in Denmark until the end 
of the winter. Alasco now again went to 
Emden, and soon after to FraiJiiurt on the 
Main, where he endeavoured to organise the 
body of foreign Protestants who had taken 
up their abode there, and partly consisted of 
those who had followed him fh>m London, 
and partly of such as had resorted there from 
other countries, la. 1556 he appears to have 
grown tired of his wandering life, and re- 
turned to Poland. His seal, however, in 
promoting the interests of the Reformed re- 
ligion was still unabated, and he was one 
of the first and most active reformers in 
Poland. He was one of the eighteen divines 
who co-operated in the Polish translation 
of the Bible, which was published in 
1 563. Alasco, however, died before the work 
was completed, on the ISth of January, 
1560. 

Alasco is the author of a great number of 
theological and controversial writings, all of 
which are written in Latin, and in defence of 
the religious opinions of the Swiss reformers. 
The most remarkable among them are — 
" Defensio verse Doctrins de Christi Domini 
Incamatione adversus Mennonem Simonis,'* 
1545. ** Forma ac Ratio totius Ecclesiastici 
Ministerii Eduardi VL in Peregrinorum, 
maxime Germanorum, Ecclesia," London, 
1550. This work, which contains the con- 
stitution of the con^gation of foreign Pro- 
testants in London, is preceded by an address 
to King Sigismund, the senate, and the nobles 
of Poland. It has been translated into Ger* 
man by Micronius, Heidelberg, 1565, 8va 
** Brevis et dilucida de Sacramentis Tractatio,** 
London, 1552, 8va **£pistola continens 
summam Controversiie de Osna ;" and " Con* 
fessio de nostra cum Christo Domino Commu- 
nione, et Corporis item sui in Ccena Exhibi- 
tione," London, 1552. ** Catechismus major," 
London, 1551 : it has been translated into 
Dutch by Utenhov. ** Simplex et fidelis 
Narratio de Ecclesia Peregrinorum in Anglia,** 
Emdffi, 1553. This work is preceded by an 
admonitory letter to Christian, king of Den- 
mark. ** De recta Ecclesiarum instituenda- 
rum Ratione Epistolse IIL*' 1556. " Purgatio 
Ministrorum in Ecclesia Peregrinorum Fran- 
cofurti adversus eorum Calumnias," Basel, 
1556, 8va His other writings, which con- 
sist chiefly of letters of a controversial na* 
ture, are scattered in various works. ( Adami 
Vita TheoloQ. Exteror, p. 19, &c ; Neue Bei- 
tr&ge von cuten und neuen TketJog, Sachoi^ 
1756, p. 595, &C. ; L. Harbo, Neickrichten von 
den Sckickaaien des Johann a JUuco und 
seiner Gemeine in Danemark, transl. into Ger- 
man by Mengel, Copenhagen and Leipzig, 
1758, 8vo. ; J. F. Bertram, Grimdlicher 
Bericht von Johann a Lcuco, Aurich, 1733, 
3 vols. 4ta ; Burnet, History of the Reform- 
ation ; Comp. AdeluDg*8 Supplement to 
Jocher's AUgem, Gelehrt Zexic, iii. 1310, 
&c) L. & 

624 



AL-ASH'ARF (Abu-l-hasan *Ali Ibn 
Isma'il), founder of the sect of the Ash'aritea, 
was bom at Basrah about a. d. 860. He was 
the descendant of Mtisa Ibn Belal Al-*a8hari, 
the companion of the prophet Mohammed, 
and took his name ftom hun. Al-'ashari at 
first professed the sect of the Motaselites, 
not ^at of Shiifi', as erroneously stated by 
D'Herbelot (Bib. Or, voc « Ashari") ; but 
having quarrelled with his master, Abu 'All 
Al-jobbai, he left him and set up a sect of 
his own. The occasion of the dispute was 
as follows : — Al-'ashari put to his master 
the case of three brothers, the first of whom 
lived in obedience to God, the second in 
disobedience to him, and the third died an 
infiuit, and then asked him what he thought 
would become of them ? Al-jobbai answered 
that the first brother would certainly be 
rewarded in Paradise, the second punished in 
hell, and the third neither rewarded nor 
punished. ** Very well,*' said Al-ash'ari ; 
** but if the third brother were to say, *0 
Lord, hadst thou left me lonj^eron the earth, 
I might have entered Paradise with my be- 
lieving brother, and it would have been 
better for me.' " To this Al-jobbai replied, 
**that God knew before hand that he would 
be a wicked creature, and therefore cast him 
mto helL" "Then," retorted Al-ash'ari, 
" the second brother would say, *■ O Lord, 
why didst thou not take me away in my 
infancy, as thou didst my thud brother, that 
I might not deserve bv my sins the punish- 
ment of hell ? ' " Al-jobbai could return no 
answer to this, and some angry words ensuing, 
both master and pupil separated, and were 
ever after hostile to each other. On the 
ensuing day, Al-ash'ari repaired to the 
mos<|ue, and in the presence of the assembled 
multitude retracted his religious opinions, 
and forsook the sect of the Motazelitcs, 
framing one of his own, which partook of 
the doctrines of the ShAfiites and of those 
of the Hanbalites. The opinions of Al- 
ash'ari spread rapidly through Syria and 
Egypt, but were chiefiy adopted by the 
Moslems of Spain and Africa, who pro- 
fessed the sect of Malik Ibn Ans, that among 
the orthodox sects of Islam to which the 
doctrines of the Ash'arites bear most re- 
semblance. Their principal tenets are as 
follow: they allow the attributes of God 
to be distinct from his essence, yet not so as 
to establish any comparison between God and 
his creatures. This was also the opinion of 
Ahmed Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the sect 
of the Hanbalites ; of Dawud Al-ispahani, 
chief of the Dhaherites ; as well as that of 
Malik Ibn Ans. On the subject of pre- 
destination they maintain that God has one 
eternal will, which he applies to whatever he 
pleases, both with regard to his own actions 
and to those of men so far as they are created 
by him, but not as they are acquired by 
themselves, and that he wills both their 



AL-ASHARI. 



ALASHKAR. 



good and their eviL As to mortal sins, their 
opinion is, that if a believer, guilty of any sin 
whatever, die without repentance, bis sen- 
tence is to be left to God, who will either 
pardon him out of mercy, or through the 
intercession of the Prophet, or will punish 
him in proportion to his demeri^ and after- 
wards, through his mercy, admit him into 
Paradise $ for it is not to be supposed, they 
say, that a believer can remain for ever in 
hell with an unbeliever. In thia latter point 
the doctrines of the Ash'arites is diame- 
trically opposed to that of the Motazelites. 
In common with the Sefatians or Attri- 
butists, Al-a8h*an and his disciples believed 
the Koran to be eternal and uncreated, 
but with some slight modifications which 
are fiilly explained by Sale in the pre- 
liminary discourse to his translation of the 
Koran. Al-ash*ari led a very exemplary 
life, and it is related that his yearly expense 
did not exceed seventeen dirhama. The 
year of his death is not well ascertained, 
some authors placing it in a. h. 324 (▲. d. 
935-6), whilst others postpone it till a-h. 
330 (a. D. 941-2). He left several works, 
among which the most esteemed by his dis- 
ciples, as containing an abstract of his re- 
ligious opinions, are the ** Aydhahu-1-bor- 
hani fi-r-radd'ila ahli-z-zigh wa-l-taghyan** 
(*' Clear Proo& for the Refutation of Here- 
tical Doctrines"), and the ** At-tabiin f i os- 
8uli-d-din" Q* Exposition of the fundamental 
Principles of Religion"). A doctor named 
Ibn 'Asakir, who had been one of Al- 
ash'ari's disciples, wrote an account of his 
life and writings, and Ibn Khallekan also 
devoted to him an article in his Biographical 
Dictionary. A notice of Al-ash*ari occurs 
likewise in the tract attributed to Leo 
Africanus, and inserted by Hottinger in his 
" Promptuarium, sen Bibliotheca Chientalis,*' 
under die following title — '* De Viris qui- 
bnsdam illustribus apud Arabas." (Abu-1- 
feda, Ann, Mud, iL 419. ; Abu-1-faraj, Hist 
Dytu p. 105. ; D*Herbelot, Bib. Or, voc. 
" Ascluiri ;" Pococke, Specimen Hist Arab. 
ed. vet p. 230. ; Ibn Khallekan, Biog. Diet) 

P. de G. 
ALASHKAR or ALISHKAR, RABBI 
MOSES, the, Egyptian, (IpK^K^K HB^ "1 
on WD TPB^^?« 1«), an African rabbi, who, 
according to De Rossi, was judge or ruler of 
his people in Egypt. He was most probably 
descended from the ancient and well-known 
Hebrew family, ** Min Haadomim,** generally 
translated De Rubeis, as the Arabic surname 
•« Alashkar** has the same signification as the 
Hebrew ** Haadom," that is, " the Red." He 
was living during the close of the fifteenth 
and beginning of the sixteenth centuries, 
and wrote — 1. " Hasagoth," (Animadversions 
on the book called *'Sepher Haemunoth" 
("The Book of Truths") of R. Shem Tob 
Aben Shem Tob, in which Alashkar repels 
and successfully confutes the attacks made 
625 



by Shem' Tob on Maimonides, Aben Ezra, 
and Levi Gerson, and supports their views of 
the Hebrew doctrines and articles of faith. 
It was printed at Ferrara the year after the 
" S. Haemunoth," of R. Shem Tob, by Abra- 
ham Usque, A.i(. 5317 (a.d. 1557), in 4to. 
It was written a.m. 5255 (a.d. 1495), as ap- 
pears fhnn the preface, in which the editor, 
R. Baruch Usiel, of the family of the Zacuti, 
savs that he met with these Animadversions 
lying like a string of precious pearls in the 
author's volume of Questions and Answers, 
by which he no doubt means the following 
work : — 2. " Sheeloth Uteshuvoth " (** Ques- 
tions and Answers"), printed at Sabionetta, 
by Cornelius Adelkind, or Adelkenad, 
A.M. 5314 (a.d. 1554), in 4to. De Rossi 
also cites an edition as printed at Constanti- 
nople, without giving either date or form; 
but he has followed Bartolooci, who follows 
the Shalshelleth Hakkabbala. 3. Buxtorff and 
the Siphte Jeshenim cite a work by this au- 
thor called " Geon Jaacob " (" The Splendour 
of Jacob"), and the younger Buxtoif^ in the 
appendix to the "Bibliotheca Rabbinica" 
of his fother, mentions another manuscript 
work of this author, called "Sepher Ha- 
geuhi" ("The Book of Redemption") ; but 
no account of these works is given beyond 
the mere titles. 4. Some Hebrew poems and 
prayers by Moses Alashkar are printed in 
the " Jephe Noph" (" Beautiful in Situation") 
(Psahn xlviii. 3.), which is a collection made 
by an anonymous author, comprismg the 
epistles of R. Judah Zarko to R. Joseph 
Aben Jachija, R. Joseph Hamon, and R. 
Clugim Alphual, with other epistles ; also 
various forms of legal instruments and con- 
tracts relating to marriage, divorce, and the 
like ; also cabbalistical prayers for travellers 
by sea and land, by Ramban (Nachmanides) ; 
also som^ rhythmical prayers by R. Isaac 
Ashkenazi or the German ; to which is added 
the ceremony of administering forty stripes 
save one, according to the formulary pre* 
served among the occidental Jews, that is, 
those who dwelt in Palestine, as contradis- 
tinguished from the oriental or Babylonian 
Jews. This flagellation they call " Malkuth," 
and the^ were accustomed to receive it 
voluntanly as a penance on the eve of the 
great day of expiation. The " Jephe Noph*' 
was printed at Venice by J. de Gara, in 4to., 
without date. 5. R. Samuel Oseida, in the 
preface to his commentary on the "Pirke 
Aboth," cites a commentary on the same 
work by Moses Alashkar, as a work of 
which he has made use in his own. 6. De 
Rossi says that he is also the author of a 
commentary on the "Orach Chi^im," and 
also on " Rashi" on the Pentateuch, both in 
manuscript, but he does not say where they 
are to be found. (Wolfius, Biblioth, Hebr, 
L 803, 804. iii. 729. ; Bartoloccius, Biblioth, 
Mag. Rahb. iii. 869. iv. 60. 65, 66.; R. 
Gedalia, ShalskeUeth Hakkabbala, p. 63. ; De 



ALASHKAR. 



ALATRINa 



Rossi, Dizumario Storico degU Auiori Ebr, 
I 42.) , C. P. H. 

ALATI'NO. MOSES, (13^tDWK nfiW), a 
Jewish physician of Spoleto in Italy, was 
contemporaiy with R. Enianuel Aboab, and 
consequently liyed at the end of the six- 
teenth century. Ahoah, in his Nomologia, 
p. 220., speaks of him as a most skilAil phy- 
sician, and also remarks that he saw in his 
library a Hebrew manuscript of the Bible, 
six hundred years old. He is the author of a 
Latin translation of Galen on the treatise of 
Hippocrates entitled ** On Air, Situation, and 
Waters," which is in the sixth volume of the 
works of Galen printed at Paris, a-d. 1679, 
in 13 Tols. folio. He also translated from 
Hebrew into Lalm tiie treatise of Themia- 
tius on Aristotle's work ^ On the Heavens 
and the World,** which Hebrew translation 
had been made from the Arabic : at least 
this is the account given by Huet, in his 
work " De Claris mterpretibus,** p. 224. 
(Wolfius, BiUioth, Hebr, i. 803. ; De Rossi, 
Dizionario Storico degli Autori Ebr, i. 42, 43.) 

C P H 

ALATI'NO, VITA'LE, (iriD«^« '^ID^lOi 
a Jewish physician of Spoleto in Italy, uncle 
of the celebrated physician and rabbi David 
de Pomis, who, in his " Apologeticus trac- 
tatos de Medico Hebneo" (** Apologetical 
Treatise on the Jewish Physician**), p. 71., 
says that Alatino was universally esteemed 
one of the greatest physicians of his time, 
and that throughout the whole of Umbria he 
was considered a second Hippocrates ; that 
he has also left many valuable works on the 
science of medicine, but of these works he 
gives no account He tells us also that his 
uncle Vitale was chief physician to Pope 
Julius III. From these facts we learn that 
be lived in the early part of the sixteenth 
century. (Wolfius, Biblioth, Hebr, iii. 236. ; 
De Rossi, Dizionario Storico degli Autori 
Ebr, I 43.) C. P. H. 

ALATRI'NO, R. JOCHANAN JUDAH, 
(WnO^K miiT pm^ "1), an Italian rabbi 
who was living in the be^ning of the six- 
teenth century, and who is called by Barto- 
locci (vol. iv. p. 46.), Mordecai Alatrino, 
but who is better known among Italian 
writers as Angelo Alatrino. He is the 
author of an Italian translation of some 
Hebrew verses by R. Nathan Jedidja ben 
Elieser, which are published with the " Barki 
Naphshi** (" Bless, O my Soul'*) of R. 
Bechs^ji ben Joseph. They consist of one 
hundred and sixty-four Hebrew triplets, with 
the Italian version on the opposite page or 
column. In the preface, K. Nathan, the 
author of the Hebrew verses, says that the 
Italian is by his maternal grandfather, R. 
Jochanan Judah Alatrino. This little book 
was printed with the title " L'Angelica 
Tromba di M. Angelo Hebrseo Alatrino, con 
Aleuni Sonnetti Spiritual! del Medesimo** 
(" The Trumpet of the Angel of M. An- 
626 



gelo Alatrino the Jew, with some Spiritual 
Sonnets of the same**), at Venice, a.d. 1628, 
in 8vo. Bartolocci, who inserts this account 
from the work itself, in his article ** Bechigi 
Haddayan," which is also confirmed by 
Wolfi^ who had evidently also consulted the 
book, does not tell us why he elsewhere calls 
this rabbi Mordecai ; it is probable, however, 
that at some period of his life he may have 
assumed that name. The assumption of new 
appellations was not unusual among the Jews. 
(Bartoloccius, BihUoth, Mag, Babb, L 653. 
iv. 46. ; Wolfius, Biblioth. Mebr. I 238—788. 
iiL 144.) C. P. H. 

ALAU-D-DTN KUJU'K. [Kuju'k.] 
'ALA'UD-DI'N MAS*U'D GHORI, the 
seventh king of the first Tartar dynasty in 
Delhi, succeeded his brother Bahram in a. d. 
1241. His brief rei^ presents to us one re- 
markable event which is not unworthy of 
our notice at present, situated as we are 
with regard to China. In a.d. 1244 a host 
of Mogul Tartars invaded Bengal by way 
of Khata and Tibet They were vigorously 
opposed and ultimately expelled by the 
Indian troops, who were probably aided by 
the climate. Of the numerous incursions 
made by the hordes of the north into India, 
this is the only one recorded in history as 
having taken place from that quarter. Un- 
fortunately the historians have left us no 
information respecting the precise region 
from which the invaders came, nor of the 
route which they followed. In the following 
year *Ala-ud-din at the head of his troops 
repelled another army of Moguls, who 
under Mangu Khan were on their march 
through Kandahar towards the banks of the 
Indus. The enemy, on seeing the prepara- 
tions made to receive them, hastily retreated, 
and *Al&-ud-din returned in triumph to 
his capital. After this he seems to have 
abandoned himself to the worst kinds of 
dissipation. When under the infinencc of 
wine he exercised so many acts of cruelty 
and oppression, that the most innocent of 
those who were near him felt not a moment's 
security of their existence. At length his 
nobles, no longer able to endure his caprice, 
transferred the crown to his uncle Nasir- 
ud-din who succeeded in June, 1246. 'Ala- 
ud-din was allowed to pass the remainder of 
his life in prison. (Ferishta's History; and 
Elphinstone's India.) D. F. 

ALA VA Y BEAUMONT, DIE'GO, was 
the son of Francisco de Alava, master of 
artillery to the King of Spain, and was bom 
about the year 1560. He was educated at 
Alcala, in the house of Ambrosio de Morales, 
the celebrated Spanish antiquary, and studied 
the Greek and Latin languages and the law ; 
but the bent of his mind leading him towards 
military studies, he left Morales to devote 
himself to mathematics under Jeronymo de 
Munoz, then professor at Salamanca. When 
about the age of thirty he published at 



ALAVA. 



ALAVA. 



Bladrid, in folio, a work on the art of war, 
and in particular of artillery ; ** £1 perfecto 
Capitan instniido en la Disciplina milltar y 
nueya Ciencia de la Artilleria," which was 
highly commended by Sanchez de Brocas, 
better known by the name of SanctioB Bro- 
censis, one of liie mo6t distingnished scholars 
Spun has ever produced. Nicolas Antonio 
records nothing of his subsequent career. 
(N. Antonins, BibliotKeca Hispana Nova, 
edition of 1783, L 265.) T. W. 

ALAVA Y NAVARE'TE, DON IG- 
NA'CIO MARFA D£, a Spanish marine 
oflScer, a native of Vitoria. He commenced 
his career as midshipman (guardia marina) 
on the 23d of June, 1766, and distinguished 
himself in this subaltern rank by his appli- 
cation, acquirements, and courage. On the 
breaking out of the war with the English in 
1779, he joined the fleet of Admiral Cordora, 
who in 1781 gave him the conmiand of the 
frigate Barbara. He cruised in the Straits 
of Gibraltar during a severe winter, and 
assisted the floating batteries which were 
constructed to attack the garrison of Gib- 
raltar in 1782. He was also present at the 
partial engagement with Lord Howe, after 
the relief of Gibraltar on the 20th of October 
in the same ^ear. He was successively ap- 
pointed captam of the fHgate Sabina, and of 
the San lldefonso ship of the line, and while 
in the latter became actively instrumental in | 
bringing about the first treaty of peace be- 
tween Spun and Algiers, ia. 1787 he was 
rear admiral (mayor general) of the squadron ' 
under Don Juan de Langara, and in 1790 I 
of that under the Marquess Del Socorro. In 
1791 he assisted, with his ship the San ! 
Francisoo, in the defence of Oran in Barbary, 
then belonging to Spain, which was attacked , 
by the Moors while suffering from a re- 
cent earthquake ; and in 1793 he was with 
Langara in all the enterprises in the Mediter- 
ranean against the French republic. Being 
appointed admiral, he sailed to South Ame- 
rica, doubled Cape Horn, and crossed the 
Pacific to the Philippine Islands. During his 
voyage he touched at the Mariana Isles, 
and rectified many errors in the charts of the 
South and Asiatic seas, and passed through 
several straits little known, or rarely fre- 
quented by ships of equal magnitude. Re- 
turning to Europe, by the Cape of Good 
Hope, in 1803, he was made second in com- 
mand of the fleet under Admiral Gravina ; 
and was engaged in the ever-memorable 
battle of Trafalgar, which was so disastrous 
to his country. He was wounded severely 
in the head, and was taken with his flag- 
ship, the Santa Anna of 112 gona ; but 
during the heavy gale that followed the 
vessel got dismasted into Cadiz. Admiral 
CoUingwood in his despatches states his be- 
lief that she had sunk, as her side was almost 
entirely beaten in. During the Peninsular 
war he was appointed commander-in-chief 
627 



of the Havanna station ; and on his return 
frcm thence he received the same command 
at Cadiz for life. After such long and worthy 
service he was in 1817 elevated to the 
rank of high admiral (capitan general de la 
Armada) and president (decano) of the Board 
of Admiralty ; which distinguished rank he 
enjoyed a very short time ; he died at Chi- 
clana, near Cadiz, on the 26th of May of 
the same year. (Biographical article in 
Minano's **■ Diccionario Geogrqfico ;" Clark 
and M* Arthur's Life ofNelwn,) W. C. W. 
ALAYMO, MARCO ANTONIO, also 
called Alcaimo, was bom at Ragalbuto in 
Sicily in 1590. After going through the 
ordinary courses of philosophy and classical 
literature he made choice of the profession of 
medicine, and received his doctor's degree at 
Messina in 1610. In 1616 he established 
himself at Palermo, in which city he gained 
great reputation, especially during the plague 
which ravaged Sicily in 1624, and affoi^ed 
an opportunity fbr the display of his energy 
and skill. He was at this time directed by 
the viceroy to go into several of the larger 
towns, and under his superintendence means 
were adopted to check the progress of the 
pestilence. His fimie was not confined to his 
own country, for the professorship of me- 
dicine in the university of Bologna and the 
place of chief physician of Naples were suc- 
cessively offered to him. Attachment to his 
own country induced him to reject both 
these propositions, and he continued to prac- 
tise at Pfdermo, where he died in 1662. 

Alaymo is ranked as the first physician of 
his age in Sicily ; he was consulted by per- 
sons from all parts of the island, and 
esteemed an oracle In subjects connected with 
his profession. He was one of the founders 
of the academy of medicine in Palermo ; at 
his death a fUneral oration was pronounced 
in his honour by a member of this academy, 
and was published with other pieces in praise 
of Alaymo at Palermo, 1662, 4to. He was 
distinguished for his munificence to religious 
institutions, and he mainly contributed to 
found a church at Palermo to Sta. Maria degli 
Agonizanti, to the completion of which he 
contributed large sums. His writings, though 
not voluminous, evince much classical learn- 
ing, and an extensive acquaintance with the 
philosophy of the time in which he lived. 
His Diadecticon contains an account of various 
medicinal substances: the most remarkable 
portion of it is that in which he inveighs 
against the folly of those who would exclude 
from the catalogue of remedies preparations 
derived from the human body. He argues 
that as bodies possessing the most perfect 
forms are found to yield the most exquisite 
properties, so man, being created in the 
image of his Maker, must of necessity in his 
body supply the best medicaments, far supe- 
rior to those derivable from other animals. 
I He adds, " When, upon his fall, man was re- 



ALAYMO. 



AL-AZDt 



jected from Paradise, and compelled to seek 
remedies in various regions, it yraa the gift 
of Supreme Groodness that in his own body 
should be contained the antidote for almost 
every disease; so that not only the whole 
body, bat even its most sordid excrements, 
become of the highest value.*' (Diadect p. 6.) 
He then proceeds to give an account of the 
different parts of the human body to be used 
remedially, and the diseases to which they 
are severally applicable. The ulcus syriacum, 
which forms the subject of a separate treatise, 
is described by him as a gangrenous affection 
of the throat, commencing in the tonsils and 
uvula, quickly spreading to the adjacent 
parts, and leading often to a fatal termination. 
He states that from a very early period the 
barbarian inhabitants of Egypt and Syria had 
been afflicted with it, and that the Deity had 
lately introduced it into Sicily, probably in- 
tendmg it as a punishment for the numerous 
and heinous crimes then practised among 
his countrymen. Though many died from 
Its effects, he describes it as differing from 
the plague in many respects, and relates the 
symptoms by which the two diseases may be 
distinguished. His works are — **Discorso 
intomo alia Preservatione del Morbo Con- 
tagioso," Palermo, 1625, 4to. Consultatio 
pro Ulceris Syriaci nunc vagantis Guratione. 
Panormi," 1632, 4to. " Diadecticon, seu de 
succedaneis Medicamentis Opusculum. Pa- 
normi," 1637, 4to. " Consigli Medico-Po- 
liticL Palermo," 1652, 4to. He left in ma- 
nuscript the following : — " Commentaria in 
Historiam ab Hippocrate in Epidemicis Con- 
stitutionibus observatam;" ** Opus pro cog- 
noscendis curandisque Febribus malignis;" 
''Consultationes Medics proarduissimis Mor- 
bis, ac difficile curabilibus." The two last he 
mentions in his Diadecticon as already in pro- 
gress. (Mongitore, Bibliotheca Sicula ; Maz- 
zuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia.) G. M. H. 

AL-AZDI' is the patronymic of a cele- 
brated Mohammedan doctor, named Ab(i 
Mohammed 'Abdu-1-hakk Ibn 'Abdi-r-rah- 
man Al-ishbilii, who was a native of Seville 
in Spain, where he lived and died in a. h. 
682 (A. D. 1 186-7). He wrote a work entitled 
"Ahkam" ("Statutes" or "Decisions"), 
which, according to Al-makkarl, was held in 
great esteem by the Spanish Moslems, and 
treated of legal decisions founded on the 
Koran and the traditions relating thereto. 
Haji Khalfah, who mentions the work, says 
that the author made three editions of it ; one 
in three large volumes, which was called 
" Al-kobra" (" The Large "); another called 
"Al-wsetta" ("The Middling"), in one 
thick volume; and a third known by the 
title of " As-soghra" (« The Small "), which 
last contained one thousand and twenty-nine 
well-authenticated traditions. (Higi Khalfah, 
Lex. Ency. voc " Ahkam ; " Al-makkari, 
Moham, Dyn, i. 192.) 

Al-azdi, which signifies one from the tribe 
628 



of Asd, firom the stock of Kahttan, is also 
the patronymic of Abu-l-'abbas Ahmed Ibn 
Mohammed (Al-asdi), a native of Spain, who, 
in A.H. 619 (a.d. 1222), composed, at Ma- 
rocoo, a set of astronomical tables, which are 
preserved in the Escurial library (No. 904.), 
and was also the author of a treatise on the 
names and attributes of Ood, in the same 
library (No. 1496.). P. de G. 

ALBA. [Ettobe d'Ajaa ; Macrino 
p*Ajlba.] 

ALBA, or ALVA, FERDINAND ALVA- 
REZ OF TOLEDO, DUKE OF, was bom 
in 1508, of a Castilian family of great an- 
tiquity. In his early youth he entered the 
army under the command of the Ejnperor 
Charles V. in the Milanese, and followed that 
monarch through his whole military career 
both in Europe and in Africa. In the field 
he was more distinguished by sagacity, 
prudence, and circumspection than by an in- 
trepid and brilliant vidour; and though his 
character bore a strong resemblance to that of 
his master, he was slow in acquiring the favour 
and confidence of the emperor. He fought 
under the eves of Churles at the battle of 
Pavia ; and he followed him in his disastrous 
expedition to Algiers, when his fleet was nearly 
destroyed by a tempest on the Barbary shore. 
His first considerable exploit was the defence 
of Perpignan against the French army under 
the dauphin in 1542. His qualities of un- 
conquerable resolution and vigilance were 
signally displayed in his desperate resistance 
when pressed by a superior force and re- 
duced to the utmost extremities ; a resist- 
ance which he maintained until the town was 
succoured by the Genoese through the port 
of Collioure, and which saved the province 
of Roussillon from falling into the hands of 
Francis. From this time he acquired the 
first place among the emperor's generals, and 
held the chief command under him in the 
decisive campaign against the Lutheran 
princes of the empire in 1547. He led the 
main body of the imperial army at the battle 
of Miihlberg, when the Elector of Saxony 
was taken prisoner, and presided over the 
council of war which condemned that prince 
to death. After Henry II. of France, with 
Maurice of Saxony, had assailed Germany 
on the side of the Moselle, and the emperor, 
among other disasters which then befell him, 
lost Metz, he made a vigorous effort, in 
1552, to recover that city, the western 
bulwark of his dominions ; and he com- 
mitted the conduct of that enterprise to Alba. 
Alba invested Metz with a numerous and 
well-appointed force, and pressed the siege 
with great vigour. But the Duke of Guise, 
who commanded the town, at the head of the 
French nobles, baffled every effort of Alba 
to make an assault ; the impetuous sallies of 
the French garrison broke the besieging 
army ; their numbers were reduced by pesti* 
lence and famine; and in the end of 1552 



ALBA. 



ALBA. 



Alba was compelled to raise the siege, to the 
great mortification of the emperor, and with 
some blemish to his own reputation. 

The credit and authority of Alba received 
some diminution, when the Milanese was 
resigned to Philip in 1554 by his father 
the emperor, who had already giyen to 
Alba the chief place in his councils. Alba 
found himself opposed in the &vour of 
Philip by Ruy Gomez de SUts, prince of 
Eboli, who, dreading his abilities, prevailed 
on Philip to despatch him to supersede Fer- 
dinand of Gonzaga in the government of the 
Milanese, which at that time was menaced by 
a French force under Marshal Brissac Alba 
was unwilling to quit the court of Madrid, 
but still more reluctant to shrink from mili- 
tary service. He came to Milan in June, 
1555, and found that Brissac had passed the 
frontier of Piedmont, and had alr^y made 
himself master of Casale, the citadel cf Mon- 
ferrato. Alba, who had boasted that he 
would overnm all Piedmont in a week, began 
his career by taking some towns of litde note 
on the Po, and his course, according to his 
usual practice, was marked by a track of 
blood ; but he was speedily stopped by Bris- 
sac, who gave him battle at Valenza, repulsed 
his renowned SpaniA infantry, compelled 
him to raise the siege of Santia, and after- 
wards took Moncalva This campaign, in 
which the Spanish commander was worsted 
by Brissac with inferior forces, proved alike 
prejudicial to the interests of Philip and to 
the reputation of Alba. 

In the ensuing year (1556) Alba was en- 
gaged with an adversary of a different cha- 
racter in the person of an ambitious pontifi^ 
the enemy of Philip IL, now king of Spain. 
Paul IV. (Caraffa) was actuated by an im- 
placable animosity against the court of Ma- 
drid, and he was bent on the conquest of 
Naples. He was scarce seated on the 
papal throne before he entered into an alli- 
ance with the French king for the inva- 
sion of the Spanish dominions. Henry, al- 
lured by the promises of Paul, and encou- 
raged by the aid of so powerful an ally in 
the heart of Italy, eagerly seized the oppor- 
tunity of renewing the often repeated attempts 
of France on Italian dominion ; but so fluc- 
tuating were the resolutions of this prince, 
though vigorous in action, that after con- 
cluding an offensive league with the pope, 
he was drawn by Philip IL into a treaty of 
truce at Vauccellas in February 1556. From 
this pacification he was quickly diverted by 
the address of Cardinal Carana, who pre- 
vailed on him to renew fais alliance with the 
pope, and resume his warlike preparations, 
and he engaged to second the papal enter- 
prise against Naples hj a French army under 
the command of the Duke of Guise. >yhen 
Caraffa thus rekindled the war in Italy, and 
threw Europe again into combustion, Alba 
was in Naples. Anticipating the movements 
629 



of the pope, he entered the patrimony of SL 
Peter, and in a short time made himself 
master of the whole Campagna of Rome. 
That city lay at his mercy ; but his deference 
for the pope was so great that he not only 
abstained from any attempt on fais capital, 
but granted Paul a truce, when reduced to 
the utmost extremity. Pursuant to the en- 
gagements of the French king. Guise ap- 
peared on the Alps in the following year, 
1557 ; and he had no sooner descended on 
the plains of Lombardy than Paul and the 
CanZSas resumed their hostilities against 
Alba. They pressed the immediate march 
of Guise to Rome, signalised fais arrival by 
the honours of a triumphal entry ; and they 
hastened his advance against Alba at the 
head of the confederate army. Alba, politic 
as well as warlike, and aware of the military 
talents of the French commander, adopted a 
cautions and dilatory mode of warfare. He 
eluded every attempt of Guise and his Gas- 
cons to bring him to a pitched battle, wore 
down the spirits of these impetuous troops 
by dragging them on a harassing pursuit on 
the frontiers of the Abruzzi, and routed them 
at Civitella on that frontier. He had already 
foiled Guise by his prudent conduct in this 
campaign, when that commander was sud- 
denly recalled to France by the defeat of 
Henry's army at St Quentin, where Philibert 
Emanuel of Savoy, another of Philip's gene- 
rals, obtained a signal triumph. This fatal 
encounter blasted tdl Paul's hopes of Neapo- 
litan conquest, and he saw Alba again on his 
march towards the gates of Rome. But Alba*s 
religious scruples again withheld him fh>m 
proceeding to extremities against Paul *, and 
m the midst of his career of success, he 
fiivourably received the pope's first advances 
towards a peace, which he finally concluded 
in September 1557. 

By the treaty thus concluded between Paul 
and Alba, the reconciliation of the rival 
houses of Valois and Austria was accelerated ; 
the issue of the battle of St Quentin con- 
firmed these pacific dispositions ; and both 
Henry, who had suffered so deeply from that 
fatal encounter, and Philip, who had gained 
a ^at advantage, were willing to bury their 
animosities that they might quell the commo- 
tions which were arising in both kingdoms, 
flrom the progress of religious dissensions. 
The negotiations between die two great Ca- 
tholic kingdoms were opened at Cambray in 
Picardy in 1558. Alba, assisted by Cardinal 
Granvelle, was Philip's plenipotentiary ) the 
Constable Montmorency and the Cardinal of 
Lorraine appeared on the part of Henry. 
After protracted conferences, Alba succeeded 
in extorting fh>m the French king the 
cession of idl the places, amounting to one 
hundred and eighty-one, which he had taken 
during the disasters of the Emperor Charles's 
latter years ; and by the same definitive 
treaty which made these concessions, he ce- 



ALBA. 



ALBA. 



mented an alliance between France and 
Spain, which continued unbroken until the 
age of Cardinal Richelieu. Upon the com- 
mencement of the administration of the car- 
dinal of Lorraine, who then ruled France with 
absolute power. Alba proceeded to Paris with 
the Prince of Orange as one of the hostages 
for the delivery of the towns ceded by Philip. 
It appears from the letters of the Cardinal of 
Lorraine, (which are contained in the state 
papers of Aubespine, bishop of Limoges, 
his minister in the Low Countries, and were 
first published from the original documents 
in 1841,) that Alba sought to obtain his liberty 
by a personal application to the young and 
imbecile king, Francis IL, without the know- 
ledge of his ministers, the princes of Lor- 
raine ; but was prevented by the vigilant 
cardinal, to whom the proposition had been 
communicated by Francis. He repaired to 
Madrid when the articles of the treaty were 
executed, and after a short interval returned 
to Paris at the head of a splendid embassy, 
to espouse Elizabeth, sister of the French 
king, in the name of Philip his master. 

Spain was now at peace with all the world; 
and Alba, during this interval of tranquillity, 
was actively engaged at Madrid as the 
counsellor and minister of Philip, who was 
intent on carrying into execution Uie objects 
of the treaty of Cateau Cambresis. That 
treaty was rather a confederacy of the Roman 
Catholic powers for the extermination of 
heresy thtm a mere pacification ; and as the 
Calvinists had multiplied rapidly both in the 
Low Countries and in France, during the 
long wars between France and Spain, Philip, 
whose bigotry was fully shared by his mi- 
nister, resolved to cement an alliance with 
the French kin^, and to concert the means 
of jointly turning their swords against the 
heretics of both realms. Alba was the main 
instrument of the negotiations for this end, 
of which the court of Madrid was at that 
time the centre; and he was rapidly ad- 
vancing towards the execution of his schemes, 
in coi^unction with the Cardinal of Lorraine 
the French minister, when an event occurred 
which interrupted the harmony of the two 
courts, threw obstacles in the way of Philip's 
slow and irresolute counsels, and involved 
Alba in a new negotiation, both intricate and 
hazardous, with the court of Paris. By the 
early death of Francis IL the administration 
of the Cardinal of Lorraine was brought to a 
close; and Catherine de Medicis, who be- 
came regent of France, departing from the 
maxims of that prince, be^an her reign by 
granting a considerable latitude of toleration 
to the Hugonots, in order to check the ex- 
orbitant power of the Guises. In order to 
justify this neutral scheme, which gave great 
umbrage to Philip, Catherine despatched 
Montberon.to Madrid. The Spanish king 
committed to Alba the difficult task of treat- 
ing with the French ambassador at that 
630 



critical juncture. Alba, after listening to 
Montberon, told him that the dominions of 
the King of Spain were infected with heresy, 
and endangered by the countenance and pro- 
tection which the queen-mother extended to 
the Hugonots ; and he made a fruitless at- 
tempt to prevail on Catherine to suppress 
the Hugonots by persecution. In 1565 Ca- 
therine, entertaining apprehensions of Conde 
and the Hugonots, returned .to the per- 
secuting policy of the Cardinal of Lorraine, 
and resumed those close connections with the 
court of Madrid which had subsisted between 
France and Spain during the government of 
that prelate. Alba had an interview with Ca- 
therine at Bayonne, and he there concerted 
with her that celebrated league by which the 
common designs of the two courts for the ex- 
tirpation of heresy were finally matured for 
execution. The ensuing year, 1566, brought 
to Madrid the intelligence of the insurrection 
of the Flemish Calvinists^ which appalled 
the Spanish ecclesiastics and agitaled Philip. 
When the matter was debated in the council. 
Alba took a conspicuous part in the pro- 
ceedings of that memorable consultation so 
fatal in its issue to the Spanish monarchy. 
Stung by the insults o£fei^ to the Roman 
Catholic faith in the Low Countries and by 
the fidl of the Inquisition, he urged the ne- 
cessity of an armament, not only to support 
the secular arm, but to protect the hierarchy 
against the enraged fimatics ; and he pointed 
out to Philip that the late tumults in the 
Low Countries presented an opportunity of 
crushing those disloyal provinces, and of 
annihilating the remams of the ancient Bur- 
gundian constitution, which was the real 
source of these obstinate rebellions. Though 
every word which Alba spoke fiitally con- 
curred with Philip's previous resolutions, so 
slow was the king in carrying his purposes into 
execution, that he contented himself with 
sending directions to his sister the Duchess 
of Parma, who governed the Low Countries, 
to levy troops; and although the insurrection 
after being put down broke out afresh in the 
Low Countries, he required the incitement 
of the Spanish cardinals before he could com- 
mand the expedition under Alba, destined 
against the Low Countries, to quit the shores 
of Spain. It was towards the middle of the 
year 1567 before Alba embarked for Genoa, 
from which he marched over Mount Cenis 
with a powerful force and a train of heavy 
artillery. 

The body of Spanish and Italian troops 
with which Alba was marching on the Low 
Countries was the most complete armament, 
in point of discipline and equipment, which 
had appeared in modem warfiare. It was 
composed of chosen veterans from the troops 
which had served under the Emperor Charles. 
The men were armed with muskets of un- 
common length; the artillery was directed 
by Italian engin^rs. When the long array 



ALBA. 



ALBA. 



wound through the valleys of Lorraine, and 
arrived on the southern borders of Lux- 
embourg, the intelligence of Alba*s approach 
spread terror and consternation through the 
Low Countries. Before the sound of his 
name many Protestants fled away ; and the 
art and industry of the Flemings, quitting 
their native cities, already sought an asylum 
in foreign lands. Before he appeared, the 
Prince of Orange, who was well acquainted 
with his character, prudently left the Low 
Countries and retired to his hereditary do- 
minions in Germany. 

Alba was received at Thionville with 
military honours. On the 2d of August 
Alba entered Brussels. Having kissed the 
hands of the Duchess of Parma, who herself 
regarded him with dismay, he took up his 
abode at the CuUemburg Palace, and next 
day produced Philip's letters appointing him 
military prefect in Flanders, with the entire 
disposition of the forces, but reserving the 
civil administration to the Duchess of Parma. 
After receiving a train of the Flemish nobles, 
who waited on him with a procession of 
great equestrian pomp, he had a second in- 
terview with the duchess, in which he ex- 
hibited more ample powers intrusted to him 
by Philip, which extended to the construc- 
tion of citadels, the appointment of magis- 
trates, and to the inquiry into and punishing 
the recent disorders. When Margaret mildly 
inquired what more powers he could have, he 
replied that he had yet further powers, which 
upon occasion he would produce. While 
Alba thus unfolded by degrees the unlimited 
authority with which he was invested, the 
duchess perceived that her government was, 
in effect, superseded ; and dreading, from the 
tenor of his instructions no less than firom 
the character of the man, that nothing less 
than a military tyrannj was contemplated, 
she seized this brief mterval of peace to 
address a mild but impressive remonstrance 
to her brother Philip. She represented that 
despair of pardon and the apprehension of 
future convulsions had already driven above 
one hundred thousand Flemings from 
Flanders, by which his dominions were im- 
poverished ; that the unusual military powers 
of Alba, and still more the sight of the 
Spanish soldiers, were more fitted to renew 
the insurrection than to establish his dominion 
over these provinces ; and she concluded by 
intreating him to discharge her from the 
administration of the Low Coimtries, which 
she had held for nine years. 

It was not long before Alba struck a blow. 
He had evinced an extreme anxiety to draw 
to the council the confederate lords in the 
late rebellion; and having treated Egmont 
with great distinction, he had succeeded in 
alluring Horn to the court, who, more dis- 
fmstfnl, had kept aloof from Brussels since 
the arrival of the Spanish commander. On 
tlie 9th of September, 1567, Alba held a 
631 



council at the Cullemburg palace, which was 
attended by Aremberg, Aarschot, Egmont, 
Horn, and many other Flemish nobles. 
When the council rose. Alba called Egmont 
to him as if he desired to confer with him 
privately ; several guards advanced ; and 
Alba, telling him that he was arrested in the 
king's name, demanded his sword. At the 
same moment Horn was disarmed in another 
part of the palace ; and both these nobles were 
sent captive to Ghent amid the murmurs oi 
the Braban9ons. The Duchess of Parma, 
on receiving the intelligence ef this /ioleni 
measure, despatched her secretary to Philip 
to press her recall from a viceroyalty where 
she no longer possessed any authority ; and 
having' obtained his permission, she returned 
to Italy in 1568. 

As long as the duchess remained ic 
Flanders, Alba had restrained in some mea- 
sure his sanguinary disposition : the de- 
parture of that princess was the signal for 
letting loose the full rage of persecution ; and 
from that moment his administration became 
one scene of violence and bloodshed. The 
main engine of his tyranny was a new judi- 
cature erected in Brussels, called the " Court 
of Tumults," with a Jurisdiction combining 
the arbitrary powers of the Inquisition with 
the rigour of a military tribunal By this 
court the per6ecutin([| edicts agiunst the 
Calvinists were carried into effect with merci- 
less severity. Wherever the Protestants were 
found they were dragged before Alba's judges; 
multitudes were thrown into prison and 
stretched on the rack ; and either consigned 
to perpetual captivity, or doomed to expiate 
on the scaffold what had been extorted from 
them by torture. Through all the Low 
Countries, from Picardy to Holland, the same 
cruelties were exercised ; the magistrates, 
in whose hands the persecuting edicts had 
languished during the late administration, 
were superseded by the creatures of Alba ; 
and Flanders was filled with scenes of horror 
which spread the terror of Alba's name 
through Europe. 

These cruelties, which had been concerted 

by Philip and Catherine de Medicis at the 

I instigation of Pius IV., were regarded by the 

' whole body of the European Protestants as 

the commencement of a war of extermination 

I against them ; and Conde and the Prince of 

I Onnge, the leaders of that party in the two 

I great Roman Catholic kingdoms, had formed 

a counter league of self-defence, and already 

I concerted the measures of resistance. The 

Prince of Orange, having been cited before 

Alba's tribunal and his possessions con- 

: fiscated, had levied a formidable army, and 

was on his march towards the Rhine, while 

his brother, Count Louis of Nassau, raised 

the standard of revolt in Groningen. In 

the spring of 1568 the first conflict took 

I place between the Spaniards and Dutch, 

the prelude to more than half a century of 



ALBA. 



ALBA. 



war maintained by the northern provinces 
against Spain. Alba, menaced on all sides, 
sent Aremberg into the province of Gro- 
ningen, who attacked Count Louis, but was 
repulsed with considerable loss. Alba, en- 
raged hj this defeat, which revived the 
drooping spirits of the Protestants, and gave 
life to Sieir allies among the insurgents of 
France, redoubled his severities ; and while 
he prepared to march against the princes of 
Nassau, he deemed it necessary to strike new 
terror by acts of civil barbarity exceeding 
the ravages of war. After racking and 
tearing to pieces Casembrot, a nobleman, the 
secretary of Count Egmont, he brought that 
nobleman and Horn to trial. They were 
accused of fomenting the late insurrection 
against the Duchess of Parma, and of con- 
spiring with the Prince of Orange to wrest the 
sceptre of the provinces from Philip. They 
were convicted by Alba's court, and executed 
in the market-place of Brussels on the 5th 
of June, 1568. The fiite of these noblemen 
did not crush the resistance of the two Pro- 
testant princes. While the sca£fold was still 
streaming with their blood. Alba was com- 
pelled to march against Count Louis, who 
had augmented his force and posted himself 
on the river Ems. Alba, avaibng himself of 
a mutiny among the German auxiliaries of 
the count, attacked him in hb strong en- 
trenchments; and though the Dutch made 
a brave stand, they were unable to resist the 
veteran Spaniards. A cruel slaughter en- 
sued ; and the fruit of this engagement was 
the re-establishment of the Spanish dominion 
in the Dutch provinces. MeanwhUe the 
Prince of Orange passed the Rhine, and ap- 
proaching the Maas near Liege, menaced 
Brabant ; but being inferior in celerity to his 
brother Louis, he had not effected the passage 
of that river when Alba, hastening from 
Holland, encamped over against him at 
Maastricht Though the river was lined 
with Spanish troops the prince forded the 
stream bejrond their ou^xwts. A campaign 
ensued which was signalised by great skill 
on both sides, and in which Alba observed 
the same prudent conduct which he had pur- 
sued in his Neapolitan campaign against the 
Duke of Guise. He eluded the attempts of 
the prince to provoke him to an action ; he 
hung on the flank of his columns ; and as the 
finances of his adversary were narrow, and 
his German levies discontented, he prolonged 
the war until his troops broke into mntmy 
or melted away under the languor of these 
protracted operations. The unwieldy army 
of the Prince of Orange, superior in numbers 
to the Spaniards, fell to pieces ; and before 
the close of 1568 he was compelled to draw 
off its shattered remains towards the Rhine, 
without striking a blow. The dispersion of 
the prince's army, though not followed by 
military execution, gave scope to the civil 
vengeance of Alba, which, by scaffolds and 
632 



gibbets, he exercised on the adherents and 
abettors of the two brothers of Nassau. 
Deeming his government now firmly esta- 
blished, he proceeded to other arbitrary acts, 
which, being directed against the remains of 
the ancient Burgundian constitution still 
subsisting in the Low Countries, and striking 
at the national privileges without regard to 
religious opinion, excited a more general dis-. 
content than his persecutions. He had been 
disappointed of a large sum of money sent 
him by the Genoese merchants, which had 
been seised at sea by Queen Elizabeth, who by 
this well-timed but unscrupulous act in some 
deg^ree forced him on those violent measures 
w£ch he pursued. Dreading a mutiny of 
his soldiers, whom he had no means of pay- 
ing. Alba imposed ruinous taxes on the 
people, especially the Spanish impost of the 
tenth c^ moveable goods on every sale. This 
measure, which in a moment paralysed the 
commerce of Ghent and Ypres, was further 
regarded by all the Flemings as the result 
of a settled plan for wholly subverting the 
states of Brabant and Flanders, and reducing 
the constitution of these provinces to the 
Spanish modeL Those who had acquiesced 
in or submitted to the severities exercised 
against the Protestants were now goaded to 
resistance by the complicated grievances of 
fiscal rapacity and civil tyranny; the re- 
monstrances of the states of Utrecht kindled 
a flame in the north which was with difficulty 
checked by the Spanish garrisons ; and Alha 
was compelled to employ those bloody tri- 
bunals, originally instituted against religious 
heresy, for the suppression of the resistance 
which had been excited by his measures of 
taxation. 

The provinces being reduced to a state of 
seeming order and subjection. Alba contem- 
plated larger enterprises ; and he conceived 
the design of extending his attack to England. 
In concert with the Cardinal of Lorraine, he 
had long fomented the internal disorders of 
that realm, and had especially encouraged the 
rebellious designs which from the moment 
of Elizabeth's accession had been entertained 
by a powerf\i1 body of Roman Catholic noble- 
men. In concert with the Spanish ambas- 
sador at London and the Duke of Norfolk, 
he had engaged to land a considerable body 
of foot and horse at Harwich, which, aided by 
an insurrection in the heart of the kingdom, 
were immediately to march on London. An 
attack on the English queen, who was the 
chief stay of the Reformed religion, formed a 
principal part of the war of extermination 
which the two Roman Catholic kingdoms 
were now wa^ng against the Protestants. 
But Alba's design on England was suddenly 
disconcerted by the treachery of Norfolk s 
servant and the execution of that nobleman. 
In the ensuing year, 1572, his schemes of in- 
vasion and offensive war were for ever 
brought to a close by a domestic revolt more 



ALBA. 



ALBA. 



si^al than had yet arisen in the Ix>w Conn- 
tries. 

During the whole progress of the troubles 
in the Low Countries the main force of the 
opposition to Spain had been derived from 
the stubborn temper, animated by an insur- 
mountable aversion to popery, of the northern 
provinces ; and the spirit of the Hollanders, 
though kept down, had neither been appalled 
by the terror of Alba*8 tyranny, nor subdued 
by his arms. Since the close of the last cam- 
paign of Count Louis, in 1568, the islands at 
the mouths of the Rhine, and the maritime pro- 
vince of Holland, had grown in population by 
the tide of refdgees who found freedom in 
these distant extremities of the Spanish domi- 
nion ; the same cause reinforced the naval 
power of that region, its native arm ; and prin- 
cipally through the conduct of William de la 
Mark, a nobleman of Liege,was silently formed 
among the islands of Zealand that maritime 
power which made the first successful aggres- 
sion on the government of Alba. This 
adventurous leader, having been prohibited 
by Queen Elizabeth from equipping his arma- 
ments on the English shore, made a descent 
on the island of Voom, between Holland and 
Zealand, and coming boldly on the fort of 
Brill, drove out the Spanish garrison, and 
possessed himself of this stronghold. This 
exploit roused Holland and Zealand to arms ; 
the revolt of these provinces drew the Prince 
of Orange again from bis retreat; Count 
Louis appeared on the borders of Hainoult ; 
and Alba found himself once more attacked 
on both extremities of his dominions, and the 
war again blazing around him. He S|)eedily 
arrested the progress of Count Loms, and 
recovered Mons, which that prince had seized ; 
but the afiPairs of Holland assumed another 
aspect, and the whole fortune of the war was 
quickly changed in that quarter. The Prince 
of Orange, £iding the population animated 
by despair, formed the revolted cities into a 
league ; and when Frederic of Toledo, Alba*s 
son, appeared before the walls of Haarlem, 
he found the enthusiasm of the citizens 
not only supported by an unexpected ex- 
pansion of resources, but guided by military 
conduct The vigorous defence of Haar- 
lem, protracted through every species of 
suffering for seven months, gave a mortal 
blow to the dominion of the Spanish king 
in the seven northern provinces ; and though 
Haarlem fell at last, the resolute spirit dis- 
played in this obstinate resistance animated 
all the Hollanders, and laid the foundation of 
that illustrious commonwealth whose arms 
and policy have made so conspicuous a figure 
in modem history. Alkmaar, which was 
next invested bv Albans son, endured still 
greater extremities, and finally repulsed the 
Spanish army. Philip, baffled in his projects 
of establishing absolute power in the Low 
Countries, recalled Alba at the close of the 
year 1573; and Alba, who boasted that in 

VOL. I. 



four years he had brought 18,000 persons to 
the scaffold, returned to Madrid, leaving tbe 
ten southern provinces, which preserved their 
allegiance, impoverished and unsettled ; and 
in the seven northern states, which had re- 
volted, the federal union nearly established, 
their naval power growing apace, and a con- 
siderable portion of that territory already 
irretrievably lost. On his return to Madrid, 
Alba found his former influence undiminished 
at the court of Philip ; and he continued to 
eigoy the confidence of the king until his 
eldest son offended him by seducing a lady of 
the court, whom he refused to marry. Alba 
himself incurred the displeasure of his jealous 
master by aiding his son's escape, and was 
banished to the castle of Uzeda. In 1580, 
when Philip invaded Portugal with a fleet 
and army, he found no one to whom he could 
intrust the command of the land forces but 
his exiled general. Alba was no sooner 
solicited to undertake the expedition than he 
embraced the offer with alacrity ; and although 
Philip refused him a personal interview, he 
proceeded towards Estremadura, where he 
met the forces. He marched along the 
north bank of the Tagus, passed Badigoz and 
Elvas, and was advancing towards Lisbon, 
when the appearance of the Portuguese force 
in his front compelled him to change his 
course. He resolved to put his army on 
board the fleet under Santa Croce ; and em- 
barking at Setubal, landed at the mouth of 
the Tagus under the guns of the fleet, and 
attack^ the Portuguese army with an im- 
petuosity unusual in his younger years. The 
Portuguese were defeated, and Lisbon sur- 
rendered after a feeble resistance ; but Alba*s 
laurels were sullied with blood by the viola- 
tion of the capitulation, the suburbs being 
given up to the tary of the Spanish soldiers. 
This enterprise, in which he drove the house 
of Braganza flrom the Portuguese throne, and 
united that kingdom to Spain for sixty years, 
was some compensation to Philip for the loss 
of his Dutch dominions. It was the last of 
Alba's long services ; worn out with age, he 
returned to Spain, and died in 1582, in his 
74th year. 

His character displays conspicuously the 
peculiar qualities which characterise Spanish 
genius, and which the events of the sixteenth 
century called out in the warriors and states- 
men of that country. Inviolable fidelity to 
the king, and inflexible resolution — these 
soldierly virtues he possessed in an eminent 
de^ee, while his great military talents, being 
united with an unrivalled sagacity, and con- 
trolled by the most cautious prudence, render 
him the model of a general. On the other 
hand, he was san^inary and merciless ; and 
in his civil administration he not only acted 
on the military notions almost universal in 
his age, but pursued to the utmost those 
maxims of extermination which even the 
barbarous policy of that day confined to hcs- 

T T 



ALBA, 



ALBACINI. 



tile fields. Whether he was more cmel than 
Marignano, Pescara, and the other ferocious 
chiefs who then led the Spanish armies, may 
be questioned ; but being placed in the front 
of the war of religious opinion, and called to 
the goyemment of a country which was its 
most active scene, when the whole force of 
Roman Catholic Europe was first united, his 
cruelties were performed on a very conspi- 
cuous theatre, and drew the eyes of every 
nation. Alba was of an austere mien and 
of a haughty and reserved demeanour. He 
spoke little, and usually in Spanish proverbs 
savouring of blood, which were noted and 
repeated. (Ribier, Mimoires d'Etat ; Thua- 
nus, Historia ; Strada, De BeUo Belgico De- 
cos ; Grotius, Axnalea et Historia de Reims 
Beigicis ; Bentivoglio, Delia Ouerra di Fian- 
dria ; Giannone, Prima Istoria Civile di Na- 
poii : Adriani, Istoria di suoi Tempi ; Davila, 
Istoria delle Guerre Civile di Francia ; Mura- 
tori, Rerum Italic, Scriptores ; Dom TEvesque, 
M^m, du Cardinal GranveBe; Sebastian de 
I'Aubespine, bishop of Limoges, Correspond- 
ence^ first published in 1841 in Documens In- 
€dits pour VHistoire de France, Imprimerie 
Royale.) H. G. 

ALBA. R. JACOB DE (H 3py^ n 
ri3^« IN K3^K)» caUed also Albo in the 
mdex to the "Si^hte Jeshenun,'' was an 
Italian rabbi a native of Monferrato, and a 
very eloquent preacher, who exercised the 
office of chief preacher in the synagogue of 
Florence, where he had a high reputation for 
several years during the beginning of the 
seventeenth century. A collection of his 
discourses on the Pentateuch was published 
during his lifetime under the title of " Tol- 
doth Jaacob " (** The Generations of Jacob *') 
(^Genesis, xxzil 2.), to which title are also 
added the following epithets : " Kol Jaacob " 
(" The Voice of Jacob") ( Genesis, xxviL 22.) ; 
" Kol Adonai Becoach " (** The Voice of the 
Lord with Power ") (Psalm xxix. 4.) ; and " Kol 
Adonai Behadar" (The Voice of the Lord in 
Mi^esty**) {Psalm xxix. 4. ). It was printed at 
Venice by Jo. de Gara, a, m. 5369 (▲. d. 1609), 
in 4to., edited by Isaac Gerson, with a copious 
index. (Bartoloccius, Biblioth. Mag. jRd66. 
iii 836. ; Wolfius, Biblioth, Hebr, I 580. iii. 
440.) C. P. H. 

ALB ACFNI, CARLO, a Roman sculptor, 
who lived towards the close of the eighteenth 
century. He was much employed upon the 
restoration of fra^ents of ancient sculpture ; 
and in the publication ** Winckehnann und 
sein Jahrhimdert'' he is spoken of as one of 
the most successM restorers of the human 
figure in such works. In 1780 he executed 
two monuments for the Empress Cathe- 
rine IL of Russia; one, of Raphael Anton 
Mengs, to be placed in St. Peter's Church; 
and the other, of Giambattista Piranesi, for 
the Priorate Church in St Petersburg. Al- 
bacini made a valuable collection of casts 
from the antique. He was stiU living in 
634 



1807, when he acted as one of the executors 
of Angelica Kauffmann in Rome. (Fussli, 
AUgemeines Kibtstler Lexicon ; Nagler, Neues 
Augemeines Kiinsder Lexicon,) R. N. W. 

AL-BA'jr (Abu Merwiin Ahmed), king 
of Seville and great portion of Andalusia, 
was bom at Seville about the close of the 
twelfth century of our sera. He was de- 
scended from the celebrated writer Ab(k-1- 
walid, who was Kadhi-1-nodha or chief Jus- 
tice of Seville, under Al-mu'tamed Ibn ' Abbad, 
king of Seville. [ ABif-L-wALi'D Al-ba'ji'.] 
When the empire of the Almohades was de- 
clining in Spain, and Mohammed Ibn Yusuf 
Ibn Hud, sumamed Al-mutawakkei-'alaillah 
(he who relies on God), who became after- 
wards the ruler of Mohammedan Spain, rose 
in arms against those African conquerors, 
Al-bajt, who was then one of the most power- 
Ail citizens of Seville, helped that cluef to 
establish his authority in that wealthy city. 
Ibn Hud made his entry into Seville in a. h. 
626 (▲. D. 1228-^), but being soon after 
called to Valencia by a revolt of the inhabit- 
ants he quitted Seville, leaving a brother 
named Abu N^at Selim in the command. 
Soon after, however, Al-bigi, having made a 
considerable party among his own country- 
men, rose against the governor, whom he 
expelled fh>m Seville, and prevailed upon the 
inhabitants to elect him king, under the sur- 
name of Al-mu'tadhed-billah (the supported 
by God). The example of Seville being soon 
followed by Carmona and other wealthy 
towns, Al-baji soon became the ruler of the 
best portion of Andalusia. At the news dT 
this insurrection, Ibn H(id hastened to Se- 
ville, which he besieged; but the rebel having 
made an alliance with Ibnu-1-ahmar, then 
king of Jaen, and afterwards of Granada, 
attacked him in his camp, and defeated him 
with ^^reat slaughter. Two years later, Al- 
bjyi hunself was the victim of treason. His 
friend and ally, Ibnu-l-ahmar, wishing to add 
the cit^ of Seville to his other dominions, 
sent thither one of his generals, named Ibn 
Ashkilulah, who, under the pretence of giving 
aid to Al-b^i in case he should be a^ain 
attacked by Ibn Hud, penetrated into Seville, 
and had lum assassinated in his own palace 
in A.H. 629 (A.D. 1232), after a short reign 
of about two years. 

" Al-biiji," a term which means a man who 
is a native of, or originally fh>m, B^a, in 
Alemtejo, is a surname common to several 
Spanish Arabs of note, such as 'Abdullah 
Ibn Mohammed Al-baji, who died in a.h. 
378 (a. D. 988-9), and was k^dhi of Seville: 
Ahmed Ibn 'AbdiUah Ibn *Omar Al-bsji, 
who lived in the eleventh century of our era, 
and wrote a history of his own times ; Ibn 
Sahibi-s-salat Al-baji, who was the author of 
a valuable work on the settlement of the Al- 
mohades in Spain, their wars with the Chris- 
tians, &c, a copy of which is preserved in 
the Bodleian library (Marsh. No. 433.) ; and 



AL-BAJL 



ALBAN. 



several other Spanish Moslems distinffoished 
for their learning. (Ibn KhaldCin, Hist of 
the Berbers, MS. Brit. Mas. No. 9575. fol. 146. ; 
Conde, HisL de la Dom, il 434.; Casiri, 
Bib. Arab, Hisp, Esc. ii 135. 149.) 

, , P.deG. 
ALB ALAG, R. ISAAC (ra>K pnV* "1), 
a Spanish rabbi who lived in the beginning 
of the fourteenth century. He translated the 
book on the various opinions of the philo- 
sophers of Abu Ahmed Al-ghazzali from 
Arabic into Hebrew, to which he added 
notes of his own. It appears from the work 
itself that he did this in the year a. h. 5067 
(a. d. 1307> Such is the account given by 
Bartolocci fVom the MS. in the Vatican 
library, which is a paper MS. in 4to. There 
is also a copy of this translation in one of the 
MSS. in the Bodleian library, amon^ those 
^ven by Laud. The MS. contains five 
different works, of which the first is entitled 
** Abu Achmed Algazzali, a Treatise on the 
Opinions of the Philosophers on the Art of 
Speaking, translated firom the Arabic and 
illustrated with Observations by R. Isaac 
Albalag; to which is added the Hebrew 
Alphabet*' There is also, according toWolff^ 
a MS. of this work in the Oppenheimer col- 
lection, wherein the author's name is written 

Alphalag O^q^k)* ^ ^^^^ "^o^* '° ^^^ 
'* Sepher Haemunoth *' (sect L cap. L) refers 
to this translation of Albalag, in confhtation 
of the opinions expressed in the preface. 
(Bartoloccius, Bihlioih. Maa. Rabb. I 99. iil 
890.; Wolfius, BibUoih. Hebr. 1648. iil 553. 
iv. 880. ; Uri, CaL MSS. Orient Biblioth. 
BodL I 75.) C. P. H. 

ALBAN, SAINT, called the protomartyr 
of England, as having been the first person 
who was put to death in England for the 
profession of the Christian faith. The time 
of his death, according to all the authorities, 
was during the persecution under Diocletian, 
about A. j>. 285 ; and so strong a tradition as 
that which led the king of Mercia, Offa, to 
found a monastery in honour of him near 
the city of Verulam, that there was the scene 
of his martyrdom, can hardly ha^e existed, 
unless there had been some fouudation for 
it The Saint Albans historians relate that 
OSsL was guided miraculously to the place 
in which the body of the saint was interred 
after he had been put to death, and also other 
extraordinary circumstances attending his 
death. Thiis much is certain, that king 
Offa towards the close of the eighth century 
did found a monastery near to Verulam in 
honour of Saint Alban, where his relics were 
preserved, which monastery grew at length 
to be one of the most iamous in Engbuad, 
and had among its members some of the 
most learned and valuable writers of the 
middle ages, of whom Matthew Paris may 
be considered the chief. 

This foundation of the Mercian king would 
extend the celebrity of Saint Alban, and 
635 



might be the occasion of some of the mani- 
fesUy Ikbulous matter which is mixed with 
the probably authentic facts of his history. 
But it was far from being the cause of the 
celebrity of the saint ; for Bede, who died 
in A. D. 735, sixty years before the foundation 
of the monastery, gives a large account of 
the circumstances attending the martyrdom 
in the 7th chapter of the 1st book of his 
Ecclesiastical History; and a still earlier 
writer, who has celebrated in verse the praises 
of virgins and martyrs, notices Saint Alban 
thus — 

AlbftDum egregium foecunda Britannia profert. 
This was Fortunatus, an Italian, ^rho lived 
in the time of the Emperor Justin the 
Younger, who succeeded Justinian in a. d. 
565. The line is quoted by Bede. This 
may be taken as sufficient proof of the ex- 
istence and early celebrity of the saint 

Alban would appear from his name to be 
a Roman. He is said to have been a soldier, 
and to have served in the Roman armies 
abroad. Bede represents him as a person 
converted Arom Paganism. All agree that 
the manner of his death was by beheading. 
The 22d of June was the day on which he 
was especially commemorated in the church. 
The **Biographia Britannica," the "Lives 
of the Saints," the Saint Albans historians, 
and the Ecclesiastical History of Bede, may 
be consulted for the uncertain matter which 
has gathered around the few authentic par- 
ticulars of his life. J. H. 

ALBANE'SI, GUIDO ANTO NIO, a 
physician of Padua in the early part of the 
seventeenth century. After holdmg several 
subordinate professorships in the university 
of Padua, he was appointed in 1644 to 
succeed Sala, his former preceptor, in the 
second professorship of theoreticjEd medicine. 
He was regarded as one of the best physicians 
of his time, and has left a work entitled 
" Aphorismorum Hippocratis Expositio Peri- 
patetica.** Padua, 1649, 4ta (Mazzuchelli, 
Scrittori tTItalia.) J. P. 

ALBANE'ZE, or D'ALBANE'SE, was 
educated as a singer at the conservatorio of 
Naples, whence he went to Paris in 1747, at 
the age of eighteen. He was immediately 
engaged in the Chapel Ro^al, and was first 
soprano at the concerts spirituels from 1752 
to 1762. He died in 1800. During his resi- 
dence at Paris he published several collec- 
tions of songs and duets. (Fetis, Biographie 
Universdle aes MusicieTts.) E. T. 

ALBA'NI, a noble Italian family, said to 
have come originally from Albania, in one of 
the emigrations occasioned by the invasions 
of the Ottomans. The family became divided 
into two branches, one of which settled at 
Bergamo and the other at Urbino. 

Tlie branch of Urbino produced several 

distinguished men: Giorgio and Altobello 

Albani, who served in the Italian wars of the 

fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ; and in the 

T T 2 



ALBANI. 



ALBANI. 



seventeenth century, Orazio Albani, who was 
senator of Rome ; and lastly, Cardinal Gian 
Francesco Albani, who became pope by the 
name of Clement XI. 

Clement had several nephews, one of whom 
purchased in 1715 the principality of Soriano, 
in the patrimony of St, Peter, and whose de- 
scendants bear to this day the title of Roman 
princes. The Albani fiunily has also produced 
several distinguished cardinals. 

Albani, Anni'bale, bom at Urbino in 
1682, was nephew of Clement XL, who made 
him a cardinal in 1711. He filled many im- 
portant offices at the court of Rome, and was 
sent as nuncio to Vienna, and was aifterwards 
made chief librarian of the Vatican. He 
published at Rome — 1. ** Menolo^um Gne- 
corum jussu Basilii Imperatoris ohm editum, 
nunc primum Graece et Latine prodit studio 
et opera Annibalis Cardinalis AlbanL" 1727. 
2. " Pontificale Romanum, Clementis VIIL, 
Auctoritate recognitum." 1726. 3. ** Con- 
stitutiones Synodales Sabinse Dioecesis." 1737. 
4. " Le buone Arti scmpre piii gloriose in 
Campidoglia" He edited a splendid edition 
of the homilies, bulls, and briefs of his uncle 
Clement XI., and published also the " Me- 
morie concementi alia Cittk d*Urbino, 1724," 
which he dedicated to James IIL the Pre- 
tender. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d*ItcUia,) 

Albani, Alessandro, also nephew of 
Pope Clement XI., bom at Urbmo in 1692, 
was sent to Rome, where he studied, and was 
afterwards employed by his uncle in several 
diplomatic missions. In 1721 he was made 
a cardinal by Innocent XIIL Being a warm 
lover of the fine arts, and gifted with exqui- 
site taste, he made a most Toluable collection 
of statues and rilievi, which he obtained 
partly from excavations among the ruins of 
ancient Rome and the country around, and 
partly by purchase. He arranged his collec- 
tion in an elegant mansion which he built 
outside of the Porta Salara, which has become 
celebrated as the Villa Albani. He employed 
Mengs to paint the apartments, and Winckel- 
mann and Gaetano liarini to illustrate his 
museum. He also collected many inscrip- 
tions, which hare been illustrated by the 
learned Bianchini, and which he gave to the 
Capitoline museum. Pope Clement XII. 
purchased for the same museum his collection 
of medals, which have been explained by 
Venutl. He was a generous patron of learn- 
ing, and his house was frequented by the 
most learned men at Rome, — Bottari, Bian- 
chini, Marini, Giacomelli, and Winckelmann. 
He obtained for Winckelmann from Pope 
Clement XIIL the offices of prefect of Roman 
antiquities, and writer of the Vatican library. 
Winckelmann was much attached to the car- 
dinal, whom he made his heir general 

Cardinal Albani was appointed by Maria 
Theresa her ambassador at the court of 
Rome, and was considered a Tery able diplo- 
matist He waB also appointed by the pope 
636 



prefect of several congregations and chief 
librarian of the Vatican. 

In his old age he became blind, but he con- 
tinued to take delight in the conversation of 
the learned, and he was to the last a collector 
of works of art He died in 1779, and was 
buried in his family vault at St Sebastian's, 
outside of the walls. Strocchi, Cicognara, 
and Morcelli have written eulogies of him. 
The learned Dutch archseologist, Heekens, 
in his book of Notabilia, sp«aks with the 
greatest praise of his taste and learning. He 
did more than any of his contemporaries to 
encourage the study of the fine arts and an- 
tiquities. (Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani 
iUustri dd Secolo XVIIL; Lombardi, Storia 
deUa Utteratura ItaUana net Secolo XVIIL) 

Albani, Giova'nni ^rance'sco, nephew 
of Cardinal Alessandro, bom at Urbino in 
1720, was made cardinal in 1747. He was 
remarkable for his handsome person, his ac- 
complishments, and his wit and penetration. 
In the conclave of 1775 he was one of the 
cardinals who promoted, and at last carried, 
the election of Braschi, afterwards Pius VI. 
Cardinal Albani showed himself a warm an- 
tagonist of the principles of the French 
rcTolution ; and when the French, under 
Berthier, entered Rome in 1798, they confis- 
cated, in consequence of an order of the 
executive directory, all the property of the 
Albani family, including the celebnUed villa 
and its museum, which had been formed by 
the care of his uncle. Cardinal Alessandro. 
Albani escaped, and was afterwards present 
at the conclave of Venice, where Pius VII. 
was elected. He returned to Rome, where 
he died in 1809. 

Albani, Giuse'ppe, son of Prince Orazio 
Albani and of Marianna Cibo, and a nephew 
of Giovanni Francesco, was bora at Rome in 
1750. He entered early into the service of 
the papal court He was made by Pius VI. 
president of the Annona, and afterwards 
auditor-general of the apostolic chamber, in 
which he showed considerable administrative 
abilities. Durmg the affray at Rome in 1794, 
when the French revolutionary emissary was 
killed by the populace, Monsignor Albani 
exerted himselr to calm the popular fury ; 
and he also saved the district of the Jews at 
Rome from being pillaged by a fiinatical mob, 
who were led by designing people. He was 
afterwards sent to Vienna in 1796, as envoy 
of the pope, and was well received there, 
both on account of the former connection of 
the Albani family with the court of Austria, 
and of his own mother's relationship to the 
Archduke Ferdinand. He was much em- 
ployed in the diplomatic negotiations of that 
epoch between Austria and 5ie Italian states. 
General Bonaparte, in his correspondence 
with the Directorjr, inveighed against what 
he called the intrigues of Monsignor Al- 
bani. 

During the first invasion of Rome by the 



ALBANI. 



ALBANI. 



French in 1798, Monsignor Albani remained 
at Vienna ; his house at Rome was plundered, 
and his property confiscated. He afterwards 
retomed with Pope Pius VII., who made him 
a cardinal in 1801. Cardinal Albani did not 
mix in public affairs during the following 
years, until the restoration of 1814, when 
Pius VIL appointed him Prefetto del buon 
gOTemo, or home department Leo XII. 
made him secretary of the papal brieft, and 
sent him on a mission to the Emperor Fran- 
cis of Austria, in 1825. Pius VIII. made 
Cardinal Albani secretary of state at a criti- 
cal time, when the French revolution of 
July 1830 threatened to spread over the 
Italian states. Albani has been praised for 
his prudence and moderation during that 
period. Gregory XVI., after his accession, 
appointed Albani legate of Pesaro and Ur- 
bino, which province was then in a state of 
revolt agamst the pope. There again he 
succeeded in quelling the storm with as little 
violence as was possible. He died, at a very 
advanced age, in Pesaro, in December, 1834. 
He possessed the love of the arts and of 
learning, and the liberality which had dis- 
tinguished many of his ancestors. (Tipaldo, 
Biografia degli Italiani Uhutri del Seecio 
XV III.) A.V. 

ALBA'NI, FRANCESCO, a celebrated 
Italian painter, bom in Bologna in 1578. He 
was the son of Agostino Albani, a wealthy 
Bolognese silk mercer, who intended his son 
to be brought up to his own business $ but 
upon the death of his father, young Francesco, 
then only twelve years of age, having evinced 
great talent for design, was placed by an 
uncle with the Fleming Denis Calvart, about 
that time the most fiunous painter in Bologna. 
Calvart intrusted the care of Albani's instruc- 
tion to one of his scholars, Guido Reni, who 
had been Albani's schoolfellow ; and an 
intimate friendship grew up between the two 
young painters, which lasted many years, 
and ceased only when their future rival efforts 
apparently rendered friendship impossible. 
>Vhen Guido left Calvart for the rising school 
of Ludovico Carracci, that of the Fleming 
had no longer any attraction for Albani ; and 
he shortly followed his friend into the school 
of the Carracci, much to the displeasure of 
Calvart In the school of the Carracci, 
however, symptoms of that active jealousy 
which ultimately separated them began to ma- 
nifest themselves, and they executed several i 
rival works in Bologna. Albani*s first public | 
work was an Assumption of the Virgin, in , 
fresco, over the shop of a hat-maker. The { 
best which he painted in competition with 
Guido were a "Noli me tangere," in the 
church of San Michele in Bosco, and a Birth 
of the Virgin in Santa Maria del Piombo : ^ 
in the last he was pronounced by many to 
have surpassed Guido. This active rivalry 
caused no apparent intemiption to the friend- 
ship between the two painters, who invariably 
637 ' 



spoke of one another with praise. When 
Annibal Carracci went to Rome, in the pon- 
tificate of Paul v., to decorate the palace of 
Cardinal Famese, Albani and Guido followed 
him, in company, in 1611 or 1612, the former 
being in his thirty-third, and the latter in 
his thirty-seventh year. In Rome the two 
friends were not long together, for the re- 
putation of Guido being much greater than 
that of Albani, the latter found himself ne- 
cessitated to work as subordinate to Guido, 
which, through the petty tyranny of Guido, 
who was very jealous of Albani, caused an 
open rupture between them, and they sepa- 
rated, never again to associate, after an inti- 
macy of nearly thirty years. 

In Rome Albani appears to have risen 
rapidly to fortune, though it was not un- 
alloyed by domestic sorrows. Shortly after 
his arrival there he married a young Roman 
lady, with whom he received property to the 
value of 4000 scudi, oonsistinff of two houses, 
a handsome dowry fbr those tmaes. He how- 
ever lost his young wife in childbed of her 
first child, a daughter, who survived ; vet, 
notwithstanding this, he was sued by his wife's 
mother for the property he had received with 
her, which caused him considerable annoy- 
ance for several years. 

Annibal Carracci employed Albani to as- 
sist him in the paintings in the Famese pa- 
lace ; and Albani painted the entire firescoes 
of the chapel of San Diego in the church of 
San Giacomo degli Spagnoli, after Annibal's 
designs. He painted some good frescoes also 
in the Chiesa della Pace, during the progress 
of which he gave his employers, according 
to Passeri, a wholesome lesson for their want 
of confidence in him respecting some ultra- 
marine. Somewhat more than two years 
after the death of his wife Albani visited 
Bologna, and there married a second time, 
Dor&ce Fioravanto, a beautiful lady of a 
noble Bolognese ftmily: her dowry was only 
2000 scudi By this lady Albani had twelve 
children, remarkable for their beauty; and 
this numerous and handsome family appears 
to have been the chief cause of his changing 
his style, and adopting one peculiar to him- 
self^ and by which he is now almost exclu- 
sively known out of Italy. His wife and 
chil^n served him as his models, and they 
were the originals of the Venuses, angels, 
and Cupids, which are so often repeated in 
his pictures. The celebrated sculptors Al- 
gaidi and Fiammingo (Du Quesnoy) also 
studied the children of Albani as models. 

In 1625 Albani was again in Rome : this 
is probably the period when he executed the 
paintings m the villa of the Marquis Giusti- 
niani at Bassano near Rome, representing 
the stoiy of Neptune and Galatea, and the 
Fall of Phaeton ; and also the frescoes which 
he painted in the Verospi palace at Rome 
(now Torlonia), consisting also of m^-tho- 
logical subjects from Ovid and others, per- 
TT 3 



ALBANI. 



ALBANI. 



haps his greatest works; ihey have been en- 
graved in sixteen plates, folio, by Frezza, 
published in 1704, under the tiUe " PictursB 
Franc. Albani, in aede Veroepia.*' 

In 1633 he visited Florence, where he 
executed a Jupiter and Gkmymede, and 
several other works for Cardinal Gio. Carlo 
de' Medici, in his palace of Mezzo- Monte ; 
after the completion of which he again re- 
turned to Bologna, and in his villas of Medola 
and Querciola painted the greater part of 
those fimciful pictures from ancient poetry 
and mythology to which he owes his present 
reputation. 

Albani was indefatigable in his labours 
even when old ; and it required all his efforts 
to enable him to meet certain pecuniary de- 
mands to which he had made himself liable 
by becoming security to a large amount for 
one of his brothers, through whose death, in 
1653, he was obliged to pa^ a sum amount- 
ing to several thousand scudi, — 70,000 francs 
according to Malvasia. But Albani was not 
able to satisfy the demand by the sale of his 
pictures alone, and he was accordingly com- 
pelled to dispose of his villas of Medola and 
Querciola in the vicinity of Bologna : a hard 
£i,te, in his seventy-fifth year to be reduced 
suddenly from affluence to poverty through 
the improvidence of a brother. Albani 
bore these heavy misfortunes well, as appears 
from his letters preserved by Malvasia, and 
as he evinced by his unremitting exertions 
at an advanced age. He repaired again to 
Rome, where, through the great activity of 
Urban VIII. in promoting the arts, he still 
hoped to retrieve his fortunes ; he did how- 
ever little, for with increasing years his in- 
firmities increased, and he returned to his 
native city. He died in Bologna in 1660, in 
the eighty-third year of his age, attended on 
his death-bed by his wife and family, his 
favourite assistant Filippo Menzani, and other 
friends. His private character, according to 
his biographers, was in every respect ad- 
mirable. 

Albani's paintings are very numerous, both 
in firesco and in oil : his illustrations of pro- 
fane history greatly outnumber those from 
sacred ; and yet he painted nearly fifty great 
altar-pieces. His best works, however, are 
those of small dimensions, which treat (if 
subjects from the ancient poets and mytho- 
logy. Some of those which are painted upon 
copper are exquisitely finished, and are very 
beautiful ; they are also the best specimens 
of his style, and are the main source of his 
reputation, althou^ his larger works display 
many of the higher qualities of art He has 
been termed the Anacreon of painters ; his 
works certainly evince a very peculiar men- 
tal quality ; their sutgects are very trivial, 
and they are decidedly not calculated to give 
pleasure to serious minds. Thev consist 
principally of landscapes, in which he ex- 
celled, studded with naked figures, rather 
638 



richly coloured, representing Venuses, Dianas, 
N^phs, Cupids, and other such personagesi. 
His compositions are graceful, uid the ar- 
rangement of his figures is perhaps always 
well adl^>ted to the sutgects, but his design, 
though generally correct, is often feeble. He 
seldom introduced men into his paintings; 
his figures were principally women and 
children, his own wife and &mily always 
serving him as the models ; and he evidently 
imitated them pretty closely, for it is impos- 
sible to overlook a general family likeness in 
all the figures of his best pictures of this 
class. This has been urged by several critics 
as a great defect in Albauurs works ; but when 
we consider that it is seldom the case that 
several pictures of the same kind and by the 
same master are preserved in one place, it is 
an objection of no importance ; for if the 
figures are in themselves beautiful, the fact 
that the same master has executed others 
similarly beautiM cannot detract from their 
worth as works of art, although it may dimi- 
nish their value to the picture-dealer. 

Albani*s pictures are too numerous to admit 
of anything like a list of them being given 
here ; but the following few are amongst the 
best Of his own peculiar st^le the most 
celebrated are, the four round pictures called 
the Four Elements, painted originally for 
the Borghese family, and afterwards twice 
repeated with slight alterations, once for the 
Duke of Mantua and once for the Duke of 
Savoy ; four pictures of the stories of Diana 
and Venus, in the Florentine gallery, com- 
menced for the Duke of Mantua and finished 
for the Cardinal Gio. Carlo de' Medici, at 
Florence ; the Toilet of Venus, in the 
Louvre ; the Dance of Cupids at Dresden ; 
and the landing of Venus on the Island of 
Cythera, m the Ghigi Palace at Rome. Of 
his larger works, from sacred history, the 
following in Bologna are the best : — The 
Baptism of Christ, painted for the church oi 
San Giorgio, now in the Pinacoteca or gal- 
lery of the academy ; San Guglielmo, in the 
church of Gesu e Maria ; Sant Andrea, and 
a ** Noll me tangere," in the church of Santa 
Maria de' Servi ; a chapel in the church of 
the Madonna di Galliena, illustrating various 
stories from the Scriptures ; and an Annun- 
ciation in the church of the Theatines. Two 
pictures in Rome also, painted in competi- 
tion with Guido, in the church of San Sebas- 
tiano, representing a St Sebastian and an 
Assumption of Sie Virgin, are reckoned 
amongst Albani's best works. Malvasia has 
preserved some of Albani's opinions upon 
art : he considered invention and design the 
chief merits of a painter, and affected to 
despise representations of vulgar life and the 
mere imitation of inanimate objects. Several 
famous painters were among his scholars, as 
Andrea Sacchi, Cignani, Pierfhmcesco Mola, 
and others. Sacchi painted his portrait, 
which has been engraved by the elder Picart 



ALBANI. 



ALfiANO. 



Many engniTers have executed plates after 
the pictures of Albani ; Sir Robert Strange 
engraved three. The following artists also 
executed seyeral : — Frey, C. Bloemart, B. 
Faijat, S. Bandet, Volpato, Cunego, Frezza, 
D. Bonarerra, Benedetti, Poilly, Tanje, J. 
Audran, the elder Picart, and Rosaspina. 
Pilkington states that Albani had a scholar 
and brother Giambattista, who excelled in 
landscape painting ; but, according to his 
biographers, Albani had only two brothers, 
the one a procurator and the other a notary. 
(Malvasia, FMna Pitirice; Passeri, Vite 
de* Pittori, ffc: ; Heineken, Dictumnaire des 
Artistet, ^.) R, N, W. 

ALBA'NI, MATTIA, a celebrated Ty- 
rolese violin maker, whose instruments are 
yet prised by connoisseurs. He lived about 
the middle of the seventeenth century. His 
instruments are thus marked — ^Albanus 
Matthias fecit in Tyrol BulsanL" £. T. 

ALBA'NO, GIOVANNI GIRCKLAMO, 
bom at Bergamo on the Sd of January, 
1504, was the son of Francis Albano, a gen- 
tleman descended from a noble Albanian 
ftonily which had sought reflige within the 
Venetian territory. 

Giovanni Girolamo studied hiw in the uni- 
versity of Padua, where Papadopoli says, on 
tile authority of a MS. of Sansoni, he took 
the degree of doctor in 1525. He practised 
as an advocate in his native town, and being 
in that stormy period called occasionally, 
in virtue of his rank, to take part in mili- 
tary expeditions, he obtained considerable 
reputation both as a lawyer and soldier. 
He married in early life Laura Longa, of 
a noble Bergamese family, by whom he 
had several children. Upon the death of 
his wife he is said to have made a vow 
of celibacy, but there is no record of 
the time at which he actually took priestly 
orders. In 1535 he published a treatise in 
support of the opinion that Constantine had 
transferred the temporal authority in the 
Western Empire to the Bishop of Rome. In 
1547 he published a legal exposition of the 
ttahu of cardinals in the church, their rights 
and duties, dedicated to Paul IIL In 1544 
he published a treatise intended to prove that 
general councils possessed no authority over 
the pope. In both of these works he shows 
himself an uncompromising champion of the 
supreme power of the pope, and of the privi- 
leges of the cardinals, the bishops, pres- 
byters, and deacons of the see of Rome. 
While Albano was engaged in completing 
these works, the progress of the adherents <^ 
Luther and Zwingli in the north of Italy, 
and more especially in the districts around 
Como and Bergamo, was exciting consider- 
able alarm at Rome. Micheie Ghislieri, a 
Dominican monk (afterwards Pius V.), was 
employed by the Romish inquisition to arrest 
the progress of the new doctrines, and this 
task he discharged at times, especially in the 
639 



large towns, at the hazard of his life. The 
leader of the Protestants in Bergamo was 
Giorgio Medolago* an eminent advocate, who 
had gained wealth and popularity by his skill 
in pleading causes, and who through his 
noble connections exercised no small in- 
fluence over the minds of the aristocracy. 
The local inc^uisitor was afraid to attack so 
powerfhl a citizen; but Ghislieri, having 
been appointed to the office ad interim, had 
Medob^fo arrested and thrown into gaoL 
Albano, who seems at that time to have 
occupied the office of legal adviser to the in- 
quisition of Bergamo (the biographer of 
Pius V. calls him *^ comes," and ** perpetuus 
sacre inquisitionis patronus"), fearlessly sup- 
ported Ghislieri, although Medolago was lus 
own relation, amd although more than one 
attempt was made by the armed citizens to 
release the prisoner and take vengeance on 
his adversaries. In 1553 a treatise on the 
privilege of sanctuary attached to churches 
from tihe pen of Albano was published at 
Rome. Albano was appointed colaterale 
generale by the Venetian senate about the 
end of 1554 or beginning of 1555 : the time 
is fixed approximately by a letter from Ber- 
nardo Tasso, congratulating him upon his 
election, dated at Rome the 15th of February, 
1555. How long he retained the appoint- 
ment is uncertain: there are letters extant, 
one addressed to him by Bernardo Tasso in 
1557, and another by Giammateo Bembo in 
1560, in both of which he is addressed by 
the title of colaterale, Albano was deposed 
in consequence of Uie murder of Count 
Achille &embato in the church of S. Maria 
Maggioie in Bergamo by two of his sons, a 
crime in which he was supposed to have 
participated. The two murderers escaped, but 
Albano and a third son were banished for 
ten years to Dalmatia. Ghislieri ascended 
the papal throne 7th of January, 1566, as 
Pk» v., and one of the first measures of his 
pontificate was to summon to Rome Albano, 
of whose skill, courage, and devotion to the 
authority of the pope he had experience at 
Bergamo. Albano was immedia^ly vp- 
pointed apostolic referendary ; soon after, go- 
vernor of the March of Ancona ; and on the 
14th of Jane, 1570, elevated to the dignity 
of cardinal On the 19th of February, 1571, 
three of his sons — Giovanni Battista, Gio- 
vanni Francesco, and Giovanni Domenico — 
were by a public decree of the senate adopted 
as members of the patrician order of Rome. 
Cardinal Albano survived to take part in the 
election of four popes, Gregory XIII., Six- 
tus v.. Urban VIL, and Gregory XIV. ; and 
died on the 23d of April, 1591, with the re- 
putation of a resolute and independent man, 
endowed with a vein of phijrfui and good- 
natured wit The four treatises mentioned 
in the course of this sketch evince extensive 
legal knowledge and the talent of stating a 
case with deamen and precision. Their 
TT 4 



ALBANO. 



ALBAKS. 



titles are — ** De Donatione Constantini fSeusta 
Kcclesifc. Colonis Agrippinensis, 1535; 
Romse, 1547.'* **Tractata8 de Cardinalatu 
Johannia Hieronymi Albani, Bergamatis, 
Equitis, ac Utriusque Juris ConsiUti. Romfe, 
1541, 4to. ; Venetiis, 1584, 4to/' " Tiactatus 
de Potestate PapsB et Concilii, Johannia Hie- 
ronymi Albani, E^nitis, et Utriusque Juris 
Consulti. Venetiis, 1544, 4to. ; Lugdnni, 
1558, 4ta ; Venetiis, 1561. 1584. 1644, 4to.*' 
(The edition of 1584 contains ample ad- 
ditions.) ** Tractatus de Immnnitate Eccle- 
siarum, et de Personis confUgientibus ad 
eas. Romte, 1553, foL ; Venetiis, 1584, 4to." 
These four works have been reprinted by 
Ziletti in his collection of law tracts, ge- 
nerally cited by the designation Tractatus 
Tractatuum : the first in toL xt. par. L lib. 
666. to the end ; the second in toL xiiL 
par. it lib. 105 — 131. ; the third in vol. xiii 
par. L lib. 66 — 86. ; the fourth in vol. xiii. 
par. ii. lib. 18 — 23. Besides these there are 
attributed to Albano ** Lucubrationes in Bar- 
toli Lecturas. Venetiis, 1559. 1561. 1571, 
foL" " Disputationes ad Consilia. Romie, 
1553; Lugduni, 1563, foL" CMazzuchelli, 
Scrittori d* Italia ; Guido Panziroli, De claris 
Legum Inierpretibus, LipsisB, 1721, 4to. ; 
Ciacenius, Vita et Res gestee Pontificum Ro- 
manorum et S. R, E, CardinaUunij ab Initio 
fuucentia Eoclesia usque ad Clementem IX. 
Romse, 1677, fol. ; Calyi, Scena LitUrana 
degli Scrittori Bergamescki. In Bergamo, 
1664, 4to. ; Papadopoli, Hittoria Gynauuii 
Patavini, Venetiis, 1726, fol.; De Vita et 
Rebus gestis Pii V, Pont. Max. Libn Sex. 
Auctore Jo. Antonio Gabutia Rom», 1605, 
fol.) W. W. 

ALBANS, JOHN OF ST., who is also 
called by different writers Joannes jflBgidius 
de S. Albans, Joannes de S. ^gidio ad fa- 
num S. Albani, Joannes Anglicus, Jean de 
St Gilles, and Joannes de S. Quintino, was 
bom near St Albans, and studied at Oxford, 
where, at a later period, he taught philo- 
sophy. In 1198, Philippe IL, kmg of France, 
invited him to his court, and appointed him 
his chief physician. After teaching medicine 
and philosophy for some years at Paris, he 
went to Montpellier, and lectured there on 
the same subjects. At a subsequent period 
he was made dean of St Quentin in Picardy; 
and having entered the ecclesiastical order, 
he obtained the degree of doctor in the 
faculty of theology, and lectured at Paris 
upon sacred literature. In 1228 he joined 
the order of Dominican Friars, but at the 
earnest request of his pupils he continued 
his lectures ; and it was through his influ- 
ence that the Dominican schools were at this 
time first established in Paris, and the friars 
of the order admitted to degrees in the uni- 
versity fiiculty of theology. In 1233 he was 
appointed theological teacher to his order at 
Toulouse ; and in 1235 he returned to Ox- 
ford, where he again delivered lectures, and 
640 ' 



for many yean presided over the Dominican 
schools. He seems to have been much re- 
spected for both learning and piety, and to 
have had considerable mfluence in intro- 
ducing the Dominican or Black Friars into 
Engbmd. The time of his death is unknown^ 
but Matthew Paris {Historia Major, Lond. 
1571, p. 1165.) mentions him as attending the 
death-bed of his friend Robert Grosse-teste, 
bishop of Lincoln, in 1253, in the united 
capacities of physician and theologian, and 
relates at length the last conversation between 
them. 

While physician to Philippe IL, John of 
St Albans amassed considerable wealth, and 
bought the Hopital de St Jacques at Paris, 
which had been formerly used as a lodging- 
house by pilgrims resorting to the church of 
St James of Compostella in Spain, but which 
was almost in ruins. He repaired it in a 
manner suited to his station ; and, after re- 
siding in it for several years, he gave it, in 
1218, to the Dominican order. It was the 
first house that they possessed in France, and 
from it they derived the name of Jacobites or 
Jacobins, by which they were afterwards 
commonly called, and which descended from. 
them to the members of that party in the 
French revolution whose meetings were 
usually held in one of their deserted con- 
vents m the Rue St Honore. 

John of St Albans is said to have written 
several works on the Aristotelian philosophy 
and on theology, and two on medicine. A 
list of them is given by Quetif and Echard, 
but none have ever been published ; nor ia 
any of them now known to be extant (J. 
Quetif and J. Echard, Scriptores Ordinis 
Pntdicatorum, Paris, 1719, tip. 100. ; 
Astruc, M^moires pour servir a VHistoire de 
la FacuUi de Mideeine de MontoelUer ; Da 
Fresne, Glossarium ad Scriptores Med, et Inf. 
Latinitatis, '* Jacobits.") J. P. 

ALBA'NUS MO'NACHUS, a Benedic- 
tine of St Albans monastery, who pretended 
to visions and the gift of prophecy. He 
wrote certain metrical predictions which had 
reference to one Sextus Hibemiensis, a per* 
sonage long before made the subject of pre- 
diction by Gildas Albanius and Merlmus 
Caiedonius. He is the author of a book 
called ** Versus Vaticinales," which begins, 
** Anglia transmitte Leopardo lilia," in MSL 
in the Bodleian library. He also wrote one 
book of prophecies entitled ** Prophetis.** 
(Tanner, Biliiotheca Brittanico-Hibmuoa.) 

A. T. P. 

ALBANY, Countess of. [AiPiEW.] ' 

ALBARDAI, JACOBUS. [Jacobus 

AXBARDAI.] 

ALBARE'LLI, JA'COPO, a painter and 
sculptor of Venice, the scholar and assistant 
of the younger Palma, with whom he lived, 
according to Ridolfi, for thirty-four years. 
In the church of All Saints at Venice thei« 
is a Baptism of Christ by Albarelli ; and 



ALBARELLI. 



ALBATEGNIU8. 



over the door of the sacristy in the church of 
SS. Giovanni e Paolo is a bust in marble of 
the younger Palma by him. He died in 
1620, agS about fifty. (Ridolfi, Vite de* 
Pittori VenetU ^.; Zanetti, Dttta Pittura 
Veneziana,^ R. N. W. 

ALBASPFNUS. [Acbe8PINB.] 
ALBAT£'6NIUS is the Latinized sur- 
name of a celebrated Arabian astronomer 
whose works were much read during the 
middle ages. His name was Mohammed Ibn 
Jabir Ibn Senan Abd 'Abdilhih, and he was 
further known by the surnames of Al-harrani, 
because he was originally from Harrah, the 
ancient Charrse in Mesopotamia, and Al- 
bateni, because he was bom at Baten, a small 
town of that district He seems to have lived 
in the ninth century; for he informs us in 
one of his works that he made an astrolabe 
for the use of Al-mu*tamed 'alai-ilUih, the 
fifteenth khalif of the race of 'Abbas, who 
reigned from a.h. 257 to 279 (a.d. 870 — 
892); and it appears firom his treatise on the 
advantages of astrology that he began his 
observations in a.h. 264 (a.d. 877), and con- 
tinned them till 306 (a.d. 918), sometimes 
at Rakkah, the ancient Aracta, where he 
generally resided, and sometimes at Bagh- 
dad. In one of his visits to Baghdad, Al- 
bateni was attacked by an acute disorder, of 
which he died in a.h.317 (a.d.929). Ibn 
Kifti, in his Lives of the Arabian Philo- 
sophers, says that when Albateni felt his end 
approach, he requested his friends to carry 
him to Rakkah, that he might die there. He 
was accordingly placed on a litter, but he 
died on the road at a place called Kasru-1- 
jiss. Albateni wrote the following works: — 
1. An abridgment of and a commentary 
upon the almagest of Ptolemy, of which 
Ab6-l-feda mentions two editions, and says 
that the second is the best 2. A work di- 
vided into fifty-seven chapters, treatinp^ on 
astronomy and geography, and containing 
also chronological tables of the kings of 
Syria, Egypt, Persia, and India, as well as of 
the Greeks and Romans, the Mohammedan 
khalifs, &c ; the principal events from the 
creation to the author's own times ; the lati- 
tudes and longitudes of the principal cities in 
the world ; and, lastly, a set of astronomical 
tables. There is a copy of this work in the 
Escurial library. No. 903. 3. An abridgment 
of the Arabic transhition of the geometrical 
works of Archimedes. 4. A treatise on the 
advantages of astrology (Bib, Em. 966.). 5. A 
commentary upon the ** makalat" or quadri- 
partitus of Ptolemy (Bib. Esc. Na 967.). 
6. A collection of one hundred aphorisms on 
the utility and advantages of astronomy; 
which last work he appears to have composed 
at Rakkah in a. h. 266 (a. d. 879-80). 7. A 
treatise on the rising of the constellations, 
and the times of their conjunction. This 
last work was translated mto Latin, and 
printed at Niimberg in 1537, 4to., with notes 
6a 



and additions by Regiomontanus, " Alba- 
tegnius Astronomus peritissimus de motu 
Stellarum, ex Observationibus turn propriis 
turn PtolomeL" 8. Another elementary 
treatise on astronomy, entitled "Kitabu-l- 
mudakhel ila 'ilmi-n-nojum " (**The Book of 
Introduction to the Science of the Stars "). 
The labours of Al-bateni were of the greatest 
advantage to astronomy. He supplied the 
defects of the Ptolemosan tables by the 
construction of new astronomical tables ; 
he improved the theory of the sun, by deter- 
mining more accurately the apogee and the 
eccentricity, from the latter of which the 
diminution of that element was first ascer- 
tained ; it has since been demonstrated from 
the theory of gravitation, and used in explain- 
ing the secular equation of the moon. (De- 
lambre, Astronomie du moyen Age^ p. 10.; 
Lalande, AMtnnumie, L 120 — 127.; Abu-1- 
&raj, HitL Byn. p. 191. ; Casiri, Bib. Arab. 
Hisp. Esc. I 343.; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. 
voc ** Batan," « Batani.**) P. de G. 

ALBE, BACLER D' [Bacler-Dalbe.] 
ALBEDYHLL, BARON GUSTAF D', 
Swedish minister at the court of Copenhagen, 
was removed from that post on account of 
some political offence, when in justification 
of himself he published his " Pieces authen- 
tiques qui servent d'eclaircir U Conduite du 
Baron d* Albedyhll, dans T Affaire qui se passa 
k Copenhague au Commencement de TAnnee 
1789." He also wrote " Recueil de Mc- 
moires, &c. relatift aux Affaires de I'Europe, 
et particuli^rement celles du Nord pendant la 
demidre Partie du 18me SiMe," 2 vols., 
Stockhohn, 1798—1811 ; ** Nouveau Mc- 
moire, &c." Stockhohn, 1798 ; and ** Skrifter 
blandadt dock mast politiskt och historiskt 
innehaU," 2 vols., Nykoping, 1799, 1810. 
He died August 11. 1819, leaving as his 
widow Eleanore Charlotte d'Albedyhll (be- 
fbre her marriage Countess of Wrangel), a 
lady who had obtained some literary celebrity 
by her ^ Gefion," a poem in four cantos, pub- 
lished at Upsala, 1814; and also by her talent 
for letter-writing, in which respect she has 
been compared to Madame de Sevigno. 
(Hermes, 1823.) W. H. L. 

ALBELDA, R. MOSES (HCnD n 
n"|^^3^K)f who is called also Ben Jaacob 
(the son of Jacob), a rabbi who was chief 
rabbi of the synagogue of Saloniki (the an- 
cient Thessalonica) during a considerable 
part of the sixteenth century, and where he 
died in the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. Plantavitius erroneously calls him a 
Sicilian. His works are — 1 . ** Derash Moshe " 
(or a mystical explanation of Moses), which 
consists of a collection of discourses on the 
Pentateuch, after which come a variety of 
miscellaneous discourses on marriage, death, 
excommunication, circumcision, and repent- 
ance. It was printed at Venice by Jo. de 
Gara, a. m. 5363 (a. d. 1603), in foho, edited 
by the author's two sons, R. Judah and 



ALBELDA. 



ALBELDA. 



R. Abraham Albelda, by whom many other 
works of their fiither are promised in the 
preface. His works which were published 
during the author's life are— 2. ** OUth Tamid " 
(" A continual Bumt-offermg ") (Exodus, 
xxix. 42.) ; a literal and mystical explanation 
of the Pentateuch firom the works of the 
rabbis and Jewish philosophers, which dis- 
plays, according to Bartolocci, considerable 
erudition: it is accompanied by a pre&tory 
dissertation on the whole work, and a shorter 
one on the first section of the book of 
Genesis, and at the end there is a copious 
table of the contents of each section of the 
work : it was printed at Venice by Jo. 
de Gara, a-m. 5861 (a.d. 1601), edited by 
the author's son, R. Judah Albelda, and re- 
vised by R. Moees Alpalaa. Buxtorf^ in 
his Bibliotheca Rabbinica, under ** Olath 
Tamid,** has fidlen into an error in making 
the date of the publication at Venice ▲. k. 
5286 (a. d. 1526), which would be about 
seventy-fiTe years before the author's death. 
3. **Reshith Daath" C«The Beginning of 
Knowledge ") (Proverbs^ L 7.), which is de- 
scribed as ** Biur al Hattorah" (** An Elucida- 
tion of the Law **). It consists of the yarious 
heads of the Hebrew fiiith, elucidated from 
the works of the most learned and philo- 
sophical rabbis, and is divided into books, 
sections, and chapters : it also treats of the 
coming of the Messiah, and of the peni- 
tential return of the Hebrew nation to God. 
It was printed at Venice, a. m. 5346 (a. d. 
1586), in 4to., or, accozding to Plantavitius, 
A. M. 5343 (a. d. 1563). 4. «' Shaare Dimah" 
(" The Gates of Tears") is a moral work, 
which treats of the vanity and uncertainty of 
all mortal things. According to the " Siphte 
Jeshenim,'* it is a commentary on the La- 
mentations of Jeremiah : it is divided into 
four parts, which are again subdivided into 
sections, and it treats, among other matters, of 
the calamities to which all men, but especially 
those who desire to live to God, are exposed ; 
it then goes on to show, both from the Hol^ 
Scriptures and from the writings of the phi- 
losophers, how these calamities are to be 
combated by the brave and wise. It was first 
printed at Venice, according to the " Siphte 
Jeshenim," a. m. 5346 (a.d. 1586), in 4to., and 
again immediately after the author's death 
by his eldest son and executor, R. Judah 
Albelda; also at Venice by Dan. Zanetti, 
A. H. 5361 (a« d. 1601), in folio, corrected by 
R. Moses Alpalas ; and a third time at Venice 
by Jo. de Gara, a. m. 5364 (a. d. 1604), in 4to. 
** The Biur al Hattorah " C' Elucidation of the 
Law") of R. Moses Albelda was also printed 
at Constantinople, in folio, with the com- 
mentaries on tiie Pentateuch of three other 
rabbis, R. Sam. Almosnino, R. Jacob Kanisel, 
and R. Aaron Abu Aldari, and a part of 
the commentary of Nachmanides. R. Shabtai, 
indeed, in his alphabeticid index to the 
' ~ i Jeshenim," has made another Moses 
642 



Albelda of the author of this commentary 
but it appears to have been a mere oversight, 
as we &id no account of two writers of this 
name. Basnage, in his History of the 
Jews, referring to this author, twice calls 
him, erroneously, Abelda. (Bartoloccius, 
BibUotL Mag. BaAb. iv. 59, 60. ; Wolfius, 
BMwdu Hebr, L 804. iii 729, 730. ; De Rossi, 
DizioiL Storico degli Autori Ehr, L 43. ; 
Basnage, Histoire dea Juift, ix. 843. ; Le Long, 
BiblwdL Sacm, ii 867, 868. ; Plantavitius, 
BibiioOu Babb. 136. 433. ; Ftorikg, Bobbin, 
565, 626.) C. P. H. 

ALBEMARLE, Earl of. [Keppel.] 
ALBEMARLE, Duke ot [Monk.] 
AI.BENAS, JEAN POLDO D', m 
French writer of the sixteenth century, bom 
at Nimes, a.d. 1512. He was educated for 
the bar, and became counsellor of the Pre- 
sidial or Superior Court of Nimes and Beau- 
caire. He embraced the Reformed religion, 
and his influence promoted, its extension at 
Nimes. He died a.d. 1565. He published 
a French translation of the Prognostics 
of St Julian, archbishop of Toledo, and of 
the History of the Thaborites of Bohemia, 
written hy ^neas Sylvius, afterwards Pope 
Pius IL But his chidf work is on the history 
and antiquities of Nimes, entitled ^ Discours 
Historial de Tantique et illnstre Cite de 
Nimes," fol. Lyon, 1560. This work is illus- 
trated with engravings of the ground plan 
and elevation cf the principal antiquities of 
the city, reduced to a certain scale. (Bio- 
graphie UniverMe; Albenas, DUcours, ^. de 
Nimes.) J. C. M. 

ALBENEPHI, or ABEN NEPHI, BAR- 
NESIA CDyi pK 1« ^D^iWK nX^D^i-Q), 
an Arabian Jew whose works on Egyptian 
Antiquities are frequently quoted by Kircher, 
in his CEdipus JEgyptiacxu, as for instance 
in his book "DeMysteriis^^Sgyptiorum; and 
also in his book **De Servitute .^Sgyptiaca" 
" On the Slavery in Egypt "). According to 
Imbonati, Father Kircher translated the work 
of this author ** De Sapientia ^gyptiorum, 
eorumque Symbolica Philosophia," (" On the 
Wisdom of the Egyptians, and their Sym- 
bolical Philosophy,") from the Arabic into 
Latin ; but he does not inform us whether 
this work of the learned Jesuit is in print, or 
where the manuscript is deposited. (Imbo- 
natus, BiUioth. Lat Hebr. p. 9. ; Kircherus, 
CEdipus JEgypt. L 249. 277. ; Wolfius, Biblioth. 
Hebr. iiL 11. 89. 166.) C. P. H. 

ALBENGNEFIT. [Ibn Wapi'd.] 
ALBER, ERASMUS, more commonly 
called by the Latinised form of his name 
Alberus, was a contemporary of Luther, and 
one of the most zealous supporters of the 
Reformation in Germany. The year of his 
birth is unknown, and even his native phu% 
is uncertain. According to some he was 
bom in the Wetterau, and according to others 
at Sprendlingen, not far from Dmnstadt 
He was educated at Nidda and Mainz ; and 



AI^ER. 



ALBER. 



about 1621 lie was studying theology at Wit- 
tenberg, where be became intimately ac- 
quainted with Luther, who entertained great 
esteem for him. After the completion of his 
studies he exerted himself to propagate the 
doctrines of Luther, and was successively 
teacher or preacher in yarious places, as at 
St. Ursel, Gotzenhain, Sprendhngen, Neu- 
brandenbnrg in the Mittelmark, Suiden, Ba- 
benhaosen, and Magdeburg. He did not 
remain long in any of these places ; for his 
inclination to satire and his resolute oppo- 
sition to what he considered abuses in church 
or state, generally led to a speedy dismissal. 
During 1562, and the commencement of the 
next year, he Ured as a priTBte person at 
Hamburg ; but at the close of this period 
he was appointed superintendent-general at 
Neubrandenburg in Mecklenburg. He had 
scarcely entered on his new official duties, 
when he died on the 5th of May, 1553. 

Alber was one of the most learned and 
witty men of his a^, and a zealous and in- 
defiiiigable champion of the Reformation, 
which he supported by teaching and by 
numerous controversial and satirical writings. 
His satire is not of the most refined kind : 
it is always coarse, and sometimes obscene. 
He indeed always hits what he aims at, 
but his blows, as it has been justly observed, 
are not those of a sharp sword, but of a heavy 
bludgeon. Alber had great talent for nar- 
rative, as appears from his forty-nine .£sopic 
fables, which, however, do not possess that 
easy flow and simplicity which distinguish 
tiie fables of his contemporary Burkard Wal- 
dis. He also wrote nany sacred songs, which 
are full of original ideas, and show deep 
religions feeling. But even here he could 
not control his satirical turn, and he occa- 
sionally dealt hard blows against the enemies 
of the Reformed religion and those Protest- 
ants who differed from Luther. Some of his 
sacred songs, however, were highly valued, 
and were incorporated in the hymn-books 
used in churches: as poetical productions 
they are certainly not inferior to any of that 
age, except those of Luther himseH Most 
of his works are written in High German ; 
a few are in Low German. Alber's chief 
works are — 1. ** Der Barfusser Miinche Eu- 
lenspiegel und Alcoran, mit einer schonen 
Vorrede Martin Luther's," without date or 
place, in 12mo. It was reprinted at Witten- 
berg, 1 542, 4to., and without place in 1 573, 8vo. 
Another edition appeared at Halle, 1615, 4to. 
This work is an abridgment of the Conform- 
ationes S. Francisci of Bartholomsus Albi- 
cius of Pisa, in which the resemblance of 
S. Franciscus to Christ is set forth, and sup- 
ported by various miraculous occurrences of 
his life. Alber added to these stories nu- 
merous satirical and sarcastic notes, which 
made the work so popular that it was trans- 
lated into Latin, French, and Dutch. 2. 
** Neue Zeitung von Rom, woher das Mord- 
643 



brennen komme; item Pasqnini und Mar- 
forii neue Te Deum Landamus von Pabet 
Paulo IIL zu Rom in Lateinischer Sprache 
gesungen, verdeutscht dnrch Pabstl. Heilig- 
keit guten Freund Erasmum Alberum,'' 1541, 
4to., without place. The work is a bitter 
satire on the pope. 3. ** Ein Dialogus oder 
Gesprach etlicher Personen vom Interim. 
Item vom Krieg des Antichrists zu Rom, 
Babst Paul! UL mit HiUfF Kaiser CaroU Y., 
&c." 1548, 4to., without place. This is like- 
wise a very severe satire : it is sometimes 
y^!Fy coarse. 4. ** Eilend aber doch wohlge- 
trofihe Contrafbctur, da Jorg Witzel abge- 
malet ist, wie er dem Judas Ischariot so gar 
ahnlich sieht,'* in 4to., without date or place. 
This is a satiric poem on George Wizelius, 
who was first a monk, then embraced the 
Protestant religion, and subsequently re- 
turned to Roimui Catholicism. 5. *^Dass 
der Glaub an Christum allein gerecht und 
selig mach, widder Jorg Witzeln Mamme- 
luken und Ischarioten, item von Jorg Wit- 
zeFs Leben und dabei Ludus Sylvani ver- 
deutscht, ser Kurtzweilig zu lesen," 1549, 
8va, without place. 6. ** De grote Woldadt, 
so unser Here Godt dorch den truwen unde 
diiren Propheten Doct Martinum Luther, yn 
der Graveschop Mannsfelde gebaren, der 
Werldt ertoget unde den Romischen Widder- 
christ geapenbaret, &c.'* 1546, 4to., without 
place. This is a kind of epic poem in praise 
of Luther. 7. " Ehcbuchlein," 1539, 4to., 
without place. It was subsequently pub- 
lished under the title *'Lustiger Dialogus 
edder Gespriike twischen twee Fruwen 
Agatha unde Barbara, deren de eine eeren 
Manns eheldet, de andere bLwet,"* 1605, 8vo., 
without place. 8. **Das Buch von der Tugent 
und Weisheit, nemlich xux Fabeln, der 
mehrere Theil aus Esopo gezogen und 
mit guten Rheimen verkleret." Frankfort, 
1550, 4to.; reprinted at Frankfort, 1579. 
(J. J. Korber, Beitrag xu der Lebensbe- 
schreibung Eraani Alberi, einea der ersten 
Reformatoren in der Wetterau, Hanau, 1754, 
4to.; G. G. Gervinus, Geachickte der PoeHscK 
National Literatur der Deutachen, iii. p. 25. 
32, Sec, 53, &c.; Jordens, Lexikon Deutacher 
Dichter und Prosaisten, i. 28 — 36.) L. S. 

ALBERGA'TI, ANTO'NIO, bUhop of 
Veglia or Biseglia, in the kingdom of Naples, 
was the son of Fabio Albergati. He was 
bom at Bologna on the 16th of September, 
1566 ; and after filling the offices of apo- 
stolical referendary, governor of Todi, and 
archdeacon of Milan, was appointed to the 
bishopric of Yeglia by Pope Paul V., on the 
3d of August, 1609. While papal nuncio at 
Cologne under Gregory XY., he founded 
there a society in aid of Roman Catholics 
newly converted to the faith. He also esta- 
blished other institutions for the purposes of 
general and religious instruction, which were 
supported at his private cost during his life- 
time. In 1627 he resigned his bishopric 



ALBERGATI. 



ALBERGATI. 



and from that time resided constantly at 
Rome, where he died on the 4th of January, 
1634. He is the author of a work entitled 
" I treLibri dellaGoida spirituale," published 
at Bologna in 1628, 8yo. ; he also edited ** Le 
Morali," written by his father Fabio, and is 
conjectured to be the author of a work called 
" Antonii Albergati Instructio et Decreta 
Generalia pro PastoribusCivitatiset Dicecesis 
Leodiensis. Leodii, 1614, 4to.'* (Bumaldus, 
Bibliotheca Bononiensis, 20. ; Orlandi, Notizie 
degii Scrittori Bclogneti, 58. ; Ughellus, Italia 
Sacra, viL 949.) J. W. J. 

ALBERG A'TI, F A'BIO, a native of Bo- 
logna, ancestor of the marquises of the same 
name, was bom about the middle of the six- 
teenth century. He was one of the most 
celebrated literati of his time in Italy. Pope 
Innocent IX. made him castellan of Perugia ; 
and Orlandi asserts that he was also consis- 
torial advocate. This latter statement is not, 
however, supported by any collateral evi- 
dence. He was held in great esteem by 
Pope Urban VIIL, and in 1589 was sent as 
papal ambassador to the court of Francesco 
Maria della Rovere, the last Duke of Urbino, 
by whom he was greatly beloved : the duke 
and he had been fellow students in their 
youth. By his wife, the Countess Flaminia, 
daughter of the Count Antonio Bentivogli, 
he had six sons and five daughters. One of 
his daughters, Lavinia, became the wife of 
the Duke Orazio Lodovisi, the brother of 
Gregory XV. A bronze medal was struck 
in honour of him, bearing on the obverse his 
effigy, with the words ** Fabius Albergati 
Mon. Canini Marchio ; '* and on the reverse, 
Mling dew, with the legend ** Divisa bea- 
tum.*' His death took place about the year 
1605. The following is a list of his works : 
1. *' Del Modo di ridurre alia Pace le Inimi- 
cizie private. Roma, 1583," fol. 2. ** Del 
Cardinale, Libri IH. Bologna, 1589," 4to. 
3. " Dei Discorsi Politic! Libri cinque, nei 
quali viene riprobata la Dottrina politica di 
Giovanni Bodino, e difesa quella d*Aristotile. 
Roma, 1602," 4to. 4. '* Le Morali," edited 
by his son Antonio, bishop of Biseglia. Bo- 
logna, 1627, fol. 5. "La Repubblica regis. 
Bologna, 1627," fol 6. " Ragionamento al 
Cardmale S. Sisto come nipote di Papa Gre- 
gorio. Milano, 1600." 4to. He left several 
other works in MS., which were preserved 
in the library of the Duke of Urbino above 
mentioned. (Orlandi, Notizie degli Scrittori 
Bolocpie/tif p. 109.; Dolfi, Cronohffia deUe Fa- 
miglie NobiU di Bologna, p. 33. ; Bumaldus, 
Bibliotheca Bononiensis, p. 65. ; Mazzuchelli, 
Scrittori (T Italia,) J. W. J. 

ALBERGA'TI-CAPACELLI, FRAN- 
CESCO, marquis, senator of Bologna, was 
bom of a rich and nobfe family in that city 
in 1728. His character has been variously 
represented. By some he is described as 
addicted to every vice, while others speak of 
him as not only eigoying but meriting the 
644 



affection and respect of the great and the 
leamed. The events of his life, so fiu* as 
they have been transmitted to us, ' would 
appear to indicate infirmity of temper rather 
than depravity of heart His education was 
suited to his rank. He studied law under 
Vemizzi, and had for his master in philo- 
sophy and mathematics the celebrated Fran- 
cesco Zanetti. His imagmation was lively 
and his person handsome. He married early 
a lady his equal in rank, who was both rich 
and beautiftd ; but the union proved unfor- 
tunate; their affection speedily became in- 
difference, which was succeeded by mutual 
dislike, and a legal separation was the con- 
sequence. Albergati early displayed a strong 
propensity for theatrical representations, and 
his high powers of declamation, which he 
improved by careful and unremitting prac- 
tice, gained him great reputation, and caused 
him to be universally r^erred to as a model 
in the art He erected at his villa of Zola, 
near Bologna, a theatre capable of holding 
three hundred persons, m which, in the months 
of May and June in each year, he represented 
plays, many of which were of his own com- 
position, to a brilliant audience. During 
these periods Zola was filled with the first 
&milie8 of Bologna, who were hospitably 
entertained. In the year 1766 he retired to 
Verona, where he lived for some time, and 
afterwards spent many years at Venice, only 
returning occasionally to Zola to enjoy for a 
season the pleasures of his theatre. He had 
already married again, and his second wife 
had brought him two children, when this 
union was dissolved by a most unexpected 
and dreadftd event, which took place at Zola. 
The domestics were one day alarmed by 
loud screams fh)m the apartments of the 
marchioness, who rushed out wounded in 
several places, and shortly expired. Suspicion 
immediately fell upon her husband, who, it 
was reported, being of a violent temper, had 
stabbed her in a fit of jealousy, and this sus- 
picion derived strong confirmation from his 
behaviour on the occasion and the circum- 
stance of his sword being found stained with 
blood. Criminal proceedings having been 
instituted against him, he retired hastily to 
Venice, and intrusted his defence to the 
celebrated jurisconsult Ignazio Magnani, 
having in the mean time procured for himself 
the title of general in the service of Poland — 
a rank which insured him against arrest 
The result of the trial was a full acquittal. 
He married a third time (according to the 
Biographic Universelle, a dancer named 
Zampieri), and died on the 16th of March, 
1804. His passion for the drama appears 
never to ha-ve been extinguished ; and during 
forty years of his life he occupied himself 
solely with reading, composing, translating, 
and reciting theatrical pieces. Goldoni, in 
his own memoirs, says of him, " In all Italy 
there were none, professed actors or amateurs. 



ALBERGATl. 



ALBERGATI. 



who could equal him in the parts of Ae 
heroes of tragedy or the lovers in comedy. 
He was the delight of his neighbourhood at 
Zola and Medicina, his estates; and was 
seconded by actors and actresses whom he 
animated by his intelli^nce and his expe- 
rience. I had the happmess to contribute to 
his enjoyments, having composed five pieces 
for his theatre." The pieces referred to by 
Goldoniare, "II Cavaliere di Spirito," "La 
Donna biaarra," " L' Apatista," "L*IIosteria 
della Pofita," and " L* Avaro." Albergati was 
the friend and correspondent of Pope Bene- 
dict XIV., Stanislaus Augustus, king of 
Poland, Voltaire, Cesarotti, Fontenelle, and 
Alfieri. Although a good tragic actor, his 
writings are confined to comedy, farce, and 
satirical productions, which were more con- 
genial with the natural disposition of his 
mind. His principal works are as foUow : — 
"Lettere Capricciose ;" " Ragionamento in 
Morte de Si^. A. Haller ;" " Dodici Novelle 
morali.'* Nmeteen dramatic pieces, viz. " I 
Pregiudizj del &lso Onore ;" " 11 Matrimonio 
improviso ;" " D Prigioniero;" "La Taran- 
tola ; " " Emilia ; " " L'Ospite infedele j " " II 
saggio Amico," in two parts; "L'Amor 
finto e L*Amor vero;" "H Pomo;" "La 
Notte;" "Amor non puo celarsi;" "Le 
Convulsioni;" "Rodolfo;" "Oh I che bel 
Caso ; " " Le Vedove innamorate ; " " II 
Ciarlator maldicente;" "L*Uomo di Garbo ;" 
"II Gazzetticre;*' "La Vendetta virtuosa." 
He also made various translations, the most 
important of which are versions of nineteen 
tragedies, and other dramatic pieces by Vol- 
taire, Racine, Fontenelle, and others. The 
whole of his works have been published 
in twelve vols. 8vo. at Venice, 1783-5. "I 
Pre^udiiQ del falso Onore" and "D saggio 
Amioo" are considered the best of his come- 
dies, and " Le Convulsioni," although rather 
too caustic, is the best amongst his fkrces. 
(Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani lUustri de 
Secoio XF///. V. 179.; Zacchiroli, Elogia 
di F, Aibergati-Capacelli ; Anno TeatraUe, 
an. 3. iv. 104. ; Mimoires de Goldoni^ L 346.) 

J. W. J. 

ALBERGA'TI, LU'CIO, a native of Bo- 
logna, who lived in the latter half of the tenth 
century, and was celebrated for his learning 
(particularly his skill in laujguages) and his 
piety. He wrote the following works, none 
of which have been printed : — 1. " De Vir- 
ginitate, Libri III." 2. " De Angelorum 
Lapsu, Liber L" 3. •" De An^lorum Hier- 
archiis, Libri V." 4. "Qusstiones super Li- 
brum SapientisB Salomonis, Libri VI." 5. 
"Super Pentatenchum Commentaria." 6. 
" De Ecdesia et Religione, Libri IV." 7. " De 
ultimis Temporibus et Mundi Tribulationi- 
bus, Libri III." (Bumaldus, BiUiotheca Bono- 
niensit, 150. ; Ghirardacci, Hiatoria di Bologna, 
L 48.) J. W. J. 

ALBERGATI, NICCOLO\ cardinal, 
son of Pietro Niccolo Albergati, was bom 
645 



at Bologna in 1375. He studied law until 
his twentieth year under Giovanni Andrea 
Calderini, but having one day, while hunt- 
ing, taken refuge from a storm in a Car- 
thusian monastery, he was so strongly affected 
by the midnight service, in which he took 
part, that he determined to join the order. 
He soon became distinguished for his piety. 
In the year 1407, twelve years after h>s 
noviciate, he was elected prior of the Certoga 
at Bologna, and in 1417 was chosen bishop 
of Bologna by the separate elections of the 
republican rulers of the city and the clergy. 
He was active in the discharge of his episcopal 
duties, though he had unwillingly quitted the 
seclusion of his convent He exerted him- 
self to reform the licence and irregularity 
which had grown up among the clergy and 
the laity during the papal contests ; and on the 
election of Martin V. he was the active and 
successful agent of the pope in bringing about 
a temporary accommodation between him 
and the city of Bologna, which had thrown 
off its dependence upon Rome during the 
schism between Benedict XIII., Gregory XII., 
and John XXIII. 

From this time he was almost constantly 
employed in missions of a public character, 
for which he was peculiarly fitted by his 
eloquence and ability and his high reputation. 
Martin, being anxious to make peace between 
Henry V. of England and the Dauphin of 
France, afterwards Charles VII., despatched 
Albergati as his nuncio to both courts in 
1422 ; but his efforts were on this occasion 
rendered abortive by the death of Henry 
and the French king. Four years afterwards 
the pope presented him with the cardinal's 
hat and xnade him archpriest of the basilica 
di Santa liaria Maggiore, and in the same 
year despatched him as his legate to Venice 
and the Duke of Milan, for the purpose of 
putting an end to the war which had arisen 
in consequence of the attempts of the duke 
upon Forli and Pisa. After great exertions, 
in a second journey to these powers in 1428, 
he succeeded in concluding a peace between 
all parties. In 1431 he was present as papal 
legate at the council of Basil, over which be 
presided jointly with three other cardinals, 
and maintained with firmness the rights of 
the pope (then Eugenius IV.), and imme- 
diately afterwards sat as president of the 
council which was held first at Ferrara and 
afterwards at Florence. He was again deputed 
as papal legate to France and England in the 
year 1435, and on this occasion succeeded in 
establishing a peace between France and the 
Duke of Burgundy at the congress at Arras ; 
and four years afterwards he went to the con- 
gress at Numberg, for the purpose of pro- 
tecting the interests of the pope and the 
church. 

Disease, the austerity of his life, and the 
dangers and hardships he had endured in 
many of his missions, fVequently incurring 



ALBERGATI. 



ALBERGATL 



^at personal risk, had now rendered rest 
indispensable, and on his return to Rome he 
was appointed chamberlain and grand peni- 
tentiary. He was seized with fever while 
accompanying Eugenios from Florence to 
Rome, and died at the Angostinian conrent 
at Siena on the 9th of May, 1443. 

Albergati was remarkable for his modesty, 
patience, charity, and firmness in the dis- 
charge of his duties, and likewise for great 
diplomatic skill in the management of the 
various delicate and important commissions 
intrusted to him. He founded several chari- 
table and religious institutions, particularly 
two hospitals for foundlings. He was a man 
of considerable learning, and collected an 
extensive library. The following are his 
works : — 1. ** RecoUccta multtt Lection'is." 

2. "De inexcusabili Peccatoris Nequitia." 

3. ''Orationes ad Venetos et Pfailippum 
Vicecomitem Mediolani pro Pace." 4. ** Ser- 
mones multu" 5. ** Epistolie eruditissims." 
There are also in the library of the Institute 
of Bologna, in MS., according to Fantuzzi, 
6. "Collationes ex Divinis Scripturis et ex 
SS. Patribus, pro Pace procuranda inter Prin- 
oipes." 7. " Laudes S. Elizabeth Reginse 
FiltsB Regis Hungarian.** 8. " Probatio et 
Defensio Virginitatis B. MarisB et ejusdem 
virginese Fecunditatis adversus Hereticos.*' 

9. ** De Nuptiis male damnatis a ManichsBis." 

10. "Relatio ad Bononienses de Rebus et 
Conventionibus quas ipse cum summo Pon- 
tifice Bononiensium Nomine pertractavit" 

11. "Spirituale Connubium." Orlandi, in 
his " Notizie degli Scrittori Bolognesi," states 
that several of his discourses and letters were 
printed at Toulouse. Among those attached 
to his service were Tommaso Parentucelli, 
his Maestro di Casa, who afterwards became 
pope, and took the name of Nicolas V., and 
the celebrated Enea Silvio Piccolomini, after- 
wards Pius XL, who accompanied him to 
France as his secretary. (Fantuzzi, Notizie 
degli Scrittori Bolognesi; Cavallo, Vita di B, 
liiedo Albergati ; Cardella, Memorie Storiche 
de' Cardinali, iil 44.) J. W. J. 

ALBERGATI, PIRRO CAPACELLI, 
member of a noble Bolognese fSamily, attained 
some celebrity as a composer in the beginning 
of the eighteenth century. Several of his 
operas were performed at Bologna, among 
them *«Gli Amici** in 1699, and ** II Prin- 
cipe Selvaggio*' in 1712. A set of his sacred 
cantatas for voices and instruments was pub- 
lished at Modena in 1703. Between the years 
1685 and 1702 he published at Bologna se- 
veral motets, psalms, and a mass for voices 
and instruments, as well as his oratorio of Job. 
(Gerber, Lexicon der TonkunstUr,) E. T. 

ALBERGATI. VIANE'SIO, son of Fa- 
biano Albergati The date of his birth is 
not known, but he took his degree of doctor 
in civil and canon hiw in 1516. He was ap- 
pointed apostolical prothonotary by Leo X., 
and, according to Ughelli and otiiers, was 
646 



made bishop of Ciyazzo; but 
the truth of this last statement is doubted by 
Fantuzzi He died in 1529, and left behind 
him two works in manuscript : one was 
deposited in the library of Cardinal Barberini 
at Rome, No. 2739., entitled '* Vianesii Alber- 
gati Commentarii Rerum sui Temporis," m 
work replete with exact and important details 
of all that took place in Rome and the con- 
clave firom the death of Adrian VI. to the 
election of Clement VIL The other, ** Liber 
manualis Compntomm Exitus et Introitus 
Cam. Apost in Hispania," embracing the 
period from the 20th July, 1520, to the 26th 
February, 1522. This latter work is pre- 
served in the Vatican. (Masinua, Bologna 
perluatrata, il 103. ; Fantuzzi, Notizie degli 
Scrittori BolognesL) J. W. J. 

ALBERGHETTI, ALFONSO, a Fer- 
rarese sculptor of the latter part of the six- 
teenth century. In the house of the Counts 
Costabili of Ferrara there are two richly 
ornamented vases of bronze ; the ornaments 
consist of figures and arabesques of every 
description. Inside the vases is the following 
inscription : — ** Alfonsi Albergeto Ferrarenai 
me fecit anno Domini 1572." Also in the 
interior of one of the magnificent wells in the 
court of the ducal palace at Venice is written 
♦♦ Alberghctti, 1559." (Cicognara, Storia 
della Scultura.) R. N. W. 

ALBERGO'NI, ELEUTE'RIO. bishop of 
Monte Marrano in the kingdom of N^les, 
was a native of Milan, and Uved in the end 
of the sixteenth and commencement of the 
seventeenth centuries. He was a learned 
theologian and celebrated preacher, and filled, 
among others, the offices of reader in the 
cathedral of Milan, consultore of the holy 
office of the Inquisition, and provincial of the 
province of Milan. His merit alone is said 
to have raised him to the episcopal dignity, 
which was conferred upon him by Pope 
Paul V. on the 29th of October, 1611. He 
held his bishopric twenty-five years, and 
died in 1636. The followmg is a list of his 
works : — 1. ** Resolutio Doctrinse Scoticse, 
in qua quid Doctor subtilis circa singulas 
quas exagitat Qusstiones sentiat, etsi op- 
positum sdii opinentur, brevibus ostenditur. 
Paduse, 1593," 4to. 2. "* Concordanza degli 
Evangey correnti nelle cinque Domeniche 
di Quaresima con Cantico della B. Ver- 
gine. Milano, 1594," 8vo. 3. " Trattato 
della Gratitudine, dell' Ingratitudine, dell* 
Allegrezza saiutevole et dell' Umilt^ per 
r Esposizione delli primi tre Versi del Can- 
tico della B. Vergine. Milano, 1598," 8vo. 
4. ** Sermon! fittti neH' Occasione delle Qua- 
rante Ore. Milano, 1598," 8vo. 5. "Pre- 
dica del Modo di lodare e di esaltare Dio 
nelhi Cattedra sopra TEvangelio : super Cathe- 
dram Moysis sederunt Scribe et Pharissi, 
&c 1606," 4to. 6. "Prediche per le Do- 
meniche dell* Avvento e Santo Natale dette 
in S. Pietro di Roma. Roma, 1631," 8vo. 



ALBERGONI. 



ALBERICO. 



7. " Connexio Evangeliomm Quadragcsima- 
lium et Pi^morain. Roms, 1631," 4to. 8. 
**Lezio]ii sopra il Magnificat concordanti 
con gli Evangey Ambrogiani. Roma, 1631,** 
8vo. (Argellatus, Bibliotheca Scrmtorum 
Medkianenaium, 1745, 1 16. ii. 1934. ; Morigi, 
La NobiUa di Milano, 1619, p. 289. ; Mazza- 
chelli, Scrittori d'llaha.) J. W. J. 

ALBERGOTTI, FRANCESCO, a na- 
Uye of Arezzo, son of Alberlco Albergotti, a 
lawyer, was bom in 1304. He studied under 
several professors of law, the most eminent 
of whom was Baldo. Albergotti, after taking 
the degree of doctor, settled as a practising 
advocate in his native town. The per- 
suasions of his friends induced him in 1349 
to remove to Florence. The reputation 
which he gained at Florence by his writings, 
lectures, and forensic displays induced the 
republic to inscribe him among its own pa- 
tricians. He was nominated ambassador, in 
1358, to settle some dispute about boundaries 
which had arisen between Florence and 
Bologna. He died at Florence in 1376. 
Mazzuchelli mentions two MS. works of 
Albergotti as preserved in his day in the 
library of the Spanish college at Bologna : 
** Commentaria in Libros Digestorum ; '* 
** Commentaria in Partes quasdam Codicis" 
(the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth books). 
Several of his legal opinions were publish^ 
along with those of Gio. Battista S&rzianese 
at Venice, in 1573 : one is included in Ziletti's 
collection of opinions of eminent jurists on 
questions of the law of marriage ; and several 
are said by Mazzuchelli to heive been pre- 
served in MS. in the library of the college 
of Spain at Bologna. Albergotti was called 
by his contemporaries the teacher of sub- 
stantial truth (solide veritatis doctor) : ^lis 
cUstinction he owed probably to his reputation 
as a consulting lawyer. (MuszucheUl, Scrit- 
tori d'ltalia.) W. W. 

A'LBERl, M., an Italian landscape painter 
or draughtsman, known only by engravings 
of six landscapes, inscribed ** Sei Paesagi 
dedicati alia Signora Marchese di Mancini 
di M. Alberi inv.** (Heineken, Dictionnaire 
des Artistes, Av.) R. N. W. 

ALBERIC, physician to the King of Bo- 
hemia, and afterwards archbishop of Prague, 
wrote two medical works about a.d. 1475, 
entitled ** Practica Medicinse et Regimen 
Pestilentis," and "Regimen Sanitatis," which 
were published at Leipzig, 1484, by Marcus 
Brandt (Fabricins, Biblioth, GreecOy voL xiii. 
p. 45, 46. ed. vet) W. A. G. 

ALBERICI. [Albrizzi.] 

ALBERI'CI, GIA'COMO, an ecclesiastic 
of the Augustine order, of which he was 
afterwards vicar-general, died at Rome in 
1610. His work " Catalogo degl* illustri 
Scrittori Venetiani," publish«i at iSolo^^na in 
1605, contains some account of the lives of 
Croce, Gabrielli, Zarlino, and their other 
eminent musical contemporaries. E. T. 

647 



ALBERICO DA BARBIA'NO was born 
of the family of the counts of Barbiano and 
lords of Cuneo in Piedmont, about the middle 
of the fourteenth century. After receiving 
the usual education of that time for young 
men of his condition, he embraced the mili- 
tary career under the celebrated English 
condottiere John Hawk wood. The soldiers 
of Hawkwood were foreigners, who for pay 
entered the service of the various Italian 
states which happened to be in want of them 
during the frequent wars between Florence, 
Pisa, the Visconti of Milan, and the pope. 
Several large bodies of these foreign mer- 
cenaries, styled companies, consisting of 
several tiiousand men and horse, under various 
leaders called condottieri, were roaming about 
Italy during the fourteenth century, selling 
their services to the highest bidder, and com- 
mitting all sorts of depredations.' Alberico, 
after learning the art of war under Hawk- 
wood, conceived the design of forming an 
Italian company with the view of supers^ing 
the employment of foreigners. He styled 
his band the company of St George, and was 
particular in the choice of the men whom he 
enlisted, and he subjected them to a stricter 
discipline than was established among the 
foreign mercenaries. Jacopo Attendolo, after- 
wards known by the name of Sforza, Braccio 
da Montone, and other celebrated Italian 
condottieri, served their apprenticeship imder 
Alberico. 

In the schism between Pope Urban VI. 
and the antipope, Robert cardinal of Geneva, 
styled Clement VII., a.d. 1378, Alberico en- 
tered the service of Urban. Clement had in 
his service the Breton company, which had 
already committed the greiUest atrocities at 
Cesena and other parts of the Romagna. 
Alberico encountered them at Marino, in the 
Campagna, totally routed them, and entered 
Rome in triumph in 1379. Clement escaped 
to Naples, where he was protected by Queen 
Joanna L, and Urban was seated in the pon- 
tifical chair. The Breton company was dis- 
banded, and Alberico assumed on his standard 
the legend ** Liberator ItalisB ab extemis." 
Soon after, Urban having invited Charles of 
Durazzo to e£fect the conquest of the king- 
dom of Naples, and excommunicated Queen 
Joanna, Alberico accompanied Charles in 
his expedition and contributed to his success, 
which terminated in the deposition of Queen 
Joanna. Charles, having become king of 
Naples, made Alberico great constable of the 
king^dom. Alberico af&rwards entered the 
service of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, duke of 
Milan, and defeated the league formed by 
Venice, Florence, the Marquis of Ferrara, 
and the Duke of Mantua. He next attacked 
Bologna, where Giovanni Bentivoglio had 
usur^ supreme power, and after a desperate 
fight in the streets Bentivoglio was taken and 
put to a cruel death, and Bologna became 
subject to the Visconti In 1402 Gian Ga- 



ALBERICO. 



ALBEUICO. 



loazzo Visconti died, whilst Alberico was 
fighting for him m Tuscany. Alberico, being 
slighted by the duchess regent, left the Mi- 
lanese service, and went to Naples to defend 
the young king, Ladislaus, against the An- 
gevins. He died at Trani, in Apulia, at the 
age of sixty, with the reputation of being one 
of the first captains of his age. (Bossi, 
Storia (T Italia ; Loraonaco, Vite dei fajHOsi 
Capitani cT Italia.) A. V. 

ALBERICO DE ROSCIATE, an emi- 
nent practical lawyer of the fourteenth cen- 
tury. He was born in the village after which 
he was named, a dependency of Bergamo. 
He studied law at Padua under ' Ricardus 
Mai umbra and Oldradus, and took the degree 
of doctor, but never lectured. He practised 
as an advocate in Bergamo, and was en- 
gaged in many transactions, for which a 
lawyer is not always selected as an agent 
He was member of a commission for re- 
vising the statutes of Bergamo, and was 
frequently employed oy Galeazzo Visconti, 
ruler of Milan. After his death, he con- 
tinued to ei^oy the confidence of his suc- 
cessors, Luchino Visconti and his brother 
John, bishop of Novara. He visited the 
court of Benedict XIL at Avignon, with a 
commission firom them in 1S40. In his de- 
clining years he gave up business to obtain 
leisure for the composition of his legal com- 
mentaries. In 1350 he repaired to Rome 
with his sons to witness the ceremonies of 
the year of Jubilee. He died in 1354. He 
composed commentaries on each of the three 
parts of the Digest, and on the Codex. The 
editions of these, as enumerated by Savign^, 
are — "A. Digestum vetus. Pars I. Re^i, 
1484 ; Lugduni, 1517 : Pars II. Papis, 
1499 ; Lu^uni, 1518." ♦* B. Infortiatum, 
Lugduni, 1516, 1517, 1534." « C. Diges- 
tum novum. Lugduni, 1517, 1518, 1548." 
" D. Codex, Mediolani, 1492 ; Lngduni, 
Pars I. 1545 ; Pars IL 1548 ; place of print- 
ing not named, 1534."— Alberico de Ro- 
sciate also composed a treatise on the statute 
law of Italian towns. It has been reprinted 
in Ziletti's great collection of law tracts 
(vol. ii. 1. 2 — 85.). The treatise is divided 
into four books, and each book contains a 
number of questions, with their solutions. 
In the first book the general doctrines of 
statute law are expounded in answers to one 
hundred and eighty-seven questions ; the 
second treats, under the rubric of two hun- 
dred and thirty-three questions, of statutes 
relating to civil controversies; "the word 
civil l:Sing taken in its widest acceptation, 
as embracing all pecuniary controversies, 
whether arising out of contracts or delicts ; " 
the third, containing the resolution of sixty- 
seven questions, treats of such penal statutes 
as ordain the infliction ot corporal punish- 
ment ; the fourth book is devoted to the 
explanation of proceedings in the case of 
persons against whom the ban either of (he 
648 



empire or of inferior jurisdictions has been 
pronounced. The work leaves a favourable 
impression of the sagacity of the author, and 
is calculated to throw much light upon the 
domestic history of the Italian communities 
of the fourteenth century. The editions of 
this work mentioned by Savigny are — that 
of Como, 1477 ; Venice, 1491, 1493, 1497 ; 
Milan, 1493. Savigny mentions a kind 
of Law Dictionary by Alberico, which he 
says has been often reprinted, but which we 
have not seen. He describes it as containing, 
first, a collection of legal rules ; second, a 
glossary of law terms ; third, lists of pas- 
sages in the Corpus Juris where certain legal 
phrases occur. All these materials are mixed 
and arranged in alphabetical order. Alberi- 
co, it would i^[>pear, had composed two works 
of this kind, one for the canon and the other 
for the civU law. An anonymous editor 
blended the two works into one, and in this 
form it has been printed. Some editions 
have, by way of appendix, two little treatises 
composed by Alberico : — ** De Orthogra- 
phia }" "De Accentu." He also left a trans- 
lation of the Latin commentary on Dante 
by Jacopo della Loma, of which manu- 
script copies are understood to be preserved 
in the libraries of Bergamo and Milan. Al- 
berico de Rosciate lived and wrote when 
the early legal school of the Glossators had 
fiillen into decay, and before a new life had 
been infused into the study of law by the 
revival of classical literature. His writings 
are judged deficient by Savigny both in 
point of taste and judgment ; but the same 
authority allows that they are better than 
those of most of his contemporaries, owing 
to his £Euniliarity with the practice of the 
law. (Savigny, GesckiclUe des RSmutchen, 
Reckta im Mittelalter, vl 112 — 121., where 
the other authorities are enumerated.) 

W.W. 
ALBERFCUS or ALBERFCO I., caUed 
by some Albertus, and styled the elder, 
count of Tusculum, and consul and patri- 
cian of Rome in the tenth century, was 
also duke of Spoletnm and Camerinum. 
He has been confounded by some writers 
with his contemporary Adalbert II. the 
Rich, marquis of Tuscany. Albericus 
married Maria, or Marozia, a Roman lady 
of noble birth, whose mother, Theodora, 
exercised a great influence in Rome. The 
historian Luitprandus speaks very ill of the 
conduct of both these women. Albericus had 
several sons by Marozia, one of whom was 
afterwards pope, under the name of John XI., 
and another, called Albericus the younger, 
was senator of Rome. Count Albericus joined 
Pope John X. and Landulfus, prince of Bene- 
ventum, in an expedition against the Saracens, 
who had invaded Campania, and totally 
defisated them on the banks of the Liris, a.d. 
916. Afterwards, however, the count and 
the pope quarrelled, and Albericus was obliged 



ALBERICUSI 



ALBERO. 



to leave Rome, where he had a mansion on 
the Aventine, and shut hhnself ap in his fief 
of Orta, the castle of -which he fortified. In 
revenge he is said to hare invited the Un- 
gri or Hnngari, which names are ^iven hy 
the chroniclers to a host of harbanans who 
had already appeared in North Italy, to invade 
the Roman territory, but the account of these 
Hungarian invasions is very obscure and 
contradictory. However, in the year 925 
Count Albericus was killed at Orta, says 
Sigonius, by the Romans, in an affray of 
which the particulars are not known. His 
widow Marosia afterwards married Wido, 
marqnis of Tuscany and son of Adalbert the 
Rich. (Rena, Serie dedi antichi Dvchi e 
Marchen di Toacanat Sigonius, De Regno 
Italia^ b. vi. ; Fatteschi, memorie del Dvchi 
di Spoieto,) A. V. 

AXBERrCUS II., or the younger, was 
with his mother Marozia when Hugo, king 
of Italy, came to Rome to marry her, 
after the death of Wido of Tuscany, a.d. 
930. Qugo is said by Luitprandus to have 
grossly insulted the Roman nobles, and Al- 
bericus himself who was waiting upon him. 
Albericus headed an insurrection against 
Hugo, and besieged him in the castle of St. 
Angelo, from which Hugo made his escape. 
Upon this Albericus assumed the title of 
prince of the Romans, ** Dei gratia Princeps 
atqne omnium Romanorum Senator." There 
was then a senate at Rome, consisting of the no- 
bles, and the president of the senate was styled 
** Princeps Senatus." He struck money with 
the legend *♦ Albericus P." Hugo marched 
against Rome in the year 982, and devastated 
the territory, but could not enter the city. 
Albericus confined his mother Marozia, an 
intriguing and dissolute woman, and let his 
brother Pope John XL attend to his spiritual 
duties, without any share, however, in the 
temporal power. In 936 King Hugo made 
peace with Albericus, and gave him his 
daughter Alda in marriage. Albericus 
governed Rome with full authority until his 
death, which happened about a.d. 954. His 
admmistration appears to have been firm and 
wise. His son Octavianus succeeded him as 
prince of Rome, and was afterwards made 
pope under the name of John XIL, a.i>. 956. 
(Conrigius Curtius, De Senatu Romano poet 
Tempus Reipublica libera ; Sigonius, De 
Regno liaJUcB ; Rena, Serie degli (Entichi Duchi 
e Marchesi di Toacana.) A. V. 

ALBERFNO. [Caccia, Guguelmus.] 

ALBE'RIUS, CLAUDIUS. [Aubert, 
Claude.] 

A'LBERO L, fifty-seventh bishop and 
prince of Liege, the see of which he occupied 
firom 1 123 to the Ist of January, 1 128. He 
was the son, by a previous husband, of Adela 
of Thuringia, who afterwards married Henry 
IL, count of Louvain. The most important 
event in the history of his bishopric is the 
abolition of the ** right of dead hand,*' which 

VOL.1. 



is explained by several authors as being the 
lord's right of claiming a heriot, or the best 
chattel of a house, when the &ther of a fEunily 
died, which might be redeemed by cutting off 
the hand of the deceased, and presenting it 
to the lord. Reiffenberg, who denies the 
correctness of this statement of the custom, 
suggests no other explanation of the origin 
of the phrase. The bishop, going one night, 
according to his practice, to say his prayers, 
at the door of one of the churches, overheard 
a poor widow bemoaning her fate, and ex- 
claiming, "^ Am I not unfortunate enough in 
losing my husband, but the bishop must come 
to take away my bed ? *' The next morning 
the bishop inquired into and abolished the 
claim, but for centuries afterwards it was a 
practice in Liege to leave in every will a 
legacy to the ehurch of St Lambert, as an 
acknowledgment of gratitude for deliverance 
from this tax. (Article by Reiffenberg in 
Biographk {7mtwr«e^ Suppl., i. 136.; Bouille, 
Histoire de la Vtlle etpays de Liege i. 144 — 
148.) T. W. 

AXBERO IL, fifty-ninth bishop and prince 
of Liege, was chosen to that see in the year 
1136. On the deposition of his predecessor 
Alexander, in 1134, by the council of Pisa, 
the Count of Bar had taken possession of the 
castle of Bouillon, which Albero was so 
anxious to recover, that he made two jour- 
nies to Rome to solicit the interference of the 
pope, and failing in both, resolved to try the 
effect of arms. The siege commenced in 
1140, and as it advanced slowly it was re- 
solved to bring the body of the martyr St 
Lambert into the camp. Two sons of the 
Count of Bar were defending the castle, one 
of whom, on the arrival of the martyr's body, 
proposed an instant surrender, and on being 
overruled fell into a kind of frenzy. A 
grand attack was made on the 17th of Septem^ 
ber, St Lambert's day ; but, unluckily for the 
credit of the martyr, it completely failed. The 
castle was however finally taken, principally 
by the valour of Henry tiie Blin<^ count of 
Namur, formerly the enemy and now the 
ally of Albero, and an annual festival was in- 
stituted in consequence in honour of St Lam- 
bert, firom gratitude for his assistance. It is 
owned by contemporary chroniclers that at 
the same time debauchery and immorality 
w(.re carried to the greatest height at Liege. 
Henry of Leyen, the provost of St Lambert, 
carried his complaints of these disorders to 
the pope, Eugene IIL, and Albero died on his 
way to Rome to answer the charge, towards 
the end of March, 1146. Henry of I>eyen 
was chosen his successor. (BouiUe, Histoire 
de la Ville et pays de Li^ge, i. 157—164. ; 
Dewez, Hiatoire Particidii-e des Provinces 
Belgiquee, I 135, &c.) T. W. 

ALBERCNI, OIAMB ATTIST A, a good 

architectural piunter of Bologna. He was 

the scholar cdP the celebrated Ferdinando 

Galli, called Bibiena. He distinguished him* 

D u 



ALBERONL 



ALBEBONL 



ielf as a stodent of the Bologneae academy, 
and was elected a member of it in 1730. 
(CreBpiyVtiede* PiUoriBolomeM,Src,) R.N.W. 
ALBERO'NI, OIU'LIO, born in the 
neighboorhood of Piacenza, in 1664, of 
hamUe parentage, entered the clerical pro- 
iession, and became the incumbent of a 
country parkh. It la said that the Frendi 
poet Campistron, while trayelling in Ital^, 
being waylaid and robbed near Alberom'a 
parsonage, foond an hospitable reception 
under Us roof, and that Alberoni gave him 
dothes and lent him money for his journey. 
Sereral years after, during the war of the 
Spanish succession, when the Duke of Yen- 
dome commanded the French army in North 
Italy, Campistron, who was in the suite of 
the duke, remembered his benefieu^r, whom 
he introduced to Vendome as a man of in- 
telligence and penetration, and who might be 
vseftil through his knowledge of the coontry. 
Vendome took Alberoni with him, made use 
of his local information for obtaining provi- 
sions for his soldiers, and was amused b^ his 
repartees and broad humour. Alberoni fol- 
lowed the duke to Paris, and from thence to 
Spain, whither Venddme was sent to com- 
mand the French troops. He made himself 
useful in the correspondence between the 
duke's head quarters and the court of Phi- 
lip v., in which the Princess des Ursins had 
the greatest influence. The princess was half 
Italian by her connectious, and Alberoni, 
by means of his shrewdness, ingratiated him- 
self with her, and after the end of the war 
he obtained the appointment of agent of the 
Duke of Parma and Piacenza at Sie court of 
Madrid. In this quality he negotiated in 
1714, the marriage of Elizabeth Famese, 
granddaughter of the late Duke Rannccio, 
and niece of Francesco, the reigning duke of 
Parma, with Philip V. The gratitude of the 
new queen promoted his advancement; he 
was first made a bishop, then he obtained 
a cardinal's hat, and lastly was made prime 
minister of Spain. Alberoni was an ambitions 
man, wi& an imagination under little restraint 
from judgment or principle. He wa« struck 
with the contrast between the condition of 
Spain under Philip IL and its actual state, and 
he thought that he could restore the declining 
Spanish kingdom to its former superiority in 
Europe. Above all, he aimed at restoring to 
Spain its former Italian dominions. Without 
heeding the family alliance of the present 
dynasty with the French Bourbons, he made 
large armaments in the various ports of Spahi, 
equipped a powerful fleet, in which a consi- 
derable force was embarked, and without any 
declaration of war, sent it in 1717 to invade 
the island of Sardinia, which had been se- 
cured to the emperor by the peace of Utrecht 
The imperial garrisons and authorities were 
taken by surprise, and Oagliari and other 
towns surrendered to the Spaniards in a few 
weeks. Another armament Was sent by 
650 



Alberoni against Sicily, which was in pos- 
session of tibe house of Savoy. Part of the 
island was occupied hf the Spanish forces, 
but the Spanish fleet was encountered by 
the Ekifflish under Admiral Byng and de- 
feated m August, 1718. All Europe, in- 
cluding Firance, now cried out against ths 
infraction of the treaty of Utredit, and an 
alliance wis formed against Spain. Alberoni 
showed a bold front : he endeavoured to ex- 
cite disturbances in various countries ; he 
fitvoored the pretender, James Stuart, to give 
employment to the Fiuglish at home ; he in- 
trigued with the Turks, and with Prince 
Ra^^|otsky of Transylvania, to carry on war 
against the emperor ; and he ^t forth claims 
on behalf of his master, Philip V., to the 
regency of France, against the Regent-duke 
of Orleans. But the allies, through the Duke 
of Parma, uncle of the Queen of ^lain, re- 
presented to Philip y. the danger to which the 
mad ambition of Alberoni exposed him, and 
by a court intri^ the all-powerftd minister 
was suddenly discarded and obliged to leave 
Spain in December, 1719. Alberoni retired 
to Genoa, where Pope Clement XL applied 
to have him arrested and brought to Rome, 
to abide his trial as a disturber of the public 
peace ; but the cardinal escaped to Switzer- 
land, where he wrote an apology for his mea- 
sures. After Clement's death, m 1721, Albe- 
roni obtained a safo-conduct to repair with 
the other cardinals to the conclave at Rome. 
The new pope elect. Innocent XIII., caused 
Alberoni's trial to be proceeded with, bat 
afterwards quashed the proceedings on the 
ground of informality. Alberoni retired for 
a time to his native town, Piacenza, where he 
founded a college, which still subsists and 
bears his name. Pope Clement XII. took 
him into fitvour, and sent him as legate to 
Ravenna. From thence, in the year 1739, 
he first intrigued with some disaffected citi- 
zens of San Bdarino, which republic had long 
maintained its independence under the papal 
protection, and he afterwards took forcible 
possession of that little state. But Pope 
Clement repudiated the conduct of his legate, 
and restored San Marino to its independence. 
This was the last political act of AlberonL 
Bemg recalled firom his government, he 
withdrew to private life, and died at an ad- 
vanced age, m 1752. He left some MSS., 
chiefly on political matters, out of which the 
book entitled ** Testament Politique d' Albe- 
roni," published in 1753, was said to have 
been compiled ; but the work has been con- 
sidered apocryphal. Jean Rousset has written 
the life of Alberoni in French, in 1 voL 12mo. 
(Muratori, Annali d* Italia; Botta, Storia 
d' Italia; and the other contemporary his- 
torians.) A. V. 
ALBERS, HEINRICH PHILIPP 
FRANZ, was bom at Hemeln, in Miinden, 
in 1768. He received his early education 
fhun his father, who was a clergymai^ and. 



ALBERS. 



ALBER8. 



afterwards went to Gdttingeii, where, having 
studied theology Ibr a year and medicine for 
three years, he received the degree of doctor 
of medicine. He practised at Stolzeoau, at 
Blumenan, and at Rehharg, and waa brun- 
nenan t or physician to the springs at Reh- 
borg fh>m 1805 to his death in 1630. 

Albers* chief work is hia account of the 
springs of Rehborg. It ia entitled ** Ueber 4m 
Bad Rehburg and seine Heilkriifte." Hanoyer, 
1830, 8vo. It contains all the oldeat recoida 
of cures effected by the waters, and reprints 
of the munerons papers on the same aulgect, 
which the author had pubUahed in the ** Neofi 
Hannoversche Annalen,** firom 1798 to 1808, 
and in Hufeland*8 ** Journal der Heilkunde," 
fhnn 1821 to 1829. Calliaen haa given a 
list of several other short easays on various 
medical questions contributed by Albers to 
the two journals already mentioned and to 
Hom*s **Archiv fiir Medic Erfahrungen." 
(Callisen, Medicausches Schri/Utdler Lexicon, 
bde 1. and 26.) J. P. 

ALBERS, JOHANN ABRAHAM, was 
bom at Bremen in 1772. He studied me* 
dicine at the universities of Gottingen and 
Jena from 1789 to 1795, in which hitter year 
he received at Jena the diploma of doctor 
in medicine and surgery. He subsequently 
Tisited the universities and schools of Vienna, 
Edinburgh, and London, and returned to 
Bremen in 1797, where he commenced the 
practice of medicine and midwifery. He 
was engaged in very extensive practice as a 
physician, and pursued his literary labours 
with anch zeal that he greatly impaired his 
health, and brought on the disease of which 
he died at Bremen in 1821. 

Albers was a man of great learning, of good 
judgment, and of acute observation. His 
writings, which are numerooa, contain good 
praotiod information, and at the same time 
show an extensive acanaintance with the 
labours of previous wntera. It is on this 
account, rather than from the novelty of his 
views or the originality of his ideas, that 
Albers ia entitled to notice. He did much 
to improve the science of medicine in his 
own country by dear descriptions of diaeaaes, 
as well as by the introduction of foreign dis- 
coveries and imfMrovements, to which he con- 
tributed by the translation of several works 
into the German language. In 1820 he 
visited Paris, and on his return to Bremen 
published in the German periodicals several 
articles containing an account of the atate of 
medicine in France, the advance which had 
been lately made in that country, and the 
physicians to whom they were principally 
due. He was the first to make known in 
his oountry the doctrines of Bronssais, as 
well as the work of Laennec, of which he 
trandated several chapters into German. 
Croup was the subject to which he prin- 
cipally directed his attention, and his essay, 
^'De Tracheitide Infimtum'* shared with 
651 



one of a similar nature by Jurin the priaa 
proposed by the Emperor Napoleon in 1807 
for the best treatise on this disease, which 
was at that time engaging public attention. 
In this work he gave a clear and accurate 
account of the symptoms and pathology of 
the disorder, and he removed much of the 
obscurity that had previously attended it 
He regarded it as decidedly an inflammatory 
affection, though accompanied by spasm, and 
recommended an antiphlogiatic treatment with 
emetics. He condemned tracheotomy aa dan- 
gerous and useless, becanse it is impossible to 
extract the lymph, which by its e^ion into 
the trachea and larger bronchi is more de- 
leteriona than when aituated in the upper 
part of the tube. He related several ex- 
periments in which he endeavoured to ex- 
cite croup in animals by the application of 
irritating substances to the interior of the 
trachea, and succeeded so &r as to induce 
inflamm a t ion of its mnoous membrane, with 
tiie effuaion of plastic lymph and the peculiar 
noisy respiration ; but he was doubtflil whether 
this was true croup. Albers added a prcfiice 
to a treatiae written by his nephew. Dr. J. C. 
Albers of Bremen, entitled *' Commentariva 
de Diagnoei Asthmatis Millari strictius de- 
finienda," Gottingen, 1817, 12mo., in which 
he suggested that croup is one and the same 
disease with the acute asthma described by 
Dr. MiUar, and objected to the distinction 
which the celebrated Wichman of Hanover 
had attempted to draw between the two 
affections. The followinff is a list of his 
works : — 1. " Dissertatio mauguralis medica 
de Ascite,*' Jena, 1795, 4to.; in which he 
attempts to prove the existence of lymphatic 
vessels pervading the different tissues, by 
which substances introduced into the stomach 
are directly conveyed to the several organs 
without passing into the circulation. 2. 
** Amerikanische Annalen der Arzneikunde,** 
Bremen, 1802, Svo. 3. •• Beytrage zur 
Anatomic und Physiolone der Thiere." 
Bremen, 1802, 4to. 4. " Ueber Pulsationen 
hn Unterleibe.'* Bremen and Leipzig, 1803, 
8vo. 5. ** Ueber eine die schnellste Hulfe 
erfordemde Art von Husten.*' Bremen, 
1804, 8vo. 6. **Das Uebel, das unter dem 
sogenannten f^-eywilligen Hinken der Kinder 
bekanntist" Vienna, 1807, 4to. This treatise 
obtained the prize which was proposed, on 
the suliject of hip-diseases occurring in 
children, by the Imperial Academy of Medi- 
cine and Surgery at Vienna. 7. ** Kritische Be- 
merkungen gegen eine Recension des Herm 
Geheimrathes Heim iiber Dr. A. F. Marcus 
Schrift die Natur und Behandlungsart der 
Hfiutigen Briinne betreffend.** Bremen, 1810, 
8vo. He here repels a charge, brought 
against him by Hemi, of concealing a suc- 
cessfU mode of treating croup. 8. " Com- 
mentatio de Tracheitide Infantum, vulgo 
Croup vocata." Leipzig, 18 16, 4to. 9. "Iconee 
ad illustrandam Anatomen Comparatam.** 
u u 2 



ALBERa 



ALBERT. 



Leipsig, 1818, foL Theae plates are in illus- 
tration of the claaB Cetacea. A second 
fiisciculus was published in 1822, after the 
author's death, by Dr. G. Barkhausen of 
Bremen. 

In addition to these works, Albers com- 
municated several papers to English pe- 
riodicals. The Medico-Chirurgical Trans- 
actions, toLtIL, contam his '^ Obserrations 
on a change of colour in the skin produced 
by the internal use of Nitrate of SUyer:" 
one of the earliest papers in which the at- 
tention of the profession was called to this 
effect of the remedy. In toL yiii. is a ^ Case 
of a FoBtus retained for sereral years and sub- 
sequently deliyered per anum ;** in yoL ix. 
a *' Case of Inguinal Aneurism cured after 
tile use of compression.** He likewise com- 
municated papers to the Edinburgh Medical 
and Surgical Journal, and to the Annals of 
Medicine; besides very numerous articles 
in seyeral German periodicals, a list of which 
is giyen in a biographical notice of him by 
Breschet in the Archiyes Generales de Me- 
dicine, yol. iii. p. 181. G. M. H. 

ALBERT ACHILLES, so called because 
he had obtained the appellation of ** the Ger- 
man Achilles,'* and sometimes, but less fre- 
quently, called " the German Ul3rs8e8,'* was the 
uxird son of Frederick L, elector of Branden- 
burg. He was bom on the 24th of November, 
1414, at Tangermiinde ; and in 1438, when his 
&ther, according to the custom of the princes 
of those times, shared his dominions among 
his children, he obtained the principality of 
Anspach; while of his elder brothers, John 
the Alchymist held Baireuth or Bareith; 
Frederick IL, electoral Brandenburg; and 
Frederick the Fat, the Altmark and Pnegnits. 
By the death of Frederick the Fat in 1463, 
and of John in 1464, and by the abdication 
of Frederick IL in 1470, all uiese possessions 
became reunited in the person of Albert 
Achilles, but were partially divided at his 
death, and have never been entirely reunited 
again. The earlier part of Albert's life was 
spent in a succession of knightly exercises, 
for which his unusual stren^ and stature 
pre-eminently qualified him. Armed with 
only a shield and helmet he contended in a 
tourney with antagonists fhlly armed, and 
out of eighteen encounters was seventeen 
times victorious. Scarcely a battle was fought 
in Germany in which he did not take a part, 
and he left the recollection of his prowess 
not only in his native country but in Bo- 
hemia, Silesia, Poland, Prussia, and Hungary. 
In a war against Niimberg (a. d. 1448 — 
1450), to enforce the rights which he claimed 
over the burghers as burggrave of the city, 
he came sutUlenly, attended by only a smidl 
train, upon a body of eight hundred of their 
cavaby. Without hesitation he spurred into 
the midst of the enemy, fought his way with 
his sword when his spear was broken, seized 
the banner of Niimberg, and surrounded 
65S 



t 



antagonists shouted ^* Victory, vktocyt 
o de^ can be sweeter than under the 
banners of the foe !** When rescued by his 
knights the blood was gushing from hi* 
mouth and nose, but he r^ected their soUcita^ 
tions to mount in a carriage, observing that 
**a knightly prince should not be carried 
but ride.** Of nine battles fought with the 
Niimbergers in one year Albert Achilles 
was victor in eight, and the citiaens were 
glad to conclude a peace with him in the 
year USO. While these exploits earned him 
the name of the German Achilles, he gained 
that of the Ulysses by his dexterity in nego* 
tiations with Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- 
gundy, by which he effected a peace with 
Charles, then engaged in the siege of NuiSy 
and freed the country of the Armagnaes, or 
as the country people called them, ** Arme 
Gecken** (poor gulls), whom he had broogfat 
with him. 

After his accession to the margraviate of 
Brandenburg he displayed the same Ulysseas 
qualities, but with less success, in the contest 
for the succession to the inheritance of the 
dukes of Stettin, which the margraves of 
Brandenburg disputed with the dukes of 
Wolgast In 1464, when by the death of 
Duke Otho of Stettin the old line was ex- 
tinguished, the whole country assembled to 
his funeral, and Albert of Giinden, a partisan 
of Brandenburg, threw the shield and helmet 
of the dukes of Stettin upon the coflin in the 
grave, and said aloud, " There lies the Iwd- 
ship of Stettin.** A resolute partisan of the 
other claim, Lorenz Eikstetten, leaped uito 
the grave, brought the helmet and shield out 
again, and replied, "Not so; we have yet 
bom heirs and lords, the dukes of Wc^gast, 
and to them these arms belong.'* Thon^ 
supported by the emperor, Albert*s predeces- 
sor, the Margrave Frederick had found it 
impracticable to enforce his claim, and this 
was one of the reasons which led to his ab- 
dication. Albert Achilles, who preferred to 
reside in Franconia, left the administration 
of Brandenburg to his eldest son, Prince 
John, and it was only on finding that John 
was unable to carry on the war with effect 
that he came in person to Brandenburg in 
November 1471. His antagonists were still 
too strong for him, and he came to an agree- 
ment to surrender Stettin to Bogislav, di&e of 
Wolgast, during his life, on condition of its re- 
verting to Brandenburg afterwards. In 1474 
the parties met at Prenzlau to effect this 
treaty, when each advanced to shake hands, 
and the German Ulysses, with a view of 
taking advantage of tne circumstance, which 
was one of the customary ceremonies at in- 
vesting with a fief, said, *' Thus, dear uncle, 
I hand over to you land and people.** The 
incensed Pomeranian withdrew his proffered 
hand, and exclaimed in anger, **No, mar- 
grave, that is not the agreement ; before it 
comes to that, thrice seven devils shall drive 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



tiuDagh it," moonted his horse, and rode 
away. To get him to return, Albert was 
obliged to protest that the whole affair was a 
jest, while Bogislav clearly gare him to un- 
derstand that he saw through his meanness. 
This agreement came to nothing, and many 
snoceeding ones shared the same fate, the 
contest b^ween the houses of Brandenburg 
and Wolgast lasting till the middle of the 
sixteenth century. Albert was more sue- 
c cnnfu l in his endeaToors to enlarge his 
territories towards Glogau. His daughter 
Barbara, whom he had married to Duke 
Henry of Glogan, was left a widow at the 
age <^ ten; and Albert, who claimed the 
possession of her husband's domains, suc- 
ceeded in obtiuning, as a pledge for the pay- 
ment of her dowry, possession of Krossen, 
Ziillichan, Sommoifeld, and Bobersberg, 
which the house of Brandenburg retains to 
this day. Whatever acquisitions in money and 
domains he made were applied by Albert 
to the support of his splendid and luxurious 
court in Franconia, while his vicegerent, 
John, was left in a state of contemptible po- 
verty. Albert died on the 1st of March, 1486, 
daring a diet of the empire which elected 
the ^peror Maximilian, a measure which 
was mainly due to him. By a hiw which 
he had established in the year 1473 for the 
regulation of the inheritance of his family, 
wMch provided that it might be divided into 
three parts, but never into more than three, 
he was succeeded in Brandenburg by his 
son John, in Franconia by Frederick and 
Sigismund, who governed conjointly. But 
for the operation of this will the domains 
would have been divided into small portions, 
as, by his marriages with Margaret of Baden 
and Anne of Saxony, Albert had nineteen 
children, of whom eleven survived him. He 
was remarkable in his own age for the little 
estimation in which he held the clergy, 
giving the precedence to laymen at feasts at 
which both were present, and twice suffer- 
ing with much indifference the ban of the 
pope. He was also conspicuous for his efforts 
to put down the ** robber nobles," as they 
were called, that is, the German nobility who 
made a practice of robbing on the highway. 
(Stenxel, Geachiehte des Preuatiachen StaaU, 
I 232 — ^247. ; Preuasisehe Natumal-Ency' 
klopadie, I 287—245.) T. W. 

ALBERT D*AILLY. MARIE JOSEPH 
LOUIS D*, due de Ghauhies, the son of 
Michel Ferdinand, due de Chaulnes and 
Anne Joseph Bonnier, was bom in 1741. 
He entered the army young, but quitted it 
in his twenty-fourth year in order to devote 
himself to scientific pursuits. About this 
time he was admitted a member of the Royal 
Society of London. In 1765 he visited 
Egypt The result of his inquiries in that 
country was a memoir on the pit containing 
the bii^-mummies, entitled ** MImoire sur la 
veritable Entree da Monument Egyptien, 
653 



qui se trouve k quatre Lieues du Cairey 
aupr^ de Sacara ; " published originally in 
1767, and reprinted in 1783. In 1769 the 
academican appointed to pronounce the eloge 
of his father idluded to the young Due de 
Chaulnes as already well known by his 
taste for physical science and natural history. 
He was seized with the passion for chymical 
investigations which was at that time epi- 
demical among men of science. Several of 
his memoirs upon carbonic acid, and its effects 
upon the human frame, are very ingenious. 
The ** Transactions of the Royal Society of 
London for 1783 " contain a memoir by the 
Due de Chaulnes, ** Sur hi manidre de pre- 
parer avec ie moins de perte possible, le 
sel fusible d'urine blanc, et pur, et I'acide 
phoei>horique par&itement transparent" It 
contains the result of experiments commenced 
in 1778. Along with his fiither's courage 
and taste for science, Marie Joseph Loms, 
due de Chanlnes, had unfortunately inherited 
his mother's wayward and unsettled disposi- 
tion. This neutralised his many amiable and 
excellent qualities, and was the cause that 
at the time of his death, which took place 
about the beginning of the Revolution, he 
was living in such obscurity that the exact 
date of that event cannot be ascertained. 
{E'loffe deM.de Duo de Chavhea; Hiatoire 
de VAcadimie dea Sciencea, annee 1769 ; M^- 
moire aur la viritable Entrie du Monument 
Emfptient (fc. Paris, 1783-4; Phdoaophical 
Tranaaciwna of the Royal Society of JLondon^ 
vol IxxiiL) W. W. 

ALBERT lyAELLY, MICHEL FER- 
DINAND D', due de Chauhies, was 
bom at Paris on the SOth December, 
1714. The first Due de Chauhies was Ho- 
nor^ d' Albert, younger brother of the Con- 
stable de Luynes. On his marriage with the 
heiress of &e house of Ailly, he became 
bound to assume the name and arms of that 
fiEunily in addition to his own. On the death 
of his son without male heirs in 1701, Louis 
Auguste d' Albert, fifth son of the third Due 
de Luynes, succeeded to the name and honours 
of D' Albeit d' Ailly de Chaulnes. Michel 
Ferdinand was the son of Louis Auguste by 
a daughter of the celebrated Colbert, and the 
youngest of seven children, all of whom died 
before him. 

Michel Ferdinand, called in his boyhood 
Comte de Chaulnes, was educated for the 
church, and received in his seventh year the 
appointment of a canon of Strassbura. On 
the death of his elder brother the Due de 
Pequigny in 1731, he resigned his canonry, 
and in 1732 obtained a commission in the 
Mousquetaires. 

From that time till the peace of Aix-hi- 
Chapelle in 1748 he was almost constantly 
engf^ged in active service. In 1733 he acted 
as aide-de-camp of the Marechal de Ber- 
wick at the sieges of Kehl and Philipsburg. 
During the short peace that ensued he was 
u u 3 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



Handed ude'de-camp to the king ; m 1748 he 
•enred as a Tolimteer at the siege of Prague 9 
in 1744 he was wounded at the battle of 
Dettingen ; in 1745 he held the rank of aide- 
de-camp to the king at the battle of Fon- 
tenoy, and contribnted in no small degree 
by his skilful management of the artillery to 
the gaining of that victory. He took part in 
the battle of Laffeld in 1747, which was the 
last military operation of that war. 

During the two wars in which he had 
served previous to the peace of Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, the Due de Pequigny (which title he 
assumed soon after his brother's death) had 
repeatedly been appointed a royal oommis- 
sioner for the exchange of prisoners, and 
intrusted with various delicate negotiations. 
He was not long after the peace advanced to 
be a Duke and member of the Parliament of 
Paris, on the resignation of his ikther in his 
fovour. He was also promoted to the rank 
of lieutenant-general ; received a pension of 
ux thousand livres ; and was soon after ap- 
pointed royal commissioner to the states of 
Bretagne. In 1753 he obtained the govern- 
ment of Picardy. 

He served in Westphalia during the seven 
years' war ; he was present at ihe battle of 
Hastembeck on the 26th July, 1757, and this 
appears to have been the last of Us fields. 
We have now to consider him in the charac- 
ter of a zealous amateur of scientific pursuits. 

In 1743 he had been named an honorary 
member of the Royal Aeademy of Sciences, 
in the place of Cardinal de Fleury. His first 
memoir was read in the academy in 1765, 
and is printed in the volume for that year : it 
contains a series of experiments on a ray of 
light admitted into a dark chamber, and re- 
ceived on a sheet of white paper, pierced in 
the centre to admit of the passage of the direct 
ray. In 1761 the Due de Chaulnes was one 
of the academicians who observed the transit 
of Venus at Paris. His love fbr optics and 
astronomy led to attempts to improve the con- 
struction of astronomical instruments. In 1755 
he also presented to the academy a memoir on 
his attempts to render instruments of a small 
radius more accurate. The substance of this 
memoir was published in the academy's 
•< Description des Arts," in 1768, under ibe 
title " Nouvelle Methode pour diviser les In- 
struments de Mathematique." The same 
volume contains ** Description d'un Mi- 
croscope et de differents micrometres, destines 
k mesurer des Parties oirculaires ou droites 
avec la plus grande Precision. Par M. le 
Due de Chaulnes." In 1767 he communi- 
cated some remarks upon achromatic tele- 
scopes to the academy, which were printed in 
their memoirs for that year. His last pub- 
lication was an account of an observation of 
the transit of Venua, 8d June, 1769, wiih a 
telescope of three feet and a half, by DoUond: 
it is printed in the volume of the academy's 
Transactions for 1769. 
654 



The Due de Chaulnes was remarkable for 
gentleness of temper and delicate sense' of 
honour. He was rigidly pure in his monlf, 
and strongly imbued with the devotional 
turn which ebaraeterised many of his fiEanily. 
His knowledge of history and politics was 
extensive. He was corpulent, but neverthe- 
less active. His conversation was elegant 
and playfhL He was extremely popular with 
those c^ his own rauk, and also with the 
poor, towards whom he was very liberaL 
Hi^ lif^ was embittered by the eccentricities 
of his wife [BoMinEii, Annb Joseph, 
duehesse de Chaulnes], wh<nn he married in 
1784. 

The Duo de Chaulnes died, after a length- 
ened iUness, on the 23d September, 1769. 
(E'lo^deM.UDuedgChaulnei; Hukirede 
tAeadimie Ra^ dt$ Sciences^ ann^e 1769, 
Paris, 1772 ; Le P^re Anselme, HUioire Gi- 
nSahgiqm et Ckrtmohgtque de la Maimn 
RoyiU de la Frcatce, &o. vol. iv.) W. W. 

ALBERT of Amhaitt. [AumscfiT.] 

ALBERT Im duke of AcarniA, was a son 
of Rudolph of Habsburg, and bom in the year 
1248. Rudolph, by his Tictory over Ottocar 
of Bohemia, became master of Austria in 
1283, and with the consent of the princes of 
the empire he gave the duchy of Austria in 
fief to his eldest son Albert, who was thua 
raised to the rank of a prince of Ifae empire. 
At the same time the rights and liberties 
which had been granted to Austria by fbrmer 
emperors were confinned, and Albert married 
Elisabeth, a daughter of Count Meinhard of 
G^rs, whom Rudolph made Duke of Carin- 
thia. In the adminiatra^on of his new do- 
minions, even during the lifetime of his 
father) Albert displayed such tyrannical con- 
duct, that the Austrians soon f^pented of 
having accepted him as their duke, and in 
1287 he had to quell an insurrection of the 
citiaens of Vienna, and he only reduced the 
ciu^ by a protracted blockade and famine. 
After the recovery of his capital, his cruelty 
knew no limits, and some of the offenders 
suffered the most dreadful punishments. His 
nobles also became discontented, and Albert 
had to put down one conspiracy after another. 
On one occasion forty castles belonging to Aus- 
trian nobles were raised to the ground at once. 
His own tyranny was an example to his 
officers and councillors. All complaints tiiat 
were brought against them either by indi- 
viduals or states were treated with scorn, 
and the duke once dedared that he would 
not even dismiss a groom to satisfy his sub- 
jects. In 1290, when King I^tdislans of 
Hungary died, Albert indnoed his fitther to 
declare the kingdom a vacant fief of the 
empire, and to give it to him. But Andrew, 
the uncle of tile late king, frustrated this 
scheme by takbig possession of the kingdom. 
Rudolph was wUling to irapport his son by 
force of arms, but his advanced age fiE;tt(nd&l 
him of the necessity of first securing to hie 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



«on the snocemion of the empire, bb he was 
anxious to make the empire hereditary in his 
family. At a diet which Radolph held at 
Frankfurt on the Main in 1290, he proposed 
to the princes to elect his son Albert king 
of Rome ; but the diet had no inclination to 
comply with his request, for Albert's cruelty 
and ayarice had made him hateful not only 
to the Austrians, but to all the princes of the 
empire. No resolution therefore was come 
to, and they only declared that they would 
take the matter into consideration. Kudolph, 
who had succeeded in all his undertakings, 
thus saw himself thwarted in his last and 
most sanguine hopes. In the same year Ru- 
dolph died, and Albert was his only sorriying 
son. [Rudolph of HAB8BUBa.J 

Gerard ot Eppenstein, archbishop of 
Mains, who had bieen a considerable loser b^ 
Rudolph's aboUtioii of the illegal transit 
duties on the Rhine, bore a grudge against 
the whole fiuouly of Habsbnrg } and on the 
death of the emperor, he and Siegfiried, arch- 
bishop of Colo^pie, induced the odier electors 
to transfer their votes to him, and thus he 
secured the election of his own cousin. Count 
AdolphusofNassan,kiAg of Germany. [Adol- 
PHus OF Nassau.] Daring the short reign 
of Adolphus, Alb^ was confined to his own 
dominions, Austria, 8tiria, and the county of 
Habsburg. His usual misconduct and his 
constant attempts to increase his possessions 
involved him in wan with his neighbours. 
King Andrew of HuAgaiy, Duke Otho of Bar 
varia, and the Archbishop of Salsburg, while 
on the other hand he was also at war with his 
nei^bours in Suabia* and in a state of bitter 
hostility against Adolphus of Nassau. At first 
he withheld fh>m Adolphus the insignia of 
the empire which were m his possession ; but 
seeing that he had no hope <^ support from 
the princes, he surrendered them at Oppen- 
heim, received the confirmation of his te& 
from Adolphus, and returned to Austria. 
But this reconciliation with the king was 
only apparent : when Adolphus asked tor the 
hand of one of his daughters for his second 
son, Albert haughtily i^ected the proponl, 
and from this moment there was open enmity 
between the two princes. The exiled Aus- 
trian nobles found a refVige at the court of 
Adolphus, who threatened the Duke of Aus- 
tria with an invasion unless he would keep 
peace with his neighbours. In order to get 
his hands f^ against the emperor, Albert 
made peace with his brother-m-law, King 
Wencc»laus IL of Bohemia, and with Andi«w 
of Hui^gary, to whom he gave his daughter 
Agnes in marriage, with a large dowry. The 
Austrian and Stirian nobles had already 
made fluent insurrections, and even at- 
tempted the life of Albert On one occasiaB 
poison was administered to the duke, but it 
was discovered before it had taken effect, 
and his ministers, seeing no other way of 
saving their master, are said to have hung 
655 



him up by the legs that the pdson might 
come out where it had entered i and it is 
farther said that the poison came out at one 
of his eyes, which he lost in consequence of 
its effects. All these rebellious nobles were 
now quieted, partly by promises and partly 
by threats. Arohbishop Gerard of Mains, 
and several other electors whose hopes had 
been disappointed by Adolphus, at last de- 
posed him, and elected Albert of Austria 
king of Germany. In the ensuing contest 
between the two rival kings, Adolphus was 
killed in battle in 1298. [Ajx^lphus of 
Nassau.] 

Albert, being sure of his re-election, de- 
clared that he had not dethroned the king in 
order to step into his place, and he laid down 
the crown which had already been conferred 
upon him, and allowed the princes to proceed 
to a new election. The result was as he had 
expected : he was re-elected king of Germany, 
and he confirmed and extended the rights 
and privileges of the electors, as usual at 
elections. Albert was crowned at Aix-la- 
Chapelle in 1298, and in the same year his 
wife was crowned at Niumbers ; but Pope 
Boni&ce VIIL not only refused to sanction 
the election, but declared that he himself was 
the legitimate emperor, and summoned Albert 
to Rome to 9ak pardon for his offences, and 
to do penance : at the same time he forbade 
the German princes to acknowledge him as 
their master, and accordingly released them 
from their oath of allegiance. Even Albert's 
former friend, the arohbishop of Mainz, 
allied himself with the pope, partly because 
he disapproved of the close alliance which 
Albert was forming with Philip le Bel 
of France, and partly because Albert de- 
manded that his son Rudolph should be 
elected king of Rome, and thus be nominated 
his successor in the German empire. In 
his hostility towards the king, Gerud found 
ready associates in the other electors. As 
soon as Albert perceived the change which 
had taken place, he retracted all the con- 
cessions and extensions of privileges which 
he had made to the electors. The most im- 
portant of these concewions was the power of 
levying heavy transit duties on all commodi- 
ties conveyed by the Rhine. These duties 
formed a considerable part of the revenue of 
the Rhenish electors, and the^ now resolutely 
refhsed to give up any of their rights. Albert, 
who had become reconciled with the pope, 
sent an embassy to Rome to accuse the elec- 
tors of the Rhme as oppressors of the people 
(md of the other estates of the empire. As 
the pope, however, did not immediately pro- 
nounce sentence, Albert himself condemned 
the electors ; but they took no notice of this 
step, and appointed the count-palatine, Ru- 
dolph, tiie son-in-Uw of the late King Adol- 
phus, chief judge of the empire to decide 
between them and the king. They also in- 
stituted an examination into Albert's late 
u u 4 



ALBERt. 



ALBERt. 



«leetioiu This right of ezaminiiig an eleC'> 
tion of a king of Rome had hitherto been 
exeroiaed only by the pope. When Boniface 
heard of the intention of the electors, he rc- 
qnii'ed the archbishops to inform Albert 
that within six months he was to appear at 
Rome to submit to a scrutiny into his elec* 
tion. Boniftuse at the same time threatened 
the king with severe punishment if he re- 
fiased to obey. Albert was determined to 
resist the summons, although his position was 
one of great difficulty, for his alliance with 
France, instead of serving as a means to 
humble the pope, had only drawn upon 
Albert the ill-will of the electors. Having 
allied himself with the cities of the Rhine, 
which he professed to protect against the op- 
pression of the archbishops, Albert descended 
the river with a strong force, and defeated his 
enemies one by one before they had time to 
unite. In 1302 the archbishops of Miunz, 
Trier, and Cologne, and the count-palatine, 
were compelled to make peace on the terms 
dictated by the king, and the Rhine was now 
again open to commerce. The friendship of 
the pope remained to be guned. Philip 
le Bel had in the mean time acted with great 
resolution against the pope, and as the alli- 
ance between him and Albert had gradually 
become cooler, and at last ceased altogether, 
the pope, who was anxious to gain Albert's 
interest against France, declared him the 
lawful king of Rome and Germany, but at 
the same time enjoined him to restore to the 
Rhenish archbishops what he had taken ftcfm 
them, and annuU^ all the alliances which 
Albert had previously made with kings and 
princes. Albert, in return, promised all that 
the pope desired, and especially to defend the 
holy see against all its enemies. This last 
clause was directed against the King of 
France, and the pope in his hatred of Philip 
went so fkr as to offer the kingdom of France 
to Albert But Albert, who saw the impos- 
sibility of maintaining himself in France, 
declared that he could only undertake to 
drive Philip out of his dominions on condi- 
tion that the pope should secore to him and 
his descendants the sovereignty of the Ger- 
man empire, with the title of emperor. While 
Albert dius conceded to the pope more than 
any of his predecessors had done, he also 
demanded more than any of them had ven- 
tured to ask. During the negotiations on 
these matters, the war against France was 
lost sight of^ and Philip in the interval found 
means of getting rid of the pope by a con- 
spiracy to which Boniface fell a victim. 
[Boniface VIILJ The successors of Boni- 
&ce were drawn mto the interest of France, 
and were to some extent made dependent 
upon that power. 

The principal feature in the reign of Albert 

is his attempt to acquire toar the house of 

Habsbur^ as many hereditary possessions as 

possible, ra order to gain an ascendancy orer 

656 



the other princes of the empiK, and thus td 
secure the imperial dignity to his fiuuly. 
In these attempts the wel&re of the empire 
was altogether neglected. The possession of 
the duchies of Austria and Stiria, together 
with numerous other estates in Switzerland, 
Suabia, and Alsace, already formed a first* 
rate power in the empire ; but Albert did not 
think this sufficient either for carrying out 
his plans or making a provision for hia 
numerous family, which consisted of six sons 
and five daughters. His first attempt at ag- 
grandizement was made upon Holland and 
Seeland in 1299, soon after his elevation. 
Here the male line of the hereditary counts 
had become extinct, and Albert claimed these 
countries as vacant fiefs of the empire. His 
attempt, however, to take possession of the 
country was unsuccessful, and he was obliged 
to give Holland in fief to John of Avesnes, 
who had disputed the possession of it with 
him. Albert now returned to his estates on 
the Upper Rhine, with the intention of ex- 
tending them by force, persuasion, or pur- 
chase, in order to render these scattered 
dominions more compact, and to consolidate 
them. Here his undertaking was crowned 
with success. He laid the foundation of a 
large and compact dominion, extending from 
the foot of the glaciers of Switzerland to the 
banks of the Danube. Wenceslaus IL of Bo- 
hemia, the brother-in-law of Albert, had 
similar plans of aggrandizement, and endea- 
voured to unite the crowns of Poland and 
Hungary with that of Bohemia. Albert, 
seeing this, readily complied with the de- 
mand of the pope to support the claims of 
Charles Robert to the crown of Hungary. 
War was declared, and Albert, with his son 
Rudolph, entered Bohemia with two armies 
(a. d. 1304), but no advantages were gained, 
and Albert returned with a lar^ part of his 
forces to Suabia to suppress an msurrection. 

While Albert was preparing for a second 
Bohemian campaign, Wenceslaus 1 1, died, and 
his son, who gave up all claims to the crown 
of Hungary, made peace with Albert, and 
received Bohemia and Poland in fief. In 
1306 the young king of Bohemia was assas- 
sinated in an insurrection at Olmiitz, and 
Albert induced the Bohemians to elect his 
son, Rudolph of Austria, as their king. 
Austria was now given to his second son, 
Frederic At the same time Albert claimed 
Meissen and Thuringia as having been 
acquired for the empire by his predecessor, 
Adolphus of Nassau ; but the two brothers 
Frederic and Diezmann defeated the troops 
of the king in a great battle near Lticken, 
1307. Soon after this event Albert's son 
Rudolph, king of Bohemia, died, and the 
Bohemians, highly exasperated at his conduct, 
which had in all respects been like that of 
his father in Austria, elected Duke Henry of 
Carinthia for their king, who entered his 
new dominions at the head of a large army. 



.ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



Albert's attempts to reooyer Bobemia fidled, 
for the new king found support with numerous 
princes of the empire, and in the beginning 
of the year 1308 the Uist garrisons of Albert 
in Bohemia were annihilated. Albert, how- 
ever, made new preparations against Bohemia 
and Thuringia. 

In the western parts of Albert's dominions 
the disaffection was constantly increasmg. 
The three archbishoprics of Uie Rhine had 
come into the hands o£ men who were hostile 
to him ; but he blindly prosecuted his favourite 
schemes, without looking to the right or the 
left. All the small estates of Switzerhmd, 
which had been under the protection of the 
empire, had been successively added to the 
possessions of the boose of Habsburg. Only 
the three fiirest-towns (Waldstadte), Un, 
Schwyz, and Unterwalden, resolutely deter- 
mined to preserve their independence and to 
remain fidthfnl to the empire, under the pro- 
tection of which they had voluntarily phraed 
themselves. Albert repeatedly renised to 
sanction their liberties, though all his pre- 
decessors had done sa Independent of his 
desire to add their territories to his dominions, 
he bore them a grudge for having assisted 
Adolphus of Nassau in the battle which 
decided the fate of the two kings. When 
they petitioned for the usual appointment of 
persons among them to represent the empire 
and give them protection in its name (Reichs- 
vogteX Albert sent them two of his creatures 
who were ready to assist him in any of his 
schemes, Hermann Gessler of Bruneck and 
Beringer of Landenberg. The tyranny of 
these men, who looked upon themselves as 
officers of the king sent to a province with 
unlimited powers, and the continued refusal 
on the part of Albert to sanction the liberties 
of the tree towns, gave rise to the most 
memorable events in the history of Switzer- 
land. The Reichsvo^e, imitating the example 
of Albert's officers m Austria, provoked ihe 
indignation of the people, in order to get an 
opportunity of depriving them of their liberties 
with some appearance of justice. Albert, 
well satisfied with the conduct of his officers, 
paid no attention to the complaints of the 
Swiss. At last, three men, Werner Stauf- 
&cher, Walter Fiirst, and Arnold of Melch- 
thal, formed a league with others of their 
countrymen. They held meetmgs at night 
in a solitary place called Riitli, on the Wald- 
stadter See. The olgect of the league was to 
maintain the liberty ot the Swiss, but without 
bloodshed, and without encroaching on the 
rights of the house of Habsburg. The story 
of Tell, which belongs to this epoch, forms 
an episode which is more properly told else- 
where. [Teix; Gbssileb.] 

In the night of the first of January, 1308, 
the confederates took possession of the for- 
tified castles which the Austrians had built 
in their territory, and Landenberg was com- 
pelled to swear that he would not take re- 
657 



venge on any of the Swiss, and that he would 
quit the country. Thus liberty was restored 
without bloodshed, and the towns renewed 
their old confederacy. Albert was just re- 
turning firom his Bohemian and Thuringian 
campaigns, in 1308, when these events took 
place; but he did not think the matter of 
sufficient importance to prevent his preparing 
for a second expedition against Bohemia. 
About this time Duke John of Soabia, a 
nephew of Albert, renewed his claims to 
certain portions of the possessions of the 
house of Habsburg which belonged to him 
by right of inheritance. Albert, who was 
unwilling to divide the estates of Habsburg, 
intended to take Meissen, and give it in fief 
to Duke John. The frequent disappoint- 
ments which the young duke had experienced 
in petitioning fbr the surrender of his estates 
at last induced him to form a conspiracy 
with several young nobles who had similar 
cause of complaint against the king. Albert's 
life was in danger ; but although he was in- 
formed of the design of the conspirators, he 
did not believe it. In the month of May, 
1308, when the king, with his suite, was 
going from Brug, in Aargau, to Rheinfelden, 
the conspirators contrived to cross the river 
Reuss with the king, unaccompanied by the 
rest of his suit When they were on the 
other side of the river, they suddenly fell 
upon Albert, who was riding in the midst of 
them. The king perceiving his nephew near 
him, called out, " Nephew, help me 1 " Duke 
John replied, ** Here is the help," and thrust 
his sword with such violence into the neck 
of the king that the point came out in his 
chest The conspirators dispersed in various 
directions. John is known in history from 
this deed by the name of John the Parricide. 
[JoHAMNBS Parricida.] A -poor beggar 
woman who was sitting by the roadside took 
up the dying king, who breathed his last on 
her lap, on the 1st of May, 1308. 

Thus died King Albert in the midst of his 
schemes of aggrandizement The princes 
and states of &e empire felt that he had 
wronged them, and theU in his care for the 
prosperity of his own house he had neglected 
that of the empire. In their aversion to the 
house of Habsburg, the princes not only did 
not elect a successor from that fimiily, but 
for more than a century they did all in their 
power to prevent any member of that fimiily 
from being elected the head of the empire. 
(J. J. Fugger, Spiegel der Ehren dea ErZ' 
houses Oesterreichj &c. ; J. Peszl, Oester- 
reichische Biographie, oder Lebensbesckreiburi' 
gen seiner beriihmtesten Regenten und Helden^ 
4 vols. 8va Wien, 1791, &c; J. C. Pfister, 
Geachiehte der Teutsckeny iii 90—125.; Joh. 
V. Miiller, Geschichte der Sckweiz. Eidge- 
nossenschaft, i. 416, &c.) L. S. 

ALBERT II., duke of Austria, was the 
son of Albert L, and bom in 1298. He is 
generally sumamed "the Lome.'' At the 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



Bme of his father's murder he was only ten 
years old, and the dominions of the house 
of Hahsburg were governed by his three 
brothers, Leopold, Frederic the Handsome, 
andOtho. Leopold died in 13S6, and Frederic 
in 1330. In this year Albert undertook the 
goyemment of the Hahsburg dominions in 
conjunction with his bro(ther Otho. An at- 
tempt to poison him, which was made about 
this time, was the cause of his lameness. 
During tiiis common reign Carinthia and 
the Tyrol were giren in fief to the two 
brothers by the Emperor Henry VIL ; but 
the Tyrol was subsequently lost, and the 
possession of Carinthia had to be maintained 
against sereral claimants, and the question 
was not completely settled until the year 
1341. Albert increased the possessions of 
his house by his marriage with Johanna, the 
daughter of the hist count of Pfirt, and soon 
after he also acquired Rheinfeldeia, Schaff- 
hausen, Breisach, and Nenburg. Pope John 
XXII., in his hostility towards Louis IV. 
king of Germany, offered to Albert the im- 
perial crown ; but Albert was wise enough 
not to accept the offer, and to make peace 
with Louis, to whom he remained ftuthAil 
during his life. After harin^ thus strength- 
ened himself by his alliance with the emperor, 
he settled several quarrels among the neigh- 
bouring powers, which threatened his do- 
minions with destructive wars. Li 1335 he 
was requested by Pope Benedict XII. to act 
as mediator between the Emperor Louis IV. 
and the church. King Philip of France also 
sought his assistance against the emperor and 
his ally Kmg Edward IIL of England. B«t in 
these, as well as in other transactions, Albert 
conscientiously consulted the interest of the 
head of the empire, and never acted against 
hinL His undertakings against Switaerland 
were unsuccessftd, although he was supported 
by the emperor. The Swiss confederates 
perceived that the^ ran the risk of being 
deprived of the fhuts of their long struggle 
for liberty, and the mountaineers <? Schwys 
again took up arms and renewed the old 
league of the states of Switserland. The 
banner which had seen the glorious day of 
Morgarten (1815) inspired them with courage, 
and the army of Albert was driven from all 
its positions, and at last obliged to leave 
Switserland. From the ^ear 1341 Albert 
was at peace with his neighbours, and he 
made treaties with Charles of Moravia and 
Louis of Hungary. During this happy period 
several of the countries belonging to his 
dominions, such as Stiria and Carinthia, re- 
ceived new codes of laws, which are still in 
foice, and form the basis of their constitottons. 
Albert died at Vienna on the 16th of August, 
1858. 

Albert IL was an active and intelligent 

prince, who husbanded his resources with 

great skill, and be has accordingly been justly 

honoured with the name of **the Wise.'* His 

658 



lameness did not prevent his tal^g an aetiye 
part in his wars. Sometimes he was carried 
to the fiekl of battle in a sedan-chair, and 
sometimes he was fastened to his war-horse. 
He was the first who endeavoured to intro- 
duce the law of primogeniture in his Austrian 
dominions ; and this law, although it was not 
observed at his death, was aftnwards esta- 
blished. During his reign Austria was visited 
by various calamities, earthquakes, the piagne, 
and locusts. The Jews, who then began to 
be ftirioQsl^ persecuted in Germany, foond 
protection m his dominions. In 1356, when 
Basel was destroyed by an earthquake, be 
liberally contribi]ied to its restoration, al- 
though this city was hostile to him. (A. 
Steyrer, Commemi a rn pro Hitioria ABrnH II. 
Ducts AuttruBj Lipsias, 1725, foL) L. & 

ALBERT IIL, duke of AuaTRKA^sumamed 
** with the pig-taiL" He is said to have re- 
ceived this name from wearing two tails 
consisting of looks of his wife's hair. He 
was the son of Albert IL and of Johanna, 
the only daughter of Count Ulrioh of Pfiit, 
and was bom in 1348; After the death of 
his fiither, he shared the government of his 
estates with his three brothers, Rnddph, 
Frederic, and Leopold. Frederic was klUed 
in 1367 while hunting, and as he left no 
issue, his brothers took possession of the 
estates of the fiunily of Habsborg, to which, 
in 1363, the Tyrol had been restored by 
Margaretha, snrnamcd Manhasche, after the 
death of her son Meinhard. In 1365 Ru- 
dolph also died without heirs, and Albert and 
his brother Leopold subseqnentiy made se- 
veral divisions of their dosninions between 
them. The last and permanent division was 
made in 1879, in whksh Albert received 
Austria, and Leopold had Stiria, Carinthia, 
the Tyrol, and the possessions in Suabia. 

The reign of Albert UL of Austria is dis- 
tinguished for his patronage of the arts and 
sciences. Architecture was his ftivonrite art, 
and several great buildings still extant, such 
as the castle of Laxenbnrg, show his good 
taste. The university of Vienna had been 
fbunded in 1865, but had only the juridical, 
medical, and philosophical ihcnltiesL In 
1888 Albert induced Pope Urban VL to 
grant to it a thedogieal &culty. The phi- 
losophical ihculty, however, owed moat to his 
exertions ; he acted on the principle that a 
sound general education is the best fomda- 
tion fn all profesmms, and he invited to 
Vienna the most distinguishfid atien <^ the 
age to teach the several branches comprised 
in a philosophical faulty, especially mathe- 
matics, of which the duke himself was very 
fond. He died on the S9th of August, 1396. 

Albert III. was married twice ; first to Eli- 
zabeth, a dangliter of the Emperor Charles IV., 
who died in 1878, and then to Beatrice, 
daughter of Frederic IV., buiggraf of Niim- 
berg, who survived her hus^d. (J. J. 
Fugger, Spiegel der Ehren des Erzhamea 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



Oaierrewh, {pc., 889, jpc. ; J. Peul, Outer- 
reiekuche BiographU, oder Lebenabeachreibung 
9txMT. beriihmteaten BegeiUen und Hdden^ 
Wien, 1791, &c 4 vols. Sva) L. S. 

ALBERT IV., duke of Austria, sor- 
named **the Patient," or ** Mirahilia Mondi," 
from his dangeroiu bat aoe oc iM ftd pilgrim- 
age to the Holy Land, was the only son of 
Albert III. As he iras not satisfied with 
the diyision of the territories made betweefi 
his fiither and his brother Leopold, the 
principality of Krain was, after the death 
of Leopold, and with the consent of his boos, 
the nephews of Albert, added to Austria. 
Albert was a man of stitmg religions enthu- 
siasm and great superstition, and notwith- 
standing the remonstrances of his mother 
and of the Austrian nobles, he undertook a 
pilgrimage to Palestine, visited all the me- 
morable places of that country, and in 1898 
he went through the ceremony of being made 
a knight at Jerusalem. In the disputes be- 
tween Sigismund, king of Hungary, and his 
brother Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, Al- 
bert IV. had no share ; he only took charge of 
Wenceshins, who had been made a prisoner by 
Sigismund. Albert treated him kindly, and 
also exerted himself to obtain his liberation. 
Albert supported Sigismund also m other 
wars. In 1404 he marched with him agamst 
Procophis, markgrave of MoraTia. During 
the siege of Znaim, Procopius persuaded a 
traitor to administer poison to Albert, who 
was immediately taken ill and couTeyed to 
Keuburg, where he died on the 24th of 
August, 1404. (J. J. Fugger, Spwgd der 
Ehren dea Erzhaiues Oetierreich, frc 401, &c) 

L.S. 

ALBERT v., duke of Austria, a son of 
Albert IV., was bom in 1897. On the death 
of his fkther in 1404, he succeeded him in 
the duchy of Austria, but as he was not yet 
of age, the administration was intrusted to 
his guardians. In his fburteenth year his 
guardians took him to Ofen, and betrothed him 
to Elisabeth, daughter of King Sigismund of 
Germany, wl|om he married in 14S3, and 
thereby obtained Moraria as a dowry, and also 
a claim to the crowns of Hungary and Bohe- 
mia. In 1424 Albert wished to take pos- 
session of Moravia, and to expel the Huss- 
ites from the country *, for which purpose he 
marched thither with an Austrian army, 
strengthened by anxtiiaries sent to hhn by 
Sigismund from Hungary. Ziska, the re- 
nowned leader of the Hussites, marched from 
Bohemia to meet him, but he died suddenly 
near the castle of Pnihislaw, and Albert 
gained the object of his campaign. In 1481, 
however, he had to wage a second war against 
the Hussites, and on this occasion he slaugh- 
tered 4000 of them near the castle of Maidhof, 
and carried off 600 prisoners to Vienna. In 
the year following he was agahi suecessfhl 
against the Hoasites, although he sustained 
sevetrel iwenes. In 1485 he led the armies 
65gr 



of Sigismund aoainst the Turks, who had 
penetrated into Hungary, and he conducted 
this campaign with such skill, that 18,000 
Turks fell, and the rest were driven out of 
Hungary. Near the close of his life, Sigis- 
mund recommended his son-in-law Albert to 
the Hungarians as iheir fhture king. This 
wish was eomplied with, and Albert was 
elected and crowned king of Hungary, on con- 
dition that if he should also be elected king 
of Germany he should not accept this honour, 
as Hungary had suffered much through the 
absence of Sigismund, caused by his possess- 
ing the two kingdoms. In compliance with 
a wish expressed by Sigismund, the electors 
of the German empire in 1438 elected Al- 
bert V. king of Germany. Albert, who thus 
became Albert IL king of Germany, would, 
perhaps, not have accepted the offer, accord- 
mg to his promise to uie Hungarians, as he 
saw that he would have enough to do in 
Hungarv and Bohemia, if the princes of the 
empire nad not entreated him to accept the 
dignity } and the council of Basel interposed 
its influence with the Hungarians to release 
him from his oath. The sovereignhr of Ger- 
many, Ihmi which the house (? Habsburg 
had been excluded for 180 years, was thus 
restored to it, and henceforth remained here- 
ditary in this frunily, with the single excep- 
tion of the time during the war concerning 
the succession in Bavaria, down to the dis- 
solution of the empire. 

Immediately after Albert IL had accepted 
the crown of Germany, he convoked a diet 
at Niimberg, partly to deliberate on eccle- 
siastical matters, and partly to establish the 
peace of the empire. The disputes about 
Bohemia prevented his going to Aix-la- 
Chapelle to be crowned. Sigismund had re- 
commended Albert also to the Bohemians as 
their king, and they had long remained un- 
decided about the election. The chancellor 
Schlick had, indeed, gained the interest of the 
Catholic portion of Bohemia for Albert, but 
the Utraquists, who hated him, and were 
led by Ptarsco, elected Casimir, a brother of 
Ladislaus, king of P<^and, who was only 
thirteen years old, as their king, on the same 
day (6th of May, 1848) that the Catholics at 
Prague declared Albert king of Bohemia. 
Albert hastened to Prague and was crowned. 
In order to support his brother, the King of 
Poland invaded Silesia and Bohemia with a 
numerous army of Poles. Albert, supported 
by the empire, marched against the enemy, 
and received strong reinforcements frt>m 
Frederic, the elector of Brandenburg, who 
sent his own son Albert, sumamed Achilles, 
as their commander. With these forces 
Albert II. attacked the Utraquists near Ta- 
bor, and blockaded them in that city until 
they were compelled by fiunine to petition 
for leave to depart The Poles were driven 
finom Bohemia and Silesia, but as the con- 
qfuests of the Turks in Hungary required 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT 



his presenoe there, Albert could effect no 
more than a trace -with Poland and the 
Utraquists. The diet of Niimberg, which 
was held in the mean while mider £he presi- 
dency of Schlick, could come to no resolu- 
tion, and Albert convoked a second diet at 
Numberg to be held in the autumn of 1438 ; 
but here also the claims of the princes and 
the cities of the empire could not be recon- 
ciled, and another diet was held at Mainz in 
1439, in which several ecclesiastical and re- 
ligious matters were settled. The council of 
Basel was still sitting, and the reconciliation 
of the Greek and Latin churches was pre- 
paring. Pope Eugenius IV., refusing to obey 
the sunmions of the council, was deposed, 
and Felix V. was appointed in his stead 
(1439). In the mean time Albert had en- 
gaged in a campaign against the Turks, in 
conjunction with George, despot of Servia. 
Sultan Miirad IL had an immense army at 
his command, while Albert had only 24,000 
men. The sultan, who entertained great 
esteem for Albert, declared that he would not 
fight against him, and at the same time sent 
to him letters of certain Hungarian grandees 
who had formed a plot to betray their kmg. 
Albert's soldiers were suffering severely firom 
dysentery ; and the king himself was seized 
by it, and died on his return to Vienna at 
Langendorf on the 27th of October, 1439, at 
the age of forty-two. 

His premature death at such a critical 
time called forth deep and sincere grief 
throughout the German empire. He left no 
male heir ; but his wife, who was pregnant, 
gave birth to a son called Ladislaos (Postu- 
mus), who was the last of the Austrian line 
of the house of Habsburg. Albert had re- 
ceived a good education, and his tutors 
anxiously protected him from the injurious 
influence of a licentious court He was tall, 
and of a very robust constitution, which was 
hardened by exercise ; his blue eyes were 
fUll of animation, and his countenance, which 
combined mildness and ^vity, inspired con- 
fidence in all who saw him. During the life- 
time of Sigismund, Albert was his strongest 
support, and on one occasion Albert declared 
to him that a prince could have no safer guard 
than the affection of his subjects. He pos- 
sessed great intellectual powers, and he en- 
deavoured to ac<^uire everything that is use- 
ful to a prince with the greatest zeal. What- 
ever he had once maturely considered, was 
executed with incredible quickness. In short, 
he was just the man that Germany wanted at 
that time. His tutors had inspired him with 
great zeal for the religion of his forefathers, 
which led him to acts of cruelty towards Jews 
and heretics ; but he was never a blind devotee 
to the authority of the pope, like Sigismund. 
(J. J. Fugger, Spiegel der Ehren des Erz- 
hauMM Oesterreichj ^c. 402, &c. 429, &C. 
459, &c. ; J. A. W. Wenk, Huttoria Alberti 
11^ Lipsie, 1740, 4to. ; Von Ilormayr, Oesier- 
660 



rekhiaeher PbUarch^ il 92, &c. ; iv. 85. ; J. C. 
Pfister, Gtachichte der Teuttchen, iii. 478 — 
481.) .L. S. 

ALBERT VL, duke of AtrsTBiA, snr- 
named ** the Prodigal," a son of Duke £r- 
nestus the Iron, of the Stirian line of the 
house of Habsburg, and a brother of Fre- 
deric III. emperor of Germany, was bom 
in 1418. After the death of his father in 
1424, his brother Frederic undertook the 
government of his estates for him until 1438. 
When the estates were divided between the 
two brothers, Frederic obtained Stiria, Carin- 
thia, and Krain, and Albert all the westeiK 
parts. Albert bestowed great care on the 
education of his sulgects. In 1454 he founded 
the university of Freyburg, in the Brei^gan. 
When Ladislaus Postumus, the son of King 
Albert IL, who besides Austria possessed the 
kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, died 
without heirs in 1457, the duchy of Austria 
came into the hands of the Habsbui^ princes 
of the Stirian line, namely, Sigismund of 
Tyrol, Frederic V. (as Emperor Frederic III.), 
and Albert VL, on whose behalf Sigismund 
renounced his inheritance. Albert thus re- 
ceived Upper Austria. Vienna, the capital, 
however, remained in the possession of the 
two brothers Albert and Frederic, and of 
their cousin Sigismund : each of them had 
his separate residence in the palace of Vienna, 
and the city took the oath of allegiance to all 
three. The good understanding between the 
two brothers, however, did not last long, as 
Albert, stimulated by ambition and prodi- 
gality, endeavoured to deprive Frederic of 
Lower Austria. With this view he supported 
in 1461 the rebellious estates of the latter, 
on the pretext thal^ on the division of the 
duchy, he had promised the estates to protect 
their liberties. Albert relied upon the assist- 
ance of King George of Bohemia and Duke 
Louis of Bavaria, who were his allies, but 
Greorge endeavoured to bring about a truce 
between the brothers, which, however, was 
soon fbllowed by new hostilities, arising from 
some disputes between the citizens of Vienna 
and the Emperor Frederic The citizens re- 
fused to obey Frederic as duke of Austria, 
and besieged him in his own castle at Vienna, 
while Albert assisted them and pressed his 
brother very hard. When Frederic in 1462 
informed the princes of the empire assembled 
at Regensburg of his perilous situation, they 
resolved to send him immediate succour; 
but before it came, King George of Bohemia 
advanced with an army to lus relief, com- 
pelled Albert to raise the siege, and to sign a 
treaty at Kron-Neuburg by which he en- 
gaged to surrender to the emperor all the 
towns and castles belonging to him. Albert 
did not keep his promiae, and he even made 
the citizens of Vienna swear allegiance to 
him alone, on which he was put under the 
ban of the empire, on the proposition of Fre- 
deric, in 1463. Albert made an appeal tO' 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



Pope Pins IL, who, howerer, r^ected it, and 
ezcommimici^ the dnke. These proceed- 
ings had no effect upon him, and he reso- 
lately rejected all proposals for a reconcilia- 
tion. Chx the 2d December, 1463, Albert 
suddenly died, and it was generally believed 
of poison. Ajb he left no legitimate issue, 
his dominions came to his brother Frederic. 
(J. J. Fugger, Spiegd der Ehrtn des Erz- 
hamses Oesterreich, ^. p. 643 — 733. ; Pfister, 
GuchiehU da- Teutachen, iii 515, &c.) L. S. 
ALBERT of Bayaria. [Albrbcht.] 
ALBERT LE BELLIQUEUX. [Al- 
brbcht AUHBIADES of BaIRBUTH.] 

ALBERT THE BLESSED, a patriarch 
of Jerusalem, and legislator of the order of 
the Carmelites, was bom about the year 
1150 at Castello di Oualtieri in the diocese 
of Parma, of a noble ftmily. He became a 
monk of the monastery of the Holy Cross at 
Mortara, a town between Padua and Vercelli, 
and abont 1180 was raised to the dignity of 
prior of Mortara, then ** violently abducted " 
in 1184 to that of bishop of Bobbio, and 
afterwards of VercellL He remiuned twen^ 
years bishop of Veroelli, in high esteem both 
with the pope and emperor, Clement IIL,and 
Frederick Barbarossa, who employed him to 
mediate in their differences. Pope Innocent 
IIL had also a warm regard for him, and 
several letters to Albert firom that pontiff are 
in the coUection published by Baluze. In 
1204, on the death of Monachus, the eleventh 
patriarch of Jerusalem, Albert was chosen 
his successor by the prior and canons of the 
Holy Sepulchre, and fixed his residence at 
Acre, Jerusalem itself being then in the 
hands of the Saracens. In 1209 he was re- 
quested to legislate for them by a body of 
hermits residmg at Mount Carmel, who had 
adopted that life at the exhortation of a Cala- 
brian monk, who said that the idea had been 
suffgested to him in a vision by the prophet 
EhiM. This was the order which afterwards 
became so celebrated under the name of the 
Carmelites or White Friars. The rules 
given by Albert were extremely strict The 
brethren were to remain day and night in 
their cells engaged in prayer, unless other- 
wise lawfullv occupied, to observe perpetual 
abstinence nom flesh, and to keep silence 
from vespers till tierce the next day. Albert 
was invited by Innocent IIL to attend the 
Council of the Lateran held in 1215, to sti- 
mulate the crusades, but before he left Pales- 
tine he was assassinated on the 14th of Sep- 
tember, 1214, at the procession of the exalt- 
ation of the Holy Cross at Acre, by a native 
of Calnso in the diocese of Ivica, whom he 
had reproved fbr his crimes. 

The works of Albert are as fbllow : — 1. 
" A short Account of the Ceremonies to be 
observed by the Bishops of Vercelli on their 
first Entrance on their Duties,*' first printed, 
and with notes, by Ranza, in " 11 pnmo in- 
gresso dei Vcscovi di Vercelli.** YerceUi, 
661 



1779, 8vo. 2. << Synodus Vercellensis,'' ft 
body of decrees and statutes for the govern- 
ment of that church, not yet published. 8. 
** Status Terras Sanctse,** an account of the 
State of the Holy Land, the existence of 
which rests on the authority of Trithemius. 
4. ** R^gula Carmelitarum," the rule of the 
Carmelites before alluded to, which is printed 
in the fifth chapter of the life of Albert in the 
" Acta Sanctorum." {Acta Sanctorum^ April, 
L 769 — 802. ; Butler, Lives of the Saintg^ 
iv. 85—87. ; Affo, Memorie degli Serittori 
e Zetterati Parvugiani, i. 61 - 69.) T. W. 
ALBERT, First margrave of Bbamdbm- 
burg, sumamed by his contemporaries **the 
Bear," and also **the Handsome," was the 
prince who first firmly established in the 
March of Brandenburg the supremacy of the 
German race and the Christian religion. He 
was bom in the year 1106, and was a son of 
Count Otto of Ballenstadt, of the house of 
Anhalt. Early in life, with the assistance of 
the Duke liOthair of Saxony, he made him« 
self master of Lower Lusatia against the 
will of the Emperor Henry V. In 1125 
Lothair became emperor, and, to strengthen 
himself against the house of Hohenstaufen, his 
competitors for the imperial throne, he gave hia 
daughter in marriage to Henry the Proud, dnke 
of Bavaria, a circumstance which appears to 
have awakened the jealousy of Albert. When 
in addition to this Uie emperor conferred on 
Udo of Freckleben the vacant fief of Nord- 
mark, or the Northern March, his discontent 
broke out into open war. Lothair chastised 
him by depriving him of the March of 
Lusatia, and Albert found himself compelled 
to submit ; but on the death of Lothair the 
party of the Ghibellines triumphed, and 
raised to the imperial throne Conrad IIL, 
the first of the house of Hohenstaufen. One 
of the earliest measures of the new emperor 
was to deprive his rival, Henry the l4oud, 
the head of the Quelphs, of the dukedom of 
Bavaria, and to confer it on Albert In the 
contest that ensued, Albert, though at first 
successfhl in taking Liineburg, Bremen, and 
Bardewyck, was soon glad to come to terms 
with his adversary, and accept as a compen- 
sation Brandenburg fh)m the emperor. On 
the death of Henry he renewed his attempt, 
thinking to obtain an easv triumph over tlmt 
prince's successor, a youth often years of age, 
Henry, afterwards sumamed **the Lion;" 
but he was completely defeated by Henry's 
mother, Gtertrode, and his grandmother, 
Richenxa, and driven out of Brandenburg 
itseUl He was at last glad to obtain peace 
(A.D. 1142), on condition of receiving Bran- 
denburg and giving up his pretensions to 
Saxony. From that time he relinquished his 
more ambitious plans, and directed his arms 
towards the conquest of the Slavonian race 
in Brandenburg. The tribes of that race 
were under the government of chie&, whose 
wars with each other afforded an excellent 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



opportunity to the common enemy. In the 
year 1147» irhen Conrad IIL and other 
prinoet went on the crusade to the Holy 
Land, Albert, with Henry the Lion and the 
King of Denmark, made a crusade into the 
eoontry <A the Obotrites and Lnticians, two 
of the Slavonic tribes. This expedition 
fiukd owing to the dissensions of its leaders, 
but Albert carried on a Moody contest, 
and soooeeded in establishing hmis^ on 
the right bank of the Elbe; and at last, 
in 1197, took Brandenburg, the strongest 
fortress ci the Hevelians, one of the tribes. 
From this erent is dated the historjr of the 
March of Brandenburg, the sovereigns of 
which have by gradual enlargement of their 
territories raised themselves to their present 
dignity and importance as kings of Prussia. 
From the time of the conquest of Branden- 
burg, Albert set himself to improve the con- 
dition of the country by inviting into it 
colonists of the German races, Flemings, 
Westphaltstns, and Saxons, whom he scattered 
over the fSu^ of the country among the 
Slavonic or nadve tribes. "The margraves," 
says Stencel, ** had no choice but to become 
Slavonic themselves or to make the country 
German, and they did the latter.** He re- 
sided at Salzwedel, but he built or improved 
the towns of Frankftirt on the Oder, Berlin, 
Bemau, Bernburg, Bemwalde, and Anhait, 
many fk which seem to have derived a por- 
tion of their names from his own appellation 
of *«the Bear." He died in the year 1170, 
and was succeeded by his son Otho. Some 
historians maintain that Albert's occupation 
of Brandenburg was not altogether effected 
by force, but that he took peaceable possession 
of a considerable part imder the will of 
Pribislav, one of the native princes. (Stenzel, 
Gesckiehte dea PrettsMchen Stoats, L 23, &c. ; 
S. Bnchholtz, Geschichte der C^urmarck Bran- 
denburg, ii.. 1, &c ; Volht&ndige Universal- 
Lexihon, L 974. ; Preiusische Tmtkmal'Ency- 
elopadie, i. 230.) T. W. 

ALBERT IL, margrave of Brandbn- 

BURQ. [AlBRECHT.] 

ALBERT IIL, margrave of Brandenburo 
and first duke of Prussia, was the son of Fre- 
derick the elder of Anspach, and Sophia sister 
of Sigismund L, king of Poland. He was 
bom on the 17th of May, 1490, and educated 
hj Hermann, archbishop of Cologne, with a 
view to an ecclesiastical life ; but as he had a 
predilection for a military career, he left a 
can<Hiry which had been given him at Co- 
logne, and apeat most of his time with the 
army of the Emperor Maximilian in Italy. 
It was about this period that the order of 
Teutonic knights, which then held possession 
of Prussia, l>egan to perceive its inability to 
contend with its powerfhl neighbours the 
kings of Poland, who had assisted the sub- 
jects of the knights in a revolt against their 
power. The order had thus been compelled 
to acknowledge, at the peace of Thorn in 
6G2 



1466, that for the fiitnre it only held its pos- 
sessions as a fief from the kings of Poland, 
to whom the grand masters were therefore 
bound to render homage, an obligation from 
which the knights made repeated efforts to 
set themselves free. The order, finding that 
the kings of Poland were too strong for it, 
resolved to change its policy, which had 
hitherto been, never to elect a prince for 
grand master, for fear the extraneous power 
which he possessed should encourage lum to 
tyrannise over the knights, and, on the con- 
trary, to choose one, with a view of making 
use of his additional forces for the defence of 
the rights of the order. In 1511 Albert of 
Brandenburg, then only twenty-one years of 
age, was chosen grand master. It was true 
that the assistance he could afibrd was small, 
for his father was still living, and he had 
seven brothers and several sisters to share 
the inheritance $ but great advantages were 
expected from his relationship to Joachim L, 
the elector of Brandenburg, his cousin, and 
more especially to Sigismund, king of Poland, 
his uncle. Albert left Anspach, where he was 
then residing, for Mergentheim, where he 
received the insignia of his new dignity. 
His uncle Sigismund was found, as was ex- 
pected, ready to eede much to his nephew, 
but fear of the indignation of the Poles, his 
subjects, withheld him from acceding to Al- 
bert's demand to give up his claim to the 
homage of the grand master ; the knights on 
their side were equally obstinate to efface the 
degrading mark of subjection, and a war en- 
sn^. Albert, to obtain the favour of Joa- 
chim of Brandenburg, renounced on his part, 
in 1517, the right of redemption of the Neu- 
mark, which had been pledged to Branden- 
burg, and in return for ** a ton of gold," the 
sovereignty over the graiid master of the 
Brothers erf the Sword, a branch of Ae Teu- 
tonic knights established in Livonia. He 
counted on the assistance of the pope, of 
the empire, and of Denmark, and incited the 
Russian Tzar Vasily to the seizure of Smo- 
lensk. But the emperor, on the contrary', 
recommended him to take the oath of homage, 
and his other expected allies were lukewarm, 
so that the war was carried <m without the 
success he had anticipated ; wad after in 1519 
refusing to accede to an invitation to peace- 
ful negotiations at Thorn with Sigismund, he 
was glad in 1521 to accept a four years* ar- 
mistice mediated by the emperor. His go- 
vernment was at the same time jawing un- 
popular from the recklessness with which he 
seized on the treasures of the church, and 
the high taxes he ingeniously prevailed on 
the states to levy on the people. About this 
period he left his dominions for a time to 
seek assistance in Germany, and was himself 
persuaded to assist Christian II., the deposed 
tyrant of Denmark, with 12,000 men, in an 
attempt to recover his dominions, which 
totally failed. At the diet of Niimbcrg in 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



1524, Albert made a last and nnauccetaftil 
attempt to induce the empire to aasiat him in 
preserving a country wluch had been oon- 
qaered by German knights from subjection 
to the crown of Poland. It was of no use to 
expect assistance from his brothers, who at 
that time held their father imprisoned under 
pretence of his being deranged, and Albert 
had serious thoughts of residing his sotc- 
reignty into the hands of Sigismund, or of 
Enc of Brunswick, for a sum of money, and 
entering the French senrice. Just before 
this time Luther had in an express publica- 
tion called on the Teutonic knights to 
renounce their tow of celibacy, and many 
among the order were inclined to accede to 
the call. Luther had a personal interview 
with Albert, in which he exhorted him also 
to abandon the vows of his order, which were 
in opposition to die command of Ood to ** in- 
crease and multij^ly," and to establish a tem- 
poral princedom m Prussia. Albert received 
the advice with a smile, bat gave no positive 
answer. He had already been mclined 
towards the doctrines of the Reformation by 
the fiery exhortations of Oaiander [Osian- 
der], and they had spread rapidly in his 
donunions during his absence, from the en- 
couragement afforded them by his vioeregent, 
George of Polens, bishop of Samland, the 
first bishop who embraced ProtestantisoL 

The expiration of the four years' armistice 
was approaching, and Albert, in pursuance 
of tbe recommendation of Lu&er, took 
a decisive step, the consequences of which 
have been most important In April, 1525, 
Albert swore allegiance to the crown of 
Poland, and received Prussia fitmi that crown 
as an hereditary fie^ to descend, in defieuilt of 
his own male issue, to his brothers, and only 
to revert to Poland in case of the extinction 
of the house. Thus ended the government 
of the Teutonic knights, which Isited during 
the whole Roman Catholic period of the 
history of Prussia, for at the same time that 
Albert changed the government from elec- 
tive to hereditary, he changed the religion 
from Roman Catholic to Protestant Albert 
was received at Konigsberg with the loudest 
rejoicings by the states, who tendered him 
their homage. Most of the Teutonic knights 
resigned celibacy for a manned life ; others 
who left the country chose a new grand 
master, Walter of Kronberg ; and the Empe- 
ror Charles V., who saw affairs taking a dif- 
ferent turn from that which he had expected, 
invested Walter with the fief of Prussia, and 
proclaimed the ban of the empire in 1580 
against Albert, and in 1536 agamst his sub- 
jects. These threats remained without effect, 
and Albert occupied himself in remodelling 
the government, and commissioning two re- 
formers, Joachim Morlin and Martin Chem- 
nitx, to reform the ecclesiastical establish- 
ment The greatest real improvement ap- 
pears to have been the university which m 
663 



1544 he established at Konigsberg. The 
changes in the government consisted in as- 
signing to members of the nobility the ofilces 
of trust and dignitv which had previously 
been held by the high officials among the 
knights. The remainiii^ knights were dis- 
contented, and the nobOity appear to have 
only been encouraged to insist on fresh privi- 
leges, as in 1540 they extorted from Albert 
what is called *' das grosse Gnadenprivi- 
legium," or the ** great privilege,** by which 
the fie& in Magdeburg were not to revert to 
the duke till after the extinction, not only of 
the male, but the female line, and in 1542 
the " kleine Gnadenprivilegium,** or ** little 
privilege,** by which the native nobility was 
to be more eligible to offices and ftefr than 
foreigners, and to eiyoy exclusively the 
highest offices. The latter years of Albert*8 
life appear to have exhibited a weakness very 
remote from what might have been expected 
from the man who had changed a govern- 
ment and a religion. For some time he was 
completely under the influence of a Croat 
named Paul Skalich, and Funk the court 
chaplain, who involved him in ecclesiastical 
disputes with MorUn, induced him to raise 
new and unusual taxes in a burdensome 
manner, and finally persuaded him to revoke 
his will which had been confirmed by the 
court of Poland, and make a new one, in 
which he bequeathed Prussia to his cousin 
Joachim of Brandenburg. In 1566 Sigis- 
mund IL of Poland interfered, and after in- 
vestigation decreed that the second will of 
Albert should be null and void, and the for- 
mer continue in force, that Skalich, who had 
fled the coontry, riiould be declared an out- 
law, and Funk, with others of his associates 
high in the fiiivour of Albert, should be put 
to death by beheading. Albert shed bitter 
tears at the execution of Funk, and his life 
is supposed to have been shortened by grief 
and vexation, which he felt so strongly, that 
he repeatedlv expressed a wish for death. 
He died on the 20th of March, 1566, and his 
second wife, Anna Maria of the house of 
Brunswick, died on the saihe day. {Pretu- 
giMcke NaHoiud'Encycbpadie, i. 246 — 250. ; 
VoUgtandiae Univeracd-Lexieon, i. 977 — ^981. ; 
Stenxel, GeackichU des Preussischen Stoats, 
L 287, &c.) T. W. 

ALBERT, archbishop of Bremen, by 
some writers called Albert IL, as coming 
after Adalbert He was son of Magnus 
the Pious, duke of Brunswick. The year of 
his birth is unknown. He was elected aroh- 
bishop of Bremen in 1362, and occupied the 
see thirty-throe years, dying in 1395. His 
unbounded extravagance, and the extortions 
to which it drove him, involved him in fre- 
quent quarrels with the citizens of Bremen, 
and was the cause of his leaving the diocese 
deeply in debt, with many of its estates 
mortgaged. His luxurious and efieminate 
habits rendered people apt to believe a 



ALBERT. 



ALBKRT. 



tcandaloiu and indecent story propagated 
against him by the dean of the cathedral, 
who was however obliged publicly to retract ' 
and apologise for it (Meibomius, Rerum 
Germanicarum Scriptoretj ii. 66, 67. ; Mo- 
reri.) W. W. 

ALBERT of Brunswick. [ Albrecht.] 
ALBERT CASIMIR, doke of Sachsen- 
Teschen, was the second son of Aogostus IIL, 
king of Poland and elector of Saxony. He 
was bom at Moritxburg, near Dresden, on 
the 11th July, 1738. In 1766 he married 
the arch-duchess Maria Christina, daughter of 
the Emperor Francis L and of Maria Theresa, 
who on this occasion conferred on him the 
principality of Teschen, in the Austrian part 
of Silesia. His wife having been appointed 
chief gOTemor of the Austrian Netherlands, 
he assisted her in the administration of these 
provinces. In consequence of the insurrec- 
tion of 1788, which he was not able either to 
prevent or to quell, he was forced to quit his 
residence at Brussels, and he went to Vienna ; 
but after the pacification of these provinces 
in 1791 he returned to Brussels. In the war 
with France in 1792 he commanded the army 
which was besieging the fortress of LiUe, but 
he was obliged to raise the siege ; and after 
the battle of Jemappes (6th November, 
1792), where he and Beaulieu were defeated, 
he left Belgium, which fell into the hands of 
Dumouriez. During the next campaign, 
Duke Albert Casimir, not being accustomed 
to the fatigues and hardships of war, left 
the army, and thenceforth lived at the court 
of Vienna. His wife died in 1798, without 
leaving any children. The duke had a 
splendid monument erected in honour of her, 
which was executed by Canova. He spent 
his rich revenue partly upon objects intended 
to promote the happiness of the Austrian 
people, and partly upon his magnificent col- 
lection of works of art In Maria Hilf, a 
suburb of Vienna, he built a splendid aque- 
duct to supply the contiguous part of this 
city with water. His palace at Vienna con- 
tained one of the finest collections of en- 
Savings, original drawings by Raphael, 
ichael Angelo, Guido, Van Dyk, and others, 
and a great number of the finest paint- 
ings. After his death, on the 10th February, 
1S22, these collections passed into the hands 
of his heir, the Archduke Charles. (Con- 
versatiotut-fjexicon, i. 149.) W. P. 

ALBERT, CHARLES D\ due de 
Luynes, constable of France, descended of a 
noble family, the founder of which, Thomas 
d* Albert or Alberti settled at Pont Esprit in 
Dauphiny about 1414. Some authors have 
stated that Thomas was son to a brother of 
Innocent VI. This story is unsupported by 
any evidence ; but judging by the promotion 
he obtained, and the matrimonial alliance he 
made, there is every reason to believe that he 
must have been a man of good family. His 
descendants continued to reside at Pont Es- 
664 



prit, steadily advancing in wealth and power, 
(the first who assumed the title of Seigneur 
en partie de Luynes en Provence, was Leon, 
bom 1498 — 1544,) but still ranking only 
among the inferior nobility, till the time of 
the subject of this sketoh. 

Charles d* Albert, the second son of Ho- 
nore d* Albert, governor of Beancaire and Pont 
Esprit, was bom at Pont Esprit on the 5th of 
August, 1578. He was not baptized till 1592, 
the year of his fS&ther's death : the ceremony 
was performed in the church of St Denis, 
and Henri IV. stood godfather. Young 
d' Albert was presented at court for the first 
time on the occasion of Henri's marriage with 
Mary of Medici, in 1600. 

The fkmily estates had probably been 
dilapidated during the civil wars, for it is 
certain that he and his brother Honore, after- 
wards Due de Chaulnes, and Leon, after- 
wards Due de Luxembourg, were extremely 
poor when they commenced their career as 
courtiers. Charles was appointed by Henri IV. 
a page of the chamber ; and on the birth of 
the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XIIL, all the 
three brothers were attached to his person. 
Charles, by humouring the tastes and joining 
in the amusements of the prince, obtained 
great influence over him. 

Louis XIIL appointed D' Albert, in 1615, 
govemor of Amboise, captain of the Tuille- 
ries, and councillor of state ; in 1616 he made 
him grand falconer. The queen-mother and 
the marechal d'Ancre, jealous of D' Albert's 
ascendancy over the mind of the young king, 
had thoughts of removing him from about 
his person ; but, warned by Sauveterre that 
Louis must have a favourite, and that D* Albert 
was as innocuous a one as he was likely to 
meet with, they desisted from their purpose. 
The knowledge of their intention, however, 
was enough to put D* Albert on his guard. 
He allied himself with the faction oppMed to 
the queen-mother and her &vounte, and 
after the assassination of the marechal, pro- 
cured a gift of his estates, which the parlia- 
ment had declared forfeited. Aware of the 
unfViendly disposition of the queen-mother 
towards him, D* Albert never rested till he 
procured her banishment 

The king was now completely in his hands. 
The Due de Bouillon, the head of the 
malcontents in the time of the marechal, ob- 
served that ** they had only changed their 
tavern, not their drink." In 1617 D* Albert 
was appointed lieutenant-governor of Nor- 
mandy and captain of the Bastile, and 
was appointed a judge in the parliament of 
Paris. He also strengthened his position by 
marrying the daughter of Hercnle de Rohan, 
due de Montbazon. In 1618 he resigned 
Normandy, and was named govemor of 
Paris and of Picardy. On the 22d of April, 
1621, he was made constable of France, and 
on the 3d of August following he received 
the seals of France. All these preferments 



ALBERf. 



ALBERT. 



lie retained till bis death, which took place at 
Longuetilie, during the siege of Montheurt, 
on the 15th of December, 1621. He had 
howcTer outlived the king's affection, who, 
like all weak-minded princes, had become 
jealous of the master he had given himselfl 

De Luvnes, although he owed his advance- 
ment entirely to his agreeable exterior, and 
his dexteroos compliance with the whims of 
the king, alike when piety or childishness 
was the humour of the day, displayed some 
talent during his ministerial career, but it was 
the talent of the intriguer, not of the states- 
man. By keeping alive the misunderstand- 
ing between the king and his mother, he 
maintained himself in place ; by liberating 
Henri IL prince of Conde, arrested by order 
of Mary of Medicis, he dissolved the union 
between the princes of the blood and the 
Firotestant leaders. Yet the utmost a pane- 
gyrist could find to say in his fitvour was, 
that he had done much good to his friends, 
and little ii\jury to his enemies. {Histoire 
GinieUogique ei ChromJogique de la MaUon 
Bavale de Francey dee Pairs et granda Officiere 
de la Cownmne et de la Maieon du Bog. Par 
le P^re Anselme,continuce par M. de Foumy. 
Paris, 1722^3, foL ; Mercvre de la France ; 
JRanteil dee Piicee lee plus curieuses qui ont 
itifaiies pendant le Itkrne du Connitahle de 
Lvynesy 1632, (place of printing not men- 
tioned,) 8vo.; Moreri, JDictionnaire Hiato- 
nque.) ., W, W. 

ALBERT DURER. [Dubsb.] 

ALBERT of Freuino, of the ftmily Ho- 
henburg (according to some authors Haiger- 
lohe) Alsatia, was m the year 1345 doctor of 
divinity, a prebendary of Costnits, and chap- 
lain to Pope Clement V L, who at that time held 
his court in Avignon. Albert's previous his- 
tory is unknown. Otho IL, bishop of Wiin- 
bnrg, dying in August, 1345, the chapter of 
that see unanimously elected Albert of Hohen- 
lohe, one of their own number, as his successor; 
but Clement reftued to sanction the election, 
and conferred the appointment upon his chap- 
lain, Albert of Hohenburg. The pope's legate 
arrived in Wiiizburg in October or Novem- 
ber, 1345, sunmioned the chapter to pay 
obedience to the papal letters with which he 
was accredited to them, and on their reftising 
to do so pronounced sentence of excommu- 
nication against them. The chapter, having 
appealed without success to the pope, ap- 
plied for assistance to the son of the King of 
Bohemia, Charles of Moravia, who had been 
declared emperor by the great feudatories 
who had embraced the party of the pope in 
opposition to Ludwi^ IV. The new emperor 
endeavoured to mitigate the displeasure of 
the pontiff, but in vain. Affairs remained in 
this unsatisfhctory position till the year 1350, 
when the death of John, bishop of Freising, 
opened the way to a compromise. Clement 
was induced to permit Albert of Hohenlohe 
to be again elected bishop of Wiinburg on 

vou I. 



condition of Albert of Hohenburg being kp^ 
pointed to the bishopric of Freising, and 
the latter concurred in the arrangement upon 
receipt of a sum of money from his rebellious 
flock. Albert, bishop of Freising, presided 
over that see from 1350 to 1359, the year of 
his death. The lives of the martyrs Sc 
Kilian, bishop of Wiirzburg, and his com- 
pani<ms St Coiman and St Totnan (published 
m the ** Acta Sanctorum, 8 Julii, tom il. p. 
966, et seq.") have been by Fabricius and 
others attributed to this bishop, but wparently 
without any sufficient grounds. {Ueechicht- 
schreiber von dem Bischojthum Wurzburg^ 
zusammen-getragen von Johflinn Peter Ludwig, 
Frankfurt, 1713, foL p. 630. 634.; J. A. Fa- 
bricius, Bibliotheca Latina mediee et infimte 
jEtatis, Patavii, 1754, 4to.) W. W. 

ALBERT DE GAPENCOIS [Albert 

DE SlSTERON.l 

ALBERT IIL of Halberstadt was the 
grandson of Albrecht the Great and son of 
Albrecht the Fat, the second and third dukes 
of Brunswick and Liineburg. The see of 
Halberstadt had three bishops of the name : 
Albert L was alive about ihe year 1319 ; 
Albert U. died in 1324 ; and Albert IIL 
occupied the episcopal throne from 1324 to 
1359. The last alone seems to merit par- 
ticular notice, and that more on account of 
the curious light which the events of his life 
throw upon the state of society in the north 
of Germany in his time, than of any deserts 
of his own. On the death of Albert II. of 
Halberstadt the minority of the chapter 
elected Ludwig of Neyndorp, only four 
voting for Albert of Brunswick. The Arch- 
bishop of Mayence, however, to whom the 
defeated candidate appeided, declared him 
lawfully elected, and sentenced his opponents 
to pay the expenses of the litigation. John 
XXIL, who at that time occupied the papal 
chair, recognised the election of neither of 
the candidates as valid, and nominated 
Gisler, a native of Holstein, to the vacant see. 
Nevertheless the Archbidiop of Mayence 
confirmed and invested Albert, who not till 
then took priestly orders, and was con- 
secrated a bishop in due form. He held the 
bishopric by the strong hand till the death 
of Gisler; after which Clement VL con- 
ferred the dignity upon Albert of Mansfeld, 
who was ss unsuccessfhl as his predecessor. 
On the death of Albert of Mansfeld, Inno- 
cent VL declared Ludwig, son of the Mark- 
graf of Meissen, bishop of Halberstadt This 
was too formidable an anta^nist for Albert, 
who at last resigned his bishopric in fhvour 
of the papal nominee, after holding it in 
defiance of the head of the church for thirty- 
five years. He did not long survive his 
abdication. A contemporary but anonymous 
author, whose eulogistic life of Albert III. 
of Halberstadt was published in 1688 by the 
younger Henry Meibomius, records with en- 
thusiasm that during his incumbency the 

XX 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



bishop made no lefs than twenty hostile expe- 
ditions into neighbouring territories, "be* 
sieging their oastles and laying waste their 
lands by plundering and fire/* Nor do his 
conduct and fortune appear to haye been any- 
thing unconunou in his age. It is mentioned 
in the Magdeburg Chronicle that Albert's 
brother Henry held about the same time 
the bishopric of Hildesheim for thirty-seven 
years in defiance of the pope; and at last 
was regularly installed by Innocent IV., into 
whose hands he resigned it upon that con- 
dition. The narrator of this incident re- 
marks, " Doubtless the other brother would 
have experienced equal leniency if he had 
had proper intercessors in the court of 
Rome.'* IChronicom Mcigdeburyente and Nar^ 
ratio Hiatorica de Alberto Episcopo HaiXber' 
stadeiue ; both in the second volume of 
Merum Germanicarum Tomi Trea, ab Henrico 
Meibomio, jun. Helmsstadii, 1688, foL) 

ALBERT, HEINRICH, bom at Loben- 
stein in Saxony, June 28. 1604. He studied 
the law at Leipzig, and afterwards music 
under his uncle, the celebrated Heinrich 
Schiitz, then Kapellmeister at Dresden. In 
1626 he settled at Konigsberg, where he was 
appointed organist of the cathedral five years 
afterwards, a situation which he held to the 
time of his death in 1651. Under the tuition 
of his uncle, who had eigoyed the instruction 
of Gabrieli, and the society of his eminent 
Venetian contemporaries, Albert imbibed an 
admiration of the Italian school, which led 
him to cultivate with such unequalled success 
the construction of melody. This sentiment 
is thus expressed in the pre&ce to one of his 
collections of songs : — " The compositions of 
Italy, full of genius and mind, I examine 
with such astonishment, that I almost fear to 
exert my own humble talents in cultivating 
an art which is therein carried to such per- 
fection." Albert was one of the first Ger- 
man composers who furnished his country- 
men with airs for a single voice accompanied 
by a ke^ed instrument. Of these he pub- 
lished eight collections in the course of se- 
veral years, under the title of '^Poetisch 
Musikalisches Lustwaldlein," or sacred and 
secular airs and songs, with accompaniment 
fi>r organ, harpischord, or theorbo lute. So 
popular were these songs, that, notwith- 
standing the prohibition of several German 
princes, enforced by heavy penalties, they 
were repeatedly pirated. In some of his 
preftces Albert bitterly complains of this in- 
vasion of his property, which he calls " his 
only little sheep, upon which he depends for 
milk and wooL'' Prefixed to the first set of 
his songs are directions to the singer and 
the accompanist, which contain some good 
advice, though arranged in quaint and 
homely language. " The singer," says he, " in 
addition to other qualifications, must acquire 
the art of distinct pronunciation, ta ki rg cate 
666 



to defer the soond of the consonant, irhete S' 
word so terminates, till the end of the note. 
The player must have a correct knowledge 
of thorough bass ; he must also use his know- 
ledge discreetly, not encumbering the aooom* 
paniment with every note that he can crowd 
into the harmony, nor thumping his instm- 
ment as if he were chopping a cabbage.*' 
Recitative, which was a sort of singing new 
at this time even in the land of its birth, 
Albert seems to have been the first to intro- 
duce into Germany. Concerning this he 
says — " There are some songs in my col- 
lection written in what the Italians csdl * lo 
stilo recitative ;' these, which will be known 
by their having in general a quaver to each 
syllable, must be sung with almost no regard 
to time, but uttered with a slow and distinct 
delivery." Many of Albert's songs are so 
arranged that they may be sung as single 
melodies, accompanied by two violina» violin 
and violoncello, or by five voices. 

It is curious to remark that Xawcs in Eng« 
land, and Albert in Germany, were both la^ 
bouring at the same time with equal success 
in the same, then novel, department of their 
art ; Lawes, in addition to his general popu- 
larity, earning the emphatic commendation of 
Milton and Waller, and Albert awakening, 
by the same means, the sympathy and admira- 
tion of his conntiymen. It also deserves to 
be noticed, ss showing how little the early 
history of German music is known in Eng- 
land, that Bumey and Hawkins have not 
noticed even the names of Schutz and Al- 
bert, each of whom contributed so essentially 
to the advancement of their art in their native 
country. The same remark will, of coarse, 
apply to more recent histories of the art pub- 
lished in England, which, for the most part, 
are mere compilations from the sources above 
mentioned. 

Several of Albert's songs for one and more 
voices will be found in Bekker's " Haus- 
Musik in Deutschland." (Bekker's Haut- 
Musik in Veutschland ; Taylor's Gresham 
Lectures.) E. T. 

Albert was one of the best lyric poets of 
the society of Konigsberg, and of his time in 

Sineral, and some of his productions are still 
ghly valued and read with pleasure. All 
are distinguished for their clearness and 
simplicity, and for the good sense and the 
cheerfbl and pious spirit which pervades 
them. His style is easy, and free from the 
affectation and mannerism which in his time 
was beginning to spoil the poetry of the 
Germans, especially those of Roberthin and 
Dach. His productions appeared in the 
following collections : — 1. •* Arien, &c" 
8 parts, foL Konigsberg, 1638 — 1650 ; re- 
printed for the fourth time in the same place 
1652 — 1654 ; a new edition appeared at Leip- 
zig, 1657, 4to. 2. " Musikalische Kiirbshiitte," 
Konigsberg, 1651, foL 3. ♦* Poetisch Musi- 
kalisches Lustwaldleiu" (mentioned above). 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



KonigBberg, 1652, folio ; reprinted at Leipiig, 
1657. (Muller, BihUathek Deutacher Dichter, 
YoL v. ; Wolff, Eiunfclopdd. der DeuUchen 
Natumai'Uteratur, i. p. 3 1, &c.) L. S. 

ALBERT, LOUIS CHARLES D', dac 
de Lnynes, eldest son ot the first Dake de 
Luynes, was bom at Paris on the 25th of 
December, 1620. His rank obliged him to 
take a part in public affairs, from which his 
retiring disposition would otherwise hare held 
him back. He was appointed grand fiilconer 
in 1643 ; and chevalier des ordrea da roi in 
1661. As commander of a regiment he as- 
sisted in the defence of the camp before Arras 
in August, 1640, and displayed considerable 
bravery. 

He was intimately connected with Ar- 
nauld, and the rest of the Port Royal theo- 
logians. Amauld*8 celebrated letters to a 
nobleman on the refosal of the cure of St. 
Sulpice to administer the sacrament to M. de 
Liancourt, were addressed to the Due de 
Luynes. The due built the chftteau de Vau- 
murier for the express purpose of being 
near his friends of Port RoyaL The author 
of the life of Louis Charles, in the '^ Biogra- 
phie Universelle " says that the friendly rela- 
tion between him and the recluses was inter- 
rupted by his marriage (by a dispensation 
from Rome) with Anne de Rohan daughter 
of his mother's fhther by a second marriage. 
Such a union was not likely to giye satisfac- 
tion to Amauld ; but we hare no other 
authority for this alleged cessation of friendly 
intercourse, and the dates do not correspond. 
The marriage with Anne de Rohan took 
pUce in 1661, and Amauld's letters were 
published in 1665. 

Louis Charles was thrice married: early 
in life to Marie Seguier, daughter of the Mar- 
quis d*0, who died in 1651 ; in 1661 to 
Anne de Rohan* who died in 1684; and 
lastly to Marguerite d'Al^gre, sister of the 
Marquis de Manneville, who survired him. 
In 1688 he resigned the duchy of Luynes and 
his rank of peer in fiivour of his son. He 
died on the 20th October, 1690. 

The Due de Luynes is understood to have 
assisted in the compilation of several of the 
devotional works which issued from the Port 
Royal press ; and in particular of ** L' Office 
du Saint Sacrament, trad, en Fran^ais avec 
312 le9ons tirees des SS. Pdres et autres 
Auteurs eccl^siastiques pour tons les Jeudis de 
TAnnee.' Paris, 1659," 4to. There are also 
attributed to him, ** Instruction pour ap- 
prendre k ceuz qui ont des Terres dont ils 
sont Seigneurs, ce quails pourront fiure 
pour la Oloire de Dieu et le Soulagement du 
Prochain. Paris, 1658," 4to. " Des Devoirs 
des Seigneurs dans leurs Terres suivant les 
Ordonnances de France. Paris, 1668," 12mo. 
" Relation de ce qui se passa k TEntree de 
Louis XIV. en 1660, au Si:get des Rangs de 
MBf. les Dues et Pairs de France entr*eux, 
et avec les Princes etrangera/* (Published 
667 



with some other pieces on similar subjects 
by Dubois de S. Gelais in 1717.) (Le Pere 
Anselme, Higtoire G^nealogtqme et Chrono- 
logique de la Maison Rojfole de la France, ^c. 
Paris, 1 728. Lelong et Fontette, JBibliotheque 
Historique de la France, Paris, 1771, foV) 

ALBERT, LOUIS JOSEPH D*, son of 
Louis Charles d' Albert, due de Luynes, by 
his second wife Anne de Rohan, was bom on 
the 1st of April, 1672. His tutor, the Abbe 
Jean du Pie, a voluminous but little-known 
author of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
turies, appears to have cxdtivated in him his 
father's taste for letters, but not his father's 
turn for ascetic religion. 

Count Albert, as he was generally called, 
made his first essay of arms at the tattle of 
Fleums (1st July, 1690), where he was dan- 
gerously wounded. In 1695, having been 
ordered by the king to throw himself into 
Namur, he remained several days disguised 
in the camp of the besiegers, and ultimately 
swam across the Meuse, and entered the town 
with their army looking on. He was there 
again wounded, while defending a fort in 
which his regiment had been stationed. 

About the year 1703, Count Albert entered 
the service of the Elector of Bavaria, who 
gave him the command of his guards. In 
1714 the elector sent him as envoy extra- 
ordinary to Madrid, where the King of Spain 
received him honourably. On the 17th of 
March, 1715, he married a daughter of the 
Prince of Berghes, who at tlmt time was 
commandant of Brussels; on this occasion 
the Elector of Cologne, brother of the Elector 
of Bavaria, appointed the bridegroom grand 
bailly of Liege, an office in which he was 
installed on the 2d of April following. 

Count Albert adhered fkithftilly to the 
court of Bavaria for the twenty-seven years 
which ensued, but his story during this 
period offers no event of sufficient mark to 
require notice here. In 1742 the Elector of 
Bavaria, son of his first patron, was elected 
emperor by the title of Charles VIL Im- 
mediately upon ascending the throne he 
nominated Count Albert his ambassador ex- 
traordinary to the French court, and in the 
same year created him prince of Grim- 
berghen, a title derived from the territories 
he held in Brabant in right of his wife. The 
Prince of Grimberghen died on the 10th of 
November, 1758. 

Two works have been attributed to him ; 
but they are both juvenile performances, and 
there is room to doubt whether they might 
not more properly be called the works of his 
tutor Abbe Pic. They are described by 
Qu^rard, ** Le Songe d'Alcibiade, traduit du 
Orec (compose par I'Abbe Pic, public par 
le Prince de Grimberghen). Paris, Didot, 
1735," in 12mo. »* Timandre instruit par 
son General, traduit du Grec par le P. de G. 
(le Prince de Grimberghen, ou plntot par 
X X 2 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



rAbbe Pic son Precepteur). Paris, 1702," 
in 12mo. (Pere Anselme, Histoire Ginialo- 
aique et Ckronohoique de la Maison Boyak de 
ia France, ^. Paris, 1728 ; J. M. Querard, 
La France LiUraire, 1885.) W. W. 

ALBERT, bishop of Lubeck. He was a 
natiye of Holstein ; his fiunilj name was 
Crummedick or E^rummendyk. If the ac- 
count given of the bishop's age at the time 
of his death by the anonymous condnuer of 
the Chronicle of the church and bishops of 
Lubeck compiled by himself be correct, he 
must have been bom about the year 1419. 
His first ecclesiastical promotion was to be a 
canon in the cathedral of Liibeck. He after- 
wards resided several years in Rome, and 
practised as a notary in the rota. He was 
elected bishop of Liibeck by the chapter in 
1469, and the election was confirmed by 
Paul IL He is accused of having sacrificed 
the interests of his bishopric in order to pay 
his court to Christiem of Denmark; and, 
whatever the cause, his declining years were 
embittered by the amount of his debts and 
the importunity of his creditors. The citi- 
zens of Liibeck availed themselves of his 
necessities to increase Uie power of their city 
at the expense of the bishopric Bishop 
Albert died on the 27th of October, 1489, in 
the seventy-first year of his age. The 
Chronicle above alluded to is little more than 
a catalogue of his predecessors from the 
foundation of the see of Altenburg (subse- 
quently merged in that of Liibeck) to the 
year 1459. This outline of his life is ex- 
tracted from an anonymous continuation of 
his Chronicle, published along with it by 
Henry Meibomius in his collection of old 
German historians. (Berum Germanicarum 
Tomi Tres, edidit Henricus Meibomius, jun. 
Helmtestadii, 1688, folio.) W. W. 

ALBERT L, archbishop of Magdeburg, 
(called Adalbert by the writers of his own 
and immediately succeeding times, Albert, 
the modem form, by later writers,) was the first 
of five incumbents of his see who bore the 
same name. The ^ear of his birth is un- 
known. He was m early life monk in a 
convent in Trier (Treves). He received 
episcopal consecration, but without the as- 
signment of any territorial diocese, on being 
placed at the head of a mission for the con- 
version of the Russians. This enterprise 
fiuled, and he returned to Germany, but not 
without having encountered much toil and 
danger. He was next elected abbot of the 
cloister Weissenburg, near Speier. 

The Emperor Otho L cast his eyes upon 
the abbot of Weissenburg as the fittest person 
to give efficiency to the new ecclesiastical 
organisation which he had resolved to intro- 
duce into the westem provinces of his em- 
pire, as much for the promotion of general 
civilisation as for the propagation of the 
Christian faith. Albert accepted the im- 
portant trust, and was on the 18th of Octo- 
668 



ber, 968, consecrated at Rome by JohnXIII., 
archbishop of the newly-erected province oT 
Magdeburg, and was formally installed on 
the 21st of December following by two papal 
legates and the Bishop of Halberstadt His 
province consisted at the new bishoprics, 
Posen, Brandenburg, Havelberg, Merseborg, 
Zeitz, and Meissen ; the three former sees 
had been filled up before they were subjected 
to him ; he consecrated the first bishops of 
the other three on the Christmas succeeding 
his own enthronisation. The archbishopric 
of Magdeburg was placed on a footing of 
equality with the archbishoprics of Mayenoe, 
Treves, and Cologne, and obtained prece* 
dence of the archbishoprics of Salzburg and 
Bremen. Albert L held the office till hi*' 
death in 981. 

He possessed a fkir share of the leaniing 
of his age, and was an active and strict dis- 
ciplinarian. He visited all parts of his 
diocese fr^uently, and kept in particular a 
strict watch over the monasteries. He was 
unwearied in his missionary exertions, and 
converted many of the Wends who inhabited 
the countries east of the Elbe. He was in- 
defiitigable in his support of the conventual 
schools — the only schools in his time. The 
school in the Moritz cloister in Magdeburg, 
which was more immediately under his con- 
trol, supplied for a time Uie greater part 
of Germany with bishops. At his request 
Otho IL conferred upon the chiq>ter of Mag- 
deburg the right of electing the archbishop. 
Albert died in the discharge of his dut^ : he 
was taken ill while visiting the clergy m the 
diocese of Merseburg, and being lifted from. 
his horse, expired in a field by the road side 
on the 21st of May, 981. (Chrontcon Dit- 
mart Episcopi Merseburffensis : ap, Scriptore» 
Renan Brunsuicensium, cura Godefridi Gu- 
lielmi Leibnitzii, L 335 — 343. foL Hanovene, 
1707 ; Ckronicon Magdeburgense : ap, Bcnan 
Germanicarum Tontos 7Ve«, ab Henrico Meibo- 
mio jun. publicatos, ii. 273 — ^277., foL Helmn- 
stadii, 1688 ; Annaligta Saxo: ap. Corpus 
HUtoricum Medii JEvi, a Ja GeorgioEccardoi, 
L 318—331., fol. Lipsife, 1723.) W. W. 

ALBERT n., the eighteenth archbishop 
of Magdeburg, filled the see from 1205 to 
1233. According to some historians he was 
descended from the family of Kefembnrg in 
Thiiringen ; others represent him as sprung 
from the fiimily of Hallermund or of Kirch- 
berg. The year of his birth is unknown. 
Family influence procured him- high eccle- 
siastical promotion at an eariy age ; but, am- 
bitious of distinction, or attached to intellec- 
tual pursuits, he prosecuted his studies in tilie 
university of Paris, and according to some 
writers at a later period in the university of 
Bologna, after he had become a dignitary of 
the church. From Bologna he visited the 
court of Rome, where he ingratiated him- 
self with Innocent III., who Dominated him, 
without consulting the chapter, provost of the 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



cathedral of liagdeburg. In 1205 the chap- 
ter choae him fbr their archbishop. 

At the time of his election, Germanjr was 
convnl^d by the contest between Philip of 
Snabia and Otho of Brunswick for the im- 
perial throne. Philip immediately sanctioned 
the election of the chapter of Magdeburg; 
invested Albert with the temporalities of the 
archbishopric ; assisted to regain by force of 
arms some castles belonging to Magdeburg, 
which had been seized by his rival emperor ; 
and intrusted the archbishop with important 
political commissions. Innocent III. conse- 
crated Albert on the 24th of I>ecember, 1206, 
and immediately afterwards raised him to the 
dignity of cardinal, in the hope of drawing 
him off from his party. The Archbishop of 
Magdeburg, however, continued to serve 
Philip sealously and fidthfully, till that prince 
was murdered at Bamberg by Otho of Wit- 
telsbach in June, 1208. 

After this event Albert was persuaded by 
Innocent IIL, his early patron, to throw his 
weight into the scale of Otho of Brunswick ; 
and the accession of the archbishop to his cause 
was followed by that of almost the whole of 
Germany. Otho was a second time elected 
emperor ; and in the fulness of his gratitude 
gave large sums of money and extensive 
territories to the Archbishopric of Magde- 
burg. He promised, moreover, to confirm 
the immunities claimed by the Germanic 
church, and to walk in all things by the 
advice of the arehbi^op. In 1209 Albert 
accompanied the emperor to Italy, where a 
quarrel, the cause of which does not deariy 
appear, breaking out between them, the arch- 
bishop returned in the course of the same 
year to Germany. Otho soon after quarrelled 
with the pope, who excommunicated him in 
1210. Innocent III. immediately appointed 
the Archbishop of Magdeburg lus legate in 
Germany, fbr the purpose of enforcing the 
sentence of excommunication ; but it was not 
till 1211, and till the pope had threatened to 
depose him if he persisted in his refusal, that 
Albert consented to undertake the invidious 
task. No sooner had he yielded to the 
instances of the pope, than the emperor pro- 
nounced the ban of the empire against him. 
The nobility and the equestrian order 
throughout the territories of Magdeburg re- 
fused to act against the emperor, but the 
burgesses took party with their archbishop. 
Albert strengthened himself by alliances 
with Otho's enemies, and it was principally 
owing to his prudent management that Fre- 
derick IL, of the Hohenstaufen fiunily, was 
elected emperor in 1212. Otho, regarding 
the archbishop as the principal cause of his 
misfortune, resolved to concentrate his re- 
venge upon him, and, with a few intervals, 
the district round Magdeburg was for se- 
ven years ravaged by Sie troops of the ex- 
emperor. In 1213 Albert fell mto the hands 
of one of Otho*8 commanders, but was rescued 
669 



by the burghers of Magdeburg. The death 
of Otho in 1218 put an end to these devasta- 
tions : his friends submitted to Frederick, 
and peace was restored to Germany. 

The rest of Albert's life was, with the 
exception of a brief feud with John and 
Otho^ the young Markgraf of Brandenburg, 
peaoefiil and prosperous. In 1228 Frederick 
IIL appointed him viceroy of the Saxon 
territories during his absence, with unlimited 
authority. In 1282 the pope authorised him 
to excommunicate all who should encroach 
upon the rights and property of his province. 

Albert IL died in 1233, or in the begin- 
ning of 1234. He has ei^oyed the reputation 
of having been the most energetic, prudent, 
and truly great prince who has worn the 
mitre in Magdeburg. Having acquired some 
knowledge of architecture in Italy, he exer- 
cised it in enlarging and adorning Us capital. 
His benevolence was active and unwearied, 
and when the troubles of that rude and 
stirring period obliged him to defend himself 
he displayed no mean talents for war. His 
archbishopric was too narrow a sphere for 
his active and enterprising spirit ; he partici- 
pated in every important movement that took 
place in his time. It is a weighty testimony 
m favour of his judgment and disposition, 
that the rich and sturdy burgesses of Magde- 
burg clung to him on all occasions with 
devoted fidelity. He is almost the only 
example in Germany of an ecclesiastical 
dignitary securing the confidence and affec- 
tion of ihe burgesses of an opulent commer- 
cial city. {Chronicon Magdebrnvente : ap. 
Meibomii Rerum Germanicarum Tomoa Tres, 
u. 829, 380. ; Chronicon Montis Sereni ap. 
Jo. Burckhardi Menckenii Scriptores Re- 
rum Germanicarum^ iL coL 220. 301. ; Ersch 
und Gruber*8 ABgememe Eneyclcpadie, v. ^ Al- 
bert IL von Magidebur^.") W. W. 

ALBERT v., archbishop of Magdeburo, 
and according to some chronologists IL of 
Mayence (some writers, counting two Adal- 
berts and two Alberts as four Alberts, make 
him IV. of that name of Mayence), the 
youngest son of John Cicero, elector of Bran- 
denburg, was bom in 1489. 

Political considerations, more than his own 
merits, procured him at an early age high 
advancement in the church. On the 30th of 
August, 1518, he was unanimously elected 
archbishop by the chapter of Magdeburg. 
On the 9th of September he accepted the 
invitation of the chapter of Halberstadt to 
take upon him the office of administrator ot 
that diocese. On the 9th of March, 1514, he 
was elected archbishop and prince elector at 
Mayence. Through the influence which his 
brother Joachim, elector of Brandenburg, 
possessed with the Emperor Maximilian I., 
Albert found it an easy matter to obtain the 
papal confirmation of his election, and a dis- 
pensation for continuing to hold all these 
wealthy benefices at the same time. 
X X 3 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



With a view to secure his election to the 
electorate of Mayenoe, he had become botmd 
to defray out of his own penooal funds the 
expense of procuring the confirmation of his 
election and the pallium from Rome. For 
this purpose he was obliged to borrow 
30,000 jTOld florins from Fu^;er of Augs- 
burg. This and other debts contracted at 
the imperial and p^al courts, in addition to 
the dilapidated condition in which he found 
the finances of the electorate, reduced him to 
great straits for money. To help him out of 
his difficulties he obtained from the court of 
Rome the appointment of commissioner of 
indulgences m his thr^ dioceses for three 
years, on the terms of retaining one half of 
the money collected and remittmg the other 
half to Rome. The pope transmitted the 
bull to the Emperor Biaximilian, who, before 
delivering it to Albert, extorted from him a 
loan, to be pud immediately, of 3000 florins. 
The Elector of Mayence selected the Domi- 
nican John Tetzel, already notorious as a 
preacher of the indulgence, to promote the 
sale in his province. 

This arrangement involved Albert in a 
controversy which he had not anticipated, 
and which to a man of his tastes and habits 
was peculiarly disapeeable. He had a 
liking for art and literature, and being of 
a magnificent and ostentatious disposition, 
sought to gather literary men around him as 
an ornament of his court With this view 
he carried on an epistolatory correspondence 
with Erasmus. As early as 1506 he co- 
operated with his brother in founding the 
university of FrankAirt on the Oder. The 
indulgence, of which he had become one of 
the principal brokers, was destined to inter- 
fere materially with his wish to obtain the 
character of a Mecenas. When Luther be- 
gan to raise his voice against that abuse, 
the prior of the Augustine convent at Erfurt 
intimated what was going on to the arch- 
bishop, who appears to have attributed little 
importance to the information. When how- 
ever Luther, after publishing his ninety-five 
theses in October, 1517, in the innocence of 
his heart sent them to Albert, whose popular 
manners and literary reputation had gained 
his confidence, with a request that he as one 
of the heads of the church would exert him- 
self to put an end to the evil, the matter 
forced itself upon his attention. Annoyed at 
this interference with his financial arrange- 
ments, the archbishop requested an opinion 
from the theological faculty of the imiversity 
of Mayence, which declined to pronounce 
judgment in a matter touching the authority 
of the pope, and advised him to forward the 
theses to Rome, which he did. He gave no 
answer to Luther. 

In 1518 Albert, at the intercession of the 
Emperor Maximilian, was raised to the 
dignity of cardinal. In return for this ac- 
cession of dignity he complied with the 
670 



urgent solicitations of the pope and die clergy 
to banish from his court Ulrich von Hutten, 
whose enthusiastic advocacy of Luther's cause 
had already rendered him obnoxious to the 
court of Rome. In 1519 Albert aealonsly 
embraced the party of Charles V., and con- 
tributed in no small degree to his election as 
emperor. 

la 1520 Luther again appealed on the 
subject of the indulgence to the Elector of 
Mayence, who this time returned an answer in 
Y&rj gentle but very indefinite termi. In 1 52 1, 
while Luther was secreted on the Wartburg, 
the archbishop began to press the preaching 
of the indulgence at Halle with freah vigoiuv 
after allowing it to relax for some time. He 
deposed Kauxdorf^ preacher in the cathedral 
church there, for his attachment to the new 
doctrine, and caused a priest who had married 
to be impriaoned. Luther, irritated by these 
proceedings, wrote to him in bitter terms on 
the 25th of November^ 1521, threatening, if 
he continued to allow the indulgence to be 
preached and to persecute its opponents, to 
expose his incontinence to the world, and 
demanding an explicit answer within fourteen 
days. The cardinal employed his chaplain 
Capito to return a soothing answer, con- 
fessing that he was a man and &r from 
immaculate, and promising to redress the 
abuses of which Luther complained. Luther 
r^oined proudly that he would do his duty 
without respect of persons, but he abstained 
for the time from a public attack upon the 
cardinal 

The peasants' war, which broke out in 
Thuring^a in 1524, filled the cardinal with 
apprehensions for the security of his terri- 
torial possessions. In this frame of mind 
he lent for a time a not unwilling ear to the 
representations of the vassals and estates of 
the province of Magdeburg, who urged him 
(especially the equestrian order) to follow the 
example of his cousin the grand master dT 
the Teutonic order, turn Lutheran, marry, 
and convert his diocese into a temporal prin- 
cipality. At the request of Riih^l, the car- 
dinal's privy councillor, Luther wrote to 
him, urging the beneficial consequences which 
would result from his taking such a step^ 
The measure was too daring for one of 
Albert's epicurean disposition; he allowed 
Luther's letter to remain unanswered, and 
continued, as before, a prelate of the Roman 
Catholic church. 

Up to this time Albert had conducted 
himself towards the reformers with a degree 
of mildness that had led them to entertain 
hopes of the possibility of his being brought 
to adopt their views. Though he had broken 
with the fiery Ulrich von Hutten, he was 
still surrounded by councillors who inclined 
to the evangelical party. Both Capito and 
Riihel ultimately joined the Lutherans. But 
the cardinal, rejecting the inducements held 
out to win him to the cause of the Re- 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



formation, began to adopt hanher 
against it He joined with the rest of the 
Roman Catholic princes of the empire in 
constraining the emperor to declare Magde- 
burg in the ban in September, 1527 ; al- 
though his timid disposition induced him to 
inteifere to prevent the edict being enforced 
after it had passed the seals. 

About this time the cireomstances which 
attended the murder of George Winkler, a 
Protestant preacher, in a wood near As- 
chaffenburg, a residence of the cardinal, ex- 
cited strong suspicions that he was a consent- 
ing party to it He steadfitftly denied all 
participation in the crime, and also all share 
in a private league which the Roman Catho- 
lic princes were accused of having fbrmed for 
the extirpation of the Protestants. The story 
of this league was probably a ikble ; but the 
Landgraf of Hesse obliged Albert to pay 
40,000 florins towards the expense he had 
incurred in arming to meet it, before he 
would make peace with him. 

When the Augsburg confession was pre- 
sented to the diet in 1530, the cardinal made 
great exertions to bring about a peaceable 
settlement between the Roman Catholics and 
Protestants. But though he was willing that 
the Roman Catholic and Protestant states 
which composed the empire should each re- 
tain its own religion, he showed himself every 
year more unwilling to tolerate the Pro- 
testants in his own territories^ The accession 
of his own town of Magdeburg to the league 
of Schmalkalden irritated him to such a de- 
gree, that he again urged the emperor to 
publish the ban of the empire against it ; 
and again terrified at the possible conse- 

auenoes of his own act, interfered to prevent 
le execution of the sentence he had solicited. 
In 1534 he bonished sixteen members of the 
town council of Halle because they would not 
receive the sacrament of the Lord's supper , 
according to the rites of the Romish church ; ! 
and by this step he involved himself in a ' 
controversy with the Elector of Saxony, 
who was official protector of the immunities 
( Vogt, Advocatus) of that municipality, which 
tended to exasperate him still more against 
Protestantism and Protestants. 

In 1535 he ventured upon an action which 
gave rise to discussions that more embit- 
tered his hostility to them. He caused his 
confidential secretary and treasurer, Hans von 
Schenits, to be hanged upon an accusation of 
breach of trust preferred by himself. Schenits 
maintained with his last breath that he was 
falsely accused. The brother of Schenits 
published in vindication of his memory letters 
and other documents, which cast a dark 
shade on the character of the cardinal. In 
1539 Luther took up the question, and pub- 
lished an attack upon Albert, in which he 
accused him of having been judge in his ' 
own cause, and of having punished Schenits < 
more severely than his offence deserved. In 
671 



the conclusion of his philippic, Luther poured 
out upon the prelate all the denunciations for 
extravagant expenditure, iigustice, and in- 
continence with which he had fit>m time to 
time been threatening him since 1521. It 
was the dammed-up vituperation of twenty 
years bunting the mounds which had con- 
fined it The princes of the empire, Pro- 
testant as well as Catholic, were angry to see 
one of their class so unceremoniously handled; 
but this did not weaken the effect of Luther's 
terrible lash upon the feelings of his victim, 
or on the judgment of the public 

In 1536 the cardinal succeeded in having 
his cousin John Albert appointed his coadju- 
tor and successor in the see of Magdeburg. 
This, however, was a solitary g^eam of 
triumph amid the vexations which now ga- 
thered around hinu He continued to Uie end 
of his life to be plagued with the disputes in 
which his increasing debts kept him con- 
stantly involved with the provinces under his 
charge. His cherished project <^ founding a 
Roman Catholic university at Halle for the 
repression of Protestant doctrines proved ul- 
timately abortive. Instead of recommending 
peace and compromise, Albert, his temper now 
thoroughly soured, complained of the em- 
peror's perseverance in the attempt to ap- 
proximate Roman Catholics and Protestants 
by means of repeated conferences. He urged 
the employment of force, and was, in 1540, 
the first prince in Germany who took the 
new order of Jesuits under his protection. 

Previous to this he had contributed in 
1538 to the formation of the Roman Catholic 
league, instituted to oppose the league of 
Schmalkalden. He died, however, before the 
war, which the mere organising of two such 
bodies amid the anarchy of the German em- 
pire rendered inevitable, broke out His last 
public appearance was at the diet at Speyer 
in 1544. He died on the 24th of September, 
1545, in his 56th year. 

Cardinal Albert, prince, elector, and arch- 
bishop of Biayence, archbishop of Magde- 
burg, and administrator of the bishopric of 
Halberstadt, was a character which is fre- 
quently to be met with, — the self-indulgent 
man, whose susceptibility to the excitement 
of elegant luxury, and indulgence to others 
with a view to earn indulgence for himself in 
return, poss current for estimable qualities, 
until trying circumstances reveal how hollow 
and worthless they are unless preserved from 
corruption by an admixture of sterner in- 
gredients of character. His patronage of 
literature and his popular manners shed a 
deceptive light around his early career. But 
when the storm of confiicting opinions arose, 
he showed himself alike incapable of making 
the least sacrifice for truth, or even defend- 
ing the worse cause with energy and man- 
liness. His apparent leniency was fear to 
provoke attacks upon himself; he spared 
his adversaries when in his power, not from 

XX 4 



ALBERT* 



ALBERT, 



motives of haxnanity, bat cowardice } and 
he WBB merciless where he felt he could 
strike without danger^ as the weak and ef- 
feminate always are. (V. L. a Seckendorff, 
Comtnentarius Hiatoricus de Luiheranismo, 
Frankftirt, 1688, 4to.; Epistola Friderici My- 
conii oi Paulum Eberum de Primordiis emen>- 
daUK HeligumU, Witembergte, 1717, 8vo. ; 
O. J. Planck, GeachichU der Entstekung de» 
Protesiandachen Lekrbegriffa, Leipzig, 1791-6, 
8yo. ; Heinrich, Deutsche StaaU-UtachickU, 
vols. iv. and v. ; Rathman's Sketch of Cctrdinal 
Albert of Ma^ence^ in Ersch & Gruber's En- 
cyclopHdie.) W.W. 

ALBERT of Mbcklbnbitro. [Al- 
brbchtJ 

ALBERT of MEnsBir. [Albrecht.] 
ALBERT, MICHAEL. [Auibbti.] 
ALBERT, PAUL D*, archbishop of Sens 
and cardinal of Lu3mes, the second son <^ 
Honore Charles d' Albert, due de Luynes et 
Montfort, was bom on the fith of February, 
1703. His grandfather, Chaiies Honord 
d* Albert, due de Luynes de Chevrense et de 
Chaulnes, was almost the only nobleman who 
had the courage to continue his intimacy 
with Fenelon during the disgraoe of that 
prelate. The &ther of Paul was killed 
daring the siege of Landau in 1704, and the 
boy, at that time called Comte de Montfort, 
was educated by his grand&ther tUl 1712, 
and after his death by the Dachesse de 
Cherreuse. The character and precepts of 
Fenelon made a histing impression on his 
mind. 

The Comte de Montfort, as was nsoal with 
the younger sons of his funily, entered the 
army, and obtained the rank of colonel when 
only sixteen. But having, in conformity with 
the principles he had imbibed firom Fdndlon, 
refused a challenge, he was obliged to quit it 
He took orders; obtained in 1727 the abbey 
of Cerisy ; and on the 25th of September, 
1729, was consecrated bishop of Baieux. 

The Bishop of Baieux was a zealous 
asserter of the rights of the GaJlican church. 
From the day of his installation he began to 
labour against the appellate jurisdiction over 
the decisions of the church courts asserted 
by the parliament of Paris; and in June, 
1752, he signed the representation addressed 
by the bishops to the king against the urdts 
of the parliament relating to the withholdmg 
the sacraments. In 1753 he was created 
archbishop of Sens. 

After this elevation he continued as be- 
fore to assert the jurisdiction of the church 
a^inst the encroachments of the civil ma- 
gistracy, particularly in the provincial as- 
semblies of 1755, 1758, and 1760. In 1756 
he was created a cardinal by Benedict XIV. 
on the presentation of the Pretender to the 
crown of Engkmd, the papal court having 
permitted the house of Stuart to exercise the 
right of presentation as if it had still con- 
tinaed to reign. The Cardinal de Luynes 
672 



was present at three ecmclaves'^ in 1758, 
1769, and 1774. He advocated the cause of 
the Jesuits. In the assembly of bishops held 
in 1761 by command of the king to de- 
liberate on the afiairs of that order, the 
cardinal was the first to sign the (pinion in 
their favour. A letter in behalf of the 
Jesuits and the Archbishop of Paris, ad- 
dressed to the pope in 1764, has been 
attributed to hinu In 1767, as the oldest 
cardinal of the OalUcan church, he presided 
over an assembly of the clergy which met ta 
protest against the jurisdiction claimed by 
the parliaments. 

^ The hi^ moral character of the Arch- 
bishop of Sens procured him the appointment 
of almoner to the mother of Louis XVL 
He attended her husband the dauphin on his 
deathbed. In 1771 he published a pastoral 
letter denouncing the general scepticism of 
the age, and in particular the doctrines of 
the " systeme de la nature." 

But though an earnest advocate of the 
independence of the church and of its doc- 
trines, the Cardinal de Luynes was the 
reverse of superstitious. Not long after his 
elevation to the see of Baieux, some cases 
of pretended demoniac possession were re- 
ported to him. He had not only the ooorage 
to declare that the symptoms were entirdy 
owin^ to physical causes, but the patience ta 
examme diem minutely in order to disabuse 
the credulous populace. 

In 1774 he was admitted an hoo<»W7 
member of the Academic des Sciences. His 
grandfather, who had received his education 
at Port Royal, had earl^ directed his attention 
to science, and he evmced from the first a 
predilection for astronomy and the branches 
of knowledge more immediately connected 
with it A number of observations made by 
him at Sens, at Fontainebleau, and at Ver- 
sailles are recorded in the Transactions of 
the academy from 1761 to 1772. The 
volume for 1768 contains a memoir which 
he composed upon the action of the mercury 
in barometers the tubes of which are of 
different diameters, and have been filled by 
different processes. The author of the eloge 
(^ the cfudinal relates an anecdote ilhurtra- 
tive of his tolerance. ** On one occasion a 
man suspected of not being very religious 
asked his vote for a scientific appointment 
* They tell me,' said the cardinal, *that yoa 
are a sceptic: if that be true, it is the worse 
for yourself, and it is my duty to undeceive 
you. In other respects they tell me you de- 
serve the place, and you shall have my vote.' " 
In a note to this passage it is said, " It was 
to the author himself that M. de Luynes 
gave this proof of his tolerance." The car- 
dinal was not so tolerant in the case of 
Espagnac: but the circumstances were dif- 
ferent (EsPAGMAC, Abbe' d'.) The Cardi- 
nal de Luynes died at Paris on the 22d of 
January, 1788» {M^moirea pour servir d 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



tHiUoire EceUnagtique pendant le dix 
huitihne Siidet seamde eaitum^ augmenUe, 
Paris, 1815-16, 8to.; E'loffe de M, le Car- 
dinal de Luynea; Histoire de VAcadimie dee 
Sciences, annee 1788.) W. W. 

ALBERT DE RIOMS, COMTE D', 
was bom in Danphiny in 1738 or 1740. He 
entered the nayy early in life. He was en- 
gaged in aetire serrice daring the whole of 
the war between France and England oc- 
casioned by the assistance giyen by the lat- 
ter power to the United States. The court- 
martial which sat upon the captains of the 
fleet beaten by Rodney off Gnadalonpe in 
1782 honourably acquitted Count d'^bert, 
who was immediately after promoted to the 
rank of chef d'escadre. In 1789 he was made 
commandant of Toulon, with the title of 
licutenant-generaL In this capacity he for- 
bade the workmen employed in the arsenal 
to enter the national guard or wear the na- 
tional cockade. Two carpenters baring dis- 
obeyed him, he ordered them into confine- 
ment An insurrection of the inhabitants 
was the consequence; his troops deserted 
him, and he was thrown into prison to- 
gether with some of his officers. The mu- 
nicipal council of Toulon, after inquiring 
into the circumstances of the case, gave 
orders for his liberation; but not satisfied 
with this, he demanded to be heard at the 
bar of the National Assembly. The as- 
sembly exonerated him fh>m all blame, and 
he was soon afterwards appointed to the 
command of a fleet of thirty ressels destined 
to co-operate with the Spaniards in the war 
against England arising out of the disputes 
regarding the settlements on Nootka Sound. 
His sailors mutinied, and although his con- 
duct was approved by government, he was 
obliged to relinquish his command fh>m its 
being fbund impossible fbr him to re-establish 
discipline. He soon after joined the emi- 
grants at Coblenz, and served in the cam- 
paign of 1792. After the retreat of the 
Prussians he retired to Dahnatia, and took 
no flirther part in politics. He returned to 
France after the 18th of Brumaire, and was 
alive in 1806. Count Albert occupies a 
place in biography solely from the accident of 
his having been one of those whose indis- 
creet opposition to the revolution in trifles 
helped to precipitate its course. The state- 
ment of his case to the National Assembly, 
which was printed and is to be found in most 
libraries, illustrates the inability of the class 
to which he belonged to understand their 
position. {Mimoire que M. le Comte d* Albert 
de Rioms a fait dans la Prison oii il est ditenu, 
4ta Paris (?X 1789 (?); French and English 
Journals of his day ; Biographie des Ctm- 
temporains,) W. W. 

ALBERT, SALOMON. [Ai.mBRTi.] 
ALBERT of Saxont. [Ai^brecht.] 
ALBERT DE SISTERON, ALBER- 
TET DE SISTERON, ALBERT DE 
673 



OAPEN9OIS, ALBERT DE THARAS- 
CON. Albert de Sisteron, a gentleman 
of Sisteron, who was probably bom in 
the province of Gapen9ois, was a comic 
writer, and lived about the year 1290. He 
was the son of the jongleur Nazur, and one 
of the troubadour poets who lived in the 
time of the counts of Provence. He com- 
posed many songs, the airs of which are very 
good, and the verses very indifferent ^e 
appears to have been a man of musical 
talent and not much intellect, amiable and 
agreeable in manners, and a great favourite 
with the ladies of his day, to whose praises 
he dedicated most of his verses. It is said 
that he became rich. He had an amour, or 
at all events was in love with the Marquise 
de Mallespine, who was accounted one of the 
most beautiful, accomplished, and virtuous 
ladies of Provence. He made many songs 
in her pnuse, and the lady sent him privately 
various presents of cloth, horses, and money, 
together with a letter beseeching him to de- 
sist from his attentions for a time. He com- 
plied with her request, but first sent her 
a song in form of a dialogue between the 
marquise and himself, commencing thus, — • 
** Decportu root Amy d'aqueit |mour per aru.'* 
To which the next verse replies — 

** Mall coDime tuaj yeu (dis'leu) mat Amourt karat 
My poder detportar d'aquetc' aifection ? 
Car certas yeu endury en eita paftion 
Per voiu iugratamentf mantas douloort amarai.*' 

Certain flragments of his correspondence 
with a contemporary, named Rambaud de 
Vaqueiras, are curious as displaying some of 
the habits and moral feelings of the time. 

** Rambaud. You, who hare so many Umei sacrl- 
flced your word and your oath to your intereit ; you, 
whom the Genoese reproach with haring robbea on 
the highway. And the Milaneae are not unaware of 
It. 

** Albert If I have been addicted to pillage. It U 
not for love of hoarding, but to have the pleasure of 
glTlng. You, Rambaud, I have seen you In Lombardy 
go on foot like a base mountebank ; unlucky In Ioto a« 
In fortune, it would then have been a charitable alma 
to have glTen you lomething to eat. RecoUeet in what 
a state 1 found you in Pavia. 

** Rambawd. You are the first man in the world at 
a slander, to make all sort of mischieft* and the last in 
merit and in valour.** 

It would hence appear that robbery was a 
very pleasant amusement among the trouba- 
dours, and only regarded as a slight indis- 
cretion or impropriety. 

The poet departed from Provence, and it 
was never certainly known what became dt 
him. According to the Abbot des Isles d*Or 
he died of grief at Tharascon, having in- 
trusted his songs to the care of a friend 
named Peyre de Valieras, or Valemas, who 
was to give them to the Marquise Mallespine. 
Instead of doing this, De Valieras sold them 
to Fabre d'Uzes, a lyric poNet, who published 
them as his own. But various critics having 
recognised them by their style, and also (as 
Nostradamus innocently adds) hy the confes- 
sion of Valieras, who sold them, the said Fabre 



ALBERT. 



ALBERT. 



d'Ucefl was seised and whipped, according to 
the law of the emperors, which awarded this 
just punishment for plagiarism. 

Haghes de Sainct Cezari (probably St Cjrr, 
another troubadour) says that Alb^ was of 
Tharascon, and that he sang the praises, not 
only of the Marquise Mallespine, but of the 
Gomtesse de ProTence and the Marquise de 
Sfduces, who were usually in each other's 
company, and the paragons of their time for 
beauty and yirtue. The Abbot des Isles 
d'Or says that Albert was of the &mily of 
the counts of Mallespine, a rery noble and 
ancient family of Italy ; and that he also 
composed a book entitled ** Lou Pertrach de 
Venus,*' together with various works on ma> 
thematics, which he dedicated to the three 
ladies aboTc mentioned. 

There is an Italian edition of the ** Lires 
of the Pro'ven9al Poets '* by J. Nostradamus 
(which contains a biography of Albert) pub- 
lished at Lyon in the same year as the French 
edition of that work ; and the entire article 
on Albertet de Sisteron in the Bibliothdque 
of Du Verdier (Vauprivas), published at 
Lyon in 1585, is taken from the French 
edition of Nostradamus without acknow- 
ledgment. (Nostradamus, Les Vies dea plus 
celebres et anctens Poetes Provenaaux, Lyon, 
1575 ; Hist Litter, des Troubadours^ tome i. 
p. 334, &c Paris, 1774; Jocher, AUgemein, 
GelehrL Lexic., and Adelung, Sup.) R. H. H. 

ALBERT of Stade. [Albertus.] 

ALBERT of Stbassbubo. [Ai^bebtus 
Argentinensis.] 

ALBERT of Sweden. [Aiabecht IL 
OF Mecklenburq.] 

ALBERT DE THARASCON. [Albert 
de Sisteron.] 

ALBERT of Thurinoia. [Albbecht.] 

ALBERT, bishop of Wurzburo, of the 
house Hohenlohe, was provost of the cathedral 
(Dom-Probst) of Wiirzburg in 1345, at the 
time of Bishop Otho's death, and was elected 
Otho's successor by a unanimous vote of the 
chapter. The contest between the pope and 
the chapter was not on this occasion a com- 
mon struggle for the maintenance of papal 
authority on the one hand, and of the inde- 
pendence of the see on the other. The high 
nobility and the equestrian order of the dio- 
cese of Wiirzburg maintained that the choice 
of the occupant of the episcopal chair had 
from the first endowment of the bishopric 
been restricted to a member of their fiunilies, 
and they were anxious to prevent the election 
from being thrown open to strangers. The 
unsettled state of Germany was in their fa- 
vour. The nominee of the chapter only 
obtained the confirmation of the pope at last 
by consenting to go through the form of a 
second election ; and even this tardy sanction 
was only procured after his rival was pro- 
moted to the see of Freising. Albert of 
Hohenlohe contrived to appropriate the re- 
venues of Wiirzburg to himself during the 
674 



whole four or five years that the oontro- 
versy remained undecided. Albert, bishop 
of Wiirzburg, sometimes called Albert I. and 
sometimes Albert IL, continued to occupy 
the see from the settlement of this dis- 
pute, in 1350, to 1372. He was a warlike 
and enterprising prince, and, even before the 
termination of his dispute with the pope^ 
succeeded in fhistrating an attempt of die 
Emperor Ludwig IV. to separate the dukedom 
of Franconia i^m the bishopric of Wiirz- 
burg, with which it had for some centuries 
been united. The bishop subsequently, at 
different times, conducted in person, and with 
success, warlike operations against several of 
the proud and rebellious nobles of his duke- 
dom and bishopric. He was less successful 
in three feuds widi the citixens of his capital, 
Wurabnrg, in which he was at different times 
engaged ; and was glad enough, on each of 
t hc ee eocasions, to accept the offer of the 
emperor (Charles IV.) to mediate in the 
dispute. Albert added materially to the 
extent of the territory of the bishops of W^iirz- 
burg and to their feudal prerogaitives ; but be 
burdened the episcopal exchequer with debts 
to such an extent as at one tune to incur a 
reprimand fh>m the pope. These debts were 
contracted in part m order to pay off the 
sums demanded by the court of Avignon 
and the bishop of Freising as the price of 
their accession to the arrangement in virtue 
of which Albert of Hohenlohe was allowed 
to retain quiet possession of the bishopric of 
Wiirzburg, but in part also in consequence of 
the prqjects of aggrandisement in which that 
prelate's ambition led him to engage. The 
taxes he imposed with a view to relieve him- 
self and the diocese of these debts were the 
cause of the most serious quarrels between 
him and the burghers of Wiirzburg. The 
means by which he procured a supply of 
money on one occasion is characteristic of 
the a^. In 1348 a ^at number of Jews 
were, m several places in Germany, burned at 
the stake and put to death in various ways 
upon the allegation that they had poisoned the 
wells with a view to destroy the Christians. 
Matters were carried with such a high hand 
against this persecuted race at Wiirzburg, 
especiallv by the rabble, that about eight 
days before Easter a number of them shut 
themselves up in their houses, and setting 
fire to the buildings, burned themselves, their 
families, and all their property. By way of 
putting an end to these proceedings, Charles 
IV. in 1349 imposed heavy fines on the 
Jews, and the Bishop of Wiirzburg contrived 
to reserve as his share of the spoil 1200 marks 
of silver from the Jews residing in Rothen- 
burg, on the Tauber, as much from the Jews 
of Niimberg, and a grant of all schools, 
synagogues, houses, and gardens belonging 
to the Jews within his diocese. Bishop 
Albert died in 1372. {Geschichi^Schreiber 
von dem Biacftofthum Wirtzburg, zusamnun- 



ALBERT. 



ALBERTI. 



geiragen von JohaBn Peter Ludwig, Frank- 
fiui 1713, fol. pp. 634—647.) W. W. 

ALBERTA'NO DA BRE'SCIA wag a 
magistrate of Brescia in the first part of 
the thirteenth century, during which time 
the Emperor Frederic II. was making war 
against the Lombard cities. Albertano was 
charged with the defence of the castle of 
Gavardo, and on its being taken by Frederic, 
Albertano was seized as a rebel, and sent 
prisoner to Cremona in 1238, where he re- 
mained several years. During his confine- 
ment he wrote some didactic and moral 
treatises in Ladn, which were translated into 
Italian and published at Florence in 1610. 
One is entitled ** Delia Forma dell' onesta 
Vita,** another ** DeUe sei Maniere del Par- 
lare,'* and a third ** Delia OonsolajEione, e del 
ConsigUo," which last, it appears, was written 
in 1246, and is addressed by the author to 
his son. The Latin text of tbeae treatises is 
preserved in MS. in the royal library of 
Turin, and in the Ambrosian library at 
Kilan. It seems that Albertano wrote also 
some sermons and other minor works which 
have not been published. Oudin, ** De 
Scriptoribus ecclesiasticis," voL iii., Malvezzi 
of Brescia, in Muratori's ** Rerum ItaL Scrip- 
tores," vol. xiv., and Mazzuchelli, in his 
" Scrittori d' Italia," speak of the works of 
Albertano; but nothing more than what is 
mentioned above seems to be known of his 
personal history, nor of the time of his death. 
(Tiraboschi, Sioria ddla Leiteratura ItalianOf 
vol. iv. ch. ii.) A. V, 

ALBERTAZZO,marquisof EsTE. [Este.] 
ALBERTET DE SISTERON. [Al- 
bert DE SiSTERON.] 

ALBERTI, the name of a numerous 
fiamily of artists of Borgo San. Sepolcro. The 
oldest of this family of whom we have any 
notice is Axberto Ajlbebti, a carver in 
wood, and apparently also a painter. He 
made wooden statues at Borgo San. Sepolcro 
in the middle and early part of the sixteenth 
century, and according to Baglione was the 
father of Cherubino and Giovanni AlbertL 
In the picture gallery of the academy of 
Bologna there is a painting marked " Alberto, 
Ds. Se., 1496," which has been interpreted 
** Alberto de Sancto Sepulcro:" it is painted 
in distemper upon canvass, and represents 
the Virgin and Child^ with St. Paul on one 
side of her and St. Peter on the other. 
Whether this picture was painted by the 
father of Cherubino and Giovanni Alberti, 
or, which is more probable, by the father 
of Alberto Alberti, or either, must still re- 
main undecided. 

Giovanni Alberti, Alberto's son, was a 
celebrated painter, and unrivalled at his pe- 
riod for his admirable foreshortenings of the 
figure, for his general effects in perspective, 
and for lands^pe. He was bom at San. 
Sepolcro in 1558. He is more femous for 
his paintings in fresco than in oil, the most 
675 



considerable of which are the great works 
executed for Clement VIII. in the Sala Cle- 
mentina in the Vatican, which was entirely 
painted by him, assisted by his brother Che- 
rubino. He painted also for the same pontiff 
the ceiling of the sacristy of San. Giovanni in 
Laterano, and for Gregory XIIL some fres- 
coes in the papal palace of Monte Cavella 
He executed several other works in various 
edifices in Rome, by which he acquired both 
fhme and fortune ; but, to the great regret of 
the artists and virtuosi of Rome, a sudden 
and premature death terminated his labours 
in 1601 in his forty-third year. His pro- 
perty, which appears to have been consider- 
able, was given by Clement VIII. to his 
elder brother Cherubino. Giovanni's portrait 
is preserved in the Academy of St Luke. 

Cbercbino Alberti was bom at San 
Sepolcro in 1552. He was also a painter of 
merit, but he is better known as an engraver, 
m which character he commenced his career, 
and attained great eminence. He however 
afterwards took to painting, to which he was 
led, probably, by the facilities of employment 
and improvement which the extensive en- 
gagements of his brother Giovanni afforded 
him. He excelled in drawing the figure, 
and assisted Giovanni in his great works in 
the Vatican and in the churoh of St. John 
Lateran; he executed also several original 
works. The inheritance of his brother's pro- 
perty rendered Cherubino independent ; and 
although he survived him fourteen years, he 
appears to have neglected painting soon after 
his brother's death. In his latter years he 
seems to have turned somewhat whimsical, 
for he spent nearly all his time in making 
and trying balistse, constructed after the plans 
of the ancients. His house, says his con- 
temporary Baglione, was full of models of 
balistfe. He died at Rome in 1615, aged 
sixty-three ; his portrait is also preserved in 
the academy of St Luke. 

Cherabino's engravings are numerous, and 
not uncommon. He worked, says Strutt, 
entirely with the graver, and his style is 
much after the manner of Cornelius Cort and 
Agostino Caracci, and also sometimes that of 
Francesco Villemena. He drew well, but, 
like many other engravers of that time, he 
was very feeble in the chiaroscuro. The 
minority of his plates are from his own de* 
signs; but he engraved also many fh>m 
Michelangelo, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, 
Polidoro da Caravaggio, and others. The 
following are among the best : — Some figures 
firom the Sistine chapel, St Jerome, and the 
celebrated Piet^, after Michelangelo ; a 
Resurrection of Christ and a Holy Family, 
after Raphael ; the Miracle of San. Filippo 
Benizzo, after Andrea del Sarto ; and the 
Children of Niobe and the Rape of the Sa- 
bines, two friezes, after Polidoro. Heineken 
gives a long list of Cherubino's works ; 
among those from his own designs are por- 



ALBERT!. 



ALBRRTL 



traits of Henir IV. of France, and the popes 
Gregory XIII. and Urban VII. 

From an apparent error of Orlandi in the 
Abecedario Pittorico, Cherubino and Gio- 
vanni Albert! hare been generally termed 
sons of Michele Alberti ; Baglione, howeyer, 
irho was their contemporary, distinctly af- 
firms that they were the sons of Alberto 
Alberti of Borgo San. Sepolcro, a carver in 
wood. The only Michele Alberti known is 
the Florentine and scholar of Daniele di 
Volterra spoken of by Yasarl [Riociabelll] 

Of Durante Alberti of Borgo San. Se- 
polcro, Baglione has given us likewise some 
accoimt ; but he does not state that he was 
of the same fiunilv as the above, although it 
is most probable that they were related. He 
was bom in 1538, and settled in Rome 
shortly before the pontificate of Gregory XIII., 
where he executed several altar-pieces, and 
other works in fresco and in oil, in various 
churches. Baglione speaks of them with 
praise, especially a Nativity and Adoration 
of the Shepherds in the church of Santa 
Maria in the VallicelU. He died in Rome 
in 1 6 1 3. Durante had a son, Pierfrancesco 
AiSERTi, who painted in a similar style with 
his father ; he also etched a spirited plate of 
an Academy of Painters after a design of his 
own, containing many figures, called ^ Aca- 
demia de' Pittori." He died in Rome in 
1638, aged 54. 

Grandellini speaks of Durante and his two 
brothers, CosiMo and Giorgio Alberti, and 
terms them all three painters and engravers 
of Borgo San Sepolcro. Giorgio died young 
in 1590. Heineken coigectures that the 
portrait of Henry IV. of France already men- 
tioned, which is marked "C. Albert, 1585," 
may have been the work of Cosimo. There 
was also a Romano Alberti of this family, 
who wrote a book on painting, ** Trattato 
della Nobilti della Pittura," published in 
Rome in 1585, and in Pavia in 1604. 

There were several other artists of this 
name of different fiunilies. Francesco Al- 
berti of Venice [Moro, Battista del]. 
Joseffo Alberti, of the Italian Tyrol, was 
distinguished as a painter at Trent in the 
close of the seventeenth century. He was 
bom at Cavalese in 1664 ; first studied medi- 
cine at Padua, but afterwards took to painting 
and architecture ; and after visiting Rome he 
retumed to the Tyrol in 1682, and established 
himself at Trent He built the chapel of 
the Cracifix in the cathedral of Trent ; he 
painted also many other pictures, the most 
celebrated of which is a Martyrdom of the 
^oung St. Simon of Trent, which is preserved 
m the palace of Trent, and is exhibited yearly 
to the people in the annual procession in 
commemoration of his martyrdom. Joseffo 
Alberti had several scholare, who became 
distinguished in the Tyrol 

There were also a Gaspare Alberti, an 
engraver, who lived m Italy towards the end 
676 



of the sixteenth century, who engpraved a 
plate after the Last Supper by Livio Agresti; 
and an Ionazio Alberti, a painter and 
engraver, who lived at Vienna at the end of 
the last century, who engraved maps and ob- 
jects of natural history. He died in 1802. 
(Giordani, Pinacoteca di Bologna ; Baglione, 
ViU de* Pittori, ^. ; Strott, IHcL ofEwfrtwers; 
Heineken, Diet, des Artistes, ^.; Gandellini, 
Notizie de^ Jntagliatori ; Nagler, Neuea AU- 
aemeines KOnsder Lexiam.) R. N. W. 

ALBERTI, ARISTOTILB. [Fiora- 
vantl] 

ALBERTI, BENEDETTO, a member 
of one of the leading families of the Floren- 
tine republic in the fourteenth centiuy, and 
himself a man of wealth and of considerable 
acquirements. He took the popular side 
with Salvestro de* Medici, against the oppres- 
sion of the Albizzi, Ricci, and other great 
Guelph families, who, under the pretence of 
keepmg awa^ the Guibeline &ction, had 
formed a magistracy or board called ** Capi- 
tani di parte Guelfa," who had the power of 
** ammonire," that is, of depriving any citizen 
whom they chose to suspect, of his political 
rights, and imprisoning, fining, and banishing 
him. It was m fiict a system of terrorism. 
This state of things lasted from 1371 till 
1378. Catherine of Siena, a woman who 
eigoyed the reputation of sanctity and of 
being inspired, happening to j^ass through 
Florence on her way from Avignon in the 
year 1376, whither she had gone to urge 
Pope Gregory XL to restore the papal see to 
Rome, was courted by the leading Guelphs, 
and was induced to appear publicly at the 
board of the capitani di parte, and to express 
her approbation of the practice of "ammonire** 
as a measure necessary for the peace and 
security of the republic 

In 1378 Salvestro de' Medici was elected 
gonfaloniere or first magistrate of the re- 
public. For the purpose of checking the 
msufferable oppression of the capitani, he 
proposed a law by which their authori^ was 
Hmited, and most of the "ammoniti," or 
persons suspended from their rights, were to 
be reinstated. This project of law was read 
by Salvestro to the general assembly of the 
people in the great square, and Benedetto 
Alberti, showing himself at one of the win* 
dows of the town-house, cried out " Viva 11 
popolol" which being repeated all about the 
city, the people ran to arms. While the 
leading popular citizens were forming a Balia 
or Commission of Reform, the lower orders 
plundered the houses of the chi^ of the ob^ 
noxious families of the aristocracy, as well as 
several convents, and broke open the prisons. 
In the mean time a new executive council 
was appointed ; but the lower orders had felt 
their strength, and a few weeks after they 
broke out again into open insurrection, drove 
away the new executive, and took possession 
of the town. This kind of servile revolt is 



ALBERT! 



ALBERTI. 



■tyled in the history of Florence ** il tnmulto 
dei ciompi." The moh vaa at last brought 
back to something like reason by an artisan 
of the name of Michele Lando, who showed 
great prudence and finnness in the general 
conAision, and saved the town from destruc- 
tion. A goyemment was formed, in which 
the lower trades had the preponderance. 
Salvestro de' Medici, Benedetto Alberti, 
Giorgio Scali, and Tommaso Stroxzi, being 
fiivourites with the lower orders, became the 
leaders of the state. A great many of the 
higher citizens, being exiled, conspii4d with 
others who had remained in the town ; but 
the plot was discovered, and several of them 
were seized and beheaded. Filippo Strozzi, 
Donato Barbadori, and many more, and espe- 
cially Piero degU Albizzi, the leader of the 
former government, and therefore obnoxious 
to the people, denied all knowledge of the 
conspiracy, and the priori or executive hesi- 
tated about sending them to the scaffold; but 
Benedetto Alberti having told the priori. that 
unless they did so the people would take the 
law into dieir own hands, the priori ordered 
their execution. These things occurred in 
1879-80. In 1382 the report of a new con- 
spiracy was spread abroad, but one of the 
informers being found guilty of peijury the 
magistrates condemned him to death. Gior- 
gio Scali and Tommaso Strozzi, two of the 
popular leaders, went to the town-house and 
released him hj force. Alberti, who like 
Salvestro de' Medici was weary of popular 
violence, took the part of the magistrates, 
and Scali was arrested and beheaded. As he 
was goin^ to the scaffold he perceived his 
former friend Benedetto Alberti among the 
armed men, and he bitterly reproached him, 
adding, ** this day is the last of my calamities, 
but it will be the first of thine.** Strozzi 
escaped to Mantua. The government was 
again re-formed, and the lower orders were 
excluded from any share in it 

Benedetto Albem had begun by fitvouring 
the lower orders against the oppression of 
the grandi or high fiunilies, but when he 
saw the grandi oppressed and the insolence 
of his own party overgrown, he endeavoured 
to restore the balance, and caused the more 
desperate partisans, Scali and Strozzi, to be 
condemned. **In the turmoil of fiictions 
moderate men become odious to all parties. 
The populace being now repressed, the party 
of the grandi, forgetting the merits and the 
services of Alberti, persecuted him. Alberti 
might have again roused the popular party, 
but either finding it cooled and indifferent, 
or perhaps sacrificing his personal interest to 
public tranquillity, he chose to go into vo- 
luntary exile. He travelled into distant 
lands, visited Palestine and the Holy Sepul- 
chre, and died at Rhodes on his return. His 
remains, being carried to Florence, were 
buried with honour. I>eath having extin- 
guished envy, the recollection of his virtues 
677 



alone survived him.** (Pignotti, Sioria della 
ToMxma, b. iv. ; Machiavelli, Storie Fwren^ 
Hne, b. iii.) A. V. 

ALBERTI, GEORG WILHELBf, was 
bom about the year 1723, and studied theo- 
logy at Gotdngen. After completing his 
studies, and obteining the degree of doctor 
of philosophy, he came to England, where he 
stayed several years. During this period he 
made himself acquainted with the English 
language; but his principal object was to 
acquire a thorough knowledge of the state 
of religion, theology, and philosophy in this 
country, and the works which he afterwards 
published on these sul]gects show that he 
succeeded better in this undertaking than 
any one who had preceded him. In 1745 he 
published, in London, an English Essay 
against Hume's ** Natural Religion," under 
the assumed name of Aletophilus Gotdn- 
gensis. On his return to Germany he pub- 
lished, in 1750, at Hanover, a work on the 
society of Friends in England, called ** Na- 
chricht von der Religion &c. der Quaker;** 
and two years later another work on the state 
of religion and philosophy in Great Britain : 
** Briefe betreffend den allemeuesten Zustand 
der Religion und Wissenschaften in Gross- 
britannien," Hanover, 1752-4, 4 vols. 8vo. 
These works, which show that the author 
possessed great power of observation and a 
sound judgment, contained, at the time, the 
best information respecting England that had 
appeared in Germany, and were well received. 
There is another treatise in Latin, ** De Gloria 
Dei in facie Jesu Christi," which is men- 
tioned in some catalogues of his works with- 
out date or place: it is probably his first 
production, and may have been written for 
the purpose of obtaining his degree of doctor. 
During the last years of his life, Alberti lived 
as a preacher at Tundem in Hanover, where 
he died on the 3d of September, 1758, at the 
age of '85. (Adelung*s Supplement to Jocher's 
Attgem. Geiehrten-Lexieon, I 417.; Ersch und 
Gruber, Allffem, EncyekpSdie der KUnste und 
WUsenachaJUn, ii. 363.) L. a 

ALBERTI, GIUSEPPE MATTEO, a 
violin player and composer, lived at Bologna 
in the beginnmg of the eighteenth century, 
and published there ten concertos for six in- 
struments, 1713, and four sinfonias for two 
violins, viola, violoncello, and basso continuo. 
Bumey says these were simple easy compo- 
sitions, and were at one time frequently per- 
formed. (BvTuey, Hist of Music.) E. T. 

ALBERTI, JOHANN, was bom on the 
6th of March, 1698, at Assen, a market-town 
in the Netherlands. He studied at Franeker, 
where he chiefly devoted himself to theology, 
though he also paid considerable attention to 
philology. After he had completed his aca- 
demical studies, during which he greatly 
distinguished himself by his industry, he was 
appointed preacher at Hochwoude, in West 
Friesland, where he began to make himself 



ALBERTL 



ALBERTI. 



known as a writer by his " Obserratioiiefl saene 
in Novum Testamcntum," Leydeo, 1725, Sva 
The favour with which this work was re- 
ceived led to his being shortly after appointed 
preacher at Crommen ; some years later he 
was removed to Haarlem. In 1740 the chair 
of theotogy at Leyden, having become vacant 
by the death of F. Fabricius, the curators of 
the university gave this distinguished post to 
Albert!, who had a short time before been 
honoured with a diploma of doctor of divinity 
from the same university. Alberti laboured 
with the most indefatigable zeal to promote 
the study of antiquity, and especially Greek 
literature, chiefly with a view to prepare 
students for the better understanding of the 
Scriptures, and to throw light on the more 
obscure passages. Though his health was 
very delicate he continued his exertions, 
which were almost above his strength. As a 
theologian he belonged, like his master 
Vitringa, to the moderate party ; a circum- 
stance which involved him in various disputes 
with the more zealous and strictly orthodox 
divines of Holland. He died at Leyden on 
the 13th of August, 1762. 

Alberti was a profound scholar as well as 
a good theologian ; his knowledge of ancient 
(especially Greek) literature, and his philo- 
logical criticism entitle him to an honourable 
place among his learned countrymen. His 
greatest merit consists in what he has done 
for the Lexicon of Hesychius : all his philo- 
logical works bear some relation to this, as 
may be seen from the following list of his 
works : — 1. ^ Observationum Criticarum 
in Hesychium Specimen," contained in the 
** Bibliotheca historico philologico theolo- 
gica" of Bremen, voL viii. part 1. 2. ** Peri- 
culum'Criticnm, in quo Loca quffidam turn 
Veteris tum Novi Testamenti, tum Hesychii 
et aUorum,illnstrantur, emendantur." Leyden, 
1727, 8vo. 3. "Glossarium Grscum in sacros 
Novi Foederis Libros ; accednnt Miscellanea 
Critica in Glossas nomicas, Suidam, Hesy- 
chium, et Index Auctorum ex Photii Lexico 
inedito," Leyden, 1735, 8vo. 4. After these 
preparatory works; there appeared at last his 
great and splendid edition of Hesychius, 
under the title ** Hesychii Lexicon, cum Notis 
doctorum Virorum integris vel editis antehac, 
nunc autem auctis et emendatis, &c. edidit, 
suasque Animadversiones perpetuas adjecit, 
J. Alberti," Leyden, 1746, fol The second 
volume appeared at Leyden, in 1766, after 
the death of Alberti, and. was completed by 
Ruhnken. A supplement to it was published 
in 1792, by N. Schow. Alberti's edition of 
Hesychius has superseded all prior editions, 
and has scarcely left anything for fixture 
editors to do. Several philological essays by 
Alberti are contained in Burmann*s and 
D*Orville*s ** Observationes MiscellanefB Cri- 
tic8B," where they are signed with the as- 
sumed name of " Gratianns de S. Barone.** 
Alberti's works of a more direct theological 
678 



character are — " Annotationnm philologi- 
carum in Novum Testamentum ex Philone 
Judseo collectarum Specimen,*' contained in 
the " Bibliotheca historico, philologico, theo- 
logica'* of Bremen, voL L part L ^* Oratio inau- 
guralis de Theologise et Critices Connubio," 
Leyden, 1740, 4to.; *' Oratio pro poesi Theo- 
logisutili," Leyden, 1749, 4to. This work 
excited great interest at the time, and was 
first translated into Dutch prose and after- 
wards into Dutch verse by Peter Merkmann, 
Leyden, 1751. He also edited Peter Ken- 
Chen's ** Annotata in onmes Novi Testamenti 
Libros. Editio nova et altera parte nun- 
quam edita, auctior cum preefatione J. Al- 
berti," Leyden, 1755, 8vo. He never read an 
ancient writer without making notes, and he 
was extremelv liberal in communicating his 
remarks or discoveries to his friends ; hence 
we find remarks by Alberti printed in a g^reat 
man^ editions of classical writers which were 
published by his friends during his lifetime. 
(Strodtmann, Neuea Gelekrtes Evropa^ xiv. 
281. xviii. 479. ; Saxius, Ononuut Literar. 
vi. 387. ; Emesti, Theologische BibUoth, vii 
127, &c. ; Adelnng, Supplement to Jocher's 
AUgem, Gelehrien-Zexicon^ L 419, &c.) L. Si. 

ALBERTI, JOHANN GUSTAV Wn^ 
HELM, bom at Hamburg on the 21st Oc- 
tober, 1757, was educated at the commercial 
academy of that city, under the superinten- 
dence of Busch, the well-known writer on 
commerce, who treated him with particular 
attention. He early entered into business, 
and in a commercial tour through Silesia was 
led to take notice of the then existing defects 
in the Unen manufiicture. In 1783 he esta- 
blished a linen fiictory at Neu-Weissenstein 
in Silesia, carried on the undertaking with 
success, exported large quantities to Ame- 
rica, and persuaded the government to seve- 
ral measures for the benefit of the Silesian 
linen manu&cture. He saw, however, that to 
succeed in the long run, it was necessary to 
introduce machinery in the preparation of 
the flax. After costly experiments, and the 
diligent labour of years, he succeeded, about 
1817, in bringing to bear the flax-spinning 
machinery now in use in Silesia, not however 
without ihe assistance of other ingenious 
men, and the support of the government. 
His countrymen claim fi>r him the honour of 
being ** the first to introduce machinery on 
the Continent" He died on the 7th of Ja- 
nuary, 1837, at Waddenburg, in his eightieth 
year, in the enjoyment of wealth and ho- 
nours. (^Preusaische National Encjfclopadie, 
i. 226.) T. W. 

ALBERTI, LEANDRO, a Dominican 
friar, was bom at Bologna on the Uth of 
December, 1479. Much care was bestowed 
upon his education, and at the age of ten he 
commenced the study of belles lettres under 
Giovanni Ganone, the public professor at 
Bologna, in whose school he continued until 
1495, when, having made great progress in 



ALBERTI. 



ALBERTl. 



this branch of learning, he entered the order 
of St Dominic He now applied himself 
closely to the study of philosophy under 
Vinoenzio Barratero and Paolo da Montecelli, 
and of theology under SUvestro Prierio and 
Giorgio Cacatossico di Casale. In 1525 his 
friend Francesco Silvestri, having been 
elected general of the order, selected him to 
be his associate with the title of provincial 
of the Holy Land. In the discharge of the 
duties of his office he accompanied his gene- 
ral in his visitation of the provinces of the 
kingdom of Naples, and afterwards passed 
with him into France, where their progress 
terminated by the unexpected death of Sil- 
vestri. Alberti immediately returned to Bo- 
logna, which place he does not appear to have 
again quitted. Here he filled the office of 
inquisitor-general of the holy inquisition 
until the year 1552, at which period he is 
supposed to have died. There is, however, 
no other evidence of the time of his death 
than the &ct that his successor in the office 
of inquisitor-general was elected in that year. 
He never abandoned his fiivourite study of 
polite literature, particularly history, and is 
described as a man remarkable for his mo- 
desty, piety and affitbility. He was the 
friend and correspondent of the most cele- 
brated literati of his time. His works are — 
1. '*De Viris illustribus Ordinb Pnedica- 
torum Libri Sex in nnum congest!. Bononise, 
1517,'* folio. In this work he had many 
colleagues. 2. ** Vita della B. Colomba da 
Rieti del terzo Abito della Penitenza del 
glorioso Padre S. Domenico sepolta in Pe- 
rugia. Bologna, 1521,*' 4to. 3. **De D. 
Dominici Obitu et Sepultura. Bononis, 1 535," 
4to. 4. " Cronichetta della gloriosa Ma- 
donna di S. Luca del Monte della Guardia e 
de' suoi Miracoli dal suo Principio insino all' 
Anno 1551, e dell* Origine del Conventodelle 
venerande Monache £ S. Mattia. Bologna, 
1539,** 4ta 5. ** Historia di Bologna Deca 
prima, e Libro primo della Deca seconda sin 
all* Anno 1253. Bologna, 1541, 1543,** 4to. 
** Libro secondo e terzo della Deca seconda sin 
all' Anno 1273, dati in luce per opera di F. 
Lucio Caccianemici Bologna, 1588,** 4to. 
'* Supplemento per il quarto Libro della 
Deca seconds, dato in luce da Caccianemici. 
Bologna, 1590,** 4ta ** Supplemento ultimo 
e Libro quinta Vicenza, 1591,** 4to. This 
history, as printed, did not comprise all that 
Alberti wrote for it The city of Bologna, 
in order to show their respect for Alberti, 
printed it at the public expense. 6. **Cronica 
delle principali Famiglie Bolognesi e delle 
pill notabili Cose raccolte in tutti i Libri 
Cronicali di Bologna. Vicenza, 1592,** 4ta 
7. '* Descrizione di tntta Tltalia. Bologna, 
1550,** folio. An edition of this work was 
published at Venice in 1561, with the addi- 
tion of a description of the islands belonging 
to Ital} . It is to be regretted that the author 
should have lessened the value of his work 
679 



by admiftfaigthe forgeries of Annius of Vi- 
terbo, the true character of which he did not 
discover until it was too late. 8. ** Vita S. 
Raymundi Penaforti : ** inserted in the Acta 
Sanctorum of Bollandus, torn. i. p. 405. 9. 
*^ Ephemerides ab Adventu Ludoyici XII. 
GallisB Regis in Italiam usque ad Annum 
1552.** According to Moreri, this work was 
published in the year 1552 ; but it is doubt- 
ful whether it has ever been printed. 10. 
" Vita B. Jordani Saxonis, Ordmis Pnedica- 
torum generalis Magistri secundi ;'* inserted 
in Surtus, Vitse Sanctorum, 1617. Februarv 
13. p. 135. 11. '*Diatriba de Incrementis 
Dominii Veneti :** inserted in Contarini, De 
Republica Venetorum, Leyden, 1628, p. 337. 
12. ** De Claris Viris Reipublicoi Venetie : ** 
inserted in Contarini, p. 429. 13. " Vita 
Joannis Bentivoli secundu'* 14. ** Delle 
Donne che sono state illustri nella Domeni- 
cana Religione.** 15. ** Historiie Italica 
Lingua manuscript® Venetiis in Bibliotheca 
SS. Johannis et Pauli ut et apud nostros 
Insulas Clodis servatse.'* 16. "Vita B. 
Corradini Bomati.** 17. ** Commentarii is- 
torici di Carlo, Duca di Borgogna.*' 18. " Vita 
Hieronymi Albertutii.** The last six works 
have not been printed. 19. " Vita Joachimi 
Abbatis Florensis et VaticinionuB ejusdem 
Explicatio :'* printed at Venice in 1527. 20. 
"' Littene in Laudem J. F. Pici :** inserted in 
the treatise of that writer entitled "De 
Animee Immortalitate,'* printed at Bologna in 
1543, in 4to. 21. " Vita S. Hyacinthi :" in- 
serted in Surius, August 16. p. 170. (E'chard, 
Scrtptorea Ordinis Pnedicatorum, ii. 137. ; 
Fantuzzi, Notizie degli ScriUori Bolognesi, 
L 146. ; Niceron, Homme* illustreg, xxvi.303. ; 
Bumaldi, Bibliotheca Bononieruis, 147. ', Ghi- 
lini, TecUro d'Huomini litterati, 145. ; Mo- 
reri, Le grand DictUmnaire Hislorique.) 

J. W. J. 
ALBERTI, LEON BATTISTA,was one 
of the most eminent men of his time, both 
for his general learning and scientific attain- 
ments, and for his personal character and 
accomplishments, though he is now chiefly 
known by his reputation as an architect, and 
by his writings on architecture and sculp- 
ture. He was of a noble Florentine fimiily, 
and nephew to the Cardinal Alberto degli 
Alberti. The year of his birth, which toge- 
ther with other biographical particulars, is 
passed over in silence by Vasari, has hitherto 
been generally supposed to have been either 
1398 or 1400 ; but it is now put beyond doubt 
by the Abate Serassi that he was bom on the 
18th of February, 1404, and not in Florence, 
but at Genoa, where the ftmily had sought 
an asylum on being banished from Florence 
in 1401. More than ordinary care was be- 
stowed on his education by his father, Lo- 
renzo, and at an earl^ age he began to dis- 
tinguish himself by his progress in his lite- 
rary studies, and by his bodily strength and 
activity, his prowess in martial exercises, his 



ALBERTr 



ALBERTL 



skill in honemanship, and by his talents for 
music and painting ; in short, by all the per- 
sonal accomplishments of a noble cavalier. 
While he was at Bologna studying the canon 
and civil law, preparatory to entering the 
church, his father died at Padua, in 1422. 
About two years afterwards he composed for 
his own amusement his Latin comedy ** Phi- 
lodozios,'* which having been transcribed 
without his permission, copies got abroad, 
and when questioned on the subject, he pre- 
tended that he himself had merely transcribed 
it from a recently discovered Ms. It there- 
fore passed for a long time as a genuine pro- 
duction of some ancient Roman dramatist, 
notwithstanding it wss written in prose, until 
he avowed himself the real author, about ten 
years afterwards, when it was as severely 
criticised ss it had before been prsised. As 
long afterwards as 1588 it was published by 
Aldus Manutius the younger, who was not 
aware of its true history, as being from an 
inedited Latin MS., and the production of 
Lepidus, an ancient comic writer. 

At about the age of twenty-four Albert! 
was attacked by a nervous disorder, the con- 
sequence of his unremitted application to 
literary studies, and being advised to discon- 
tinue mes^tudies, he applied himself to the 
mathematical and ph^ical sciences, including 
architecture, in which he began to give 
prooft of his proficiency between 1440 — 1450; 
for although he had taken orders, and had 
been made a canon of the metropolitan church 
of Florence^ his pursuits and occupations ap- 
pear to have been altogether secular. One 
of his earliest, and also that which is gene- 
rally esteemed his best architectural work, 
is the church, or rather its exterior, of San 
Francesco, at RiminL According to Vasari, 
he had previously been employed at Rome 
by Nicholas V., who was a yery great ad- 
mirer and patron of architecture, and for 
whom^ among other projects, he made a 
design for covering the bridge of St Angelo 
with an open loggia or colonnades. Rut this 
story cannot be altogether correct, for though 
it is highly probable that he had visited 
Rome b^ore he wss employed at Rimini, as 
above mentioned, it could not have been in 
the service of Nicholas, because that pontiff 
was not elected till March, 1447, the very 
year in which Alberti commenced San Fran- 
cesco, which he continued till 1450, and his 
being then invited to Rome accounts for the 
edifice having been left incomplete. At Rome 
he does not appear to have executed much 
more dian the Fontana Trevi, of which no- 
thing now remains, it having been replaced 
by the modem fountain and fk9ade designed 
by Niccolo Salvi for Clement XIL He is 
generally said to have been commissioned 
by Nicholas to rebuild the Basilica Vaticana, 
an undertaking that would have afforded him 
the opportunity of displaying his ability on 
the most extensive scale ; yet, almost lucre- 
680 



dible as it may seem, he is said by Palmieti; 
a contemporary chronicler, to have dissuaded 
the pope ftxmi it ; and even if such were not 
the case, the project itself would probably- 
have been fiiistrated by the death of Nicho- 
las, which happened a year or two afterwards 
(1455). Whether this be matter for regret 
it is impossible to decide, as Alberti has left 
no ideas for such a &bric but we can wdl 
imagine that he would have conceived it in » 
style of more dignified simplicity, and given 
it greater character than Bramante and ham 
successors did. 

None of our authorities have arranged 
chronologically and aflixed their respective 
dates to the prmcipal buildings executed, or at 
least commenced, by this architect ; we most 
therefore speak of them according to place* 
and not in order of time. At Florence, 
those attributed to him are the fii9ade of 
Sta. Maria Novella, rebuilt at the expense of 
one of the Ruccellai ftunily ; the Palazao 
Ruccellai (about 1460) ; the chapel of the same 
name and belonging to the same fiimily 
(date about 1467) in the church of San Pan- 
crasio ; and the choir of the Nunziata or 
church of the Annunciation. Though Va- 
sari speaks of the first-mentioned of £ese as 
being undoubtedly the work of Alberti, 
other biogrn4>hers and critics are of a con- 
trary opinion, holding it to be unworthy of 
him, as being in a semi-Oothic style, and 
altogether different from his usual manner ; 
while it could hardly have been one of his 
earlier designs, as that facade was not finished 
till 1477, or five jears after his death. The 
Padazzo RucceUai in the Strada della Vigaa 
Is, on the contrary, greatly admired, and 
passes for his principal work of that daas ; 
and yet there is quite as much to censure in 
it as to commend. It consists of three orders 
in pilasters, which taken by themselves 
possess much merit, being treated with con- 
siderable taste and freedom ; the capitals and 
other details differ very much from usual ex- 
amples, although the lower order may be called 
Doric, and the two upper orders Corinthian. 
But these orders do not accord with the 
general style and prevailing character in 
other respects, which is occasioned by the 
front bein^, in the older Florentine manner, 
rusticated m unequal courses, and having to 
the two upper orders large arched windows, 
each composed of two smaller ones, divided 
by a pillar between them ; while the lower 
windows are only small squares, and conse- 
quently are very unsuited for apertures be- 
tween pilasters or columns, except as mezsa- 
nines over other windows. In another man- 
sion of the same name, but ^tinguished by 
being called that of the Strada della Scala, 
Albert! is said to have been the first to re- 
turn to the mode of placing a horizontal en- 
tablature upon columns, instead of springing 
arches fimn them ; and for tiiis he has been 
greatly commended by Vasari and others m 



ALBERT!. 

~ Die restorer of troe principles and classical 
taste. Tet the previous mode is sounder in 
principle, and less barbarous in taste, than an 
entablature resting upon columns very iride 
apart, -which is generally the case, it being 
nr less o£FensiTe to the eye to cover a wide 
intercolnmn or space with an arched than 
with a horixontal architrave. The choir or 
tribune of the Nunziata is a rotunda nearly 
seventy feet in diameter, with a dome en> 
tirely covered with painting by Franceschini, 
and which has therefore very little architec- 
tural character. The plan is divided into ten 
compartments, nine of them forming as many 
arched recesses, which being on a cylindrical 
sur&ce, the aixshes themselves appear dis- 
torted ; a defect that has been severely ani- 
madverted upon by Vasari and others. Yet 
they have passed over in silence one that is 
less excusable, because entirely matter of 
choice, namely, that the remainmg compart- 
ment, the one open to the nave and connect- 
ing it with the tribune, is nearly as wide 
again as the rest, and therefore destroys that 
symmetry whic^ is looked for in a rotunda. 

Besides some other works at Mantua for 
the I>ttke Ludovioo Gonzaga, which are not 
specified by his biographers, Alberti erected 
— or rather design^ for he died just about 
the time it was begun — the church of St. 
Andrea, which was the last and one of the 
best and largest edifices which pass under his 
name. After his death the building was car- 
ried on by his assistant Silvestro Fancelli 
according to the original model, but many 
alterations have been made at different times, 
and the most uifortnnate of all is that occa- 
sioned by the present cupohi, built by Jnvara 
about the beginning of Uie last century. No 
such feature seems to have been intended by 
Alberti, or provided for in his plan ; and be- 
sides bein^ poor in itseli^ it is so insignificant, 
in proportion to all the rest, that instead of 
adding dignity to the interior, it is rather a 
blemidi in it : in other respects there is more 
than usual to commend on account of the 
happy arrangement, and the no less happy 
combination of simplidtv of effect and rich- 
ness of decoration, in the general desij^ of 
the interior. Neither is tibe facade without 
mwit, it being a much more sober composi- 
ticm, less frittered into small parts and over- 
loaded with ineongmoos ornaments, than is 
usual with the fronts of Italian churches. It 
also derives a certain nobleness of character 
from tide large archway in the centre, forming 
a deep niche or porch, within which is the 
principal doorway. The church at Rimini 
IS however generally considered Alberti's 
masterpiece. Miliaia, Quatrem^re de Quincy, 
Algarotti, all extol it very highly ; and the 
last, who is scandalised at Addison's saying 
" Rimini has nothing modem to boast of; * 
calls it one of the most beantifhl pieces of 
modem ardutectnre in Italy. Yet its merits 
•nd its interest are chiefly relative, as those 

YOL. I. 



ALBERTI. 

of one of the earliest monuments of its clasy 
belonging to the period of the revival. After 
all, AJberti's work in this instance amountf 
to no more than recasing an old church^ 
which is internally in a mixed Gothic style, 
and masking it b^ a new front and sort of 
screen along the sides : the former has four 
attached columns, between which are three 
arches, the centre one rather larger than 
the others, and slightly recessed for the 
door ; the lateral elevations, or rather the one 
which has been finished, consists of seven 
arches, not forming a gallery, although their 
piers are insulated from the wall behind them^ 
but recesses, each of which contains a large 
sarcophagus. These and the piers rest upon 
an unbroken stereobate, which is continued 
throughout, owing to which and to there 
being no odier breaks except in the entablar 
tore over the columns in fVont, the whole is 
marked by simplicity and regularity. 

The bmldings erected or designed by Al- 
berti are so very few, and those few rather 
to be commended for being fVee fh>m vices 
than for any very striking excellence, that 
we may suppose he is as much indebted 
for his reputation in architecture to his writ- 
ings upon it as to his own performances* 
His treatise ** De Re .Sdificatoria," though 
it was prepared some time before, was not 
published till after his death, when it was 
edited by his brother Bernardo, in 1485. It is 
divided into ten books, and is more muJti&- 
rious in its contents than systematic in the 
arranp^ment of them ; and also touches upon 
a vanet}r of matters that hardly come within 
the province of the architect Hue enxdition 
displayed in it, for the most part very nse- 
lesdy, obtained for it great reputation among 
the learned, and it has accordingly been trans- 
lated into several languages : — into ItaUan 
by Bartoli, 1546, and into French by Martin, 
1550 ; but it may now be said to be scarcely 
known to professional men. His tluree books 
" De Pictur&" have also been translated into 
more than one foreign language, and even 
into modem Greek. Besides several other 
works, of which one of the most noted is his 
*• De Commodis Literarum atque Incommo- 
dis," he is said to have written some comedies 
in his native tongue. Politian says of him, 
that he was also considered an excellent 
painter and sculptor ; yet of his merits as a 
painter Vasari gives us no very favourable 
opinion, and of what he did in sculpture no- 
thing is known. Among his contemporari s 
he obtained considerable repute by various 
mechanical inventions, one of which is espe- 
cially noticed by Vasari, who speaks of it as 
some wonderful optical instrument or machine 
first contrived by Alberti in 1457, the very 
same year, he remarks, in which the art 
of printing was discovered in Germany by 
Gutenberg. He calls it a " modo di lucidare 
le prospettive naturali," but his account is so 
obscure as to be unintelligible ; and hardly 

Y Y 



ALBERT!. 



ALBERn. 



toM to is that which, with the Tiew of fbr- 
ther explaining it, Tirabosehi gives na flrom 
the anonymona biographer of Alberti, whom 
he haa chiefly followed. The two accoonla 
almoat contradict each other, and are beaides 
ao fimotfolly expressed, that we can only 
l^ess Albert's inrention to hare been on the 
principle of the camera-obacara, which op- 
tical apparatus is supposed to have been fint 
made known in the foUowtng century by 
Giambattiata Porta. 

The year of Alberti^s death is a matter <if 
aome Uncertainty. Tiraboachi, however, has 
aettled that he died at Rome in 147S, and 
therefore at the age of sixty-eight. (Tira- 
boachi, Storia deUaLetteraiuraltal,; Vasari, 
Ftte dnU Art^fici; Milisia, Vite degU Archt" 
leUi; Quatrem^re de Quincy, Hui, detpbu 
eeL Architeetea.) W. H. L. 

ALBERTI, MICHAEL, the son of Paul 
liartin Alberti, a Proteatant preacher at 
Niimberg, was bom at that place in 1682. 
Hia fhther, deaigning to prepare him for the 
ecclesiastical profession, sent him to the uni- 
versity of Altdorf to study philoaophy and 
theology. After some yean diligenthr spent 
there in obtaining a knowledge of theae 
sciences, as well as in learning the Oriental 
languages, he accompanied a youth, in the 
character of preceptor, to Jena. In the uni- 
versity of Jena he was admitted into the 
society of the celebrated physicians Wedel, 
Krause, and Slevoigt The effect of an in- 
timacy with them was to excite in him a 
strong taste for the stndv of medicine, and to 
Induce him to relinquish his previous occu- 
pations, and devote himself entirely to it 
With that purpose he went to the oniversity 
of Halle, which was then flourishing under 
Stahl and Hofiman, and, embracing the doo- 
trines of Stahl, he formed a close firiendship 
with him ; to which may in great measure 
be attributed his subsequent success, as well 
as the opinions which pervade his works. In 
1704 be received, at Halle, his doctor's de- 
gree ; and shortly afterwards, by the advice 
of Stahl, commenced private lectures on phi- 
losophy and medicine, which were attended 
by large classes of students. Jn compliance 
with the request of his firfher, now advanced 
in years, he relinquished the prospects open- 
ing to him at Halle, and returned to his 
native town j several students who followed 
him thither continued to receive instruction 
fh>m him. He was unfkvouraUy received by 
his townsmen, and experienced flrom thie 
envy of his opponent practitioners much 
difficulty in obtaming a degree; in cooae- 
quenoe of whidi it was not till 1707 that he 
was admitted member of the college of 
physicians at Numberg, and commenced 
practice there. 

Upon the death of his fkthery preferring 
a life of tranqnilltty and study, Alberti 
returned to Halle, and again reoeivad the 
tofSlahL Hereoommenoedhlalee- 
682 



iufea on philoaophy and medieine, those flti 
the latter sul^ect being intended to expoud 
more clearly the absttruse opinions of StahL 
Though solicited by hia countrymen to retaim 
among them, and pressed to accept the pro- 
f^essonhip of medicine at Altdoif, he re- 
mained from this time attached to the uni- 
versity at Halle. In 1710 he was made extra- 
ordinary, and in 1716 ordinary professor of 
medicine in that miiversity ; shortly afterwvida 
extraordinary, and in 1719 ordinary pro- 
fessor of philosophv. In 1713 he was ad- 
mitted member of me Academy of Seienoea 
at Berlin, and of the imperial academy of tfaa 
** NatuTSB curioai," under the name o( Andro- 
nicus. In 1717 he was appointed one cf dm 
physicians to tiie King Of Prussia ; and not 
long afterwards, on account of his theologioal 
learning, he was made counsellor of the eoa^ 
sistory of Magdeburg. He executed aU hia 
various duties, to the end of his life, with 
great ability ; and died at Halle in 1757, 
leaving behmd him the reputation of a piona, 
indefatigable, and learned physician. He 
always adhered closely to the tenets of StaU* 
being one of the few who reeeived his doc- 
trines in their fhUest senae; and tnm. tbe 
energy with which he defended them, he may 
be oonaidered as the most aealous pupil of 
that schooL His academic dutiea were per- 
formed with great industry, and he long 
maintained the reputation which the univer- 
sity of Halle had reached under his illustrieoa 
predecessors. More than three hundred dia- 
serlations were published under his name, all 
of which were puMidy defended, and many 
of them written, by himself. He alao com- 
poaed several other works of greater impoct- 
ance, which are generally voluminoua, are 
rather theoretical than practical, and intended 
chiefly to deffend the fevourite doctrinea of 
his master. The following is a list of them s 
— 1. " Von der Seele des Menadwu der 
Thiere und der Pflanzen, V oL L and IL" Halie^ 
1707 and 1720, 8vo. 2. *< De Energia Na- 
turse in Actionibus Vitalibns sine Medico 
salntariter exercendis." HaUe, 1707, 8vow 
3. "* De Pedantismo medico." HaUe, 1707, 
8va 4. ** Introdnctio in Medicinam mu- 
versam tarn theoreticam quam practicam, 
Tom. L" HaUe, 1718, 4to., mcluding Phyai« 
ology and Pathology, Tom. IL HaUe, 1719, 
4to., including Semeiology. Hygiene, Materia 
Medica, and Surgery, Tom. III. HaUe, 1721, 
4to., including Medical Therapeutics, with 
additional obaervationa on Natural Philo- 
sophy and Chemiatry, Tom. IV. HaUe, 1726, 
4ta, containing a coUectioo of Medical For^ 
mulsB. 5.**DeH»morrfaoidibuaI>iaaert8tioDee 
piacticsB in volumen coUectn." HaUe, 17 1», 
4to. This compriaea fifteen dissertations, 
^th a prefiMe by StahL Alberti agreea in 
his opimon of hsBmorrhoids with the views of 
that professor, ocmsidering them to afford the 
aafest protection against chronic diaerden, 
and viewing tbem as a freqnent caaaa of 



ALBEBTL 

longe?]^. «. " De Medicamentomm Mo& 
operandi in Gorpote ▼iva." Halle, 1720, 4,Uk 
7. «* Medieiniaehe und Philosophieche Schriff- 
ten." Halle, 1721, Sto. 8. ** Abhandlong 
Tom Podagra junser Leute.** Halle, 1725, 
8?a ; ** ADafdh^licner Beweis Tom Podagra 
ohne Salz." Halle, 1725, 8yo. 9. •* Systema 
JnriBprudentia Medico, Tom. L, Halle,! 725, 
4ta Tom. ILtSchneeberg, 1729, 4to. Tom. 
IIL, Schneeberg, 1 733, 4to. Tom. IV., Leipjsig 
and GorliU, 1737, 4to. Tom. V. Leipsig and 
Gorlitz, 1740, 4to. Tom. VL, Gorlita, 4ta" 
10. ** Speeimen Medicinie theologies." Halle, 
1726, 8va 1 1. ** Tentamen Lexici Medici 
realifl. Tom. I. andlL," HaUe, 1727 and 1731, 
4ta 12. " De Tortone Sntjectia aptis et 
ineptis." Halle, 1729, 4to. 13. «" Medieiniaehe 
Bebraclitang von dem Kriiften der Seele nach 
dem Unterscheid des Leibea." HaUe, 1730, 
4to. 14. ** De Sectamm in Medicina noxia 
Instaufatione.'' Halle, 1730, 4ta 15. ** De 
Natnra hnmana.*' Halle, 1732, 4to. 16. ""De 
LoD^flBTitate Hominia natoralibna nonnollia 
Mediia a4)aTanda et promavenda. Regalia 
dicetetieia aeeommodata." Halle, 1732, 4to. 
17. ** Commentarina Medicna in Conatita- 
tionem criminalem Carolinam." HaUe, 1789, 
4to. 18. ** Philosophiache Oedanken Ton 
dem Unteracheid der menaehlicben Seele, amd 
demUnteraeheiddeeMenMhen.*' HaUe, 1740, 
4ta For a liat of hia diaeertatiooa aee Hal- 
ler ** Bibliotheca Medicina Praeticn,** torn, 
ir. (Bnicker and Haid, BUder-sal hem^ea 
Toffa hbender wd dutch Odahrtheit beru&m- 
«sr SekriffiatOer, Aogiboirg, 1744, HoL; Com- 
maUarii Lip§aue8, torn, vi.) G. 11 H. 

ALBERT!, SALOMON, ia oommonly 
mentioned by hia biographera aa baring been 
a natire of Niimberg ; bat it appeaia, from 
an oration pronounced at the time of hia 
floneral hj Polycarp Leyser, that he waa 
bom at Naomburg in 1540, and that a week 
after his birth, hia &ther, an eminent archi- 
tect of that city, remoyed with hia hoosehold 
to Niimberg, and died there in the following 
year. Alberti, not being poesessed of any 
p roperty , was dependent upon the bounty of 
frienda, and reoeiyed much asaiatanee from 
Andreaa Boheim, a patron of science with 
wImnu he became acquaiBted. He pursued 
the study of medicine at the oniyersi^ of 
Wittenberg, and obtained hia doctor's degree 
there in 1574. In 1576 he waa appointed to 
the chair of anatomy and philosophy in the 
same uniyersit^. In 1592, haying been an- 
pointed physician to Frederick Wdliam, who 
then held the electorship of Saxony daring 
the minority of Christian XL, he removed to 
Dresden, where he died in 1600. 

Alberti obtained sueh an acquaintance 
with the science of medicine aa was rarely 
possessed by the physicians of that time, 
and his writings bear ample testimony to hia 
praetieal knowledjge of medicine. Bat he was 
more especially distinguished tor his skill in 
and his writings and diacoveries 
683 



ALBERTL 

fai that depattOMnt entitle him to a h%k 
rank among modem anatomists. He gave 
the earliest clear description of the cochlea, 
thoogh he cannot be considered aa its dis- 
eoyerer. He detected the valves in several 
veins, and gave an account of the internal 
atracture of the kidney and ureter, more 
especially the renal papillse. The ossa Wor^ 
miana were also noticed and described by 
him belbre the time of Wormius, from whom 
they are named ; and he gave a more accu- 
rate account of the lachrymal and nasal ducts 
than had been previously done. He also 
observed the valve of the colon before Boa 
bin, whose name it commonly bears ; and 
though the original discovery of this valve is 
claimed for Varoliua, and Vidua Vidius, it 
appears about this time to have been made 
known by several writers, and by Alberti 
among others: he states that he first observed 
it in the beaver, and subsequently in man. 
The manner in which he announces this 
discovery at the end of his dissertation ** De 
valvulia membraneis quorundam vasomm" 
rendeta it venr nnlikely that he borrowed his 
infonnatiott from another sooroe. In the 
aame treatise he candidly confesses that he 
was not the first to point out the existence of 
the valves in the veina which he describes, 
having been informed by a phyaician at 
Niiraberg that Hieronymus Fabricius was 
acquainted with them in 1579. He is said 
by Haller and other authorities to have been 
a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius at Padua; 
but it is evident from his writings, as weU as 
from the earlier accounts of his life, that he 
never visited Italy. He was well vened in 
theology, his attention havii^ been much di- 
rected to it during the early part of his eda- 
cation, and he often disputed publicly on the 
subjects of the religions discussions at that 
time pending in Saxony. The following 
are his principal works: — 1. Disputatio de 
Morbis contagiosis. Wittembergse,** 1574, 
4toii 2. **De Morbis Mesenterii etejus quod 
Pancreas vocatur. De Ardore Stomachi, and 
de Sinffuhu. Wittemberga,'' 1578. 3. **Galeni 
de Ossiboa libellus. WittembergsB,** 1 579, 8va 
4. ** Disputatio de LaciTmis. Wittembergse," 
1581, 4ta This contains an account of the 
laehiymal and nasal ducts ; also of the influ- 
ence which the secretion of the tears has in 
alleviating the a£fections of the mind, the 
reasons for not checking them in children, 
and why they are associated with sighs, sob- 
bing, and the like. 5. " Historia plerarum- 
que Partium Corporis humanL WittembergiB," 
1585, 12ma This ii a short compendium of 
anatomy, containing the account at his prin- 
cipal discoveries, and embellished with plates, 
many of wfaicJi are copied from Vesidius ; 
othera are original, as those relating to the 
organ of hearing, and representing the ossi- 
culs anditos, the fenestra, and the cochlea, 
which, if we except the pbtes of Eustachius, 
were first depleted in this book. Another 

T Y 2 



ALBCRTL 



ALBERTl 



edition appeared in 1601, in which was added 
a description of the Talves in the veins of the 
upper and lower extremities, first seen by 
him in 1579: their use he imagines to he 
to prevent a m^^id current of blood. Later 
editions were published in 1602 and in 1630. 
6. ** Orationes Tres et alia. Norimb." 1585, 
Syo. The first contains an account of the 
plants most useftd in medicine ; the second 
describes the nature and efficacy of musk ; 
the third gives an abridged history of the 
origin and progress of anatomy. 7. ^ Ora- 
tiones Quatuor. Wittembergse," 1590, 8va 
The second contains a dissertation on the pas- 
sage of the bile into the intestines, in which he 
defends the opinion of Fallopius, that it first 
passes tlux>ugh the duct towards the intestine, 
and then regurgitates into the gall bladder ; 
the third is ** De Sudore cruenta" Appended 
to them is a collection of Latin verses written 
by him on various medical subjects. 8. " Ora- 
tio de Mntitate et Surditate. Norimb.** 
1591, 8vo. 9. "Scorbuti Historia. Witte- 
berg," 1594, 8va This is also inserted in 
a treatise on scurvy by Sennertus. Alberti 
considers it to be an hereditary and con- 
ta^ous affection. Other orations are also 
said to have been written by him; for an 
account of which see " Mangeti Bibliotheca 
Scriptomm Medicorum," and ** Halleri Bib- 
Uotheca Medicine Practics.*' (Mochsen, 
BeschreQnmg einer BerUniscken MedaiBen 
Smnmbmg, contains an account of his life.) 

G. M.H. 
ALBERTI, VALENTIN, was bom at 
Lahn in Silesia, on the 13th of December, 
1 635. His fkther was a Lutheran clergyman, 
who, wishing to educate his son for the 
church, sent him to the gymnasium of Lau- 
ban, and subsequently to the university of 
Leipzig. The son, however, combined the 
study ol philosophy with theology, and after 
the completion of his academical course, he 
remained at Leipzig, where he was appointed 

Sofessor of logic and metaphysics in 1 663. 
e was subsequent! jT appointed to the chair 
of theology and philosophy. His love of 
knowledge and his industry padually raised 
him to the highest theological honours in 
Siaony, and he was six times rector of the 
university of Leipzig. He died on the 19th 
of December, 1697. 

During the seventeenth century, polemics 
were the principal occupation of theologians, 
and the only means by which they could 
obtain reputation. Alberti was a writer of 
extraordinary fecundity in this department : 
he wrote above two hundred controversial dis- 
courses, among which there were thirty-three 
against the Jesuit Johann Dets. Most of them 
are in Latin, and the rest in German. A list 
of those works of Alberti which are best 
known is given by Adelung in his Supplement 
to Jocher, i. 44 1, &c Most of them are purely 
theolo^cal controversies, others are phi- 
losophical discourses ; and among the latter 
684 



there is his ** Compendium Juris Natane,*' 
Leipzig, 1673, 12mo. This work, which has 
often been reprinted, was written in opposi- 
tion to a similar work of Puffendor£ Alberti 
also acquired some reputation as a poet, and 
many of his poetical productions are con* 
tained in the collections of those of Hof- 
mannswaldau and others, where they bear 
the signature *" D. K. A." (Jocher, Alfyeau 
Gelehrien-Lexicon, L 196. ; Adelung's Stq^pU^ 
mentf i. 441, &c. ; Ersch und Gruber, Allge' 
meine Encyckpadie, ii. 362.) L. SL 

ALBERTI DI VILLANO'VA, FRAN* 
CESCO, a lexicographer, was bom at Nice 
in the year 1737. Nothing is recorded of 
his life, except that he prosecuted his studies 
with success in his youth, and deroted hintT 
self to literature. He died at Lucca in the 
year 1800. Querard states that his death 
took place on the 15th of December, 1801, 
but the preponderance of authority is in 
favour of the former year. His workis are — 
1. " Dictionnaire Italien-Fran^is et Fran^ois- 
Italien, compost sur les Dictionnaires des 
Academies ran9ai8e et de la Crusca,*' 2 vols. 
Marseille, 1771-2, 4to. This dictionary 
was held in high estimation, and passed 
through four editions in the author's life* 
time. It has since been several times re-* 
edited. 2. ** Nouveau Dictionnaire Fran9ais 
et Allemand et Allemand et Franfais, com* 
pose sur le Dictionnaire de T Academic Fran- 
9aise, enrichi de tons les Termes des Sciencea 
et Arts par Flatte." 5 vols. 1778, 8va 3. 
^ Nouveau Dictionnaire portatif Fran9ais<r 
Italien et Italien-Fran9ais,'* 2 vols. Strassr 
burg, 1799, 8vo. 4. **Dizionario Univer- 
sale Critico Encyclopedico della Lingua 
Italiana," 5 vols. Lucca, 1797—1800, 4to. Al- 
berti was seized with his last illness while 
preparing a new edition of this work for the 
press, and he confided the superintendence of 
It to Francesco Federighi, who published a 
sixth volume in 1805. 6. " La Vite," a poem 
in two cantos, which is inserted in the coU 
lection entitled Poemetti Italian!, ix. 195. 
In addition to the above, two other works 
are enumerated in the Supplement to La 
France Litt^raire, viz. — 6. "Dell* Educa- 
tione fisica e morale contra i Principi del 
Signer Rousseau di Ginevra." 7. " Traduc* 
tion des Nuits d'Toung." {Biographie nou- 
veUe dea Contemporainjs ; Lombardi, Storia 
della Letteratura ItaUana nd Secolo XVI 11^ 
iv. 21.; Hebrail et La Porte, SuppUment a la 
France LitUraire,m^ 2, \ Qaenrd, La France 
LitUraire.) J.Yf.i^ 

ALBERTINE'LLI, MARIOTTO. aa 
excellent Florentine painter. He studied with 
Oosimo Roselli, and drew also from the 
antiques in the garden of the Medici ; but he 
was soon attracted by the style of Fra Bar- 
tolomeo di San Marco, whom he imitated 
with great success, and with whom he formed 
a close fiiendship. They painted many woiks 
together, and when Bartolomeo entered the 



ALBERTINELLL 

monastic life, Albertinelli finished some pic- 
tures for kim which he had left in an im- 
perfect state. Albertinelli was of an im- 
patient temper, and, being offended with the 
criticisms which were passed upon his works, 
he forsook painting and turned publican : he 
however soon beciune disgusted with his new 
occupation, and returned to his former pro- 
fession. He executed several valuable works 
from religions suljects, in Florence, in Vi- 
terbo, and in Rome. He died about 1520, 
aged forty-five, having brou^t on his death 
Ify dissipation. Vasari mentions an excellent 
portrait hj Albertinelli, of Donna Alfonsina, 
the mother of Lorenzo de* MedicL He had 
several scholars who became eminent ; — 
Giuliano Bugiardini, Marcantonio Francia* 
bigio, Innocenzio da Imola, and Visino, who 
died in Hungary. (Vasari, Vtte dd Pitiori, 
Sec. VOL iii.) R. N. W. 

ALBERTI'NI. ANNraALE, wrote a 
work upon diseases of the heart, entitled 
** De Adfectionibus Cordis, Libri Tres, Venet" 
1618, 4to., and Cesena, 1648, 4ta Haller 
{BMioth. Med, Prac, t iL p. 475.) says it is 
** a book such as physicians were accustomed 
to write in those days ; very large, but with- 
out a single original remark." It is noticed 
only that it may be distinguished from the 
more important essay on the same subject by 
Ippolito Francesco AlbertinL J. P. 

ALBERTI'NI, FRANCESCO DEGLI, 
an Italian priest who lived at the commence- 
ment of the sixteenth century. He was bom 
at Florence, where he was a canon of the 
collegiate establishment of St. Laurence, but 
resided at Rome as chaplain of the cardinal 
of St Sabina. He seems to have been &- 
vourably noticed by Pope Julius IL The 
most important of his works is one on the 
antiquities of Rome, entitled ** Opusculum de 
mJrabilibus nov» et veteris Urbis Romss " 
(Rome, 1505, 4to., again 1510, 4to., again 
1515, 4to. ; Basel, 1519, 4to. ; Lyon, 1520, 4to. ; 
Rome, 1523, 4ta, with Vibius Sequester and 
other writers on the remains of Rome, an 
edition which, though not mentioned by Cle- 
ment or Mazzuchelli, and therefore some- 
times doubted, is in the British Museum). 
The work consists of quotations from the 
ancients on the subject of Roman buildings, 
combined with descriptions of what was 
still to be seen. It contains various recti-* 
fications of Maphseus, or Maffei, who had 
preceded Albertini with a similar work, but 
the book is not so full as to supersede Maffei's. 
The later editions, beginning with that of 
^510, are generally accompanied by a little 
treatise in praise of Florence and Savona, 
<f De Laudibus Civitatum FlorentiniB et Sao- 
Qensis," in which Albertini enumerates dieir 
most celebrated citizens, and speaks in a 
strain of animation of the merits of Ame- 
rigo Vespucci, or, as he styles him, Albericus 
Vespnlsius. Another acknowledged work of 
Albertini*s is a description of the statues and 
685 



ALBERTINL 

pictures at Florence, ^ Memoriale di molt6 
Statue et Picture sono nella inclyta Cipita 
di Florentia," Florence, 1510, 4to., a book 
of the utmost rarity. Gorio also attributes 
to Albertini the collection of Roman in- 
scriptions entitied «* Epigrammata antiqua 
Urbis," Rome, 1521, 4to., which is generally 
ascribed to Mazocchi the printer, who signs 
the dedication, but whom Gorio accuses of 
gross dishonesty for so doing. In the dedi- 
cation to the ^ Opusculum de mirabilibus 
Romso" Albertini speaks of having written 
a similar work, ** De Stadonibus et Reliquiis 
Boms," and in that to the ** Statue di Flo- 
rentia" of a work not then terminated, 
entitied ** Le Magnifioenze et Bellezze di 
Firenae," but notiung more is known of 
either. It is stated by Negri that Albertini 
also wrote several dissertations in Latin, 
"On Confession," " On the Sacrament," 
&c, none of which appear to have been 
printed. (Negri, Isioria degli Scrittori Fio- 
rentiniy p. 181. ; Biazzuchelli, Scrittori d* Italia , 
L 321. $ Moreni, BibHografia deUa Toscana, 
i. 19. ; Platner, Bunsen, &c., Beschreibung 
der Stadt Eom, Vorrede, xxiii. ; Gorius, 
Tfucriptionum antiqwirum, pars ill Pro*/, p. 
xxiii T. W. 

ALBERTPNI, GIORGIO FRANCESCO, 
by his monastic name, Giorgio Maria, a mo- 
dem Italian theologian, was bom on the 29th 
February, 1732, at Parenzo, in Venetian 
Istria, and belonged to the same &mil^ which 
had produced Paolo Albertini the Servite, bom 
about 1430. In his thirteenth year, Giorgio 
assumed the habit of St. Dominic, and after 
completing his studies in Venice, he com- 
menced ms career as a preacher, and soon 
became fkmous all over Italy, in particular at 
Rome, Naples, Venice, and Padua. In 1787 
he was summoned to Rome by the Cardmal 
Antonelli, and commissioned by Pius VL to 
investigate the sin^ar question, If it was 
consistent with rehgion to allow the Arme- 
nians of the Roman Catholic church living 
in the Turkish empire, in order to avoid the 
persecutions they sustained ttom the mem- 
bers of the independent Armenian church, 
to conform to tiie calendar of that com- 
munion, and occasionally exercise acts of d^ 
votion in their places of worship? lilany 
theologians, and among others the Abate 
Zaccaria, had answered in the affirmative^ 
and their opinion was supported by the in- 
fluence of Uie Marquis of Serpos, a learned, 
Armenian, author of the ** History of the 
Armenian Nation." Albertini maintained 
the negative in a long and erudite disserta- 
tion in two volumes, which drew on him 
many enemies, and for the publication of 
which he could not, to his great disappoint- 
ment, obtain the necessary sanction. He 
solicited, in consequence, his dismissal from 
Rome, but received in return a papal rescript 
appointing him to the chair of dogmatic 
theology m the college of the Propaganda, 
Y Y 3 



ALBERTINL 



ALBERTIKi: 



iLbto same whkh had been oceapied by Cardi- 
nal Oral About three jean afterwards, the 
principal chair of theology in the uniTeraity 
of Padua was vacated^ the death of Father 
Antonio Valsecchl Tlus professorship had 
been occupied daring about three centuries 
by Dominicans, and Uie priests and friars of 
otiier ordera were jealoos of the uninterrupted 
succession, which seemed to argoe that none 
but a Dominican was capable of filling the 
chair. They petitioned the **RiAinnatori 
agli Stndi," as the managen of the unlrersity 
are called, to break throogh the routine ; but 
Valsecchi had himself recommended Albertini 
as his successor, the influence of the Domini* 
cans prevailed, and Albertini, thou^ absent 
from the Venetian states, received, without 
solicitation, the contested chab. He occupied 
it till 1807, when it was suppressed by the 
new goremment of Italy, and declinmg, on 
account of his age, to accept three appoint- 
ments as a professor which were offeied him 
elsewhere, he retired to his native town of 
Parenzo, and continued teaching theology in 
the seminary there till his death on the 29th 
of April, 1810, at the age of seventy-eight. 

The works of Albertmi are — 1. " Disserta- 
sdone apologetica intomo le Y isite delle Chiesi 
Cattedrali per acquistare il Giubileo," Venice, 
1777 ; a curious ajpologetic dissertation in 
fiivour of the practice of visiting cathedral 
churches to obtain the same religious privi* 
leges which are granted by the popes to those 
who keep the jubilee. 8. **£lementi di 
Lingua Latina,** Venice, 1780 ( an introduc- 
tion to the Latin langoage, in which he pro- 
poses a new method of learning it, which has 
been oonsideTed too rigidly methodicaL 
3. ** Osservazioni,'' &e., Ferrara, 1781 ; some 
observations, ^blished anonymously, in op- 
position to an irreli^us Freoch publication, 
** Le Philosophe Mihtajre,** and to an answer 
to it by Count Francesco Riccati, entitled 
** L*Antifilosofo," which was, in Albertini's 
opinion, hardly more orthodox than the work 
which it |>rofessed to answer. 4. The answer 
to a question proposed in 1784 by the aoa* 
demy of Padua, ** If, considering man in his 
physical and moral relations, it can be de- 
monstrated by the unassisted light of reason 
that he is not such as he ought to be, and as 
he left the hands of hia Creator ? " Albertini's 
answer obtained the prixe, and the com- 
mendation of Cesarottl 5. ** In Funere re- 
verendissimi Patris, Pasohalis da Varisio,** 
Rome, 1791 ; a funeral oration on P. da V&- 
risio, general of the Franciscans, which is 
distinguished for eloquence and pure Latinity. 
6. ** Dissertaaione dell' Indissolubiliti del 
Matrimonio," Venice, 1792 ; a dissertation on 
the indissolubility of marriage, supported 
by passages fi^m the Gospel. 7, '* Piano 
geometrico e scrittural^" &&, Venice, 1797 ; 
a ** geometrical and scriptural plan to fix a 
correct point in the chronology of the world," 
which is an attempt to prove that the deatii 
686 



of Jesus Christ took place on the day and 
hour assigned to that event by the Roman 
Clitholics. In his old age he resumed tiie 
same snlject, but his later work does not 
appear to have been published. 8. ** Analisi 
contenente la triplice CooAitanone,* 9c€^ 
Venice, 1803 ; a triple oonfutation of a 
work entitled ** Discourse of a Philosopher," 
of a dissertation of the Abate Baldi, and of 
the ** Reflections of a Canon on the End of 
the World." This work provoked an ano- 
nymous reply attributed to Baldi, "* On the 
firrors of Father Albertuu," Rome, 1805. 
9. **Acpoa8i Oflsia la Somma di Lezioni 
teologiche,*' Padua, 1798, Venice, 1800 — 
1802 ; a summary of hia theological lectures, 
in five volumes, to which he afterwards added 
a sixth, entitied ** Scholia," Vemoe, 1806. 
It was assailed with vehemence by PeUegrini, 
one of the disappointed competitors for the 
chair of Padua, in a work entitled '*In 
P. G. Bl Albertini Acroeses Animadversio- 
num theologicarum Specimen," Vienna, 1803. 
Pellegrini was the warmest opponent of the 
doctrines of his successftd ri^ with regard 
to the indissolubility of marriage, in which 
Albertini supported the same views as Father 
Nadii, which were also adopted and defended 
by the present pope, Gregory XVI., who was 
a friend and admirer of Albertini'a In reply 
to his adversary, Albertini composed in eight 
days. 10. '* Epistolae Dissertazione," &c Pa- 
dua, 1804 ( an epistle and dissertation witii 
regard to the marriage question. This was 
not considered in general so snccessfhl as the 
attack ; but the decision of the pope, which 
was given by a brief in favour of the doc- 
trines of Naohi, left the triumph of orthodoxy 
with Albertini. Some time before his death 
he committed to the flmnes, in spite of the 
remonstrances of his relations and friends, the 
sennons which had originally established his 
fiune ; but he left beUnd him several un- 
published works. (Anonvmous Life in Ti- 
paldo, Biogrqfia degU Itoliani iUu»in\ L 193 
— 128.) T. W. 

ALBERTI'NI, GIOV ACCHI'NO, an Ita- 
lian dramatic composer who resided at Rome 
towards the close of the eighteenth century, 
where he produced his opera ** Virginia " in 
1786. For several preceding years he had 
filled the office of Maestro di Capella to the 
King of Poland. His opera of ** Circe " was 
brought out at Hamburg in 1785. He ap- 
Ijears to have passed the latter part of Wa 
life in Italy, and to have written occa- 
sionally fbr the theatres of its different states. 

E.T. 

ALBERTFNI, IPPOXITO FRAN- 
CESCO, was bom in 1662 at Crevaloore. 
He received his eariy education and studied 
medicine under Malpighi, to whom he was 
nearly related, at Bologna. After obtaining 
his doctor's diploma m 1689, he went to 
Rome, and having spent some time there in 
die study of his prolession, returned to 



ALBEBTINX 



ALBEETINI. 



jpologna, where he passed the rest of hk lilb: 
he died in 1738. He was for three years 
assistant physician to the Hospital of Santa 
Maria deUa Morte ; and when Malpighi was 
called to Rome to he physician to Pope 
Innocent XJL, he was appointed professor 
of medicine in the nniyersity of Bologna, 
and hecame the most popular physician in 
that city. 

Alhertini was the author of two short 
essays which were published after his death 
in the first Tolume of the Commentaries of 
the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bologna. 
One of them is entitled " Animadversiones 
super quihusdam difficilis Respiraiionis Yitiis 
a l«Bsa CJordis et Priecordiorum Structura 
pendentibus*,** the other, "De Cortice Pe- 
ruviano Commentationes qusedam." The 
former, which was read to the academy in 
1726 has considerable interest by being the 
first essay in which an attempt was made to 
distinguish the symptoms of the sereral 
diseases of the heart, and to connect each of 
the chief signs obseryed during life with the 
changes of structure discoyered after death. 
The author giyes a yery clear account of the 
general signs of disease of the heart, and of 
many of the secondary, affections which it 
produces ; such as heemoptysis, yertigo^ 
apoplexy, and oedema of the lungs, which 
last he carefully distinguishes from hydro- 
thorax, and points out as the chief cause of 
the dyspnoea in extreme cases of diseased 
heart, and in acute dropsy. He urges also 
that these affections of the lungs are me- 
chanically poduced by the obstruction of 
the circulation^ and are not dependent on 
any change of struetare in the lungs them- 
selyes, or on any fSuilt in the blood. In 
speaking of the main purpose of his essay, he 
confesses that he is unable to describe the 
symptoms of many of the affections of the 
pericardium, and limits himself to the dis- 
cussion of the dilatathtu of the a ur icles, 
yentricles, and great blood yeasels. He says, 
though with much diffidence, that those 
affections which are attended by a preter- 
natural, long-continued, yibra^g pnlsatkyn, 
and a distinct beat, are to be rrferred to 
diseases of the aneurismal kind, that is, to 
dilatations of the left auricle or yentride, of 
the whole heart, or of the great arteries ; 
and that those in which there is only a 
motion without such a pulsation, or scarcely 
any perceptible motion at all, are diseases of 
the yaricoee kind, that is, dilatations of the 
right auricle or yentricle, or of the pul- 
monary artery and yein. He recommends 
that mode of treatment of the aneurismal dis- 
eases which was practised to a greater ex- 
tent by his friend Valsalya, and which is 
therefore commouly called ** Valsaly a's me- 
thod," consisting in reducing the patient to 
the lowest degree of weakness by repealed 
bleedings and staryation. [Valsalva.] 

Imperfect as it is, the essay proret flw 
687 



anthor to haye been a careful obsenrer. and 
a diligent cultiyator of morbid -anatomy. It 
is, moreoyer, yery honestly written ; and by 
showing the obscurity in which the patholo^nr 
of the heart was at that time enyeloped, 
enables one better to appreciate the yalue of 
the labours of those, such as Morflagni, 
Coryisart, and Laennec, by whom m the 
following century it was brmight to a deffree 
of aoenracy greater than has been attained 
in the study of the diseases of any other in- 
ternal or^an. 

Albertini was the immediate predeoessor 
of Bat t is te Morgagni, who in all his works 
speaks of him with the hij^hest respect, and 
has recorded seyeral cases illustratiye of his 
skill in diagnosis. The two essays already 
mentioned were published under the title 
*« H. F. Albertini, Opnscula," by M. H. Rom- 
berg, at Berlin, in 1828, in a small 8ya 
yolume, with a prefiioe by the editor con- 
taining a life of the author, and a notice of 
a manuscript left by him with the title 
** Consultationes MedUcas" in the library of 
the nniyersity of Bologna. J. P. 

ALBERTINI, JOHANN BAPTIST 
VON, was bom on the 17th of February, 
1769, at Neuwied on the Rhine. He be- 
longed to a Morayian family, and receiyed 
his education in the establishments of that 
sect at Niesky and Barby, where he formed 
an intimate mendshipwith Schleiermacher. 
Schleiermacher left the Morayians, but Al- 
bertini remained faithful to them, and in his 
twentieth year he was appointed teacher at 
the educational estahlidunent at Niesky, 
where he remained until the year 1804, occu- 
pying himself chiefly with Uie study of the 
ancient and oriental langmiges, and with ma- 
thematics and botany. The results of his 
botanical studies appaured in a work which 
he edited together with L. yon Schweinitz, 
under the title ** Conspectus Fungorum in 
LusatiiB superioris agro Niskiensi cresoen- 
tium, &c LipsicB, 1805." To the ** Monu- 
mentum Pads," which appeared in 1814 at 
Breslan, as a monument of the general re- 
storation of peace in Europe, Allwrtini con- 
tributed a Syriae inscripdon. During the 
period subsequent to 1804, howeyer, he de- 
yoted himself entirely to the ^iritual wel&re 
of the Morayian communities at Niesky, 
Onadenberg, and Gnadenf^i, and acted as 
their preacher. In 1814 he was raised to 
the dignity of bishop of the Morayians, and 
seyen years later he became a member of 
the poyeming body of the Morayian com- 
mumties (Direction der Briider-Unitiit). From 
1824 he held the presidency in the con- 
ferences of the elders of the sect He died 
at Berthelsdorf; near Hermhut, on the 6th of 
December, 1881, deeply lamented by all who 
had known him. The Morayians lost in 
him^ a true-hearted, active, and sincere 
minister, who was as disinterested and be- 
nevolent as he was richly endowed with 

Y Y 4 



ALBERTiNt 



ALBERtlKL 



lifeutal powers and distinguished for his ac- 
quirements. 

Daring the last twenty-six years of his 
life, which Albertini devoted to the spiritnal 
prosperity of the body of Christians to which 
he belonged, he made the best possible nse 
of the power intrusted to him, b^ doing good 
whereyer he could, and diffiunng the true 
spirit of Christiani^ among the Moravians 
both by his own example aoA, by his sermons, 
which must be classed among the best spe- 
cimens of German pulpit oratory, and are 
certainly the best that were ever delivered 
among the Moravians. They are almost un- 
Quailed for beautiful simplicity of style and 
pure Christian feeling. They are published 
m two collections ; one bears the title 
''Dreissig Predigten fur Mitglieder und 
Freunde der Briidergemeine," 1805, 8va, 
without place. The third and best edition 
of these sermons is that of 1829. The second 
collection of thirty-six sermons bears the 
title "Sechs und dreissig Reden an die 
Gemeuie in Hermhut, in den Jahren 1818 — 
1824 gehalten.'* Gnadan, 1832, 8vo. Alber- 
tini also possessed ^;reat poetical talent, which 
he applied to writing better hymns than 
those which had been sung at the meetings 
of the Moravians. The peculiarities, how- 
ever, by which the Moravian hymns have 
always been distinguished, and which have 
drawn upon them much ridicule, but which 
are intimately connected with the religious 
views of that body, laid Albertini under certain 
restraints, which prevented him from fully 
displaying his poetical powers, and obliged 
him to adopt certain forms and images, 
which, though not perhaps nnpoetical, ap- 
pear strange to readers in general But 
notwithstanding this, his sacred hymns are 
masterly productions. The author has breathed 
into them his own religious inspiration, his 
deep and purefbeling, and his strong love 
of all mankind, and has often dothei his 
thoughts in the most beautiftil imagery. 
These hymns were published under the title 
"Geistliohe Lieder fUr Mitglieder und 
Freunde derBriidergemeine.** Bunxlau, 1821, 
8vo. A second edition appeared in the same 
place in 1827, 8vo. (Wolff, Encyclopdd, der 
Deutachen NationaUiteraturt i. 32, &c. ; Gelxer, 
Die deutache poetuche Literaturfn. 46 1 .) L. S. 
ALBERTFNI. rMoocHi, Francesco.] 
ALBERTINI, BiftjSSA'TO. [Mussato.] 
ALBERTINI, PA'OLO, a monk of the 
order of Servites in the fifteenth century. 
As he is frequently called by old authors 
Father Pud of the Servites only, without 
mention of his surname, he has often been 
confounded with Father Paul Nicoletti, who 
preceded him, and with the celebrated Father 
Paul Sarpi, the defender of the cause of the 
Venetians against the church of Rome in the 
seventeenth century. Albertini was bom 
about 1480, entered at the age of ten into the 
order to which he belonged, and made the 
688 



fiill profession of it in 1446. In 1458 he ooei<- 
pied the ehair of i^losophy at the nniveraity 
of Bologna, but soon resigned it to awaken the 
dormant love of study in his order at Venioe, 
and in the following years he acquired high 
reputation as a preacher at Rome, at Venice, 
at Bologna, and especially at Florence. In 
1471 he was the first of twenty-five candi- 
dates proposed to the Venetian senate lor the 
bishopric of Torcello, but was unsoccessfiiL 
In 1475, during the dogeship of Piero Mooe- 
nigo, he was sent ambassador from Venice lo 
the Porte, and in the same year he died, 
somewhat suddenly, at Venice. 

Albertini left four works : three in Latiny 
*« On the Knowledge of God," " On makin|^ 
a Christian Testament" (** De coudendo 
Christiano Testamento ")» and ** On the Bine 
and Progress of the Order of the Sovites ;** 
the fourth, partly in Latin and partly in Ita- 
lian, a ^ Ccnnmentary on Dante." None of 
them ai^>ear to have been printed, but h 
is probable that firom the increased avidity 
fbr ancient commentaries on Dante, the 
last of these works will not long remain 
in the obscurity of the library at Padua, 
where it at present exists in manuscript A 
portrait of Albertini ttcm. a medal stmek 
during his lifetime in 1472, is given in the 
Museum Mazzuchellianum, a circumstance 
which renders it the more extraordinary that 
no mention is made of him in the great work 
of Mazzuchelli, " Gli Scrittori d'ltalia." From 
the inscription round this medal, ** M. Panlus 
Venetus : or: Servor. memorie fons," or 
** Paul the Venetian, the source of the me- 
mory of the Servite order," the inference has 
often been drawn that Albertini was remark- 
able for a strong memoiy. The expression 
would rather seem to be intended as accMnpli- 
ment to his work on the history of the oMer 
he belonged to. In his epitaph Albertini is 
stated to have been not only well acquainted 
with Latin, but with Greek and Hebrew. 
(Agostini, NoHzie degU Scrittori Veneziani^ 
I 543 — 555. . Tirabosehi, Staria della Lette- 
ratura Italiana, edit of 1783, vi 288. ; Fos- 
carini, Delia LettertUura VenezianOy i. 355. ; 
De Comitibus Gaetani, Mueewn Mtuzmckd- 
Uanum, i. 73, &c) T. W. 

ALBERTI'NO. [Franciabigio.] 
ALBERTINUS, ^GI'DIUS, a German 
satirist, was bom in the year 1560 at De- 
venter in the Netherlands. Respecting his life 
very little is known, except that for many 
^ears he was private secretary to the Elector 
'aximUian of Bavaria. He died at Munich 



on the 9th of March, 1620. 

The works of Albertinus show that he was 
a zealous Roman Catholic They are all 
written in German ; and as at that time nearly 
everything was written in Latin, especially 
in the southern parts of Germany, and very 
few persons cared about writing their native 
tongue with purity and correctness, Albertinus 
deserves praise for having ventured to use his 



ALBERTINUS. 



ALBERTOLLt 



mother tongue. His style hawevet paitakes 
of all the fiinlts of the age : it is bombastic, 
and frequently interlaided with foreign words 
and phrases, which German authors of that 
time, half ashamed of writing in their native 
tongue, appear to hare used merely to show 
their leaniing. But Albertinus possessed in 
a high degree the talent of seeing and vividly 
describing the fiuilts and follies of his con- 
temporaries. The object of his satires is to 
teach and improve his readers, though the 
lessons are often given in a coarse form. He 
is in every respect one of the forerunners of 
Abraham a Suicta Clara, to whom he bears 
the greatest resemblance. His works were 
in his time extremely popular, especially in 
Southern Germany, but at present they have 
fiedkn into almost complete neglect The 
most celebrated among them are — 1. ** Land- 
storser Guzmann von Alfiirache, Miinchen,'' 
1616, 2 vols. 8vo., reprinted in 1618 and 
1681. A third volume was added in 1632 
by Martin Freudenhold. The whole work 
is a free translation of a Spanish noveL 2. 
** Lucifera und Christ! Konigreich und See- 
lengejaide,oder Narrenhatx. Miinchen," 1617, 
4ta 8. ** JEgidii Albertini Himschleiffer. 
Cohi,'' 1645 and 1686, in 12mo. This work 
is one example of a whole class of writings 
then popular in Germanv, that is, allegorioU 
explanations of works of art, such as statues 
and paintings. Albertinus also published a 
great number of translations from the Italian, 
Spanish, and English, among which are 
Baxter's General Description of the World, 
and Guevara's Letters. A complete list of 
all his works is given by Adelung in his 
Supplement toJoc^r's^'AllgemeinesGelehr- 
ten-Lexicon,** i. 445, &c (Jocher's AUgem, 
OMtrt-Lex, 1 197., with Adelung's SmU- 
mentf Wolff, Encyclopctd. der Deutschen No" 
tianaBiteraiur, L p. 36.; Gervinus, Gtaekichte 
der PoetUeh. Natumcd'Literahar der Deutachen^ 
ilL 143. 296. 372. 383, &c) L. & 

ALBE'BTO FIORENTINO, an Italian 
sculptor, who was employed at Milan between 
1366 and 1378. (Cicognara, Storia ddh 
ScuUura,) R. N. W. 

ALBERTOLLI, GIA'COMO, nephew of 
Giocondo, was a native of Bedano, in the 
territory of Lugano, wheve he was bom in 
1761. He received his education as an 
artist at Venice, in which ci^ he remained 
till 1797, when he was invited to Padua, 
where he was made professor of civil 
architecture, first at the seminario, and 
afterwards at the university. Being dis- 
missed or resigning in consequence of poli- 
tical changes in that part of Italy, he went 
to Milan, then the capital of the Cisalpine 
republic, and was there appointed successor 
to Giuseppe Piermarini as public teacher of 
architecture. In this capacity he showed 
great ability and diligence. It was his prac- 
tice not to confine his instruction to the usual 
routine, but to take the students to examine 
689 



the various works of architecture in the city, 
and to point out to them critically their re- 
spective merits and defects. This method 
of teaching obtained him great reputation, 
and secured the attachment of his pupils. 
His death was occasioned by an attack of 
apoplexy in the street, 6ih of June, 1805. 
(Tipaldo, Biografia degU ItaUam IHuatri,) 

W H I 

ALBERTOLLI, GIOCONDO, an Italian 
architect, of whose fiunily little is known, ex- 
cept that his ftither was of the same profes- 
sion, was bom at Bedano, July 24. 1742. He 
was first put to school at Aosta, where he 
remained, however, no more than a year, for 
so little disposition did he show to learn any- 
thing, that his fiither thought it would be 
better to keep him at home under his own 
eye. Accordmgly he continued at home un- 
tu the age of eleven, when, having shown a 
decided inclination for drawing, he was placed 
as pupil under an artist at Parma, in which 
city he had an opportunity of attending the 
lessons given by the difierent professors at 
the Academy of the Fine Arts, and benefited 
more especially by those of the Abate Peroni. 
After ten years successftilly devoted to pre- 
paratory studies, he began to obtain commis- 
sions in his profession as architect ; though 
it was not until 1770 that he had an oppor- 
tunity of adequately displaying his peculiar 
talent for architectural decoration. In that 
year he was employed by the Grand Duke 
of Tuscany (afterwiurds Leopold IL) to design 
the improvements and embellishments of one 
of his villas near Florence. He took with 
him as his assistants his brother Grato and 
some of the other pupils from the academy 
at Parma, whom he left to carry on the work, 
after having staid as long as his own personal 
superintendence was necessary. He now pro- 
ceeded to Rome, where he spent some time 
in studying both the remains of ancient and 
the chief productions of modem architecture. 
He next visited Naples for the same purpose; 
and was there enmged by Carlo, son of the 
celebrated Luigi VanvitelU, to assist him in 
designing and modelling some of the oma- 
ments for his church Dell* Annunsiata ; after 
which fiunily affairs compelled him to return 
home to Bedano in 1773. 

It was about this time that Giuseppe Pier- 
marini, the eminent Milanese architect, pro- 
posed to confide to Albertolli the interior 
decorations of the Palazzo Reale at Milan, 
which he was then building. Accordingly 
Albertolli proceeded thither m March, 1774; 
and such a cordial intimacy was formed be- 
tween him and his employer, that in a short 
time Piermarini left him to follow his own 
taste. So general was the satisfiu^tion he gave 
in a branch of the art peculiarly congenial to 
his talents, that he was soon looked upon as 
the restorer of sound principles in it; and, fol- 
lowing the example of the court, many of the 
more opulent Milanese nobles began to fit up 



ALBEBTOLLL 



ALBERTOLLL 



their palaces in a similar style. AlbertoUi 
was appointed professor of decoratiTe archi- 
tecture in the Academy of Fine Arts which 
was founded at Milan in 1775 hy Maria 
Theresa; and he was employed to design and 
execute the interior embellishments of the 
imperial yilla at Monaa, erected by Pier- 
marini, 1775-9. 

In the mean while, in order to furnish his 
numerous pupils at the academy with more 
suitable studies of architectural ornament and 
detail, he caused a series of his own compo- 
sitions, chiefly those which he had actually 
executed, to be engrared) which fint jpab- 

lication of the kind bylu^i'PP^*'^ ■^ ^^^'^''^ 
1 782, under the title of ** Omamenti DiyersL" 
Encouraged both by its fi&TOurable reception 
and by the friendly advice of Prince Kaunits, 
he brought out, m 1787, a work of some* 
what different character, entitled **Alcnne 
Deoorasioni di nobili Sale," and dedicated it 
to that minister. To these suoceeded, in 1 796, 
his " Miscellanea per i Oiovani stndiosi del 
Disegno,'' and, in 1805, his ** Corso Elemen- 
tare di Omamenti ArchitettonichL" 

Besides the immediate influence of these 
publications upon his own pupils and the 
rising generation of architects m Italy, they 
contributed not a little to diffuse a better 
taste in Germany and France, and to extend 
their author's reputation through those and 
other countries. By his own countrymen he 
was considered a high authority in all mat- 
ters of ornamental design and architectural 
decoration. Of his elegant ihncy and taste 
in interior embellishment ample proof is 
afforded by the various splendid apartments 
he executed in the palaszo of Prince Belgio- 
joso, and in those of the Marchese Oassendi, 
the Marchese Arconato, and Conte Antonio 
Greppi. Among his other works may be 
menUoned the new fin^ade of Palaszo Melxi 
on the Corso di Porta Nuova at Milan, and 
the noble villa belonging to the same fiunily 
at Bellagio on the hSke of Coma He is also 
said to l^ve designed some of the ornamental 
parts of the Arch of the Simplon, or Aroo 
della Pace, at Milan, of which Cagnola was 
the architect 

After performing his duties at the academy 
for many years with a zeal highly creditable 
to himself, and no less advantageous to the 
pupils, he was compelled to resign his office 
there, in 1812, in consequence H a disorder 
in his eyes. He afterwards fortunately reco- 
vered, and was enabled to continue his &- 
Tourite studies and pursuits for nearly thirty 
years. He attained an age of which the 
annals of literature and art afford few similar 
instances, for he did not die until November 
1840, retaining not only all his faculties, but 
his mental energy and his seal for art, almost 
to the last 

- The works above mentioned are only an 
inconsiderable portion, as to number, of what 
he actually designed. He was extensively 
690 



employed in modelling candelabra, cflMMnt, 
chalices, and other pieces of church foraitai« 
and adornment, and works of orifioeria of al 
kinds. He also designed various ^ffi^nVW 
and altars; among the latter, the splendid one 
in the church of &a Marco at Milan. Ncitlaer 
was he without considerable abilUrv in pun^• 
ing, ahhongh his produotioiis in aat art are 
few. One of them, an altar-piece rqireseni- 



Iron Crown having been bestowed upon hia 
hj MapdleoD in 1809. (Forster^s BoMzmttma^ 
^ta^er^KHmMOerUxieomA W.H.L. 

ALBEBTOLLI, RAFAELE, son ^ 
Giocondo, distinguished himself as an en- 
graver both in meaxotinto and etchmg, and 
executed many portraits of individiuds of 
note. He also assisted his fether in teaching 
the pupils at the academy of La Brera at 
Milan; and, like him, displayed superior 
taste in ornamental design. He died in 1812, 
at the age of forty-two. (Tipaldo, Biografia 
degli Itakam lUuatri.) W. H. L. 

ALBERTO'NI, PAOLO, aRoman pahiter, 
of the school of Carlo Biaratta. He was en- 
rolled as a member of the Academy of St 
Luke in 1695, and died shortly afterwards. 
There are pictures by him in the church of 
San Carlo on the Corso ; in Santa Maria of 
the Campo Marso ; and in other churches 
iu Rome. (OrUndi, Abecfdario PUtorieo.) 

R.N. W. 

ALBERTRAVDY, JAN CHRZCICIEL, 
or JOHN CHRISTIAN, bishop of Zeno* 
polis, was bom at Warsaw in the year 1731* 
His father was by birth an Italian. On the 
death of his mother, which occurred when he 
was very young, he was placed entirely under 
the care of the Jesuits, and educated m th^ 
public school Here his progress was so 
rapid, and the ability he displayed so extras 
ordinary, that at the age of fifteen he was 
admitted into the order, and immediately oq 
the completion of his novitiate, namely, in 
his nineteenth year, was sent as public tutor 
to the college of Pultusk : he subsequently 
filled the same important post at Plovsko^ 
Nieswies, and Wihia. Before he had at* 
tained his twenty-fourth year he had pub- 
lished occasional poems in Polish and Latin, 
and several learned treatises on ancient 
geography and history, and on astronomy. 
He was a good linguist, having made himself 
master of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, En- 
glish, German, French, and Italian languages, 
several of which he spoke and wrote with 
fecility. In the year 1760, bishop Zaluski, 
having determined to throw his extensive 
library open for the benefit of the publie, 
appointed Albertrandy his librarian. This 
post he occupied four years, during which 
time he drew up a very elaborate catalogue 
of the entire collection, stated to contain 
300,000 volumes. In 1764 the Prince 



iXBEBTBANDT. 



ALBBRTRANDY. 



LobieDgki egnflded to his charge his grandaoii^ 
Count Felix Lnbieoski, alterwards minister 
criF justice in the duchy of Warsaw. At this 
period Albeitrandy employed his leisure in 
translating into Polish Maeqner's History of 
the Roman BepabUc, in 2 toIs. 8to^ and 
Schmidt's BQstoiT of Poland, in 1 toL 8to., 
both which translations he puUished at War- 
saw in 1768. He also contributed largely to 
a Polish periodical, called the ** Monitor of 
Warsaw,'' the first number being written by 
him, and many essays afterwards. He sab- 
aeqnentiy edited the woi^ entitled ** Zbior 
Zabow prsyiemnych i poxytecznych" ^A 
collection of osefnl and entertaining essays"), 
in prose and rerse, in 16 toIs., of which 
more than one half were written by himself. 
.In the year 1770 he accompanied his pnpil 
into Italy, to the Academy of Siena, and 
afterwards to Rome. The growing inclina- 
tion of the young Lnbienski for the stody of 
antiquities, particularly numismatics, at- 
tracted the attention of his instructor, who 
applied himself with redoubled diligence to 
this science, and in the course of two years 
gained for himself a place amon^ the first 
numismatists of Europe. On his return to 
Warsaw, in 1773, he wss much employed by 
the chancellor Mlodzieiowski, and was also 
actively engaged with the newly appointed 
educational commission, which had been 
•barged with the preparation of elementary 
-works. Two years later. Count FeHx Lu- 
•bienski, having presented his collection of 
coins to Sling Stanislaus with a request that 
they might be continued under the care of 
Albertrandy, the king appointed him keeper 
.of his medals, and subsequently his lecturer 
and librarian, and keeper of his prints. Al- 
bertrandy, anxious to avail himself of the 
.royal confidence for the goed of his country, 
proposed to the king to collect from foreign 
countries the various scattered notices re- 
latinff to Poland. He was in consequence 
sent mto Italy in 1782, and in the course of 
three years had gleaned from the Vatican 
and sixteen other libraries in Rome, and 
also from various collections in other places, 
their most important contents relative to 
Poland, the whole comprising 110 volumes, 
in folio, a work which is truly astonishing, 
when regarded as brou^t together by the 
labour of one man withm so short a time. 
He shortly afterwards went to Sweden upon 
a similar mission, and obtained most import- 
ant materials frtmi the libraries of Stockholm 
and Upsal, and also from that of the Count 
de BnUie, the whole of which materials he 
transcribed with his own hand. In the latter 
library he experienced much difficulty, not 
being allowed to make any transcripts. He 
■ was dierefore compelled to confine himself to 
a careftd perusal of what he required, and to 
write it down from memory. The product 
of these two journeys formed a most valuable 
collection of historical materials in almost 
691 



200 folio volumte, which are stated to hate 
been deposited in the library of Pulawy 
by Prince Csartoryski. King Stanislaus, as 
an acknowledgment of the extraordinary 
merit of Albertrandy, presented him with 
the great medal of merit, and the cross of the 
order of St Stanislaus, and made him bishop 
of Zenopolis. His modesty is said to have 
been the sole impediment to his attaining the 
highest ecclesiastical honours of his country, 
when seventy years of age he was unanimously 
called upon to preside over the newly foimed 
Royal Society of the Friends of Science of 
Warsaw, and he continued to direct its ope- 
rations with the greatest activity and zeaJ« 
enriching its Transactions with numerous 
papers (particularly a description of the 
anti<|uities and medals of the cabinet of "King 
Stanislaus Augustus) until his death, which 
took place on the 10th of August, 1808. In 
addition to the works mentioned above, Al» 
bertrandy published at Warsaw, in 1801, ** A 
Dissertation upon Manners and Customs ; " 
which he likewise translated into Latin. He 
left in MS. ** A History of Poland during the 
three last Centuries," " The Chronology of 
Polish History until the Time of Wladis- 
laus IV.," and many other compositions ; the 
greater portion of which were presented to 
the university of Wilna by his frumily. Of 
these the following were published at War- 
saw between the years 1822 and 1827, by 
Arofessor Ignace Onacewics of the univer* 
sity of Wilna. 1. ** A Dissertation on the 
Sun, regarded as a Pagan Divinity." 2.** His* 
tory of the Reign of fitenry of Valois," 2 vols* 
8. ** History of the Reign of Cassimir Jagel« 
Ion," 2 vols. 4. " EUstory of the Reign of 
Wladislaus the Wamenian." 6. "Hutosy 
of the Reigns of Alexander and John Al- 
bert," 2 vols. {HaXUacke ABgememe Litera* 
tar-ZeUim^ 1809, p. 363.; EntBiklopedicbaik^ 
Lekgikon ; Bentkowski, HiBtorya Literatury 
PoUkie^, ii. 605--611.; Rabb^ BioamhU 
UfdveradU des CcntemporainB,) J. W. J. 

ALBEBTSEN HAMILTON, HENRIK, 
a modem writer of Latin poetry was bom 
at Copenhagen in 1592. He was descended 
from a Danish fkmily of consequence, which 
would appear from ms second name to have 
become connected with a Scottish one. He 
was early distinguished for his poetical 
talents, and in 1608, in his seventeenth year, 
delivered in public, before the professors of 
the university of Copenhagen, a metrical 
panegyric on St John the Baptist, a circum- 
stance to which he was fond of alluding in 
his subsequent writings. We find him soon 
after pursuing his studies at the university of 
Qiessen, where he obtained the friendship 
and admiration of James Gruter, who speaks 
of him as fimious throughout Germany for 
his poetical compositions. On his return 
home, after frurther travels, he obtained a 
situation in the German Chancery, or office 
for managing the afifairs of the King of 



ALBERTSEN* 



ALBERTUCCt 



Denmark's German dominioiuB. After re- 
maining there three years, he set out anew 
on his travels in 1619, with the king's per- 
mission, yisited the principal cities and courts 
of Europe, and finally proceeded to Egypt, 
where he died. 

Albertsen's published works are — 1. 
^ Dispntatio de Frincipiis sen Causis Rerum 
naturalium," Oiessen, 1609, 4to., a disserta- 
tion on the causes of natural appearances or 
phenomena ; and, 2. ** Musasa Adolescentiss 
Venus." Giessen, 1610, 8to^ a collection of 
Latin poems, which is reprinted in Rost- 
gaard*s ** Deliciie Poetarum Danorum." The 
author speaks in his pre&ce of the great 
pleasure the composition of these poems had 
afforded him, and they are b^ no means 
devoid of the power of affordmg pleasure 
to the reader, though Albertsen was affected 
with the taste of his time, and seems to 
have been in particular fond of composing 
anagrams, of which we sometimes find no 
less than three on the same set of letters. 
Albertsen was probably the earliest Danish 
traveller in Egypt (Life prefixed to the 
Poems in Rostgaard, DeHcitgy ^c, vol. L ; 
Worm, FifrsCg til et Lexicon over Danske 
Northe og Jslandske Ittrde Mtend, i. 15, &c.) 

T.W. 

ALBERTUCCI DE' BORSELLI, GI- 
RCKLAMO, an Italian preacher and chroni- 
cler of merit, was bom at Bologna about the 
year 1432. His father, Pietro Albertuoci, 
perished in battle in 1445, a circumstance 
which is recorded in the Chronicle of the 
flon, who adds, **Let no one wonder that 
among the nobles I mention this man, who 
was but a common soldier, for he was the 
fiither of me who write this history," Giro- 
lamo assumed the habit of St Dominic, be- 
came a popular preacher, and rose to the 
dignity of prior of the convent of Bologna, 
and of inquisitor-general, at that time an 
office of the first importance and honour. He 
died of pleurisy in the year 1497. There 
has been much discussion about the number 
and titles of his works ; but Fantuzzi, who 
appears to have investigated the subject with 
care, states them as follows : — 1. ** An- 
nales Bononienses ab Anno 1418 usque ad 
Annum 1497." These interesting annals of 
Bologna were printed by Muratori in the 
twenty-third volume of his great collection, 
'** Scriptores Rerum Italicarum," not, as stated 
by Fantuzzi, in the twenty-fifth. 2. Chro- 
mcon seu Epitome Gestorum ab Orbe oon- 
dito usque ad Annum 1497." Fantuzzi shows 
that the first portion only of this Chronide, 
from the creation of Adam to the birth of 
Christ, is entirely the production of Alber- 
tuccL The second part, which is called 
-" Cronica Martiniana cum Additionibus Fra- 
tris Hieronymi de Bononia," is a revised 
and augmented edition of the Chronicle of 
Brother Martin the Pole, up to the year 1270, 
continued by Albertucci to the year 1488. 
692 



3. ** Chronicon Generalium Magistromm 
Ordinis Prsedicatorum " (** A Chronicle of 
the Grand Masters of the Order of Preachers," 
to which Albertucci himself belonged.) 4. 
*« Chronicon sen Descriptio plurium Italue 
Civitatum" (*' A Description of varioos 
Cities of Italy"), mentioned with high praise 
by Leandro Alb«rti in his own description of 
Italy. 5. " Historia Pontificum Bomaaomm 
a S. Petro ad Alexandrum VL" (*« A History 
of the Popes from St. Peter to Alex- 
ander VL"). 6. <«Aimale8 Ordinis Prsa- 
dicatorum" (*< Annals of the Order of 
Preachers"). 7. Annales Ccenobii Bono- 
nienses ab Instauratione Vitss Regularis ad 
nostram usque JEtaXem " (** Monastic Annals 
of Bologna from the Institution of Monastic 
Rules to the times of Albertucci"). 8. 
** Tabula de Yiris iUustribus Ordinis Prodi- 
catorum " (*< A Table of the illustrious Men 
of the Order of Preachers "). 9. " Forolivii 
Annales ab Anno 1397 usque ad Annum 
1433" ("Annals of Forli from 1397 till 
1433 "). 10. *' Tabula de Doctoribus asseve- 
rantibus Beatissimam Matrem original! Peo- 
cato aliqoando ftnsse obnoxiam " (" A Table 
of the Doctors who affirm that the Blessed 
Virgin was liable to original Sin"). II. 
" Sermones de Tempore per totum Annum ** 
(** Sermons on the Fasts, Festivals, &c. for 
all the Year "). These sermons have great 
merit, and are mentioned with commendation 
by numerous authors. Many of the other 
works could not be found in the time of Fan- 
tuzzi in the Dominican library at Bologna, 
and are only known from the mention of 
them by Leandro Alberti, in his work on the 
illustrious men of the order of Preachers. 
(Fantuzzi, Notizie degli Scriiiori Bolognen, 
i 156 — 160. ; Mazzuchelli, Scriiiori d* ftalioy 
I 325, &c.) T. W. 

ALBERTUS AQUENSIS (by some au- 
thors called Albericus), a canon and sacrist 
of the cathedral at Aix-en-Provence. He 
is supposed to have died in or about the 
year 1120. He composed, in twelve books, 
a history of the first crusade from oral 
communications made to him by persona 
who had taken a part in it. The work com- 
prises the period from 1095 to 1120. The 
style without being elegant is sufficiently 
clear and devoid of exaggeration : the great 
defects of the work are the writer's omission 
of dates and the manner in which he dis- 
figures proper names. This chronicle, whicJi 
is entitled "Chronicon Hierosolymitanum," 
was first published by Reineccius at Helm- 
Btiidt in 4to. in 1584, but without the author^s 
name. Hoeschelius, in the pre&ce of hia 
edition of the Alexias of Anna Comnena, 
in 1610, attributed the Jerusalem Chronicle 
to Albert of Aix, but without stating his 
authority ; somewhat later, Gretser found a 
MS. copy of it in the library of St Marfan 
at Louvain. Bongars has included the work 
in his collection cf historians of the crusade. 



ALBERTtra 



ALBERTUa 



entitled '^Gesta Dei per Franoos," pablished 
in 1 6 1 1 . VoBsiiu, Fabricins, the Benedictines 
in their ^ Histoire Literaire de la France,*' 
and the Sammarthani in their ** Gallia Chris- 
tiana," have merely repeated what they 
leamed from Gretser. (Hisioire LiUraire de 
la Framce, par dea ReUgieux Benedictina de la 
Congregation de S. Maur, Paris, 1756, z. 277, 
278., where the other authorities are enn- 
merated.) W.W. 

ALBERTUS ARGENTINENSI& Men- 
tion of a priest of this name, dean of the 
canons of Strassburg, occurs in a chartnlary 
of the cathedral of that city in the year 1356, 
as appears from an extract published in 
Scb5pflin's "Alsatia Diplomatica." But 
Schopflin has shown, on the authority of 
a MS. which ^e discovered at Bern, that the 
chronicle na]%tin^ the eyents of itie years 
1270 to 1378, attributed by so manjr authors 
to Albert of Strassbuiv, was in reality com- 
piled by Mathias of Neufchatel, chaplain to 
Berchti^old, bishop of Strassbnra, 1328 — 
1353. (Jo. Daniel Schopflini AUatia JEvi 
Merouinmci CaroUngici Saxonici Salici 
Sueuici Diphmatica, Manhemii, 1772 — 1775. 
fol. pars ii. p. 212. ; Adelung, Stq^plement to 
Jocher's AUgemeinen GeUhrten Lanco, Leip- 
xig, 1784.) W.W. 

ALBERTUS ARNHEIMUS, a Carthu- 
sian monk. His fimiily name was Kiyet; but 
he is more generally known by the appellatiye 
derived from Amheim, his native town. He 
w:is bom in 1369 ; took the vows in the 
monastery of his order near Wesel, in the 
duchy of Cleves, in his fbrdeth year ; and 
died president of the house in which he made 
his profession on the 17th of May, 1449, in 
the eightieth year of his a^ He compUed 
a book of reference, in which the duties of 
the Christian were illustrated by examples, 
which was long preserved in MS. in the 
convent at Roermunde. The title and divi- 
sions of this work, in which it will be ob- 
served that the vices are dilated upon in more 
tlian twice the number of chapters allotted to 
the virtues, are stated b^ his biographers as 
follows : — ** Referendanum Exemplorum in 
Tomos Duos, Septcm Distinctiones partituuL 
Distinctio 1. De Yenerabili Sacramento, cap. 
93. 2. De & Cruce, c^>. 39. 3. De Beata 
Maria, cap. 91. 4. De Nativitate Domini, 
cap. 77. 5. De Virtutibns, cap. 61. 6. De 
Vitiis, cap. 147. 7. De Deftmctis, cap. 63.*' 
{^Bibliotheca Colonieneie, cura et studio Josephi 
Hartzheim, Oolonise Augustie Agrippinen- 
sium, 1747, foL p. 324.) W. W. 

ALBERTUS BRIXIENSIS, a pupU of 
St. Thomas Aquinas, and consequently old 
enough to have commenced his studies before 
the saint's death, whidi happened in 1274. 
Echard mentions that it was Albert de 
Brixia who was said to have had a vision 
of Thomas Aquinas in a state of gilory after 
his death. According to Passennus, Albert 
was alive in 1314. He compiled a com- 
693 



pendium of casuistry (** Summa de Casibuf 
Conscientis "), and a manual of instruc- 
tions for priests (** Summa de Sacerdotium 
Instructione.** (VBhTiciua^ Bibliotheca Latina 
Media et Injhiue Mtatia; Echard, Scrip- 
toree Ordmis Pradicatontm,) W. W. 

ALBERTUS CAMPENSIS. [Pighius, 
Ax.BEBTtr&] 

ALBERTUS DE FERRARIIS, a native 
of Piaoenxa: the period at which he lived 
and wrote is unknown. Fabricios mentions 
having seen an edition of a treatise on the 
canomcal hours bearing his name, which had 
no date, but had evidently been printed before 
1500. This treatise was reprinted by Ziletti 
in his collection of law tracts. The author 
represents it as a more complete exposition of 
the snttject than any which had preceded it ; 
but prdfesses, at the same time, that it has 
been compiled mainly for his own instruction. 
He explams the origin and nature of the 
canonical hours, discusses who are warranted 
to celebrate mass, and examines various picas 
for dispensation frx>m the duties annexed to 
the seven canomcal hours. There is an earnest- 
ness in the tone of the work that bespeaks 
sincerity ; but the author treats all argu- 
ments, however trifling, with the same em- 
phasis, to a degree that sometimes produces 
the effect of irony. For example, he argues 
the question whether holders of pluralities 
are bound to perform the services of each 
canonical hour once for every benefice they 
possess, with a gravity which has all the 
effect of a sneer at the abuse, though any- 
thing so nearly approaching to a joke appears 
totally alien to the turn of the writer's mind. 
(Fabricius, BibHotheca Latina Media et In- 
fima Mtatia; Franciscus Zilettus, Tractaiua 
Universi Juris in vnum Congeeti, VenetiiSy 
1584, foL) W. W. 

ALBERTUS GEMBLACENSIS, by 
some writers called Albertus Lobiensis. He 
was a native of Lobes in the diocese of Liege, 
and having entered the order of St. Benedict, 
rose to be abbot of Gemblours. He flourished 
about the year 980. He was tutor to Bur- 
chardt, elected bishop of Worms in 996, who 
is supposed to have been instigated in the 
first mstance to compdle or compose his 
spurious decretals by his tutor. Sigbert of 
Gemblours attributes some lives of the saints, 
which have been lost, to Albertus. Trithe- 
mius makes mention of an ode by him in 
praise of the saints (" Cantus in honores 
Sanctorum "). (Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina 
Media et Infima JEtatia ; Adelung, Simple-' 
ment to Jocher's AUgemeinea GeUhrten-Lexi- 
con,) W. W. 

ALBERTUS DE J A'NUA, so called from 
his being a native of Genoa, a Dominican, 
was elected master of the order in the general 
chapter held at Marseille on the 26th of 
May, 1300. He held the office only three 
n.onths, dying on his way to Rome on the 
26th of August in the same year. He had 



ALBEBTa& 



St Pari% and obtained the degree 
of bachelor in that imiyeraity, bat he had 
been sent by the order to teach at BAoot- 
pellier before he obtained the degree cf 
doctor. Royetta ascribes the foUowing works 
to him : — ** Commentarii in iv sententianim 
libros;" " PostiUa in Psabnoa;" '^ Super 
Libros Priomm, Pradieaaienta, et Sex Pnn- 
eipionun ; " *" Epistola ad muTersom Ordinem 
encjclica.*' The last alone appears to haye 
been printed. (Eehard, Seriptoret Ordmis 
iVarficoAirKSi.) W. W. 

ALBERTUS MAONU& Some authors 
haye SMomed that Magnus was a latinised 
Ibnn of the surname Gross or Orot : it is, 
howeyer, explicitly stated by the writers 
nearest his own tmies, that the epithet was 
bestowed upon him on account oi his dis- 
tinguished learning and yirtoe. All are 
agraed that he was descended from the counts 
<a BoUstadt, and was bom at T<aningen, on 
the Upper Danube* 

The date of his birth has been a subject of 
controyersy : by some he is said to haye been 
bom in the year 1193 ; by others in the year 
1205. The former ate most likely in the 
right We hate no positiye account of the 
year in which he was bora ; but all his early 
biogn^hers concur in stating that he died in 
1380, and all who mention his age at the time 
of his death represent him as haying then 
completed his eighty-seyenth year. Fabricius, 
who states him to haye been in his seyenty- 
fifth year, giyes no authority for his asser- 
tion, and probably altered the customary ac- 
count of his a^ to reconcile it with a story 
to be noticed immediately. According to 
this account he must haye been bom in 1 193 : 
those who represent him as bom in 1S05 do 
so in order to reconcile two statements : first, 
that AlNotus was admitted into the order of 
the Dominicans by Jordanus, after he had 
become master by the death of St Dominic 
(1222) ; and that he was only sixteen years 
old at the time of his admission. This 
account of his age at the time of his being 
received into the order is not only irrecon- 
cilable with that of his age at the time of his 
death, but rests upon a misunderstanding. 
The Albertus admitted by Jordanus in his 
sixteenth year was of the &mily of Franken- 
berg on the Maine, not of BoUstadt on the 
Danube: the story is told in detail by Thomas 
de Cantimprato. 

From the time of his birth in 1193 to that 
of his reception into the order of the Domi- 
nicans in 1222, the information we have 
respecting Albertus is meagre in the extreme. 
He is said to haye studied at Paris, and after- 
wards at Padua. It was at Padua that he 
formed the acquaintance with Jordanus, which 
led to his becoming a Dominican. He ad- 
yerts in his commentary on Aristotle's 
Meteora to his residence in Padua, which in 
his treatise ** De NatuHL Locorum" (the Pe- 
culiarities of different Places), he repre- 
694 



ALBERTU& 

iaita as haying been long disthigniahcd by 
its literature ; and mentions a yisit winch 
** when a young man ** he paid to Venice. 

The materials for the biography of Albertus 
fhnn the time Ot his taking the yows till his 
being appointed to teach in the conyent of his 
order m Paris (1245) are equally scanty. He 
is said to haye studied theology (it would ap- 
pear that his studies before he became a friar 
were entirely secular, and that it was his 
literary eminence and personal qualities alone 
that had made Jordaims so anxious to gain 
him for the order) for some time, but whe- 
ther in Italy, at Paris, or at Cologne^ it 
doubtful; and afterwards to haye officiated 
as teacher in the seminaries of his order at 
Hildesheim, Freiburg in the Breisgau, Ra- 
tisbon, Strassburg, and Cologne. At Cologne 
he had Thomas de Cantimprato for a hesa«r 
from 1232 to 1236 ; and Thomas Aquinas 
(who followed him to Paris) from 1244. 
Some authors haye said that Jordanus, when 
he went to the Holy Land in 1236, appointed 
Albertus yicar-general of the Dominicans in 
his absence, and that Albertus held the office 
till the election of Hugo de Sancta Clara, after 
the death of Jordanus in 1238 ; but ths cir^ 
eumstance is neither mentioned in the re- 
cords of the order, nor by any contemporary 
author. 

In 1245, he was sent to Paris by the master 
or the chapter of his order, for the purpose of 
obtaining the degree of doctor, or master as 
it was then more frequently called. For the 
attainment of this dignity it was then required 
that the candidate should teach in the schools 
three years. The first year he lectured as 
bachelor in the school of some master or 
doctor ; at the dose of that year, if the mas- 
ter was satisfied with him, be was presented 
to the chancellor tor his lioence^ and lectured 
a second in a school of his own as licen- 
tiate ; the thbrd year he conducted his school 
as doctor, with a bachelor under him, whom 
he in turn presented to the chancellor as 
worthy to be made a licentiate. The secular 
clerks, after this three years' probation, either 
settled as lecturers in Paris, or sought pro- 
motion in other uniyersities* But the Domi- 
nicans (and probably tfie members of other 
orders also) were at the disposal of their 
superiors: the three years' teaching in the 
Jacobine conyent was a duty imposed in suc- 
cession upon the most disonguished friars, 
who at Its termhiation were appointed to 
discharge die duties for which they seemed 
best fitted in the proyinces where Uiey were 
most likely to be usefiiL Albertus lectured 
upon theology during the three years that he 
remained at ^aris, and at their close was sent 
back to Cologne. Before he left Paris he took 
part in the conyocation of prelates and doc- 
tors, who, under the direction of the cardinal- 
legsSte Otho, sentenced the Talmudic writings 
of the Jewish doctors to be bumed. 

On his retum to Cologne about the end of 



ALBEBTUd. 



ALBERTU8. 



It48, Albertos ms appointed by ibe general 
ehapter of his order, which met that year at 
Pans, senior regent of the school which they 
established at Cologne. In 1249 he accom- 
panied the Emperor William of Holland, who 
▼isited Cologne on his retom from his coro- 
nation at Aix-la-Chapelle to Utrecht, to 
assist in the organisation of a new Dominican 
oonrent in that city. In the same year the 
citisens of Cologne expressed their admira- 
tion of and confidence in him, by selecting 
him to be their advocate with the arch- 
bishop in some dispnte regarding the pri- 
Tileges of their fiur: two years later they 
chose him, along with Hngo of Santa Clara, 
to arbitrate in a dispnte ihej had with the 
same prelate about the mint and tolls ; 
and on many other occasions we find them 
availing themselves of his counsels and good 
offices. 

In 1254 Albert was elected prior of the 
province of (Germany, in the provincial chap- 
ter held at Worms. Next ' year he was sent 
to Rome to plead Uie cause of the Dominicans 
in their dispute with the university of Paris, 
which Alexander IV., at the request of St 
Louis, had undertaken to termitaate by a 
judicial sentence. This controversy had 
originated as early as 1240, when the uni- 
versity, jealous of the growing reputation of 
the teachers of the mendicant orders, had 
attempted to exclude them firom its privi- 
leges. It was a period of intellectual activity, 
and the church had been alarmed by the pro- 
mulgation of heretical opinions in various 
quarters. Some of the most enthusiastic 
spirits of the age had enrolled themselves in 
the recently-instituted mendicant orders ; and 
their anxietv to raise the reputation of them- 
selves and the bodies to which they belonged, 
rendered it necessary for them to keep at the 
head of the intellectual movement It was 
difficult for them to promulgate new views, 
without lending a handle to their enemies to 
accuse them of heresy. In 1252, William de 
St Amour published his **Periculum Mundi,** 
a vehement attack upon the theology of the 
mendicant orders ; which was answered in 
terms quite as vehement by Albertus' distin- 
guished scholar Thomas Aquinas. The friars 
were anxious that Albertus should plead their 
cause at Rome, but so averse was he to leave 
his more tranquil employment of teacher, that 
8 special mandate from the pope was necessary 
to oblige him to undertake the journey. He 
spent Uie close of 1255 and the greater part 
ef 1256 at Rome; but though the influence 
of the Dominicans was great at the papal 
court, he was unable to bring the business to 
a satisfactory conclusion, and left it at his 
departure to the charge of Thomas Aquinas. 
Albertus, during his stay in Rome, held the 
office of reader to the pope ; and at the request 
Of the pontiff and cardinals delivered lectures 
on the gospel of St. John and the canonical 
epistles. 

695 



In 1259 Albertus was present at the general 
council of the order at Valenciennes, and 
resigned the dignity of provincial prior. He 
was appointed to assist the four masten of 
theology in the Dominican seminary at Paris, 
in preparing regulations for the schools of 
the order. 

In 1260 he was again forced from his be- 
loved literary avocations, being appointed 
bishop of Ratisbon by Alexander IV. A 
German bishop was in those days not only 
called upon to discharge the civil duties of a 
secular prince ; he was constantly involved 
in feuds, and obliged to conduct warlike 
operations. Albertus held the office which had 
been literally forced upon him for three 
years, and then resigning it into the hands of 
Urban IV., retired again to his cell at Co- 
logne, where he continued to teach and com- 
pose books till within three yean of his 
death. 

The archbishop of Cologne %nd the 
bishops of Strassburg and Basel requested 
him at times to discharge the episcopal func- 
tions within their dioceses, and hence the 
flrequent mention of churches consecrated 
and ordination bestowed by lum during the 
latter part of his Ufe. An expression in his 
system of theolo^ (•* Summa Theologise**) 
has led some to mfer that he was present at 
the second council of Lyon in 1274 ; but the 
phrase implies no more than that the book 
was composed after that conndL In 1277, 
however, affection for the memory of a 
ikvourite scholar drew the old man from his 
retirement A report having reached Co- 
logne that the orthodoxy of the writings of 
Thomas Aquinas had been called in question 
at Paris, he expressed a wish to go there to 
defend them. His friends represented in 
vain the fatigue of the journey and his own 
age and infinnities. Taking with him Ugo 
of Luca, and some other friars, he travelled 
to Paris, convoked a meeting of the univer- 
sity, and announced publicly that he Was 
there for the purpose of maintaining that the 
writing of Aquinas were replete with piety 
and wisdom. 

This was the last flash. His contemporary 
Tholonueus de Luca informs us that about 
three years before the death of Albertus, his 
memory entirely deserted him. The decay 
of his physical powen was slow and gentle, 
and his time was passed in exercises of 
devotion. He died on the 14th November, 
1280. 

A collection of the works generally attri- 
buted to Albertus was published at Lvon in 
1651, in twenty-one folio volumes, edited by 
Pierre Jammy, a Dominican monk, under the 
control and supervision of three successive 
masten of the order. No great critical judg- 
ment is displayed either m the selection of 
the works or &e revision of the text, but no 
editions of the separate works are much 
better. There has been absolutely nothing 



ALBERTUa 



ALBERTUa 



done towards ascertainiiig satufSuitorily what 
works attribated to Albertus are genuine, and 
obtaining an uncormpted text. Even a satis- 
factory catalogue of the existing editions and 
manuscripts is a desideratum. The best is 
contained in Echard*s " Scriptores Ordinis 
Pr»dicatorum," which work contains also 
the only judicious biography of Albertus yet 
published. The followmg remarks upon 
the writings of Albertus rder to them in the 
form in which they appear in the edition of 
Jammy. 

There is great difficult]^ in classifjiring 
the works of Albertus, so as to obtam a 
correct estimate. of his system, owing to his 
having been more a man of great erudition 
than a comprehensive and coherent thinker. 
He had read more than he had thoroughly 
digested j his mind in some measure broke 
down beneath the extent and variety of his 
learning. He had a taste for information of 
every kind ; but the multiplicity of inquiries 
into which this universalitv prompted him to 
enter, rendered it impossible for hmi to retain 
them except by the mere formal memory. 
When any branch of science was mentioned, 
his tenacious memory recalled what the au- 
thors he had read delivered concerning it, 
their arrangement, and manner of dividing 
the subject He had acuteness enough to 
detect any self-contradiction into which an 
author might fidl in discussing any one 
science ; but not to detect the incompatibility 
of the theory of a metaphysician with the 
theory of a mathematician. Hence there is 
no coherence, no pervading principle in his 
writings on theology, morals, or metaphysics, 
Each treatise has a formal completeness in 
itself; but neither throws light upon the 
others, nor receives it from them. They are 
for the most part mere repetitions of what he 
has learned from others ; at the utmost, where 
the original work was fra^entary, he has 
endeavoured to patch it up m the same style. 
To compensate in part this essential de- 
fect, he had a vigilant and sharp eye to 
the phenomena of external nature, and a 
singidar talent for clear exposition. His 
style and manner are too formal ; the lo- 
gical framework is pedantically ostentatious ; 
but what he knows himself he make^ clear to 
others. 

Albertus held that there were three essential 
branches of the philosophy of existences — 
the sciences of physics, metaphysics, and ma- 
thematics. The objects of these inquiries he 
conceived to exist independent of the act or 
will of man. The science of morals (ethics) 
he distinguished from them as relating to our 
own acts, not to the acts of nature ; and poli- 
tics he treated as a supplementary depart- 
ment of morals. Logic he defined to be the 
method of all sciences, but capable of being 
expounded as a science. He added to these 
another science, Uieology ; that is. Christian 
theology, or the theology of the chnrch ; for 
696 



metaphysics, which he treats of as a science 
independent of this, he likewise caUa 
theology. 

Albertus' logical treatises are contained in 
the first volume of his collected works. They 
consist of — one book on predicables and one 
on the ten predicaments ; one on the six 
principal predicaments or forms of thought ; 
four books on abstract reasoning, vis. two 
on the prior analytics, treating of the inven- 
tion of the syllogism, and two on the pos- 
terior analytics, treating of the application of 
the syllogism or demonstration ; eight books 
of topics, or the application of abstract rea- 
soning to practical questions ; and two books 
on fiEiUacies or sophisms. In all these trea- 
tises except one, Albertus professes to adhere 
implicitly to the writings of the Peripatetics, 
especially Aristotle. La great part of them, 
however, he appears to have known Aristotle 
only at second hand ; the Arabian philoso- 
phers are his principal authorities. It does 
not clearly appear whether he was conversant 
with their writings in the original. The 
exception alluded to is the work entitled 
**Sex Principia,'* which is merely a sup- 
plement to that on predicaments, and is no- 
thing more than an abstract of a work by 
Gilbert Pometanus. Viewed as a system of 
logic, these treatises have no great value, but 
an acquaintance with them is necessary to the 
thorough understanding of the other works 
of their author. 

Albertus' system of physics is expounded 
in the eight books on physics, four books 
on the world and heaven, two books on 
generation and corruption, four books on 
meteors, five on minerals (these are con- 
tained in the second volume of his collected 
works), one book on the nature of places, 
seven books on vegetables and plants (in the 
fifth volume), twentv-six books on animals 
(which occupy the sixth volume). By phy- 
sics Albertus means the knowledge of sub- 
stances as opposed to metaphysics or the 
doctrine of abstract ideas on the one hand, 
and to mathematics, or the doctrine of ab- 
stract forms, on the other. It includes the 
natural history and experimental science of 
modem inquirers. It appears to have been 
Albertus' fiivourite pursmt, and is perhaps that 
in which he appears to most advantage. In 
the treatise upon physics and some of the 
others he professes, as usual, to follow Ari- 
stotle, but adds, that he has inserted " digres- 
sions " for the purpose of clearing up diffi- 
culties, and supplying omissions ; and these 
digressions are among the most interesting 
and instructive parts of the works. The 
extensive reading and observation of Albertus 
are not more wonderftd than his sobriety of 
judgment and the bold inferences by which 
he at times comes close upon the discoveries 
of modem science. In support of this as- 
sertion it is only necessary to refer to what 
he says on the subject of local climates, on 



ALBERTUa 



ALBERTUS. 



the colours of the donds, on the rainbow, and 
on the generation of metals. He denies, on 
the strength of experiments which he had 
tried upon the substance produced by some 
alchemists and called gold, the possibility 
of transmuting metals.* Li his digression 
apon gardening he writes with the enthu- 
siasm of an amateur, and displays an intimate 
acquaintance with the experiments of grafting 
and inoculating. His twenty-four books on 
animals evince no contemptible proficiency in 
oomparative anatomy. 

Tliere is a treatise ** De Anima** (On the 
Soul) in three books, in the third Tolume of 
Jammy's edition, which its author appears 
from the preface to hare considered as form- 
ing a subordinate part of his system of phy- 
sics, as a preliminary inquiry necessary to be 
instituted before he proceeds firom treating 
of stones and minerals to discuss animated 
bodies. ** Granted," he says, " that the soul, 
its acts and passions, are not a moveable sub- 
stance, which is the sul)ject of natural philo- 
sopher or physics, yet the soul is an essential 
principle of some such bodies, and therefore 
fUls within the scope of natural science.** 
This is a very valuable treatise, especially 
that part of it which relates to the origin of 
our knowledge, and to the physiology of the 
senses. 

The thirteen books of metaphysioa (Jammy, 
vol. iii.) are perhaps the most eloquent of all 
Albertus' writings. It is a theory of the 
sciences (Wisaenschafts-lehre), quite in the 
sense in which that term is used by Fichte. 
Its object is to demonstrate the origin of 
scient^c knowledge, the limits of the know- 
able and the unknowable. The dignity of 
the sulject seems to have inspired the author 
to a flight above his wonted powers. He 
declares, indeed, at the close, that he has ad- 
vanced nothing but what is to be found in 
the writings of the Peripatetics. This appears, 
however, to have been said solely for the 
purpose of averting imputations of innova- 
tion. The work, more than any other he 
has compiled, is his own ; although in it, 
perhaps more than any other, the mantie of 
the old philosophy seems to have finllen upon 

In the introduction to his treatise on phy- 
sics, Albertus declares it to be his intention 
** to render intelligible to the Latins the 
three essential parts of philosophy — physics, 
metaphysics, mathematics. First, by the 
grace of God, we will complete natural 
science, then we will treat of the whole of 
mathematics, and finish our work with divine 
science (metaphysics)." It is uncertain whe- 
ther this be meant to imply that he, any 

• Hiit alone would be enoagh to render the treatise 
"* De AlchymU/* published by JiuniDy among the 
Mlioellanea In hit twentv-flrit yolume, tusptcious; 
but iu whole tenor is unlike Albertui. There is an af- 
fectetion of concealing an esoteric meaning under its 
more apparent doctrines totally alien to his good sense 
and sincerity. 
TOL. L 



more than the other ** Latins,** understood 
Greek or Arabic It is not impossible that 
he may have understood them, but there is no 
positive evidence that he did. His acquaintance 
with Hebrew appears to have been confined to 
a knowledge of the alphabet Valleoletanus 
mentions that he had seen compendiums of 
arithmetic, music, geometry, perspective, and 
astronomy composed by Albertus. Burghamius 
asserts that he wrote commentaries upon 
the arithmetic and music of Boethius, the 
geometry of Euclid, the Almagest of Ptolemy, 
and the perspective of Alacenis or Alcionis. 
ApparenUy both authors speak of the same 
works. We have seen none of them, nor 
are we aware that they have ever been 
printed. It is evident, however, from the 
physical treatise of Albertus, that he had some 
knowledge of mathematics, and that he was 
acquainted with the Syntaxis of Ptolemy. 

What have been called the Ethics of Al- 
bertus are merely a translation of the ten 
books of the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotie, 
with a preface divided into five chapters. 
Albertus also composed a marginal commen- 
tary on the politics of the same philosopher. 
These two works constitute the fourth volume 
of the collected works. 

The " Summa Theologise,** which fills the 
seventeenth and eighteenth volumes of 
Jammy*s edition is a systematic exposition of 
the Christian system. In the exordium the 
author undertakes to demonstrate that theo- 
logy is a science, by which he appears to 
have meant that dogmatic theology was sus- 
ceptible of being treated in a scientific form. 
The work is a specimen of the vigorous 
formal exactness which has been mentioned 
above as characteristic of Albertus. It is dry 
and repulsive in the extreme, but very clear. 
Keeping in view the object of tibe author to 
furnish clergymen witii the necessarv in- 
fbrmation for the defence and propagation of 
their creed, it must be regarded, on account 
of its exhaustive character and excellent 
arrangement, a masterly work. 

It would exceed the limits of a work of 
this kind to proceed with a similarly minute 
account of the minor works of Albertus, and of 
his commentaries on the Psalms, several of 
the prophets, the evangelists, and the writings 
attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite. But 
the contents of Jammy*s twelfth volume must 
not be passed unnoticed. It contains a num- 
ber of sermons and prayers adapted to the 
gospel for every Sunday in the year. The 
author mentions that the sermons were com- 

Cd at the request of some friends ; that he 
avoided intricate questions and all show 
of learning, aiming at the instruction of tiie 
unlettered laitv ; and that any clergyman, 
disposed to make use of them, might preach 
the whole or part of one at a time as seemed 
most expedient The discourses are short, 
neat, and practical The prayers breathe a 
spirit of fervid devotion. When the reader 

2Z 



ALBERTUa 



ALBERTUS. 



reflects that Albertus was one of the main 
ornaments of ** the order of preachers," in 
the first flush of its young enthusiasm, that 
he appears firom contemporary writers to 
haye first obtained reputation as a popular 
preacher, and that he was on two occasions 
employed to ** preach the cross," the proprie^ 
of not passing unnoticed this part of his 
works will be apparent 

All that we kiiow of Albertus as an author 
or as a man 'is calculated to inspire us with 
respect for him. If his writm^ do not 
CTince the subtle intellect of hm scholar 
Thomas Aquinas, or the oomprehensiye ge- 
nius of his master Aristotle, they evince an 
enthusiastic love of knowledge, an extra- 
ordinary power of persevering labour, and a 
pure and elevated disposition. Though fre- 
quently called to take part in public business, 
both civil and ecclesiastical, he was free from 
ambition : his cloister cell was his figtvourite 
abode; adding to his store of knowled^, and 
communicating it to others his fiivounte oc- 
cupation. Tet such was his reputation for 
integrity that laymen selected him as umpire 
in duputes with dignitaries of the church who 
were his personal friends, and popes consulted 
him even when the interests of his order might 
have been supposed to bias his opinion. A 
noble spirit of disinterested love and gene- 
rosi^ is evinced by his disregarding the in- 
firmities of age in his anxiety to defend the 
posthumous honour of a scholar, whose re- 
putation had almost eclipsed his own. When, 
m addition to these qualities, his influence in 
promoting the progress of knowledge in Eu- 
rope is taken into account, his being the first 
to present the students of the middle ages 
with an encyclopeedia of knowledge, it is 
easy to enter into the feelings of those who 
bestowed upon him the name of '* Great ** 
There are not many among those to whom 
that abused epithet has been applied, who 
have so well deserved it (Jacobus Echard, 
Scrwiores Ordinu Pradtcatamm^ Lutetits 
Parisiorum, 1719-21, fol. I 162—183. ; 
BecUi Albaa Magni, Eatisbonensig EpUcopi 
Ordmis Picedicatorumy Opera qua hactenus 
hafnteri potuerunt Sub Revmis. PP. FF. 
Thoma Turco, Nicholao Rudolphio, Joanne 
Baptista de Marinis, ^usdem ordinis ma- 
gistris generalibus, in lucem edita studio et 
labore R. A. P. F. Petri Jammy, ejus- 
dem ordinis, Lugduni, 1651, fol ; Rud. 
de Novimagio, Legenda LUeralis AH>erti 
Magniy Colonise, U90, 4to. ; R Gauslinus, 
^tup9is Vita Alberti Magni, Venetiis, 1630, 
8vo. ; Bnlieus, HUtoria UniversUatis Parisien- 
m$y 1665 — 1673, foL ; Thomas Cantipra- 
tensis, Miraetdorum et Exemplorum memora" 
InUym eui Temporis Libri duo^ Duacum, 
1605, 8vo.) W.W. 

ALBERTUS METENSIS, a monk of the 
order of St Benedict in the monastery of 
Sl S^phorien at Metz, lived about the be- 
ginning of the eleventli century. Eocard 
698 



has published some of the writings of this 
Benedictine in his ** Corpus Historicum Medii 
iEvi,'* under the title ** A Treatise on the 
Changes of Time." It consists in reality of 
two or rather three separate pieces. The 
first (De Diversitate Temporum) is addressed 
to Burchardt, bishop of Worms (996 — 1025X 
and contains, in two books, a narrative of the 
feuds and intrigues of the nobles and prelates 
on the Meuse and Lower Rhine, and the in- 
cursions of the Normans, from 1002 to 1018. 
The second is a kind of appendix to this 
work, containing the profession of fiuth of a 
priest who had embraced the Jewish re- 
ligion, along with a confutation of it by 
Albertus. The third is a history of the times 
of Otho in. (973—983^, in which a dispro- 
portionate space is assigned to the account 
of that emperor's adventures after his defeat 
by the united Greeks and Saracens in Apulia. 
The narrative seems intended to illustrate 
the wisdom and sanctity of Dietrich, at that 
time bishop of Metz, and is addressed by 
Albertus to Constantine, abbot of St Sym- 
phorien (died 1024), with a request that he 
would correct any errors in it One of these 
narratives being dedicated to Burchardt and 
the other to Constantine, they must of ne- 
cessity have been composed the one previous 
to 1025, the other previous to 1024. The 
narrative in the former reads like the story 
of an eye-witness, and this leads to the in* 
ference that the author was an adult about 
the commencement of the eleventh century. 
Beyond this nothing is known of him. 
Possevin attributes to him a Chronicle from 
the beginning of the world to 1038. Fa- 
bricius remarks that it has never been 
printed, and Adelung questions whether it 
ever existed The title "De Diversitate 
Temporum" appears rather ambitious for the 
brief work published by Eocard; and the 
letter fhym Burchardt prefixed to it has the 
appearance of referring to a larger work. 
Probably what Eccard has published is only 
a fragment of the work referred to by 
Possevin. Albertus' s^le, though not rising 
above the average of his age, is sufficiently 
clear and picturesque. His book throws 
considerable light on the state of society in 
the Netherlands in his time. (Calmet, Bib- 
liotheque Lorraine; Fabricius, BibUotkeea 
Latina media et infima JEtatie; Addung, 
Supplement to JochePs AUgemeines GekhrteH- 
Lexicon; Eccard, Corpus Historicum Medii 
JEviy voL i. c. 91—131.) W. W. 

ALBERTUS DE SAXO'NIA. A ma- 
nuscript copy of his commentary on the 
Alfonsine tables, preserved in the Dominican 
library at Bologna, purports to have been 
written by his own hand in the year 1331. 
George Lockhart, a master of arts of the 
universitj of Paris, calls him, in 1516, "one 
not destitute of natural acuteness or ac- 
quired reputation, who flourished in the 
university of Paris about two hundred years 



ALBERTUS. 



ALBERTUS, 



ago.*' Echard, after examining the rivalry 
of the I>ominican friars and the canons of 
St. Aogustine to chiim hhn for their re- 
spective orders, comes to the conclnsion that 
he was a layman. Echard enomerates the 
following works attributed to Albertns de 
Saxonia : — 1. '* Aiberti de Saxonia Commen- 
tarios in posteriora Aristotelis." 2. ** Sophis- 
mata Aiberti de Saxonia.** 3. ** Super octo 
Libros Physioomm." 4. ** Aiberti de Sax- 
onia super de Ccelo et Hundo Libri Sex. " 5. 
'^ Super Libros de Generatione et Corrup- 
tione. Aiberti de Saxonia de Anima; m 
parva Naturalia; super Libros X. Ethicorum." 
All these topics have been handled by Al- 
bertns Magnus in treatises contained in the 
printedooUectionof his works. The follow- 
mff works of Albertus de Saxonia, one of 
which has been printed, must be interesting 
as calculated to throw light on the history 
of mathematical science during the middle 
ages; — 1. ** Commentarium super Tabnlas 
Alphonsi Regis ad Judicia Astronomis.*' In 
1719 a MS. copy of this treatise existed in 
the Dominican library at Bologna ; it benn, 
*'Tempus est mensura motus." 2. ^'Ex- 
cellentissimi Magistri Aiberti de Saxonia 
Tractatus Proportionum cum aliis pnecipue 
Augustini NiphL Venetiis, USe," folio. Al- 
bertus' treatise on proportions fills three sheets 
of this book, and begins *'Proportio com- 
muniter accepta," &c An abridgment of 
this traet has been published with the title 
** De Veloeitate Motuum F. Aiberti de Sax- 
onia Ordinis Pradicatomm ; Opus redactum 
in epitomen a F. Isidore de Isolanis Me- 
diolanensi Ordinis Predicatorum. Lugduni, 
1580, 4to. pp. 14." (Echard, Seripiores Ordi- 
num Pradkalontm,) W. W. 

ALBERTUS SIGEBERGENSIS, a Be- 
nedictine of the monastery of Sigeberg in 
the diocese of Cologne. He lived about the 
year 1540. He compiled a history of the 
popes from Gregory IX. to Nicholas v., which 
is cited by Oudin. He also compiled a his- 
tory of the Roman emperors from Augustus 
to Frederic V. Both works were extant in 
MS. in the imperial library at Vienna in 
1784. (Adelunff, Suppkmeni io Jocher's 
AUoememu GMrkn^Lexicon ; Fabricius, 
BMiotheca Latina medue et injbmx MiatU,') 

W. W. 

ALBERTUS STADENSIS, abbot of the 
mofnastery of St Mar^, at Stade, and reputed 
author of the Chronicle which goes by his 
name. The time and country 6t his birth 
are unknown. Some writers make him an 
Italian, and in support of this opinion the 
Italianised form of many German proper 
names in the Chronicle has been adduced. 
The earliest event in his life that is known 
with certunty is his election, in 1232, to be 
abbot of the Benedictine monastery in the 
suburbs of Stade, in which he is said to have 
pieviously been prior. He held this office 
till 1240, but his reign was a stormy one 
699 



In 1236, disgusted with the lax observance 
of the rule of St. Benedict which continued to 

Erevail in the monastery, notwithstanding all 
is efforts to enforce it strictly, Albertus visited 
Rome, and obtained ft^m Gregory XI. letters 
charging the chapter of Bremen to enforce 
the adoption of the Cistercian reform by the 
Benedictine monks of Stade. The abbot 
continued for three years to solicit, in the 
archiepiscopal court of Bremen, the exe- 
cution of tiie papal decree, but in vain. Va. 
1240, tired of the protracted contest, he re- 
signed his office; and having received the 
sanction of the pope, he joined himself to 
the order of Minorite Friars. Olearius states 
that he was some years afterwards made 
I general of the order. Albertus is said to hare 
been alive in 1260. The belief that he is 
the author of the Chronicle attributed to him 
rests upon an uncontradicted tradition ; and 
the temper in which the controversy between 
the reforming abbot and his refractory monks 
is there narrated renders the tradition ex- 
tremely probable. The Chronicle bears at 
the outset to have been compiled in the year 
1240, but includes events which happened in 
1256. In narrating the events of the year 
1202, mention is made of 1240 as the Tear 
of writing ; but when mention is made of the 
invention of the paschal cycle by Dionysius, 
abbot in Rome in 532, the author urs, ** in 
the present year" — that is, 1256. The most 
useftil part of this work is that which relates 
to the history of the north of Germany during 
the period which intervenes between the dose 
of the history of Adam of Bremen (1072) 
and 1256. It is uncritical and partial, but 
evidently written by a person resident in 
that country. It contains several episodes 
calculated to throw light upon the prevailing 
opinions and state of science in the age in 
which it was composed. At p. 57 a. ((^ the 
edition published at Hehnstadt by Reineccius 
in 1587) is a pretty correct statement of the 
use of cycles in reckoning time, and the prin- 
ciples upon which they are constructed. At 
178 a. are some arithmetical puzzles; ex- 
amples of the kind of arithmetical formnlsB 
a German abbot of the thirteenth century 
was proud to be master of. At p. 183 a. are 
various itineraries to Rome and Palestine; 
and at p. 168. a scheme of the nativity of the 
Emperor Frederic II. The itineraries are 
wound up with remarks upon the moral in- 
fluence of pilgrimages, not very much unlike 
those made hj Erasmus some centuries later. 
The best edition of Albertus' Chronicle is that 
which we have quoted above; although it is 
said by those who have examined the MS. 
now or formerly preserved at Helmstadt to 
be dis^gured by some important errors ; and 
the best account of the author*s life is that 
compiled fttmi the work itself by Tobias 
Eckhard, which Mazzuchelli and other later 
writers have implicitly followed. The addi- 
tional circumstances mentioned by various 
z z 2 



ALBERTUS. 



ALBL 



eedesiiistical writers are scarcely sapported by 
saffioient eridenoe. (^Chronicon A&ertit Ab- 
batis SiadeiuUf a condito Orbe usque ad Auc- 
toris JEtatem id est Annum Jesu Chrisii 1256 
deductum, et nunc primum evulgaimiij Helmse- 
stadii, 1586, 4to.; Vita Alberti Stadensu Ah- 
batis Chronici AuctoriSf qua summam ex ipso 
concinnata, Auctore Tobia Eckhardo, Gob- 
lari», 1726, 4to.) W. W. 

ALBERTUS TREVESA'NUS,amonk of 
the abbey of St Matthias at Treves. That 
monastery was distinguished in the ninth 
and tenth centories for a succession of able 
teachers, of whom Albertns was one. He 
socceeded Diethelm in the office of scholastic 
in 932, and continued in the direction of the 
schools for twenty-four years and three 
months. He surriyed till 980. He composed 
respectably both in prose and verse, com- 
piled instructions for young ecclesiastics who 
wished to prosecute liberal studies, and added 
to the chronicle entitled "Gesta Treve- 
rorum** the events of his own time. (Calmet, 
Bibliotheque Lorraine,) W. W. 

ALBERTUS, Count of Titsculum. [ Al- 
Bsaicns 1.1 

ALBERUS, ERASMUS. [Alber,] 
ALBERY, GEORGE. [Aulbery.] 
ALBET. [Zio, Alberto.] 
ALBE YD AH Wr. [IsmVi'l.] 
ALBI, HENRI, was bom in the year 
1590, at Bolene, a town of Provence, in the 
Comte Venaissin. He entered a Jesuits' 
college at the age of sixteen, and after com- 
pleting his education he taught philosophy 
five years, scholastic theology for the same 
period, and moral theology two years more. 
He was afterwards elevated to several digni- 
ties of the order, becoming rector successively 
of the colleges of Avignon, Aries, Grenoble, 
and Lyon. He died at Aries on the 6th of 
October, 1 659. Albi*s published works are — 
1. "La Vie de S. Gabin, Martyr." Lyon, 1624, 
12mo. 2. " La Vie de la Mdre Marie-Jeanne 
de Jesus, Fondatrice des Religieuses Au- 
gustines." Paris, 1640, 12mo. 3. "La Vie 
de la Sceur Catherine Vanini, converse de 
Sienne." Lyon, 1665, 12mo. 4. "Eloges 
Historiques des Cardinaux Francois et Etran- 
gers mis en Paralldle." Paris, 1644, 4to. 
This is Albi's principal work, but it does 
not bear a high character for research. Ac- 
cording to Le liong it was reprinted with 
the title "Histoire des Cardinaux illustres 
qui out ete employes dans les Afiaires d*Estat, 
par le Sieur Du Verdier;" but this is pro- 
bably a mistake. 5. " L'Anti-Theophile 
paroissial ;" an answer to a work said to be 
translated from the Latin of a Capuchin of 
Flandeni, called " Le Theophile paroissial," 
the design of which, according to Benoist 
Puys, the translator, was to reprove "the 
liberty of some preachers, meml^rs of a re- 
gular company, who had allowed themselves 
to declaim publicly against the parochial 
In this re^y Albi not only strongly 
700 



defended the preachers in question, of whom 
he was one, but also seized the opportunity 
to indulge in a personal attack on his oppo- 
nent His work was anonymous, a fact not 
forgotten in Puys' reply, which was soon 
followed by an " Apologie pour TAnti- 
Theophile paroissial,'* in which Albi en- 
endeavoured to mask this weak point, with- 
out exposure to himself, by placing in the 
title-page the name of "Paul de Cabiae, 
Prdtre Regulier." This production was the 
last of the series. The whole appeared at 
Lyon in 1649 ; and in the year following the 
controversialists made up their differences, a 
formal document testifying to that effect 
being drawn up, dated 25th of September, 
1650, and witnessed by the principal autho- 
rities of Lyon. Baillet, who teUa us that 
the dispute throughout had excited the 
greatest attention in that city, does not in- 
form us whether Albi appeared on this oc- 
casion in his own name, and acknowledged 
his anonymous publications. He took no 
further part in controversy, the Hst of his 
works being completed by three books of 
devotion ; 7. " L' Art d'aimer Dieu." Lyon, 
1634, 24mo.; Paris, 1636, 12mo. 8. "Da 
Renouvellement d'&prit" Lyon, 1651, 4ta 
9. "De la Conception immaculee de la 
Vierge." Grenoble, 1654, 4to. ; and by, 10. 
" Grammaire Fran9aise.'' Lyon, 1657, 8vo. 
{BibUotheca Seriptorum Societatis Jesu, Opms 
inchoatum a Ribadeneira, recognitum a Sot- 
vello, p. 322. ; Niceron, M^moires pour servir 
a VHistoire des Hommes illustres, xxxiiL 403.; 
Le Long, Bibliotheque Historique de la France, 
i. 533. iii. 151, &c. ; Baillet, Jugemens des 
Savans sur les principaux Ouvrages des 
AuteurSf vii. 244, et seq.) J. W. 

ALBICA'NTE, GIOVA'NNI AL- 
BE'RTO, a Milanese poet of some celebrity 
in his time, who lived in the middle of the 
sixteenth century. He received the laurel 
crown fh>m the hands of the Duke of Milan, 
and is praised by Doni for his "ingegno 
ammirablle," who also speaks of him as a 
poet, " di fertilissimo ingegno." He was fond 
of satire, and his temper was extremely 
violent : to this latter circumstance, probably, 
may be attributed the various literary dis- 
putes in which he was involved with many 
writers, particularly Pietro Aretino and 
Doni. Indeed so remarkable was he for his 
sarcastic turn, that to threaten any one with 
the pen of Albicante became a comm<m 
mode of intimidation. Mazzuchelli has given 
a very full account of the controversy with 
Aretino (to whose envy Albicante declares 
himself to be indebted for much of the cele- 
brity he ei^oyed), and refers to a very rare 
work entitled " Abbattimento Poetico del 
divino Aretino e del bestiale Albicante oc- 
corso sopra la Guerra di Piemonte,** &c. 
This work, however, is nothing more than a 
poetical account of the quarrel, written by 
AreUno himself, who commenced the attack 



AI^BICANTE, 



ALBICUS. 



by hig "Capitolo," which is a most severe 
critique upon the **Guerra di Piemonte," 
in acknowledgment of a present of the poem 
Arom its author. His principal pieces are — 
1. " Al gran Marchese del Guasto : Notomia 
d'Amore del famoso Albicante iUribondo. 
Bressa, 1538/' 8vo. 8. "• Historia deUa 
Guerre del Piemonte. Milano, 1538," 4to. 
3. " Trattato del* intrar in MUano di Carlo 
V. con le proprie Figure de li Archi, &e. 
Mediolani, 1541," 4to. 4. *'Selva di Planto 
sopre la Morte dell' illustrissimo Sig. Don 
Antonio d'Aragona. Milano, 1543," 4ta 5. 
"Lettera al CNoni con un Sonetto sopre il 
Duca Cosmo, con la risposta del Don! in 
lode del detto Sonetto e dell' altre sue 
Opere. Roma, 1547," 4to. 6. '* Intrada in 
Milano di D. Filippod' Austria Rd di Spagna. 
Venezia, 1549," 4to. 7. ** II sacro e divino 
Sposalizio del gran Philippo d' Austria e della 
sacre Maria d'Inghilterra, con I'Unione ed 
Obbedienza data alia Cattolica Fede. Milano, 
1 555," 4to. 8. " Le gloriose Gesta di Carlo V. 
Roma, 1567," 8yo. In addition to these 
he wrote many sonneCs and other minor 
pieces, which are not worth particularising. 
It has been conjectured that Albicante maj 
have edited the editions of Bemi's Rifaci- 
mento of the Orlando Innamorato, pub- 
lished in 1541 and 1542, fh>m the circum- 
stance of sonnets by him being prefixed to 
them ; but there does not appear to be any 
means of verifying this supposition. The 
tame of his deaUi is not known. His poems 
have been by several writers attributed to 
GiuUo Cesare Albicante, a monk, but the 
circumstance of the latter not being bom 
until 1545 settles at once the question of his 
claim to all excepting the " Gesta di 
Carlo v.," which was published in 1567, 
when Giulio was twenty-two years of age ; 
but as the author, who merely calls himself 
Albicante, states that it was written eight 
years before, when Giulio Cesare was only 
fourteen years of age, there is little ground 
for supposing that he had any greater share 
in the authorship of this piece than in that 
of the other poems. (Argellati, Bibliotheca 
Scrtptorum MedioUmenaivm, i. 17. ii. 1934. ; 
Mazzuchelli, Scrittori (f ItaUa ; Quadrio, 
Delia Storia d'ogni Poena, iv. 139 — 143.) " 

J. W. J. 

ALBICASTRO (properly Weissenburg), 
HEINRICH, a dillettante composer and 
performer on the violin, was bom in Switzer- 
land, and lived in the beginning of the 
eighteenth century. He was an officer in the 
allied army during the war of the Spanish 
succession. After the conclusion of the 
war he printed, at Amsterdam, nine sets of 
sonatas for the violin, which (published 
without his name) are said in the title- 
pages to be composed by D. B. W. Cavaliere. 
(Walther, MusicalisckM Lexicon,) E. T. 

ALBICUS, SIGISMUNDUS, Albik, Al- 
bicius, or Albericns, who is commonly called 
701 



Albicos of Prague, was bom at Unczow or 
Mahrisch Neustadt in Morevia. While 
young he went to the university of Prague, 
where he gave his chief attention to the 
study of medicine, in which he gained great 
reputation, and which he afterwards taught 
at Prague for nearly thirty years. He also 
studied both civil and canon law, and to 
perfect himself in the knowledge of them 
went for some time to Italy, where, in 1404, 
he received at Padua the diploma of doctor 
of laws. In 1409 Wenceslaus IV., king of 
Bohemia, to whom he had for many yeare 
been physician, appointed him archbishop of 
Prague against the consent of the canons. 
But he held this office for only a short time ; 
and in 1413 exchanged it for the priory of 
Wissehrad, with which the pope allowed 
him to bear the title of archbishop of 
Csesarea. The reasons of his retirement 
from the see of Prague are uncertain. By 
some it is ascribed to his having been un- 
willing or unable to resist the progress of 
the doctrines of Huss, whose followers he 
treated with so much lenity that the Roman 
Catholic writers of the time accused him of 
being their partisan. By othera he is said 
to have resigned because he was too penurious 
to endure the expense of holding so im- 
portant and public a post; and this seems 
of the two explanations the more probable, 
from the circumstances that Conrad, the for- 
mer prior of Wissehrad, with whom he ex- 
changed offices, gave him with the priory a 
good sum of money, and that the Hussites 
Siought him so little their friend that after 
his death they destroyed his tomb. After 
his retirement fh)m Prague he lived for a 
long time in seclusion at Wissehrad; but 
as Sie disturbances occasioned by the Huss- 
ites increased, he went first to Morevia, and 
then into Hungary, where he died in 1427. 
He is admitted by contemporaries of all par- 
ties to have been a very learned man. Long 
after his death three medical essays by him 
were published together, wi^ the titles 
'• Praxis medendi. Regimen Sanitatis, Regi- 
men Pestilentice," 4to. Leipzig, 1484 and 
1 487. He wrote also a treatise, " De Quercu," 
which has not been published. (Ignatius de 
Bom, Effigies Virorum eruditorum attpte Arti- 
ficum Bohemia et Moravia.') J. P. 

ALBIGNAC, LOUIS ALEXANDRE, 
BARON D', was bom at Arrigas in Gascony 
in 1 739, of a family which was allied to the 
ancient barons of Arre. He entered the army 
at the age of sixteen, and was at the siege 
of the castle of St Philip in Minorca m 
1756, when that fortress was surrendered 
by General Blakeney to the Due de Riche- 
lieu. Albignac afterwards held a military 
command m Coreica till the year 1772, 
when he proceeded to India. He was with 
the French garrisons on the coast of Coro- 
mandel in 1778, when the English govempr 
Hastings, foreseeing the outbreak c? a fresh 
z z 3 



ALBIGNAC. 



ALBIGNAC. 



war between the French and Engliah, re- 
solved to strike the first blow, and sent Sir 
Hector Monro to attack Pondichernr before 
hostilities were formally declared, Albignac 
commanded the garrison of Pondicherry 
nnder General Bellecombe. With a small 
force he made a protracted defence, and the 
pkice capitulated on hononrable terms. He 
served with distinction in the succeeding 
campaigns, which were signalised by the 
irruption of Hyder Ali, the ally <^ the 
French, into the Camatic, and terminated by 
the fall of the French dominion in India. 
After the peace of 1783 Albignac returned 
to France. Upon the outbreak of the revo- 
lution, he commanded the troops of the line 
in the department of Gard, and in 1791 
received the thanks of the Constituent As- 
sembly. He commanded the force which 
wrested Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin 
from the pope, and annexed them to the 
republic. He joined the army of the Alps 
under Kellermann, and afterwards Mssed 
(1793) to the army of the Rhine which was 
commanded by Custines. Under the Direc- 
tory he commanded the tenth division. In 
1798 he retired, after forty-six years* service, 
and died at Vigan, near the place of his birth, 
in 1820. (Biog. Unw, Supp.) H. G. 

ALBIGNAC, PHILfr FRANCOIS 
MAURICE, was bom at Milhaud, in the 
Rouergue, in 1775. He was of the same 
fomily as Louis Alexandre, but belonged to a 
different branch. He was brought up a 
page at the court of Louis XVI., and after 
the revolution he followed the emigrant 
princes to Coblenz, and entered the Aus- 
trian service. When the revolution of De- 
cember 1799, commonly called the 18th 
Brumaire, raised Bonaparte to supreme 
power, Albignac returned to France with 
many other French nobles, and he entered the 
imperial guard under Laval-Montmorency. 
In 1808 he entered the service of Jerome 
Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, and com- 
manded the van of the tenth division of the 
German army. At this time he pursued 
Schill through the north of (Germany with- 
out success, but took the town of Domiz. 
He afterwards quarrelled with Jerome, and 
returning to France, received a staff appoint- 
ment under marshal Gouvion-St Cyr, who 
commanded the sixth division of the grand 
army with which Bonaparte invaded Russia. 
He was adjutant to St Cyr at Uie action 
near Polotsk, Oct 1812, where St Cyr re- 
pulsed the Russian general Wittgenstein. 
When Bonaparte landed from Elba, Albignac 
adhered to the Bourbons, and the Duke of 
Angouleme being imprisoned at Pont St 
Esjprit, he found means to open a communi- 
cation with him. He received full powers 
from the duke, and among other services he 
went on a mission to Louis XVIIL, then at 
Ghent He returned to France with Louis 
after the battle of Waterloo, and became for 
702 



a short time secretary at war under the second 
restoration. He then obtained the place of 
ffovemor of the military school at St (^. 
In 1822 he retired fkx>m the service, and died 
in 1824. (Biog. Univ, Supp,') H. G. 

ALBIN, or ALWYN, bishop of Brechin, 
was bom about the beginning of the thir- 
teenth century, and was elected to the 
bishopric of Brechin in Scotland in the year 
1243. He was witness to a charter of Wil- 
liam de Brechin, given at the foundation 
of an hospital in Hbst city, called the Maison 
Dieu, which William erected for the health 
of the souls of William and Alexander III., 
kings of Scotland, John earl of Huntingdon 
his brother, Henry his father, and Juliana 
his mother. In the year 1260 Albin was 
appointed an umpire in a controversy be- 
tween Archibald, bishop of Moray, and some 
of the canons of that see. During his epis- 
copate, Othobon, the pope's legate a latere, 
came into England and held a national sjmod. 
He sommoned the Scottish prelates to appear 
before him by their commissioners, and to 
bring with them a contribution of four merka 
for every parish, and six merka fbr every 
cathedral church. Albin was one of the 
bishops who appealed to the king against this 
extortion, and who, on their advice, prohibited 
the clergy fh)m paying this assessment He 
sent the bishop of Dimkeld, then chancellor 
of the kingdom, partly to declare his reeaona 
for refusing the legate's demand and partly 
to observe his proceedings. On hia return, 
he brought with him some synodical acts or 
constitutions which had been agreed on for 
the church and realm of England, and which 
Othobon was desirous of imposing on the 
Church of Scotland. A Ibin, with the other pre- 
lates, met, and after deliberation they rgected 
Othobon's constitutions, declaring '''that they 
would acknowledge no statutes but such as 
proceeded either from the pope or firom a 
general council." Albin was bishop of Brechin 
twenty-six years, and died in the year 1269, 
at an advanced age. (Keith's Cat of Scottish 
Bishops; Spottiswood*s History,) T. S. 

ALBIN, ELEAZAR, an English artist 
who lived in London in the early and the 
middle part of the eighteenth century. He 
painted in water colours, and is known only 
for his illustrated works on natural history, 
of which he published several ; as natural 
histories of insects, birds, spiders, &c, with 
coloured phites from drawings from the life 
by himself ; some of the plates were also 
en^javed by him, A ** Natural History of 
Spiders," published in I^ndon in 179.3, by 
Mr. T. Martyn, who possessed some of 
Albin's original drawings, is partly a repub- 
lication of a work by Albin, of whom Mr. 
Martyn says in his preface, ''His inform- 
ation in general is loose, miscellaneous, 
and unmethodical, though sometimes it is 
amusing, and often instractive ; but he prin- 
cipally excels in the fidelity and correctness 



ALBIN. 



ALBIN. 



with which his sul^ecto are delineated, both 
as to their size and distinctiTe marks." 

Albin, according to his own account, in his 
" History of English Insects," published in 
1749, was a teacher of drawing and painting 
in water colours ; and was led more espe- 
cially to the stady of objects of natural 
history, through the widow of Dr. How the 
physician, for whom he made many drawings 
of insects. He was afterwards much em- 
ployed by Sir Hans Sloane, and also by 
Mary Capell, Duchess Dowager of Beaufort, 
upon drawings of the same description. In 
1731 he published a costly work, in Latin, 
upon English insects, under the following 
title : — " Insectorum An^lise Naturalis His- 
toria : illustrata Iconibus m Centum Tabulis 
nneis elegantur ad Virum expressis, et istis, 
qui id poscnnt, accurate etiam ooloratis ab 
Antiiore, Eleaxare Albin, Pictore. His ac- 
oedunt Annotationes ampls, et Observationes 
plurimsB insignes, a Guil. Derham, R.8. 
Socio habits," 4to. London. In 1749 he 
published it in English with the same plates, 
dedicated to the Princess of Wales : '* A 
Natural History of English Insects, illus- 
trated with a hundred copper-plates curiously 
engrsTen from the life, and exactly coloured 
by the author, Eleazar Albin, painter," &c 
The plates are dated 1713 and 1714, and hare 
each a special dedication to some distin- 
guished personage ; they are engraved by 
iLTerasson, Vander Gucht, Albin himself, 
and some others. He published also in 
1731, «« A Natural History of Birds, iUus- 
trated with two hundred and fire copper- 
plates, engraven from the Ufe, and exactly 
coloured by the Author ; to which are added 
notes and observations by W. Derham, with 
indexes," 3 vols. 4ta I^ondon. In 1737, 
** A Natural History of English Song Birds, 
and such of the foreign as are usually brought 
over and esteemed for their singing, &c. ; 
to which are added figures of the cock, hen, 
and egg of each species, exactly copied from 
nature, by Eleazar Albin," 12mo. London : 
of this little book the author published a 
second edition in 1759 ; and a third was 
published at Edinburgh in 1776. 

The dates of Albin's birth and death are 
unknown. He is not mentioned by Walpole 
in the '* Anecdotes of Painting in England," 
nor is any account of him given in any of 
the biographical dictionaries. From what 
has been stated above, however, he appears 
to have been actively employed in his pro- 
fession fh>m 1713 and earlier until 1759. 
He most probably published several other 
works besides those mentioned in this notice. 
Coloured copies of both the Latin and the 
English editions of his Natural History of 
English Insects are in the collection of Sir 
Joseph Banks in the British Museum. 

II.N.W. 

ALBIN, HENRY, one of the clergy who 
were ^ected in consequence of the Act of 
703 



Unifbrmity, was bom at Batcomb, June 20. 
1624, educated at a school at Glastonbury, 
and at the university of Oxford, and ejected 
for nonconformity, first from the living of 
West Cammel in 1660, and afterwards from 
that of Duniet, in Somersetshire, in 1662. He 
spent the rest of his life at his native place, 
preaching occasionally in private houses, 
there and at Spargrove, Frome Selwood, 
Shepton Mallet, Brewton, and Wincanton. 
He died on the 25th of September, 1696, in 
his seventy-third year, leavmg behind him a 
high character for piety, prudence, industry, 
and learning. He wrote — 1. " A Practical 
Discourse on loving the World, on 1 John, ii. 
15." 2. « The Dying Pastor's last FareweU 
to his Friends in Frome Selwood, &c., 1697, 
8vo." (Palmer's Nonconformists Memorial^ 
u. 360.) P. 8. 

ALBI'NA, GIUSEPPE, called Sozzo, a 
painter, sculptor, and architect of Palermo, 
the scholar of Giuseppe Spatafbra. He ex- 
ecuted two statues, one of St Sebastian 
and one of St Rock, placed on each side of 
one of the gates of Palermo, by which he 
acquired considerable reputation. He ex- 
ecuted also other works, in his different 
capacities, for the viceroy Marcantonio 
Colonna, and various men of rank in 
Palermo. Besides the notice of him in the 
**Elogi" of Antonio Yeneziano, Albina is 
mentioned by Francesco Baroni and Man- 
fred!, in their work entitled " De Panor- 
mitana Miuestate," iii. 2., which is inserted in 
voL xiii. of the " Thesaurus Antiquitatum et 
Historiarum Itaiise, Neapolis, Sicilise, &c." of 
Greevius ; the work contains Albina's por- 
trait (copied and printed in a collection of 
twenty portraits of celebrated men, published 
by Pieter Vander Aa, at Leyden), and the 
following Latin epigram : — 

*' Extinctam Plctura suum deploret alummim, 
Funereaqiie obe«it noblle vette caput. 
PneilcA Pictorii mce«t» Plctura ilt urnc, 
Et repetat queralo carmine Soisiu obit.*' 

He died at Palermo in 1611, and left a son, 
Pietro Albina, who promised to have far 
surpassed his father as an artist, but he died 
still young in 1626. (Heineken, Viction- 
naire des Artistes^ ^c, ; Fiorillo, Geschickte 
der Mahlerey, vol ii.) R. N. W. 

ALBI'NEUS, NATHAN, was a physician 
in the seventeenth century, who published a 
work on Chemistry at Geneva, in 1 653, en- 
titled ^ Bibliotheca chemica contracta," 8vo. 
This volume consisted of three distinct works : 
the first of these works was introductory, and 
consisted of an alchemistical poem by J. A. 
Angurellius, called ** Chrysopceise," to which 
were added two shorter poems, one entitled 
" Vellus aureum," by the same author, and 
the other ** Carmen aureum," by Albineus 
himself. The second work consisted of a 
treatise on the uses of mercury and sulphur, 
and was entitled ** Cosmopolitie novum Lumen 
chemionm, duoboft constans Tractatibus de 
ZZ 4 



ALBINEUS. 



ALBINI. 



Mercorio scilicet et de Salpbure." The third 
consisted of a series of dogmata in physical 
science under the title ** AjQonymi Galli En- 
chiridion Physicse restituts et arcanom her- 
meticsB philosophise Opus." No further notice 
seems to exist of this author than the fiict of 
his having published the above work. E. L. 

ALBINI, ALESSANDRO, a distin- 
guished Bolognese painter of the school of 
the Carracci, bom at Bologna in 1568. There 
are several pictures by him in the churches 
and other biuldings of Bologna and its vicinity. 
He also assisted the Carracci in some of their 
numerous works. Albini painted for the 
funeral pomp in honour of Agostino Carracci, 
celebrated in Bologna in 1602, a very spirited 
picture of Prometheus descending from hea- 
ven with the fire stolen from the chariot of 
the sun, in order to animate his statue of 
Pandora. To the picture was attached the 
following motto, — " Sunt conmiercia ccelL" 
He executed also an excellent picture of St 
Benedict raising the dead for the convent of 
San Michele in Bosco, near Bologna, which 
was considered one of the best paintings of 
the Bolognese schooL The picture has since 
perished, but there is an etching of it by 
J. M. GiovanninL Albini died in 1646.) 
Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice ; Crespi, Vite de 
Pittori Bolognesi, ^c. ; Giordani, Pinacoieca 
diBohgna.) R. N. W. 

ALBINI, FRANZ JOSEPH, son of Cas- 
par Anton Albini, chancery-director of the 
landgrave of Hesse, was bom at St Goar on 
the Rhine in 1748. Franz Joseph was sent 
to prosecute his legal studies at Pont-i- 
Mousson, Dillengen, and Wiirzburg. He 
took the degree of doctor of laws in the last- 
mentioned university ; in what year his 
biographers do not mention. About the year 
1768 he was busy endeavouring to acquire 
an acquaintance with legal practice, under 
the immediate direction of ms father, who 
had by this time been appointed assessor to 
the imperial court (reichs-kammer-gericht) 
at Wetzlar. The years 1769 and 1770 were 
spent by Franz Joseph at Vienna, where he 
attended the supreme court (reichs-hof-rath) 
to increase his practical knowledge. 

His political career conunenced while he 
was yet only two and twenty, by his receiv- 
ing the appointment of councillor of state 
(Hof-und Regierungsrath) to the Prince- 
bishop of Wiirzburg. In 1 7 74 he was elected 
assessor to the court at Wetzlar, and thus be- 
canae his father's colleague. The manner in 
which he discharged the duties of this office 
for thirteen years procured for him through- 
out Germany the reputation of an able and 
industrious lawyer; and to this character 
it was principally owing that Friedrich 
Karl, elector of Mayence and chancellor of 
the empire, appointed him, in 1787, private 
secretary to the chancery at Vienna. This 
office brought Albini into direct intercourse 
with the Emperor Joseph IL, who conceived, 
704 



in addition to a high opinion of his talent^ 
a warm personal affection for him. Albini 
managed the Latin department of the chan- 
cery ror a few months ; was then placed at 
the head of the German department, and had 
the charge of both during 1788. The empe- 
ror was at this period intent upon a prqject 
for giving a more national character and 
better organisation to the government of the 
empire. Albini was employed in this busi- 
ness, and to that end despatched in 1769 on 
a special mission to several of the German 
courts. In 1790 Joseph II., when attacked 
by the illness which proved fiital to him, re- 
called Albini to couit, but the emperor was 
dead before he arrived. 

Albini discharged the duties of his office 
in the chancery at the election and coronsdon 
of Leopold IIL, but resigned immediately 
after the solemnity, and accepted an appoint- 
ment in the court of the Elector of Mayence. 
That court had for some time been equally 
distrusted by the parties of Prussia and Aus- 
tria. The elector, an amiable but imbecile 
old man, was entirely guided by his favour- 
ites, and changed them frequently. The 
credit of the electoral court both in financial 
and political respects had sunk to the lowest 
ebb, when in 1790 Albini was placed at the 
head of its domestic and foreign affairs. It 
was immediately felt that a powerful will 
had assumed the direction of public business; 
and when in 1792, on the death of von Seck- 
endor^ Albini took the charge of finance 
minister also into his own hands, the paper 
issued by the Mayence government imme- 
diately rose in value above that of any other 
German state. Albini had a definite plan in 
view, and he worked with order and punc- 
tuality. His last business every evening was 
to make a note of what had been done during 
the day, and what was to be done on the 
morrow. " By this means,*' he was wont 
to say, **were I to die during the night, 
business would not be at a stand for a 
single moment*' 

Upon the sudden death of Leopold IL in 
1792, Albini acted as delegate fi>r Mayence 
at the election of Francis II. He decided the 
irresolute elector to dismiss Villars the 
French envoy at his court ; and was present 
at the interview of the emperor and the Eling 
of Pmssia in the palace of Mayence. From 
this time till the death of the elector in July, 
1802, Albini was the real ruler; his prince 
left everything to his management During 
the occupation of Mayence by the French in 
1792, Albini retired with the elector to 
Aschaffenburg ; but no sooner was the town 
retaken by the Prussians in 1793, than the 
minister re-entered it His first care was to 
place the troops of the electorate on a more 
respectable footing, and in this he succeeded 
so well that from 1794 to 1797 they were as 
efficient as any body of men in the German 
army. 



ALfilNI. 



ALBINL 



Albmi attended the congress at Rastadt in 
1797 as representative of £e Elector of May- 
ence, and for seventeen months he acted as 
president of its deliberations. If moral cou* 
rage and fertility in resources could have 
availed, his counsels would have prepon- 
derated, but the armed force in the Iwck- 
ground turned the scale. The negotiations 
proved fruitless, and the war broke out again, 
embittered by the indignation excited in 
France by the murder of the French envoys. 
Albini, who while the congress was sitting 
had been the boldest and most uncompro- 
mising asserter of German interests, was 
loudest in his denunciation of this violation 
of the law of nations. He prepared instruc- 
tions for an investigation into Uie transaction 
which could scarcely have fiuled to elicit the 
truth had it been allowed to proceed. 

The civilian's services were now in less 
request, and Albini turned to discharge the 
military duties of a ruler. By his indefati- 
gable activity the whole adult male popu- 
lation ^f the electorate (the Landsturm) was 
brought under arms ; and on the first of Sep- 
tember, 1799, he took the field at their head 
with the rank of master-general of the ord- 
nance. It is sufficient evidence of the talent 
he displayed in this new vocation that the 
Archduke Charles repeatedly placed Austrian 
brigades under his command. In the spring 
of 1800 the greater part of the Mayence 
contingent was ordered to join the Austrian 
army: Albini was left with a weak detach- 
ment. In this condition Angereau sent him 
warning that hostilities were about to be re- 
newed. The moment the truce was at an 
end, Albini fell upon an advanced division 
of the enemy, beat it out of the field, and got 
possession of the military treasure (kriegs- 
kasse) of the Dutch troops, and effected his 
retreat without loss. He Uien took up a posi- 
tion on the flank of Augereau, and harassed 
him in his advance in a way that was bit- 
terly complained of by the French ^neral in 
his reports to the Directory. A distinguished 
French general was detached against him ; 
but Albini with his wes^ force made good 
his position till the suspension of arms which 
preceded the peace of Luneville. 

The ratification of the arrangements by 
which the then reigning Elector of Mayence 
was declared to be the last, had not taken 
place in July, 1802, when the Elector Frie- 
drich Karl died. Carl Theodor von Dalberg 
had been elected coadjutor and successor of 
the Elector of Mayence in 1787 ; but|» af- 
fairs stood, it was doubtful whether his claims 
would be recognised. Albini acted with cha- 
racteristic decision and promptitude. The 
moment the elector was dead, he despatched a 
courier to the coadjutor ; mounted on horse- 
back and administered the oath of allegiance 
to the troops, which had not been disbanded ; 
retnmed to the palace and received the ad- 
hesion of the civil officials ; and then threw 
705 



himself into a carriage to proceed to Ratis- 
bon. On the road he was met by the new 
elector, who had with equal promptitude re- 
paired to that city and made the necessary 
arrangements. All parties were thus taken 
by surprise, and the succession of Carl Theo- 
dor remained unchallenged. 

Amid all the changes of title and territory 
which fell to the lot of Carl Theodor during 
his unhappy reign, from 1802 to 1813, Albini 
was his prime minister and most confidential 
adviser. But both were involved in the vor- 
tex of Napoleon's stormy activity, and directed 
more by his will than their own. The bur- 
densome and thankless toil of the minister 
during this period was to alleviate as much as 
possible to the subjects the pressure of events 
over which he had no control In 1802 he 
was busy securing indemnities for the civil 
servants grown grey in office, who were 
thrown idle without any means of support. 
In 1803 he was of essential service in his 
master's territories, by protecting them fW)m 
the licentiousness of the soldierv on their 
marches and countermarches. When Von 
Dalberg was created by Napoleon Flirst 
Primas of the Confederation of the Rhine, 
Frankfurt assigned him as a capital, and 
orders given to organise the new state in the 
French ikshion, the legal experience of Albini 
was of essential service in adapting the new 
forms to the existing state of society. The 
year 1813, which put an end to the grand 
duchy of Frankftirt, also put an end to Albini's 
ministerial career. 

From 1813 to 1815 he continued in a state 
of inactivity, undermining his health by the 
fretfU impatience with which he endured 
his constramed and unwonted idleness. To- 
wards the close of 1815 the Emperor Francis 
appointed him his ambassador to the diet 
d the Germanic Confederation. He repaired 
immediately to Frankfurt, but his strength 
was exhausted. Aware of approaching de^, 
he retired to his property at Dieburg, where 
he died on the 8th of January, 1816. 

Albini was decidedly hostile to revolu- 
tionary principles, and struggled against 
them both in the cabinet and the field. But 
he was an honourable opponent, and this was 
acknowledged by the partisans of the re- 
volution, even in the heat of the contest In 
politics he belonged, like many of his most 
distinguished countrymen of his age, to the 
school of Burke. Something of professional 
pedantry he carried into his diplomatic 
career ; but though tenaciously attentive 
to forms, he valued them as contributing 
to the despatch of business. He was just 
and benevolent, and possessed in a lugh 
degree both civil and military courage. Ifis 
manner to strangers was dnr and reserved. 
His greatest weakness was his propensity to 
dwell with undue complacency in conversa- 
tion on the importance of his own actions. He 
married in 1775, and was survived by his 



ALBINI. 



ALBINI. 



widow, a son, and two daughters. (Zeitge- 
nossen, Dritten Bandea zweite AhtheUvnQy 
Leipsig, 1818, 8vo.) W. W. 

ALBINI, WILLIAM DE, was the son 
of a Norman baron who accompanied William 
the Conqaeror in his invasion of England, 
and was rewarded with the lordship of 
Buckenham, in Norfolk, and the office of 
kine's butler. Little is known of the younger 
Albmi previous to his marriage with Adelais, 
queen dowager of Henry L, who possessed the 
castle of Arundel and other extensive estates 
in Sussex m dower fh>m the king. De Albini 
is said to have advised the descent of Queen 
Matilda on England ; but, though he Joined 
in receiving her at Arundel, and fortifying 
the castle against Stephen, he took no part in 
the contest after her departure for Bristol 
[Adelais]. When Matilda's son Henry 
renewed the contest in 1 153, De Albini joined 
King Stephen, with whom he had then long 
been friendly. The rival armies came in 
sight of each other at Wallingford ; but be- 
fore joining in battle, a trifling accident oc- 
curred, of which the Earl of Arundel took 
advantage to settle die matter in dispute 
without bloodshed. Stephen's horse became 
restive, and threw his master thrice ; and 
this causing some hesitation among his sol- 
diers, who considered it as a bad omen, the 
Earl of Arundel stepped forward, and in an 
elo<]^uent harangue set before the king the evils 
of civil war with such effect that a truce was 
at once concluded, and before the end of 
the year the treaty of peace was ratified, hj 
which Stephen agreed tnat the crown on his 
death should come to Henry. On the ac- 
cession of Henry, in 1 154, one of his first acts 
was to confer on De Albini and his heirs for 
ever the possessions he had acquired by his 
marriage, together with the earldom of Sus- 
sex, the livery of the third penny from the 
pleas of the county, and other honours and 
emoluments. In 1164, on the flight of 
Thomas & Becket from England, the Earl of 
Arundel was sent, with the Archbishop of 
York and others, on ' a mission to the pope. 
It is remarkable that on this occasion, while 
the bishops displayed the utmost violence in 
their language, the lay Earl of Arundel was 
extremely moderate in speech. His address 
to the pontiff, as given at length m Gervase, 
though it sets out with bespeaking indulgence 
on the g^und of the earFs illiteracy — that is 
to say, his ignorance of Latin — gives ample 
proo^ before the close, that no allowance was 
needed on the score of want of eloquence. Un- 
fortunately, the earl's conciliatory views did not 
meet the approval of the bishops ; the pope's 
proposals for an accommodation were rejected, 
and the mission returned unsuccessful. In 
1173 the earl of Arundel distinguished him- 
self in the war in Normandy caused by the 
rebellious sons of Henry, and in the same 
year, in conjunction with the justiciary and 
the high constable, De Lucy and De Bohun, 
706 



he defeated the Earl of Leicester and a body 
of Flemings in the pay of the King of France, 
who had landed at Dunwich, taken Norwich, 
and threatened to overrun the country. At 
this battle, which took place at Fomham, in 
Suffolk, both the earl and countess of Leicester 
were taken, with ail the knights in their 
train ; and, according to some historians, no 
less than t«a thousand Flemings were left 
dead on the field. This was De Albini'a 
last important service. After founding the 
abbey of Buckenham, and joining in many 
religious benefactions, he died at Waveriej, 
hi Surrey, on the 12th of October, 1176, and 
was buried at Wymondham Abbey, in Nor« 
folk, which had been founded by his fiither. 
He was succeeded by William, hzs eldest son, 
besides whom he had three sons and three 
daughters by Queen Adelais. 

Much controversy has taken place on the 
question, whether De Albini became earl of 
Arundel solely by his marriage with Adelaia, 
by which he became possessed in her right of 
the castle, and, according to most wrilfcrs, of 
the earldom, or whether he was raised to the 
dignity in his own person, either by Matilda, 
as asserted by some historians, or by Stephen. 
Much light is thrown on the point, so &r as 
it can be at this distance of time, by the re- 
port of the lords* committee on the dignity 
of a peer, which was drawn up by the late 
Lord Redesdale. That report is opposed to 
the opinion that the earldom of Arundel was 
originally conveyed by the possession of the 
castle, though a solemn decision of parlia- 
ment to that effect was given in 1438, since 
which period it has been held that the castle 
carried with it the earldom. The opposite 
view to that of Lord Redesdale is sup- 
ported at great length in Tiemey*s ** History 
of ArundeL" (Gervase, in Decern Scriptores^ 
1373. 1395. Brompton, in ibid. 1086. 1089. ; 
Duffdale, Baronage, L 118. ; Annates Wa- 
verleienseSf in Gale, Historia Anglicana Scrip' 
tore*, ii. 161. ; Beport of the Lcrds* CommiUee 
on the Dignify of a Peer, p. 408, &c ; Tiemey, 
History of Arundel, p. 1 17. 169, &c) J. W. 

ALJBI'NIUS, LUCIUS, a Roman plebeian, 
who, when the rest of the citizens, after the root 
on the Alia in d. c. 390, were flying firam the 
Oauls, conveyed in his own cart, from which 
he had obliged his wife and chUdren to dis- 
mount, the Flamen of Quirinus, and the 
vestal virgins with the sacred things they 
were bearing away, in safety, to Ceere. (Livy, 
V. 40. ; Valerius Maximus, i. 1. 10.) 

ALBI'NIUS, LUCIUS PATERCULUSJ 
one of the original tribunes of the commons 
on the first institution of the tribunate as a 
national magistracy in b. c. 492. The name 
is sometimes, but less correctly, written Albi- 
nos. (Livy, ii. 33. ; Asconius, m Cicenmis 
Comelianam, p. 76. voL ix. of Oiellius' Cicero.) 

W. B. D 

ALBINO, GIOVANNI (in Latin Al- 



ALBINO. 



ALBINO. 



bums, Joannes), a Neapolitan statesman atad 
bistorian, who lived in the latter part of the 
fifteenth century, is stated by the Italian bio* 
graphers to have been of the town of Castel* 
luccia, in the diocese of Capaccio^ which is in 
the province of Prinoipato Citra. He stndied 
under Pontano and Panormitano (Beccadelli); 
and it appears from published documents 
that he became abbot and oommendator of 
the abbey of & Pietro del Piemonte di Ca- 
serta, and librarian to AUbnso II., duke of 
Calabria, the son and eventually the successor 
of Ferdinand L in the throne of Naples. 
Some authorities also call Albino abbot of 
S. Agnolo at Fasanella. He stood high in 
the &voar and confidence both of King Fer- 
dinand and Duke Alfonso, the latter of 
whom styles him his counsellor, and appears 
to have relied greatly upon his advice both 
in civil and military affairs. In February 
1495, after Alfonso, who had become king 
the preceding year, had abdicated in fkvour 
of his son Ferdmand, Charles VIIL of France 
entered and took possession of Naples ; upon 
which Albino, as one of the chief adherents of 
the expelled Araoonese house, was declared 
a rebel and deprived of all he possessed by 
order of the French king's lieutenant and 
vicar-general, the Comte de Montpensier; 
but when the French were driven out a few 
months after, it mav be presumed that Albino 
returned along with Ferdinand IL and reco- 
vered his property. The date of his death is 
not recorded ; but we hear nothing of him 
after the ^ear 1496. He is the author of a 
work relatmg to the transactions of his own 
time and country, in many of which he was 
personally concerned, entitled, in the original 
edition printed in 4ta at Naples in 1589, 
** Joannis Albini Lucani de Gestis Regum 
Neapo. ab Arragonia, qui extant libri qua- 
tuor." As it has been preserved, the work, 
which was published by the author's grand- 
nephew Ottavio Albino, consists only of the 
first, second, and fifth books, which are oc- 
cupied with military operations carried on by 
Alfonso while he was duke of CaUbria ; 
and the sixth, the subject of which is the 
contest with the French under his son Ferdi- 
nand ; but a good deal of information with 
regard to the events of the intermediate space, 
of which Albino's narrative is lost, is con- 
tained in a collection of instructions, patents, 
and letters, mostly addressed to him by the 
members of the Aragonese royal fiunily, which 
is appended to the history. The volume, 
which is of great rarity, consists of 446 pages ; 
of which the history, in Latin, fills 154 ; the 
appendix of documents, some in Latin, some 
in Italian, 286 ; and a Latin oration delivered 
by Albino at the coronation of his friend 
Alfonso (styled Alfonso IL), which im- 
mediately follows the history, the remaining 
six. The Abbe Lenglet du Fresnoy, who 
in his *< Methode pour ^tudier I'Histoire " 
(iiL 861.) describes this work as extremely 
707 



rare, and yet very curious, and adds that 
it is still more rare to find added to it the 
letters of the same author, had probably 
never seen the appendix of letters, which are 
not written by Albino, but addressed to him. 
Mazzuchelli savs that the volume was re- 
printed at Naples in 1594. Both the his- 
tory and the letters are reprinted in the fifth 
volume of the *' Raecolta di tntti i pidi rino- 
mati Scrittori dell' Istoria Generale del Regno 
di Napoli," 4to. Napoli, 1769 ; and the same 
impression was also published in a separate 
volume. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori (f Italia, 
who refers to Taftiri, Sloria degli Scritt nati 
nel Regno di NapoU, iiL 373., and to Yolpi, 
Chronohgia de* Veacooi Pettaat, &c 192 — 
194.) 

The Joannes Albinus whose Latin poems 
are contained in the first part of the ** De- 
licis Poetarum Germanorum hvgus supe- 
riorisque »vi illustriuni, 12ma Francof* (p. 
183—370.), and who is erroneously entered 
in the new catalogue of the British Museum 
Librarv as the same person with the Neapo- 
litan historian, was a Saxon, and appears to 
have lived at least half a century later than 
Giovanni Albino. Among his poems is one 
of some length, in hexameters, on the anni- 
versary of the battle of Sieverhausen, which 
was fought between Albert, margrave of 
Brandenburg, and Maurice of Saxony, in 
1553. Another is an historical poem entitled 
" De Mutationibus Regnorum, deque Quatnor 
in Mundo Monarchiarnm Serie ; " a third is 
devotional, " De Veteri et Nova Pentecoste, 
deque prscipnis Fiiii Dei . . Beneficiis ; ** the 
rest are Nuptialia, Funebria, Epigrammata, 
&c G. L. C. 

ALBINO^NI, TOMMASO, a diUgent 
composer of operas, an agreeable singer, and 
a skilftil performer on the violin, was bom at 
Venice. The period of his birth and that of 
his death can only be inferred ftnom the 
commencement and conclusion of his public 
career. He wrote more than fifty operas be- 
tween the years 1694 and 1741, but such of 
these compositions as survive indicate rather 
a readiness of writing than any bright or ori- 
ginal thought In instrumental composition 
he was more successftil, perhaps because 
he wrote less. (Gerber, Lexicon der Tvn" 
kSnetler.^ £. T 

ALBINOVA'NUS, CAIUS PEDO, a 
Roman poet, a friend and contemporary of 
Ovid, who addressed to him the tenth letter 
of the fourth book of his *'EpistoUe ex 
Ponto." Respecting his life nothing is 
known. He appears to have tried his t^ent 
at various kinds of poetry, and we have 
reason for believing that he wrote an epic 
poem on the exploits of Germanicus, and that 
the twenty-three verses preserved in Seneca, 
which are known under the title " De Na- 
vigatione Germaniei per Oceanum Septen- 
trionalem," are a ISragment of this epic poem. 
These verses describe the voyage of Ger- 



ALBINOVANUa 



ALBINUa 



manicns through the Amisia (Ems) into the 
Northern Ocean, which took place in ▲. d. 
16. AlbinovanuB is said to have excelled 
in epic poetry, and he is also said to have 
written epigrams, bat none are extant 

There are three Liatin elegies which Jo- 
seph Soaliger, and many others after him, 
have ascriML to Albinoyanus. The titles of 
these elegies are — 1. ** Consolatio adLiviam 
Aiignstam de Morte Drosi." 2. *' De obita 
Msecenatis ; '' and, 3. ** De Maecenate mori- 
bundo." The first of them is ascribed to 
Ovid in several ancient MSS., and also by 
several modem scholars, such as Passerat, 
Casp. Barth, and others. The poem is well 
written, and is indeed not unworthy of the 
age of Augustus ; but there is not the 
slightest evidence to render it probable that it 
is the work of Aibinovanus. As regards the 
two other elegies, which Jos. Scaliger likewise 
attributes to Albinovanus, without however 
finding many followers, they are altogether 
unworthy of the Augustan age, no less than 
of the character of Albinovanus's style, which 
Quinctilian calls " sidereum," on account of 
its sublimity. The hmguage is indeed pure 
Latin, but the whole manner of treating the 
subjects betrays a writer of a much later age. 
(Seneca, SueuoriOj 1. ; Tacitus, AnnaL ii. 
23. ; Martial, v. 5. ; Quinctilian, x. I. vi. 8. ; 
Seneca, Epist, 122. ; Wemsdorf, Poeta Im" 
tint Minores, iv. p. 34, &c. 229, &c ; Bur- 
mann, Anthohgia Latina, ii. 121.) 

The fragment of Albinovanus on the voy- 
age of Germanicus is printed in Burmann's 
" Anthologia Latina," ii. 121, &c., and in 
Wemsdorf 's " Poets Latini Minores," iv. The 
elesies are also printed in Burmann's ** Antho- 
logia Latina," ii. 1 19, &c ; and in Wemsdorf 's 
** Poetse Latini Minorca," iiL 1 55, &c. The first 
edition of all that is ascribed to Albinovanus 
was by Theodoras Corallus, Amsterdam,! 703, 
8vo., which contains the notes of Jos. Scaliger, 
Lindenbrog, and D. Heinsius. It was reprinted 
at Amsterdam in 1 7 1 5, and again at Nilmberg 
in 1771, but without the notes. The most 
recent edition is that of J. H. F. Meineke, 
which contains the text and a German trans- 
lation in verse, Quedlinburg, 1819, 8vo. 

L. S. 

ALB FN US, a Roman procurator of Ju- 
dsea in the reign of Nero (perhaps a. d. 
63, 64, and the early part of 65). He was 
appointed to the government of the pro- 
vince on the death of Portius Festus. His 
government is described by Josephus as a 
tissue of abuses of every kind ; he plun- 
dered the unfortunate provincials covertly 
and openly ; oppressed them with heavy 
taxes; took bribes from their relatives to 
release such as had been imprisoned by 
the local authorities, or by former pro- 
curators, on a charge of robbery ; and coui 
ceded, for a similar consideration, oppor- 
tunities of creating disturbance to the more 
wealthy and seditious Jews, while those of 
708 



({uieter disposition were plundered with im- 
punity. He did, indeed, at the beginning of 
his administration, exercise some severity 
against the Sicarii or assassins, of whom he 
wished to clear the country; and when he 
heard that Floras was coming to succeed him^ 
he made some severe examples of the more 
atrocious criminals then in custody. The 
wickedness of his administration was how- 
ever thrown into the shade by the greater 
atrocities of his successor, Gessius Floras, 
who goaded the Jews to the revolt which 
issued in their ruin. Tacitus has mentioned 
a Luceius Albinus, procurator of Manretania, 
who was slain in the civil war between Otho 
and Vitellius (▲.!). 69). Possibly he may 
have been the same person as the procurator 
of Judsa. (Josephus, Jewish Antiq. book xx. 
c 10.; War, bookii. c 14. ; Tacitus, HisL 
lib. ii. c 58, 59.) J. C. 1^1. 

ALBrNlTS C Axioms), a contemporary of 
Galen, who consequently was living in the 
latter part of the second century a.d. He 
wrote an introduction to the Dialogues of 
Plato (JEhrayuyii tls rohs UXdrwifos Aia\6yovs\ 
which was printed by Fabricius in his Bib- 
liotheca (1st ed.), and a^n by Fischer in 
the third edition of Four Dialogues of Plato, 
Leipzig, 1783, 8vo. 

The authorities which speak of Albinns 
have been collected by Fabricius. {Biblioth, 
Grae. iiL 158.) 

This Albinus Platonicus has sometimes 
been confounded with a Latin writer of the 
same name, who is mentioned by Boethius 
and Cassiodoras. He wrote on geometry, 
on the Dialectical works of Aristotle, and on 
music Cassiodoras (2>e itfustco, c. 5.) says 
that he had the work of Albinus in his library 
at Rome, and had read it: the work was 
brief. (Fabricius, Bibiioth, Grac, iii. 158. 
459.) G. L. 

ALBrNUS, abbot of St Augustin*s, Can- 
terbury, assisted Bede in the writing of his 
^ Ecclesiastical History of the English 
Nation." He was a learned man, having 
acquired a considerable acquaintance with* 
the Greek language and perfect knowledge 
of the Latin, under the instruction of 
Theodore, archbishop, and Adrian, abbot 
of Canterbury, the latter of whom he suc- 
ceeded in 708. Among other portions of 
Bede's history for which he quotes Albinus 
as his authority, are the acts of Pope Gre- 
gory's missionaries and their successors in 
die province of Canterbury and the parts 
adjoining. There is a letter from Bede to 
Albinus in which he thanks him for again 
assisting him in this work. He died in 732. 
(Bede, Historia Eccksiastica GenHs Anglo- 
rum, book V. chap. 20., and the introductory 
letter to King Ceolwulf in the same 
history ; William Thome, Chronicle,) 

A.T. P. 

ALBINUS, BERNARD, was bom' at 
Dessau, where his &ther was consul, in 1653. 



ALBINUS. 



ALBIKUS. 



He wtf desoended fWmi an ancient Fran- 
eonian fiunilj, whose original name, Wein, 
had been altered to Von Weissenlow, by the 
Emperor Ferdinand IIL, when he confirmed 
the title of nobility granted them by his pre- 
decessor Maximilian I. The name of Al- 
binos was first assumed by Peter von Weis- 
senlow, professor of poetry and mathematics, 
at Wittenberg, in whose house the grandfather 
of Bernard took reftige when redaced by 
misfortune to extreme poverty. 

Bernard Albinos received his early ednca- 
tion at home, and at the schools of Dessau 
and Bremen under Henry Alers. On its 
completion he went to Leyden ; and having 
studied medicine and anatomy under Dre- 
lincourt and others, received his doctor's 
diploma in 1676. He visited Paris to study 
surgerv, and after travelling throug^h great 
part of France, returned to Holland in 1680. 
In 1681 he was a]ppointed professor of medi- 
cine in the university of Frankfort on the Oder ; 
and he soon after added to his medical lec- 
tures others on geometry and algebra. At 
this time also he wrote most of his essays, 
and had so high a reputation as a practitioner, 
that he was frequently called to give his 
advice to the German and Polish princes, 
who resided &t fh>m Frankfort; among these, 
Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, 
sent for him to Potsdam, and appointed him 
his physician. He held this office till the 
elector's death in 1688, and then returned to 
his professorship at Fnmkfort In 1694 he 
was offered the chair of medicine at 6ro- 
ningen ; but the new elector, Frederick, re- 
tained his services by adding 600 florins 
a-year to his income, and promising him the 
fint vacant canon's stall in the caUiedral of 
Magdeburg. In 1696 Albinus married ; and 
in 1697, being appointed phvsician to the 
elector, went to Berlin, where he lived in the 
most ihmilar intercourse with his master. In 
1700 he was invited to the prdfessorship of 
anatomy and surgery at Leyden, but the 
elector would not spare him, and offered to 
ennoble him ; an honour which Albinus de- 
clined from the same modesty and love of 
retirement which had hitherto induced him to 
conceal his noble origin. In 1702, anxious 
for domestic quiet and a scientific life, he 
added his own petition to that of the heads 
of the Leyden university, and at length per- 
suaded the king (the Elector of Branden- 
burg had in 1701 assumed the title of king 
of Prussia) to let him accept the offered pro- 
fessorship. For the rest of his life he devoted 
himself to his lectures, of which the reputa- 
tion contributed materially to increase the 
number of students at Leyden. He died in 
1711, leaving eleven children, of whom three 
became professors of medicine. 

Bernard Albinus appears to have been a 
man of singular modesty, prudence, and kind- 
ness of disposition. In whatever situation he 
was placed he obtained the love and respect 
709 



of those around him ; and it was probably 
to these qualities and to his excellence as a 
lecturer, more than to any great talent or 
success in medical science, that he owed the 
reputation which he long and generally en- 
joyed. His works are all brief dissertations 
and orations : their titles are as follow ; and, 
with the exceptions indicated, they were all 
published at Frankfort, in 4to. — 1. ** De Cata- 
lepsi," 1676. 2. " De Adfectibus Animi," 
1681. 3. " De Fonticulis," 1681. 4. " De Ve- 
nenis," 1682. 5. " De Sterilitate," 1683. 6. 
** De Elephantiasi Javie novae," 1683. 7. 
" De AtrOThia," 1684. 8. ** De Mgro Me- 
lancholia Hvpochondriaca laborante," 1684. 
9. ** De Pons Corporis humani," 1685. 10. 
**De Salivatione Mercuriali,*' 1684. 11. 
" De Thea," 1685. 12. « De sacro Freyend- 
waldensium Fonte," 1685. 13. " De Cervo 
Olande plumbea trajecto," 1686. 14. ** De 
Missione Sanguinis," 1686. 15. ** De Can- 
tharidibus," 1687. 16. " De Hydrophobia," 
1687. 17. *" De Paracentesi Thoracis et Ab- 
dominis," 1687. 18. " De Melancholia," 

1687. 19. ** De Phosphor© liquido et solido," 

1 688. 20. ** De Mass® Sanguineie Corpus- 
culis," 1688. 21. " De Somnambulatione," 

1689. 22. ** De Pravitate Sanguinis," 1689 ; 
23. " De Diabete vera," 1689. 24. '* De 
Apoplexia," 1690. 25. '^ De Epilepsia," 

1690. 26, " De Pica," 1690. 27. " De Car- 
dialgia," 1691. 28. "* De Incubo," 1691. 29. 
** De Fame canina," 1691. 30. '* De Taran- 
tismo," 1691. 31. ** De Mania," 1692. 32. 
•* Vomica Puhnonum," 1693. 33. " De Dy- 
senteria," 1693. 34. "*■ De Morbo Hun- 
garico," 1693. 35. ** De Paronychia," 1694. 
36. '* De Febre Quartana," 1694. 37. ** De 
Atherapeusia Morborum," 1694. 38. ** De 
Elephantiasi," 1694. 39. " De Polypis," 
1696. 40. *«De Tabaco," 1695. 41. •* De 
Polypis (Narium)," 1695. 42. ** De Cataracta," 
1695. 43. *'De iBgilope," 1695. 44. "* De 
Partn difficili," 1696. 45. ** De Pleuritide 
vera," 1696. 46. " De Abortu," 1697. 47. 
"De Partu naturali," 1697. 48. " De Ortu 
et Progressu Medicins. Leidse, 1697." 49. 
" Oratio de Incrementis et Statu Artis 
Medics. Leids, 1711." 50. "Oratio in 
Obitum J. J. Ravii. Leids, 1719." There 
is also an essay by him in the " Acta Na- 
ture Curiosorum," Dec u. Ann. rv. Obs. 94. ; 
and his lectures were published with the 
title " CausssB et Signa Morborum, Gedani, 
1792-5." (Boerhaave, Oratio Academica de 
Vita et Obitu Bemhardi AUnni, Lugd. Bat 
1721, 4to. ; Haller, Bibliotheca.) J. P. 

ALBINUS, BERNARD SIEGFRIED, 
the eldest son of Bernard Albinus, was bom 
at Frankfort on the Oder, in 1697. He 
received both his classical and his medi- 
aal education at Leyden, and showed in his 
early years an intellect considerably superior 
to that of his fellow-students. He studied 
medicine in the university under his father 
and the other professors, and received addi- 



ALBINUa 



ALBINUS. 



tional lustniction fhmi Raysch and Rau, in 
whose laboan he frequently shared. In 1718 
he went to Paris to study at the hospitals, 
bat in the following year was recalled to 
Leyden to take the office of reader in ana- 
tomy and surgery. In 1721, on the death of 
his father, he was unanimously elected to the 
professorship of those sciences, and for more 
than twenty years from that time he entirely 
devoted himself to the study and teaching of 
them. In 1745 he was chosen professor of 
then^utics, and he remained in this office 
till his death in 1770. 

Bernard SiegfHed Albinus, though the best 
anatomist of Us time, was not a great dis- 
coverer. The knowledge of many single 
fkcts is due to his investigations ; but he was 
not the author of any important principle in 
anatomy or physiology. His merit consists 
in the accuracy with which he investigated 
all the subjects of his study, the dearaees 
and completeness of his descriptions, and 
the care which he bestowed on the delinea- 
tion of the various structures of the body. 
In all these he was unequalled ; and he thus 
contributed more than any of his predeces- 
sors to render descriptive anatomy an exact 
science. The commencement of that close 
study of anatomy by which it is now neariy 
perfected in its adaptations to surgery may 
be traced in the publication of his works. 
The engravings of the bones and muscles by 
Vandelaar have never been surpassed in 
fidelity, and have rarely been e<^ualled in 
beauty of execution. The^ are said to have 
cost Albinus 30,000 fionns, for the artist 
lived for several years under his roof^ and 
many o( the first engravings were destroyed 
for trivial inaccuracies or defects. 

The works of B. a Albinus are~l. " Oratio 
inaug. de Anatome Comparata, Leid. 1719, 
4to.'' in which he treats of the ovular gene- 
ration of animals as compared with that of 
plants. 2. ** Oratio qua in veram Viam quse 
ad Fabrics Corporis hnmani Cognitionem 
ducit, mquiritur. Leid. 1721, 4to.'' 3. " Index 
suppellectilis Anatomis qnam le^vit J. J. 
Ravins. Leid. 1721, 4to.,^ containing a life 
of Ran, and an account of his method of 
lithotomy described as Albinus had often 
seen him operate. [lUn.] 4. ** De Ossibus 
Corporis humani. Leid. 1 726, 8vo.," a manual 
for students. 5. " Historia Mosculorum Homi- 
nis. LekL 1734, 4to." At the time of its 
publication this was esteemed, and ju^y, the 
most complete work on descriptive anatomy 
that had ever appeared. 6. ** De Arteriis et 
Venis Intestinomm Hominis. Leid. 1737, 
4to. ;" a remarkably accurate description, 
with a plate by L'AdmiraL 7. ** De Sede et 
Caussa Coloris ^thiopum et csterorum 
Hominum. Leid. 1737, 4to." The pigment 
is here described, not as a network, but as a 
continuous membrane, and its seat is more 
accurately explained than it was before. 8. 
" Icones Osshim Fotos Humani. I^eid. 1737, 
710 



4to.'* 9. *' TabulsB So^ti et Musculorum Cor- 
poris humanL Leid. 1747,foLmax." An edi- 
tion of this, Albinus' greatest work, was pub- 
lished at London in 1749, and again in 1769 ; 
and an FiHgHsh one of very inferior merit at 
£dmburghinl777. 1 a'* Tabulae Septem Uteri 
gravidi. Leid. 1748, foL max." An appendix 
to this was published in 1751. 1 1. ** Tabulsa 
Ossium humanorom. Leid. 1 753, foL max." 
12. *< TabuU Vasis chyliferi cum Vena Asygo, 
&c Leid. 1757, foL" 18. ** De Sceleto hn- 
mano, Leid. 1762, 4to.'' 14. *" AnnotatioQea 
Anatomioe," puUished in eight books or parts 
between 1 754 and 1 768. They consist for the 
most part of short essays in anatomy, with se« 
veral well-executed plates : an analyns of their 
contents may be found in Bailer, ** BibUotheea 
Anatomica," t. ii. p. 128., and in Portal, 
** Hist de TAnatomie et de la Chinirgie," 
t iv. p. 553. They contain also Albinus* 
parts of the long co ntr ov e r sy in which he 
angrily engaged with Haller and others 
respecting his claim to the discovery of tibe 
human membrana pupillaris, and some odier 
less important structures. He edited the 
works c^ Harvey and Fabrieias ab Aqu^ien- 
dente at Leyden in 1757,* and, with Boer- 
haave, those of Vesalius in 1725. Twice 
also he edited, with notes, the ** Tabulae Ana- 
tomicae*' of Enstachius. In the ** Ephemerides 
Naturae Curiosorum" there is an aocouBt by 
him of the phaenomena of digestion in a man 
whose ileum had an external oommunioation, 
so that it was possible to ascertain the time 
in which diffi^rent substances passed thiougii 
the ni^>er part of the digestrve canal ; and 
he was the author of several additions to the 
Bibliographia Anatomica of Douglas, pub- 
lished at Leaden in 1744. (CommeiUarii de 
JiebuB in Scientia naturali et Mediema 
geetie, Lipsiae, 1771, t xvii. p. 543.) J. P. 

ALBFNUS, CHRISTIAN BERNARD, 
the second son of Bernard, was profoasor of 
anatomy at Utrecht, where he died in 1752. 
His works are — 1. ** Specimen Anatamieun 
exhibens novam tenuium Hominis Intesti- 
norum structoram. Leid. 1722, 4to., and 
1724, Svo.;" and 2. "De Anatome prodente 
Errores in Medicis, Tnjecti ad Rhenum, 
1723, 4to.'' and 3. "* Diss. de-Igne. Leid. 1725, 
Svo." They are of trivial importance. (Hal- 
ler, BibUa&eccB.) J. P. 

ALBFNUS, CLCDIUS, whose complete 
name, according to his medals, was Deeimus 
Clodlus Ceionius Septimius Albinus, was a 
native of Adrumetum in Africa. His fother's 
name was Ceionius Postumius, and his mo- 
ther was Aurelia Messalina. He derived his 
descent from the Roman Postumii and Ceionii 
Albini ; and he received the appellation of 
Albinus from the whiteness of his body at 
the time of his birth. His youth was spent 
in Africa, where he made only moderate 
progress in Greek and Latin learning. From 
his boyhood he showed a predilection for a 
military life. He entered the army at an 



ALBINUS. 



ALBINUS. 



early age, and became known to the Antonini 
throagh LoUina Serenns, Bfobiua MsBcianua, 
and Ceioniofl Poatomius, with whom he had 
fiunily connectiona. He served as a tribune 
in a body of Dahnatian cavalry, and aocces- 
aively in the fourth and first legions. During 
the rebellion of Avidius Caasiua, in the reign 
of M. AureliuB Antoninus (a. d. 1 75), he kept 
the Bithynian armies fidthfhl to the emperor. 
There is extant a letter of Anrelius in which 
he acknowledges the services of Albinns, and 
declares his intention to the person to whom 
it is addressed, to honour ^binus with the 
consulship, (hi tiie accession of Gommodus 
(a. d. 180), Albinus was removed to a com- 
mand in the Gauls, where he pained g^t 
reputation by defeating the Frisian nations 
beyond the Rhine. Gommodus offered to con- 
fer on him the title of Ceesar and other 
privileges, but Albinus prudently declined 
these honours, either foreseeing that the fall 
of Commodna was near, or fhim knowing 
his jealous disposition. He was in the com- 
mand of the armies in Britain when a ftlse 
report arrived of the death of Gommodus, 
In the harangue which he made to the sol- 
diers on this occasion, he said that the se- 
nate should resume their former power, which 
would be the only means of preventing such 
men as VitelUns, Nero, and Domitian fh>m 
exercising their tyranny : Gommodus, he 
said, would have been a better governor, if 
he had feared the senate. For these reasons, 
he said, he had declined the title of Gasar ; 
he hoped that no one else would take it ; and 
that the senate would hold the supreme 
power and distribute the provinces. The 
close of his speech, if truly reported, shows 
that his profession of regard to the senate 
was more nominal than real : ** Let the 
senate make us consuls ; and why do I say 
the senate? I mean yon yourselves and 
your fitth^rs, for yon will be senators." These 
professions, however, secured the affection of 
the Roman senate, who preferred Albinus to 
all the competitors for the imperial power. 
The report of this harangue reached Gom- 
modus, who immediately sent Junius Severus 
to supersede him ; but Gommodus appears to 
have been assassinated before anything was 
done ; at least there is no evidence that Al- 
binus ever lost the command in the Gauls 
and Britain. 

Albinus is said to have suggested the 
assassination of Pertinax, the successor of 
Gommodus, though this is stated so vaguely 
by Gapitolinus that it is difficult to know 
what he means. Albinus was still in Gaul 
or Britain with his army when Pertinax lost 
his life. On the death of Pertinax (a. d. 193) 
Julianus was named Imperator by the senate 
in Rome, Septimius Severus by the army in 
Illyricum, Pescennius Niger in the East, and 
Glodius Albinus in Gaul. According to an- 
other statement, Severus conferred on Al- 
binus the title of Gcesar in order to keep him 
711 



quiet, and to gain time for his contest with 
Pescennius Niper, his most formidable rival. 
It seems certam that Severus made a show 
of sharing the supreme power with Albinus. 
There is a medal of Albinus extant which 
appears to have been struck on the occasion 
of some compact between them, by which 
Severus associated Albinus with him in the 
empire ; the inscription isGomcobdiae Avoo. 
In the year a. d. 194 Albinus was consul with 
Severus. After the defeat of Niger, Severua, 
wishing to secure the succession to his sons, and 
fearing the fiivonrable disposition of the senate 
towards Albinos, attempted to get rid of him 
by assassination. He sent him a most firiendly 
letter, a copy of which is preserved by Gapi- 
tolinus, in which Severus addresses him by 
the title of Gsesar and brother in the empire. 
The bearers of the letter had instructions to 
assassinate Albinus, but he suspected the 
treachery, and, by putting them to the tor- 
ture, extracted from them a fhll confession. 
It is not stated where Albinus was when he 
received this treacherous message, but he was 
probably in Britain, for it is stated that he 
moved his forces from Britain to Ghiul on 
hearing that Severus, finding his trrachery 
discovered, was advancing upon him from 
the East with his usual promptitude. 

A bloody and decisive battle was fought 
hy the two armies, which mustered on each 
side 150,000 strong, near Lugdunum (Lyon). 
Albinus was defeated, and lost his life ; ac- 
cording to some accounts he committed 
suicide (a. d. 197). Lugdunum, which Al- 
binus had occupied before the battle, was 
taken and burnt by the soldiers of Severus. 
The head of Albinus was brought to Severus^ 
who sent it to Rome with a letter to the 
senate, in which he upbraided them for their 
attachment to Albinus. Albinns left a son, 
or according to some authorities, two sons, 
who^ with their mother, were put to death by 
Severus. 

Albinus reigned as Gsesar and Augustus 
for three years and eight months in Gaul, 
Britain, and Germany. There are fow me- 
dals of his time, which is explained by the 
fiict that the colonies in those provinces 
which he possessed were not accustomed to 
coin. His title on some of his medals is 
Imperator Gnsar Glodius Septimius Albinus 
Augustua. The time of his birth, and con- 
sequently his age, is unknown ; but Seve- 
rus, in his own Memoirs, states that he was 
advanced in years when he acquired the im- 
perial power, and that he was older than 
Pescennius Niger. Severus left on record 
his unfiivourable opinion of the character of 
Albinus ; but the testimony of so perfidious 
an enemy cannot be received, and from other 
evidence it appears that Albinus was entitled 
to respect For his virtues and good qualities 
in his early years at least we have the evi- 
dence of M. Aurelius Antoninus in a letter 
which is preserved by Gapitolinus. isiiua 



ALBINUS. 



ALBINUa 



Cordas, a collector of all kinds of scandal, 
accuses him of incredible gluttony ; it is not 
improbable that as he adyanced in years he 
grew indolent and addicted himself to plea* 
sore. It is recorded of him that he was 
hated by his wife, was a hard master to his 
slaves, and savage towards his soldiers. His 
punishments were cruel, and he never par- 
doned. He was well acquainted with agri- 
culture, on which he wroto a treatise : he 
was also said to be the author of a collection 
of stories called Milesian. (Julius Capito- 
linus, Clodius AJMnus ; Herodian, lib. iii. ; 
Dion Cassias, lib. 73. 75. ; Rasche, Lexicon 
Univ. Rei Numaria.) O. L. 

ALBINUS FLACCUS. [Alcitin.] 

ALBINUa FRFEDRICH BERNARD, 
the youngest son of Bernard, was bom at 
Leyden in 1715, and died in 1778. In 1745 
he succeeded his brother Bernard Siegfried 
in the professorship of anatomy and surgery, 
and in 1771 in that of therapeutics. His 
works are — 1. '* Disputatio de Deglutitione. 
Leid. 1740, 4to." 2. *' Specimen Philosophicum 
Inaugurale de Meteoris ignitis. Leid. 1740, 
4to." 3. **De Dissensione Anatomicorum. 
Leid. 1747, 4to.'* 4. ** De Ambulations de 
eaque utili et necessaria. Leid. 1769, 4 to." 
5. " De Natura Hominis. Leid. 1776, 8vo." 
This last, which is his chief work, consists 
of little more than a series of aphorisms in 
physiology, chiefly founded on the precepts of 
his brother, Bernard Siegfried, whose opinions 
he seems to have inherited with his profes- 
sorships. A catalogue of the anatomical 
museum left by Bernard Siegfried is added in 
an appendix. (^CommeiUarii de Jiebus, jpc. 
Lipsise, t xyil zxii.) J. P. 

ALBINUS, JOHANN GEORG, (the 
elder,) was bom on the 6th of March, 1624, 
at Under- Neiza, near Weiasenfels, where his 
father was pastor. He studied theology and 
philology at Leipzip^, and afterwards ^carne 
rector of the pubhc school at Naumburg in 
1653. This post he subsequently exchanged 
fbr that of pastor of the church of St Otho- 
mar in the same town, where he died on the 
25th of May, 1679. 

During tifie seventeenth century, several 
societies were formed in Germany by poets 
and others, who were fond of cultivating 
their native language, which was then much 
neglected. Albinus joined one of these so- 
cieties, which had been founded at Hamburg 
by Philip von Zesen and others, and which 
bore the name of the Deutschgesinnte Ge- 
nossenschaft, or the Rosengesellschaft. Each 
member assumed a name which answered in 
some way to that of the society : Albinus 
assumed that of the Bliihende (the blooming), 
and as a member of this society he wrote 
various poems, which exhibit all the defects 
and the bad taste of the age. The mixture 
of bombastic declamation and vulgar ab- 
surdity can scarcely be carried farther than 
it is done in these poems, which are chiefly 
712 



religious. He also wrote one drama. His works 
are — " Geistlich gehamischter Krieges- 
Held, Oder Soldaten-Lieder und Gebethe." 
Leipzig, 1675. ^ Jiingstes Gericht und ewiges 
Leben." Leipzig, 1753, 4to. '* Himmelfl^- 
mende Seelen-Lust der Sulamithin, oder Hn- 
gonis Piadesideria in prosa et ligata." Frank- 
fhrt, 1674, 12mo. " Immergninendes Lob der 
christlichen Kanftnannschaft." Leipzig, 1652, 
4to. "Eumelis, ein dramatisches Gedicht" 
Jena, 1657, 8vo. " Greistliche und weltliche 
Gedichte," Leipzig, 1659, 4to. (J. B. Liebler, 
Nachrichten von Johann Georg Albvni Leben 
undLiedem, Naumburg, 1 728, 8va ; Adelung, 
Supplement to Jocher's AUffem. Gelekrt. Lexic, 
L 478, &c. ; Gervinus, Geschichte der poet 
NiUumal-Literatur der Deuiachen^ iii 274. 
345.422.) L.S. 

ALBINUS, JOHANN GEORG. (the 
younger,) the son of the former, was bom 
at Naumburg. Concerning his life scarcely 
anything is known, except that he studied 
jurispradence at Jena, that afterwaixis be 
lectured for some time at Erfiirt, and then 
returned to Jena, where after the year 1714 
we hear no more of him. 

Albinus wrote two Latin dissertations on 
subjects of jurispmdence, ** De Jure Misera- 
bilium," Jena, 1680, 4to., and " De DeUnquente 
Defenso," Jena,1714, 4to., which are notworth 
much. He acquired more reputation by his 
poetical works, which he wrote in German. 
He had greater poetical talents than his &ther. 
He belonged to the poetical societr of the 
Pegnitzschafer, and wrote chiefly idyls. Their 
principal defect is an affectation of simplicity, 
and extravagant sentimentality. They were 
published under the following titles : ^ Der 
Jungfrauen und Jnnggesellen Kurzweilige 
Erquickstunden.'* Zeitz, 1685, 12mo. ** Die 
chursachsische Venus, vorstellend der sach- 
sischen Helden und Heldinnen Beilager.** 
Zeitz, 1 686, 1 2mo. Some of his sacred hymns 
have long been very popular, though they are 
full of religious sentimentality, and a reader 
of the present day could scarcely believe that 
they were written in earnest (Dietmann's 
ChttraSchsiaclie Priesterschaft, voL v. ; WetzeFs 
AnaJecta Ilymnica, i. 45. ; Adelung, Supple- 
ment to Jocher's AUgem, Gelekrt. Lexic. 1 479. ; 
Gervinus, Geschichte der poet. National-Liiera- 
tur der Deutachen, iii. 303. 337.) L. S. 

ALBINUS JOHANNES. [Albino 
Giovanni.] 

ALBINUS, JOHANNES, a native of 
Coburg, studied in the university of Leipzig, 
where he afterwards became assessor of the 
philosophical faculty and professor of poetry. 
The latter office he held from the year 1585 
till his death in 1607. During the period of 
his appointment in the university he was 
five times rector and five times dean of the 
philosophical faculty, and introduced various 
useful chan^ in the statutes of the univer- 
sity, for which he is still grateftdly remem- 
bered. 



ALBINU8. 



ALBINUa 



There are extant by him three Latin ora- 
tions and several Latin poems, which are 
among the best of the kind that were then 
produced in Germany. They appeared un- 
der the following titles: "Oratio in memo- 
riam Mauritii Electoris Saxoniae. Lipsise, 
1572, 4ta" " Orationes Du» in obitmn Elec- 
toris AugustL Lipsise, 1586," 4to. ** Carmen 
Heroicum de Pogna memorabili inter illos- 
trissimum Principem Mauritium et Albertum 
Marchiffi Brandenburgensis ad Pagum Siver- 
shusen. LipsisB, 1585," 4to. " Poematum 
Lihri Duo. Lipsise, 1591," 8vo. This volume 
is a collection of all the works of Albinus 
which are mentioned before. (J. H. Emesti, 
Oratio de Pro/esmribus Poetices Seculi XVI I , 
Lipsiefufibvs ; Adelung, Supplement Id Jocher's 
AUgem, GeUhrten-Lexic, L 478.) L. S. 

ALBINUS, PETRDS, a German historian 
who lived during the latter half of the six- 
teenth century. He was a native of Schnee- 
berg in the Erzgebirge, and belonged to the 
noble family of Weise, which name he 
Latinised into Albinus, He studied at Leip- 
zig and Frankflut on the Oder, and afier he 
had obtained his degree of bachelor, he re- 
sided for some time at Lauban in Silesia, about 
the year 1553. He was afterwards appointed 
professor of poetry in the university of Wit- 
tenberg, and historiographer to the Elector of 
Saxony. During the latter years of his life, 
in the reign of the electors Augustus and 
Christian I., Albinus lived at Dresden as pri- 
vate secretary to these electors successively. 
He died on the 1st of August, 1598. 

Albinus was one of the most industrious 
historians that ever lived, but most of his 
works are written with such bad taste, that 
it would be impossible to read them now. 
These defects however arise more from the 
fashion of writing history then prevailing, 
than from his own want of judgment or 
skill. The countries whose history he has 
chiefly illustrated are Saxony and Meissen 
(Misnia). Some of his works are written in 
German, and others in Latin. They are 
chronicles of particular departments of his- 
tory, genealogical works, historical disserta- 
tions, and Latin poems written on various 
occasions. The following are most worthy of 
notice : — 1. " Meissnische Land-Chronika," 
Wittenberg, 1580, 4to. (an improved edition 
appeared at Dresden, in 1590, foL, and 
was reprinted in 1610.) 2. ** Meissnische 
Berg-Chronika," Dresden, 1590, fol., re- 
printed 1610. These two works are, pro- 
perly speakiug, only the first two parts of a 
large work in ten folios, each of which con- 
tained one particular part of the history of 
Meissen, as the author himself states at the 
close of the volhme first mentioned. Bat 
with the exception of the first two volumes 
ndthing has ever been published, and some 
of the subsequent volumes, perhaps all, are 
still extant in MS. in the archives at Dres- 
den. 3. " Progymnasmata Saxonum His- 



torisB, in qnibos pleraque sont, qos de 
antiquissimis Saxonum regibus, &c" Wit- 
tenberg, 1585, 8vo. 4. ^ Commentatiuncula 
de Wallachia," Wittenberg, 1587, 4ta 5. 
** Genealogia Comitnm Leisnicensium deducts 
a majoribus Yiperti Bellicosi," Wittenberg, 
1587, 8vo. To flatter Count Henry of Ran- 
zow, Albinus had this same work reprinted 
m 1587-8, under the title " Vipertus, 
sive Origines Ranzovianse," 4ta 6. ** Nen 
Stammbuch und Beschreibung des uralten 
Koniglichen Geschlechts und Hauses Sach- 
sen," Leipzig, 1 602, 4to. 7. " Historia von 
dem uralten Geschlechte derer Grafen und 
Herren von Werthem," the last editions of 
which appeared at Leipzig, 1705 and 1716, 
foL 8. Historiee Thurin^rum novee Speci- 
men," printed in Sagittanus's *' Antiquitates 
Regni Thuringici." A considerable number 
of his works have, like the eight volumes of 
his history of Meissen, never been printed. 
(Adelung's SuppkmaU to Jocher's Aligenu 
Gdekrien-Lexic, L 480, &c, where a com- 
plete list of his works is given.) L. S. 

ALBIO'SO, MARIC a Sicilian musician 
and poet, bom at Nasi He was a canon of 
the order of the Holy Ghost, and died in 
1686. He published "Selva di Canzoni 
Siciliani," Palermo, 1681. E. T. 

ALBISSON, JEAN, was bom at Mont- 
pellier, and educated with a view to prac- 
tising at the bar. Before the revolution he 
was keeper of the archives to the states of 
Languedoc. Having embraced the party 
of the revolution, he held from 1790 to 1800 
various administrative and judicial appoint- 
ments in the department of Herault. In 1800 
he was nominated one of the conmiissioners 
of the appellate tribunal ofsHerault ; in 1802 
he was. on the presentation of that depart- 
ment, elected a tribune by the senate; and 
in 1804 he was one of the commission upon 
whom devolved the task of proposing that 
Bonaparte should be created emperor. For 
this service he was created a councillor of 
state and member of the Legion of Honour. 
He took an active part in preparing the Code 
Civile, the Code de Procedure, and the Code de 
Commerce. In 1806 the LegisUtive Council 
nominated him assistant to the imperial pro- 
curator-general In 1807 the preparation of 
several titles of the Code d'Instmction Cri- 
minelle was referred to him. He died on 
the 22d January, 1810, of a painftil and linger- 
ing disease. Besides a number of occasional 
addresses and reports on various branches 
of legislation, Albisson published the follow- 
ing works: — "Lois municipales et econo- 
miques du Languedoc, ou recueil des ordon- . 
nances, edits, declarations, arrets du conseil, 
du Parlement de Toulouse. Montpellier, 1 780, 
et annees suivantes," 4to. " Discours sur 
rOrigine des Municipalit^s Diocesaines du 
Languedoc, sur leur Formation, sur leur Na- 
ture, et sur leur Influence dans TAssemblee 
Generale. (Pour servir dTntroduction au 
3 A 



ALBIS80K. 



ALBITTE. 



TbaBe IV. des Lois Municipoles, &c) Ayig- 
non, 1787," 8vo. " Lettre d*nii Avocat i nn 
Publiciste, k TOccasion de la prochaine As- 
sembl^e des Etats-O^neraux da Royaame. 
Avignon, 1791,** Svo. ♦♦ Melanges de Legis- 
lation, on Notions Elementaires de Legisla- 
tion i rUsage des El^ves de FEoole centrale 
del'Herault Montpellier, an x. (1802>'* 8to. 
(Eloge Funihre prononcipar Faure, MoniteuTf 
27 Janvier, 1810 ; Code Civil Franfoia, suivi 
de tExpoaides MoHfades Rapportt, Opinions^ 
et Discoure, Paris, 1806, l2mo.; SuppUmeni 
a la Biographie Univeraelle, Yoce ** Albisson, 
Jean.") W. W. 

ALBITTE, ANTOINE LOUIS, one of 
the most violent Jacobins of the French re- 
volution, and afterwards a humble satellite 
of the Emperor Napoleon. The year of his 
birth is not stated by any of his biographers, 
but he is said to have only just completed 
his studies at the time when the violence 
of his principles procured his election as a 
member of the Legislative Assembly for the 
department of the Lower Seine, in September, 
1791. His profession was that of an advo- 
cate, which he carried on at Dieppe; but even 
before the events of July, 1789, he was cap- 
tain of a company of national volunteers. The 
subjects he was foremost in discussing in the 
Assembly were of a military nature, and he 
was named a member of the military com- 
mittee. Amongst other measures which he 
took a prominent share In discussing was 
one for tiie augmentation of the gendaraierie, 
which he warmly opposed as £mgerous to 
liberty. He denounced the ministers Nar- 
bonne and Bertrand de Molleville as guilty 
of incapacity and treason, and proposed their 
impeachment After the defeat of the French 
troops at Toumay, in April, 1792, he made 
the proposal to take away fh>m the generals 
the power of making regulations, and to 
give the common soldiers a greater share in 
courts martial. On the 11th of July he pro- 
posed the demolition of all the strong places 
in the interior of the kingdom, on account 
of the danger of their affording shelter to 
counter-revolutionists. On the morning after 
the memorable 10th of August he and his col- 
league Sers proposed and carried the resolu- 
tion that every statue of a king should be 
destroyed, and a statue of Liberty erected in 
its stead. He was sent in September with Le- 
cointre-Puyraveau to the department of the 
Lower Seine, to disarm suspected persons and 
deport the priests who refhsed to take the oath. 
He executed his commission with great seve- 
rity, and in return was elected by the depart- 
ment to the National Convention. Here he 
was of the number of those who voted, on the 
2 Ist of December, against allowing Louis X VL 
counsel on his trial, and shortly afterwards 
for putting him to death. On the 23rd of 
March, 1793, he carried the decree that emi- 
grants token prisoners in foreign countries 
niould be massacred, whether fbund with or 
714 



without arms. In Paris ^ was always ibe 
ardent opponent of the Girondins, and the 
proposer or supporter of the most violent 
measures ; but it was in the country, and as 
commissioner to the armies of the republic, 
in which he attained the military ruik Off 
adjutant-general, that his atrocities were 
carried mrthest He was present in this 
character at the siege of Lyon and at the 
partial demolition of that city after its e^- 
ture, at the operations of Carteaux against the 
insurgents of the south, and at the opening 
of the siege of Toulon, where he made the 
acquaintance of Bonaparte, which was useful 
to him in after-life. His cruelty was accom- 
panied with luxury and avarice: at B<Niiig he 
is said to have bathed every morning in the 
milk that was brought for the consumption 
of the town. His success and his excesses 
seem at this time almost to have turned his 
brain : he amused himself by having the pope, 
the king of England, &c. guillotined in effigy; 
and when one day at the Theatre Fran^ais 
the pit applauded the hemistich in Chenier's 
" Caius Gracchus," 

** Dm lob et non da sang/* 
** Let ttt hare lawc, not blood,** 

he rose in anger, and vociferating impreca- 
tions on the audience, shouted out, ** Let us 
have blood, not laws." In the formula of ab- 
juration which he drew up for the signature 
of the priests of the department of the Ain, 
he not only compelled them to renounce 
the ** trade of priesthood,'* but to add : ** I 
equally renounce, abdicate, and recognise as 
falsehood, illusion, and imposture, every pre- 
tended character and function of priesthood, 
and swear, in the fkce of the magistrates and 
the people, whose omnipotence and sove- 
reignty I recognise, never to avail myself 
of the abuses of the trade of priest, which I 
renounce, but to maintain liberty and equality 
with all my strength, and to live and die for 
the support of the one indivisible democratic 
republic, under penalty of being declared in- 
famous, perjured, and an enemy to the people, 
and of being treated as such." Albitte sent 
to the Jacobins at Paris a list of his victims 
in the departments and of the priests whom 
he had " unpriested," and requested to be re- 
cognised, though absent, as a member of the 
society, an exception which was made in his 
fkvour. He solicited also a sanction of his pro- 
ceedings from the commune of Paris, Uien 
a more powerfU body than the Convention 
itself and obtained it The fall of Robes- 
pierre, however, brought him in danger. 
Numerous denunciations of his conduct were 
sent in to the Convention fhnn the depart- 
ments, and one from the administrators of 
the district of Bourg was referred to a com- 
mittee. Albitte, thus pressed by danger, joined 
in a oonspuracy to re-establish the reign of 
terror, which bnist out in the insurrection 
of the firstof Prairial in the year 3 (the 20th 



ALBITTB. 



ALBITTE. 



May, 1795), one of the most terrible days of 
the whole reyolntioiL It was on this occa- 
sion that the insurgents broke into the Con- 
vention, compelled that assembly to pass 
several decrees at the point of the sword, and 
after murdering Ferand, one of the members, 
presented his l^ad on a pike to the president 
Boissy d' Anglas. After a desperate contest 
in the hall (rf* the Convention, the insorgents 
were defeated and driven out, and the legis- 
lative body revoked the decrees it had passed 
under the influence of force, and voted, at the 
proposal of Tallien, the instant arrest of the 
members who had dared to bring them for- 
ward or to countenance the conduct of the 
insurgents. Albitte was ably defended by his 
younger brother Jean Louis, also a represent- 
ative of the Lower Seine, who on this occa- 
sion broke through a course of habitual inac- 
tion ; the decree for his arrest was nevertheless 
passed, but it was found that during the confu- 
sion he had escaped. He was condenmed in 
default of appearance ; his colleagues were 
sentenced to death, and committed suicide in a 
body to avoid the guillotine. Albitte remained 
concealed till the general amnesty for revolu- 
tionary offences issued on the 26th October, 
1795, (the 4th Brumaire, year 4,) soon after 
which he was appointed by the Directory 
municipal commissary at Dieppe. On the 
overthrow of the Directory by Bonaparte he 
became a warm partisan of his old acquaint- 
ance, who rewarded his zeal by naming him 
sub-inspector of reviews, a post which he 
maintained durinff the imperial government 
He accompanied Napoleon in this capacity in 
the invasion of Russia, and died of cold, &- 
tigue, and hunger, on the retreat from Moscow, 
on the 25th December, 1812. It is said that 
he maintained existence during three days 
with the remains of a flask of brandy, which 
in his last moments he shared with one of his 
unfortunate companions, the only act of bene- 
volence that is recorded in his mstory. 

The name of Albitte is appended to various 
political pamphlets, four of which are in the 
great collection of tracts on the French revo- 
lution preserved at the British Museum. The 
two of most interest are — 1. " Albitte, repre- 
^entant du Peuple, envoye pr^s TArm^e des 
Alpes aux braves Soldats et Gardes Nationauz 
en requisition command^ par le General 
Oarteanx" (published at Valence) ; an address 
to the soldiers of Carteaox, in his character of 
envoy to the army, in which, after the custom- 
ary denunciations of the policy of ** Pitt and 
Cobnrg," he as usual exhorts the soldiers to 
** exterminate the brigands.'* 2. ** Lettre du 
Citoyen Albitteison CoU^gue Dubois Craned," 
dated at Commune- Affiranchie, the new name 
•given to Lyon, in the year 8 (1794) ; a de- 
fence of himself from the charge of having 
wrongftdly accused his collea£[ue, in which 
he states some particulars of his former life 
which appear to have escaped the notice of 
his biographers. The others in the Museum 
715 



are. Observations respecting some prises ssiSle 
by a French privateer, and a Report on a new 
invention of the Sieur Barthelemi de la Reoo- 
logne connected with the mannftcture of gun- 
powder. (Arnault, &c., Bwgrapkie des Con- 
temporains, L 80, &c. ; Rabbe, &c Biographim 
dta OmiemvorainSj L 6 1, &c ; Life, bv Fallot, 
mBwara/Aie UnivereeBe, lvi(or Istoi Suppl.) 
147, &c.; Buchea et Roux, HiaUnre Parie- 
metUaire de la JRivoluticn Fhinfaue, xxxvi 
359.; PanmhUta of Albitte.) T. W. 

A'LBIUS, RICARDUS, or Richard 
White, an English Jesuit, known only as the 
author of two works ; the first, ** Hemi- 
sphserium Dissectum," Rome, 1646 and 1648, 
which Lalande puts down in his astronomical 
catalogue, but which is (Dechales, i. 23.) a 
work on pure geometry, after Ajchimedes 
and Euclid. The other work (Montucla, iv. 
628.), with the titie «* Chrysasspis, sen Qnad- 
ratura Circnli " (place and date not givenX 
was on the quadrature of the circle, which 
White, like many others, imagined himself 
to have obtained. But there is one pecu- 
liarity about his esse, namely, that he was 
afterwards convinced of his error, a state to 
which it is not upon record that any other 
sc^uarer of the circle was ever brought 
Richard White is sometimes confounded with 
his contemporary Thomas White, also a Ro- 
man Catholic pnest A« De M. 

ALBIZZI, a Florentine fkmiljr, originally 
from Arezzo, which acted a leading part in 
the history of Florence during the fourteenth 
and fifteenth centuries. The Albiari were 
" popolari," or a popular £unily, and belonged 
to the great Gnelph party. Laiox) dbgu 
AxBizn was repeatedly one of the priori or 
members of the executive towards the end 
of the thirteenth century. His son Cohpaono 
or Pagno was elected one of the priori in 
November, 1301, and was one of the Neri 
party who proscribed the Bianchi, or op- 
posite ihction. He is mentioned by Dino 
Compagni (book iL) as a poweiftil and vio- 
lent party man. His brother Fiupfo was 
one of the priori in 1317, and was afterwards 
made Gon&loniere. PiEiio, son of Filippo, 
was several times one of the priori, and be- 
came the acknowledged leader o[ the burgher 
aristocracy, which, under the pretence of 
maintaining the preponderance of theGuelph 
party and keeping out the GuibeUne or 
noble aristocracy, enforced a system of pro- 
scription, and established the board of the 
capitani of the Guelph party, which could 
deprive any obnoxious citizen bf his political 
rights. [ALbbrtx, Benkdetto.] Pierodegli 
Albizzi, having overcome the rival fomily of 
the Rioci, becaine in reality the head of the 
Florentine republic ; and although an attempt 
was made, in 1372, to restrain his power, he 
retained his influence as the head of his 
powerftil Guelph party, together with his 
friends Stroiai and Lapo di Castiglionchio. 
In 1378, Salvestro dei Medici and Benedetto 
3 A 2 



ALBIZZI. 



ALBIZZI. 



Albert! roused the people to overthrow the 
tyranny of the capitani, and the insurrection 
and anarchy of the lower orders called 
ciompi were the result In the following 
year, 1379, Piero degli Albixzi, with many 
more of his party, was arrested under a 
charge of treason against the republic The 
judge could find no sufficient evidence against 
Piero, but the people loudly demanded his 
death, threatening to destroy all his relatives; 
and Piero, in order to save his family, ac- 
knowledged the charges brought against him, 
and was beheaded. His nephew, Maso or 
ToMMASo DEGLI Aldizzt, wbs cxilcd. A re- 
action took place in 1382, by which Bene- 
detto Alberti and other leaders of the people 
were banished or put to death, and the exiled 
leaders of the Guelph aristocracy, among 
whom Tommaso degli Albizzi was foremost, 
were recalled. In 1393, Tommaso was made 
Gonfaloniere di Giustizia, or chief magistrate, 
and as such he proscribed the fiimily of 
Alberti and their friends to revenge the 
death of his uncle Piero. Tommaso then 
became the acknowledged leader of the Flo- 
rentine republic, which he continued to be 
till his death. He had a great share in the 
ultimate success of the war against Pisa, by 
which that state became subject to the Flo- 
rentines in 14 6. He was sent on several 
embassies, among others to Queen Joanna II. 
of Naples, in 1414. Tommaso died in 1417, 
at seventy years of age, leaving his eldest 
son, RiNALDO, under the care ci his friend, 
Niccolo d*Uzzano, who retained his influence 
as leader of the republic. 

Uzzano was prudent and moderate, and he 
managed to maintain internal peace for seve- 
ral years, during which Florence attained a 
high degree of commercial prosperity. But 
Rinaldo degli Albizzi, being hot-headed and 
rash, began first to intrigue against, and after- 
wards to quarrel with, the rival family of Me- 
dici, which had become very popular. In 1430 
Rinaldo led the republic into a war with 
Lucca, agidnst the advice of old Niccolo 
d*Uzzano. Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of 
Milan, sent an army to the assistance of 
Lucca, under Piccinino, a celebrated condot- 
tiere, who routed the Florentines. In 1432 
Niccolo d' Uzzano died, and Rinaldo, being 
no longer checked by his prudent advice, ran 
into desperate measures, and determined to 
ruin his rival, Cosmo de* Medici, the most 
popuhir man in Florence. In September, 
1433, Rinaldo, having won over to his side 
the gonfaloniere and other magistrates, caused 
Cosmo to be arrested under some frivolous 
pretence, intending to have him put to death ; 
but, through fear of the people, he was only 
banished to Padua, and afterwards to Venice. 
In the following year, 1434, at the new elec- 
tion of the executive, the party favourable to 
the Medici recovered the ascendancy, Cosmo 
was recalled, and Rinaldo degli Albizzi was 
exiled, and many of his firiends were banished 
716 



or executed. In 1436 Rinaldo went to the 
court of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of 
Milan, to excite him to war against Florence. 
He remained an exUe the rest of his life, and 
died at Ancona in 1452. Some of his sons 
settled at Gaeta, and others at Cesena and 
Imola. 

Anton Frjutcesco dbgli Albizzi, grand 
nephew of Rinaldo, was in the service of the 
Florentine republic in 1527 and 1529 as 
commissary at Pisa and Arezzo. In 1530, 
after the taking of Florence by the troops 
of Charles V. and of the Medici, he was 
exiled. He joined in the attempt of Filippo 
Strozzi in 1537, was taken with him at 
Montemurlo by the soldiers of Duke Cosmo 
de' Medici, and was beheaded. His cousins, 
descended from Luca, a younger brother of 
Rinaldo degli Albizzi, remained at Florence, 
and one of their descendants was made, in 
1639, Marquis of Castelnuovo by the Grand 
Duke Ferdinand II. de* Medici. This branch 
of the Albizzi still continues to exist at Flo- 
rence. (Pignotti, Storia delta Toscana; 
Ammirato, Ddle Famialie nobih Fiorentime; 
Reumont, Tavoie cronJogiche e tmcnme della 
Storia Fiorentina ; Mecatti, Storia genealogita 
della Nobiha e Ciitadinanza di Firenze,) 

Antoxio Albizzi, of another branch of 
the family, bom at Venice in 1547, went to 
live at Florence, and was the founder of the 
Academy degli Alteratu Having embraced 
the doctrines of the Reformation, he was 
obliged to expatriate himself, and he retired 
to Kempten in Germany, where he published, 
in 1600, a genealogical and historical work, 
" Principum Christianorum Stemmata." He 
died at Kempten in 1626. Haberlin of Got- 
tingen published his life in 1740. Tommaso 
DEGLI Albizzi, bom at Florence, went in his 
youth to France as page to Maria de' Medici, 
who was married to Henry IV. in 1600. He 
became imbued with the doctrines of the Re- 
formation, and published some controversial 
book at Lyon in 1624. The aSair, however, 
was hushed up, and he was allowed to return 
to Florence, where, by pradent conduct, he 
contrived to live in peace, though still sus- 
pected of heterodoxy. Professor Rosini, in 
his **Monaca di Monza," has introduced 
Tommaso degli Albizzi among the historical 
characters of his novel. 

llie Franciscan monk Bartolomeo Al- 
bizzi of Pisa, author of the work on the 
Conformities of the Life of St Francis with 
that of Jesus Christ, was not of the same 
&mily. [Albizzi, B.] 

In the seventeenth century there was 
Cardinal Francesco Albizzi of Cesena, de- 
scended of the old Florentine stock, who 
wrote several learned works on canon law : — 
1. " Sulla Giurisdizione dei Cardiilali nelle 
Chiese di loro Titolo." 2. ** Sull' Incostanza 
da ammettersi, e no, nel Diritto." And, S. 
a reply to the famous Sarpi : ** Risposta alia 
Storia deir Inquisisione di Frii Paolo Sarpi." 



ALBI2ZL 



ALBIZZL 



He died in 1684, at mnety-one yean of age. 
{MBOuchelh, ScrittariiT Italia i Tirabofldbi, 
Storia ddia Letteratura Itaiiana,^ A. V. 

ALBIZZI, BABTOLOME'O, (Bartholo- 
maeiu Albicius or Pisanus) vas bom at Ri- 
tbho in Tiucanj, but iraa snniamed ** of 
Pisa" from professing the order of St. Francia 
in that town, where he lived from 1348. The 
work which alone has rendered him notorious 
is the ** Conlbrmities of the Life of St Francis 
with that of Jesus Christ" He presented 
this work to the chapter-general of his order 
assembled at Assisi in 1899, who testified 
their hi^ approbation of his hkbour, and re- 
warded it by presenting him with a dress 
that had belonged to the saint himself. He 
died two years after, at a very advanced age, 
in the convent of Pisa, the lOth of December, 
1401. Wadding {AmuUe* Mmonem, ix. 158, 
159.) has described Albizsi as preaching snc- 
oessftiUy for sixty years; as called upon to 
teach theology at bologna, Padua, Pisa, Siena, 
and Florence ; as adhering strictly to the 
spirit of his monastic vows, and performing 
many miracles by the merits of saints and by 
the virtue of relics which he carried about 
with him. The remains of the acts and 
monuments of the order of St Francis are 
mostly derived from Albizzi, who is said to 
have been a voluminous writer. Among his 
less-known writings are — 1. ** Opus Conibr- 
mitatum B. Virginia cum Christo.*' 2. ** De 
Vita et Laudibus B. Mariss V irg^nis, Libri VL 
nunquam antea in Luoem, nisi nunc, editi." 
Venice, 1 596, in 4to. 3. ** De Laudibus Sanc- 
torum." 4. " De Verbis Domini" 5. " Ex- 
positio in Regulam S. FranciscL" 6. ** Summa 
Casuum Gonscientifle " (unless this be merely 
one of the various names of a similar work by 
another Bartholomew of Pisa). 7. *' Sermones 
Quadragesimales de Contemptu Mundi sive de 
triplici Mundo," written in the year 1397, 
but printed at Milan by Ulderic Scinzenzeler 
in the year 1488, in 4ta, and again edited 
by John Mapelli, Milan, 1503, in 4ta 8. 
** Sermones Quadragesimales, qui continent 
multarum Quiestionum et Casuum Consci- 
enti» Resolutiones. Lugduni. Romanus Mo- 
rin, 1519," 8vo. These titles are from the lists 
by WadiUng in his Scriptores Ordinis Blino- 
rum,fr*om Henri WiUot's Athenae Franciscan- 
orum, and Prosper Marchand's Dictionnaire 
Historique. 9. His other work, ** The 
Conformities of the Life of St Francis 
with that of Jesus Christ," has a histonr of 
its own from the number and variety of the 
attacks and defences it has sustained. The 
manuscript is preserved in the library of 
the Duke of Urbina A first edition, one 
of the early works of the press, without prin- 
ter's name or date, is known to be in folio, 
and to have been printed at Venice. A copy, 
supposed unique, is mentioned as belonging 
to the Hohendorff library. The second 
and third editions were mere abridgments 
printed at Venice, the one in 1480 and the 
717 



other in 1484, under the title *< Li FioMtti 
di San Francisco assimilati alia Vita ed aUa 
Passione di nostro Signore" (** Flowers of 
the Life of St. Francis assimilated to the Life 
and Passion of our Lord"). In refritation of 
this there was written some time after, by 
Pietro Paolo Ver^erio, " Discorsi sopra 1 
Fioretti di S. Francisco," for which discourses 
he was declared a heretic, and his book was 
placed in the Index Expurgatorius. 

Only two more editions of the Life of 
St Francis were published previously to the 
Reformation, which from their frdness and 
rarity are of the highest value and pro- 
duced the earliest rafiitations. The first 
is in folio, Milan, 1510, and was entitled 
•^Opus aurese et inexplicabilis Bonitatis et 
ContinentisD Conformitatum scilicet Vita) 
beati Francisci ad Vitam Domini nostri Jesu 
ChristL" The pre&ce is by Francis Zeno, 
vicar-general of the Italian Franciscans. 
The second is also a Milan edition, in 1513, 
with the same title. A refotation of this 
work appeared in Germany in 1531 ; and it 
has often been printed since in Germany. 
The Wittenberg edition of 1542 has the title 
** Der barfiisser Monch Eulenspiegel und 
Alcoran" ('* The barefooted Monks' Jester 
and Alcoran"). This edition has a prefoce by 
Martin Luther ; but the refritation itself was 
written by Erasmus Alber, who, according 
to the advertisement to the reader, visited 
the convent of Franciscans by the Elector of 
Brandenburg's order, and found this book of 
the Conformities esteemed there like another 
Koran. He therefore abridged and refuted it 
Various Latin paraphrases of this refutation 
appeared from 1542 to 1561 under titles be- 
ginning ** Alcoranus Franciscanorum." A 
French translation of this refutation by Conrad 
Radius (Geneva, 1556, in 12mo.) contains his 
notes and pre&ce, and soon after Badii^s added 
a second volume of his own extracts from the 
Conformities. The whole goes by the title 
of " L' Alcoran des Cordeliers^" The re- 
fotation has also appeared in Flemish. These 
assaults on this work were so vigorous that 
the Franciscans sent forth new editions much 
modified, which are as follow: — The first, 
** Liber aureus inscriptus Liber Conformita- 
tum, &c., denuo editus a Jeremia Bucchio 
Sodali Franciscano." It was printed at Bo- 
logna in 1590, in folia The second modi- 
fied edition, the seventh in all, still more 
changed from the ori^nal, is called " Antiqui- 
tates Franciscans, sive Speculum Vitie beati 
Francisci et Sociorum, per Philippum Bos- 
quierum," Cologne, 1623, in 8vo. But the 
work was also defended against its refritations 
in ** Apologeticus pro Libro Conformitatum 
adversus Aicoranum Franciscanorum, Auc- 
tore Henrico Sedulio," &c. Antwerp, 1607, 
in 4to. A third refutation is by Luke Osian- 
der, entitled ** Ein schoner wolriechendcr 
Rosenkrantz zusammen gebunden auss dem 
kostlichen ubertrefflichen Bnch der Francis- 
3 A 3 



ALBIZZt 



ALSO. 



caner Munch, -vrelches lie * Libmm Con- 
formitatum* nenneii ** (** A beautiful sweet- 
imelling Garland of Roaes collected out of 
the debcious excellent Book of the Francis- 
can Monks which is called * Liber Conformi- 
tatum,' *') printed at Tubingen, 1591, 1594, in 
4to. A counter refutation to this refutation 
by Michael Anisius, entitled ** Freundliche 
Zairreissung dess schonen und irolriechenden 
Rosenkrantzes, welch ein Stutische Grass- 
Magd, Hoeselea genannt, auss dem Kostlichen 
ubertrefflichen Buche, derer Franciscaner 
Mondie welches sie * Liber Ck>nformitatum' 
nennen, abgebrochen,** &c, was printed at 
Ingoldstadt, 1592, 8yo. (** A firiendly rending 
of the beautiful and sweet-smelling Garland 
of Roses which a Grass-woman plucked ftt)m 
the delicious excellent Book of the Franciscan 
Monks called ' Liber Conformitotum.* "} The 
other principal refhtations are — 4. The col- 
lections bj J. Wolfius in his " Lectiones mint- 
biles et recondit®," at aarticle ** Franciscus." 
5. The ninth chapter of the " Legende 
doree, ou Sommaire de THistoire des Fr^res 
Mendians de TOrdre de St Dominique et de 
St. Francois." In this is a short but exact 
summary of the Conformities. 6. ** Fran- 
ciscus Prophano-RediyiYUS, das ist," &c. 
printed at Halle in 1615, in 4to. 

The Confbrmities howeyer haye been re- 
produced under yarious shapes on different 
occasions, especially in " Prodigium Natune 
et Gratise Portentum, hoc est, Seraphici P. 
Francisci Vitas Acta ad Christ! Domini 
Vitam et Mortem regulata et coaptata a Petro 
de Alba et Astorga,'* Madrid, 1651, in folio. 
The Conformities, which in Albizzi's work 
amount to forty, are here spread out into four 
thousand yarieties. (Prosper Marchand, Dtc- 
tionnaire HUtonque; Fabricius, Bihiioiheca 
LaL Med, et Inf, MU i. 131. ; BiUiotheque des 
Sciences et des beaux ArU, iy., 318.) A. T. P. 

ALBO, R. ISAAC (U^K pnV> "-J), a 
German rabbi, a natiye of Ratisbon, and 
brother to B. Petachia and R. Nachmiah 
(Nehemiah) of Ratisbon. He liyed in the 
twelfth century, and was a pupil of R. Judah 
Chasid (the Pious). He was one of the 
authors of the ^ Tosephoth," or Supplement 
to the Ghemara. He must not be confounded 
with R. Isaac Hazaken, or the elder, who 
was also one of the authors of the " Tose- 
photh," but who, instead of being the pupil, 
was the preceptor of R. Judah Chasid. (Wol- 
fius, Biblioth. Hebr. i. 648. 655. •, R. Gedalia, 
ShalsheL Hakkab. p. 54. ; R. Abrah. Zacuth. 
S. Juchasin, p. 124.) , C. P. H. 

ALBO, R. JOSEPH (U^K SjDr "1), a 
celebrated Spanish rabbi, who is called by 
Dayid Ganz the divine philosopher, was a 
natiye of Soria in Old Castile, near the 
source of the riyer Duero. He was bom 
towards the latter part of the fourteenth 
century. He exercisied his rabbinical func- 
tions at Montalyan in the district of Alcaniz 
in Aragon, which synagogue he represented 
718 



as one of the learned rabbis who in tlie' 
year 1412 were engaged in the celebrated 
public discussion with Jerome ik Saneta 
Fide, which was held in the presence of tlic 
antipope Benedict XIIL The yictory in 
this dispute was loudly proclaimed by the 
monks throughout Christendom as haying 
fidlen to the ex-Jew Jerome, to tfie gret 
scandal of the Jews, espeeially in Spain, 
where ihexr religion and institutioas were 
eyery day more calumniated, and where 
many are said in consequence to haye gone 
oyer to Christianity. To yindieate the honour 
of his nation and the eanae of his religion, 
and to confirm the ihith of those who were 
wayering, Joseph Albo produced in the 
year a. m. 5185 (a.d. 1425) his famous work 
called **Ikkarim" (** Foundations or Prin- 
ciples") of the Jewish ftith. in this noble 
work he not only illustrates and supports the 
articles of his own religion, but attacks with 
considerable power those of the Christian 
fiiith and practice which are opposed to them. 
He did not long suryiye the completion of 
this his great work, but died in the year 
A. M. 5188 (a. d. 1428X hardly three years 
after its completion, according to Bartolooci 
and most of the Jewish chrondogists. De 
Rossi fixes his death in a. d. 1430, but does 
not say on what authority. Plantayitnis, 
with singular inaccuracy, has giyen a.d. 
1390 as the date of his death. The **Se- 
pher Ikkarim** reduces the fhndamental 
articles of the Jewish fhith to three heads. 
L The existence of God. IL The Mosaic 
law, which is declared to be fh>m God. 
IIL The doctrine of a fhtnre state of re- 
ward and punishment The whole work is 
dlyided into four "maamarim'* or disser- 
tations. 1. Treats of the yarious religions 
and sects into which mankind are diyided, 
and ends by announcing the three fhndamental 
articles of the Jewish fiadth as aboye ; it is 
diyided into twenty-six chapters or heads. 
2. Treats of the first article, namely, the 
existence and unity of Crod ; it consists of 
thirty-seyen chapters. 3. Declares the 
second article, namely, the diyine origin of 
the Mosaic law, and consists of thirty-seyen 
chapters. 4. Which consists of fifty-one 
chapters, treats of the third article, that is, of 
rewards and punishments in this life and 
that to come. Throughout this work the 
author has brought all Sie powers of an acute 
and philosophic mind to bear upon the most 
important points in dispute between the Jews 
and Christians. While he defends his own 
faith, he does not spare the doctrines of the 
Romish church, especially the mass, the doc- 
trine of transubstantiation, as well as the 
Trinity, the genealogy of Christ, the change 
of the Sabbath, and the other doctrines of 
the New Testament The ** Sepher Ikkarim " 
was first printed at Soncino, in the duchy of 
Milan, a. m. 5246 (a. d. 1486), in 4to. ; at 
Venice, by Romberg, a, m. 5281 (a. d. 1521); 



ALBa 



ALBO. 



and at Rmum, ▲. m. 6282 (▲. d. 1522), 4tO.; 
again at Venice by Jo. de Pbari, a» m. 6304 
(▲. m 1544) ; then at Lublin in Poland, A.M. 
5357 (A.D. 1597); and, lastly, at Venice, 
▲. M. 5384 (A. B. 1624> Wolff says that he 
also saw in the library of IL Oppenheimer 
an edition of Salonichi (ThessalonicaX a. m. 
5281 (A.D. 1521); which librair contained 
also the Tery rare edition of Venice, a»u, 
5304, abore noticed, as well as that of Lnblin, 
and a mannscript copy of the work. The 
rarest and most esteemed edition, however, 
is the first, printed at Soncino ; all the sub- 
sequent editions are more or less curtailed, 
especially as regards the twenty-fifth chapter 
of the third ™**""*^ or dissertation, which 
treats more especially of the Christian doc- 
trines. The **Sepher Ikkarim" was also 
published with a Toluminous commentary bv 
R. Gedalia ben Solomon, a Polish rabbi, with 
the title ** £u Shatul*' (** A Tree planted") 
(P«a&R L 3.) : it was printed at Venice by 
Pietro and Lorenao Bragadino, ▲. m. 5378 
(▲. D. 1618X in folio. The reason for adopts 
ing this title of '* Etz Shatul" is thus given 
by B. Gedalia himself in the preface to his 
commentary: *^ As a tree when planted has 
roots, branches, and foliage, so in this work 
the commentary forms as it were the root, 
the indices of scriptural texts are as the 
branches, and the quotations from the * mi- 
drashim,' or allegorical expositions, are as 
the leaves, which altogether make up the 
planted, that is the living and growing, tree." 
Ko complete translation of Oiia interesting 
work has yet been published, though it has 
been partly translated by many 'celebrated 
oriental scholars, as Buxtorff, Hulsius, and 
Scherzer, as well as Andr. Eisenmenger, 
who gives many passages from it in his 
«' Judaismus Detectus." Wolff says that Es- 
dras Edzard had a complete Latin version 
in the handwriting of Jo. Buxtor£E^ and that 
after his death it passed into the hands of his 
son, who was pastor of the Lutheran church 
in London. Gilbert Genebrard published a 
translation of those parts of this work in 
which Christianity is attacked, including the 
whole of the twenty-fifth chapter of the third 
**niaamar," with a defence of the Roman 
Catholic doctrines therein assailed, in his 
work, ** Contra R. Josephum Albonem, R. 
Dav. Kimchium, et iJjnm quemdam Judsum 
anonymum nonnnllos £dei Christiana arti- 
culos oppugnantes ; " printed at Paris by 
Martin Le Jeun, ^.d. 1566, in 8vo. Pro- 
fessor Paul Fred. Opitius of Kiel had a copy 
of the " Ikkarim," with mannscript notes by 
Genebrard. Besides the various printed and 
manuscript copies of the Oppenheimer library, 
there are in the Bodleian library three 
printed copies, namely, the first edition of 
Soncino, a.d. 1486; that of Rimini, 1522 ; 
and the ''EU Shatul," or *' Ikkarim" with 
the commentary of R. Credalia ben Solomon, 
Venice, 1612. There is also among the ma- 
719 



nnseripta in the Bodleian one partly on vellum 
and partly on paper, with the title ** Sepher Ila 
Ikkarim Lehar Joseph Albo" (*' The Book of 
the fundamental Articles of the Rabbi Joseph 
Albo"X bearing date ▲. m. 5253 (▲. d. 1493), 
in folio, very clearlj written. There seems 
to be only one opimon among the learned as 
to the great ment of this work. Father Bar- 
tolocci says, ** Throughout this whole work 
the Jew shows himself to be a man of an. 
acute and philosophic mind." Andrew Ma- 
sius, in his Index of Jewish Authors, bub- 
joined to his commentary on the book of 
Joshua, calls the ** Ikkarim" a learned work 
written in a philosophic spirit ; and Grotius, 
in his Commentary on Matthew, v. 20., calls 
the author **a Jew of the keenest intellect" 
Richard Simon also gives this work the pre- 
ference over all others which treat on the 
Jewish reli^on ; and Jo. Molther, in his 
** Chronologia Jndaica," p. 37., speaks of a 
certain Matthew Vehius, who was converted 
by this work either to Judaism or Arianism. 
Some learned men, indeed, both Jews and 
Christians, have been struck with this singu- 
larity, that he has reduced the fundamental 
articles of their fidth to three, whereas 
Maimonides and their other great men have 
made them thirteen. Albo accordingly re- 
duced the other ten, and among them the 
expectation of the advent of the Messiah, to 
mere secondary doctrines. According to 
the **Siphte Jeshenim" he also wrote, 2. 
**Meah Daphin" C*A Hundred Leaves"), 
which also treats of the articles of 'the Jewish 
&ith; R. Shabtai no doubt here copies the 
"ShalshellethHakkabbala,"p.61. According 
to the ** Sepher Juchasin" he also wrote, in 
the Spanish language, 3. " Elenchtico contra 
Hagmon (ptD:in)" («* A Treatise ligainst the 
Cardinal or Bishop"). This work was 
directed against the pseudo-bull of the anti- 
pope Ben^ct which he published against 
the Jews immediately after the disputation 
between the ex-Jew Jerome and the rabbis. 
The council of Constance having elected in 
the interim Martin V. to the papacy, the 
Jews of Aragon and Catalonia refused 
obedience to the antipope, whom they called 
Friar Peter, and appBaled to the new pope, 
then residing at Florence, whom (not know- 
ing his true name) they call Mark. Thus 
the " Shalshelleth Hakkabbala," p. 1 13., says, 
" The Jews came before the pope, who was 
called Mark of Florence, complaining against 
Friar Peter" (the Cardinal Pedro de Luna, 
which was the name of Benedict XIII.) 
** concerning this matter, and the Jews were 
sent away absolved. This work, therefore, 
by Joseph Albo was written in Spanish most 
probably for the purpose of informing the 
new pope of the injustice of the bull issued 
by the antipope against his nation. (Bar- 
toloccios, BUJioth. May. Rabb, ill 776. 796 
—798.; Wolfius, BMioiL Hebr. I 503—505. 
iii. 381, 382. iv. 848. ; De Rossi, Dizumario 
3a 4 



ALBO. 



ALBOIN. 



Storico deal AuL Ebr. I 43, 44. ; Id. Bthlioih. 
Judaic, Anticri$t. p. 14., et AnnaU Ebr. TV- 
pogr. dd Sec, X V, p. 44. ; Buxtorfios, Biblwth, 
Babb. p. 317.; PlantaTitiiis, BibUoth, Bobbin. 
No. 524. } Imbonatus, Bibiioth, Lot. Hebr, 
p. 55.; R. Gedalia, ShaUh, Hakkabbah, p. 61. 
lis.; Abr. Zacuth, S. Juchtuin, p. 134.; 
Hottingenis, Biblioth. Orient, OL ill. 20. ; 
Unu, CataL MSS, OrienL Biblioth, Bodl 
L 53. ; Hyde, CaiaJ, JUbrcr. impress. BibL 
Bodl I 24.; R. Simon, Hist. Crit du Vieux 
Test. p. 540.) C. P. H. 

ALBOIN, son of Alduin, cliief or king of 
the Longobards, a nation of ancient Ger- 
many, wno are described by Tacitus {German, 
40.) as being a tribe of the SaevL In the 
general movement of the northern nations 
towards the south, which took place in the 
fourth and fifth centuries of our sera, the 
Longobards migrated from the shores of the 
Baltic to the banks of the Danube, and after 
defeating the Heruli, the^ occupied Pannonia, 
in the first part of the sixth century. Here 
they came m contact with the Gepidas who 
had settled in part of Dacia and of Mcesia 
Superior ; and a war ensued between the two 
tribes, in which the Longobards under their 
king Alduin totally defeated the Gepidse. 
Young Alboin distinguished himself in this 
war, and killed with his own hand the son of 
Thorisin, king of the Gepida. After the 
death of Alduin (about a. d. 553), Alboin suc- 
ceeded him as king of the Longobards, and 
carried on a fresh war against the Gepids, in 
which he nearly exterminated that tribe (a. d. 
566), killed Cunimund their king, and forced 
his daughter Rosamund to become his wife. In 
the year 568 Alboin with all his tribe invaded 
Italy, being invited, as some say, by Narses, 
the successftd general of Justinian, whom his 
successor Justin had disgraced. A party 
of Longobards had previously served as 
auxiliaries in the successfhl campaign of 
Narses in Italy against the Goths. Alboin 
first invaded the province of Forum Julii or 
Friuli, over which he placed his nephew 
Gisulf^ as duke or governor. He next oc- 
cupied the country of the Veneti. On cross- 
ing the river Piave he was met by Felix, 
bishop of Treviso, to whom he granted a 
diploma for the security and protection of his 
see and its property. The Longobards were 
at that time Arians. The only towns which 
resisted Alboin were Padua and Mantua. In 
the following year Alboin conquered the 
Milanese territory, and afterwards a part 
of Liguria. Ticinum, the modem Pavia, 
made a stout resistance, and was not taken 
tUl the year 572. Meantime, however, the 
Longobards crossing the Po occupied the 
provinces of Emilia and Thuscia or Tuscany 
and Umbria, as far as Spoletum. Ravenna 
and other towns in the neighbourhood were 
defended by the exarch Ix>nginus. It would 
appear that the progress of the Longobards 
was in some degree fiicilitated by the schism 
720 



of the Archbishop of Aquileia, who had as* 
sumed the title of patriarch and asserted his 
independence of Rome, and opposed the de- 
crees of the fifth GBCumenic council of Con- 
stantinople. The see of Milan was also in a 
state of schism with Rome. Cardinal Noris 
observes that these metropolitans submitted 
themselves willingly to the Longobards, who^ 
being Arians, could protect them against 
Rome, and th^ eastern emperors who ruled at 
Rome. 

Alboin, irritated at the obstinate defence of 
Ticinum, had sworn to put all the inhabitants 
to the sword ; but on entering the eastern 
gate, after the town throujgh famine had sur- 
rendered at discretion, his horse fell nnder 
him and would not rise agiun, when one of 
Alboin's attendants suggested to him that this 
was perhaps a warning to him to spare the 
poor inhabitants. Upon this Alboin abjured 
his oath, and his horse rose up, and he rode 
to the palace of Theodoric, where he fixed 
his residence. Such is the account of Panlus 
Diaconns, the historian of the Longobards. 

In the year 573, Alboin, being at Verona, 
after drinxing deeply at a great banquet, 
ordered a cup to be brought which he had 
made out of the skull of Cunimund, and in- 
vited his wife Rosamund to drink out of it 
Paulus Diaconus testifies that he saw the 
cup nearly two centuries afterwards in the 
possession of King Ratchis. This insult 
roused Rosamund to deadly vengeance. She 
conspired with Helming, her foster-brother 
and armour-bearer to the king, and, by a 
curious stratagem, the queen induced Pere- 
deus, a brave Longobard captain, to assist 
them in murderin^^ Alboin, which they ef- 
fected while the king was taking his after- 
noon sleep. Alboin was generally regretted 
by the Longobards, for he had some great 
qualities mixed with his native ferocity. 
Rosamund escaped to Ravenna with her 
daughter Albswinda and her paramour Hel- 
ming, whom she married. Longinus the ex- 
arch, wishing to marry Rosamund, induced 
her to get rid of Helming, and to marry 
himself, promising her that he would make 
her queen of Italy. The treacherous woman 
assented, and administered poison to Hel- 
ming as he came out of the bath. Helming 
soon felt the effiects of the poison, and he com- 
pelled his wife, at the point of the sword, to 
drink the remainder; and thus they both 
died. Longinus sent Albswinda, with the 
treasures that Rosamund had brought with 
her, to the Emperor Justin at Constantinople. 
(Paulus Diaconus ; Muratori, AnnaU ^Ikuia ; 
Sigonius, De Regno Italia.) A. V. 

ALBON, CLAUDE-CAMILLE-FRAN- 
q;OIS COMTE D\ was descended from, or at 
least was of the same ancient Lyonnese fkmily 
with, Jacques d'Albon, Marechal St. Andre, 
the famous captain of the time of Henry U. 
of France. He was bom at Lyon in 1753, 
and spent the greater part of his short life in 



ALBON. 



ALBON. 



vifliting foreign coantrics, and in acquiring 
a literary notoriety by -writing books and 
otherwise. He began to publish as soon as 
be was out of his minority, and his works 
amount altogether to nearly a dozen ; among 
which may be mentioned a boyish declama- 
tion against conquerors, entitled ** Dialogue 
entre Alexandre et Titus," which appears to 
hare been originally prmted in or before 1774; 
a collection, m 8yo., of "CEuyres Diverses," 
stated to have been, read by him to the 
Academy of Lyon on the day of his recep- 
tion, 1774 ; an ** Eloge" on Qnesnay, the 
founder of the Eoonomistes, of whose yiews 
he was a great admirer, 8to. 1775 ; a poem 
entitled ** La Paresse,** a pretended trans- 
lation from the Greek of Nicander, 8yo. 
1777 ; a " Disconrs,** 8vo. 1784, in which 
he maintains that the age of Augustus was 
fiur outshone both in science and literature by 
the age of Louis XIT. ; an ** Eloge" upon 
Court de Gebelin, Syo. 1785, &c. But his 
most curious and characteristic performance 
IS a sort of survey of the entire social con- 
dition of the prmcipal nations of Europe, 
which first appeared in 1779 and the follow- 
ing years, in 3 vols. 8va, under the title of 
" Discours Politiques, Historiques, et Cri- 
tiques, BUT quelques GouTememens de 
TEurope," and was afterwards extended, or 
recast, and re-published in 4 vols. l2mo. in 
1782, with the new designation of "Discours 
sur THistoire, le Gouvemement, les Usages, 
la Litterature, et les Arts de plusieurs 
Nations de TEurope." Of the four volumes, 
the greater part of the first is devoted to 
England, the remainder to Holland; the 
second is occupied with Switzerland and 
Italy ; the rest of the subject of Italy is dis- 
cussed in the third ; and the fourth goes over 
Spain and Portugal The work is not desti- 
tute of talent ; &ere is a certain degree of 
spirit and buoyancy in the writing ; and 
many of the remarks are acute and sen- 
sible enough. But the self-possession and 
self-satisfaction ^ith which the count pro- 
ceeds in all circumstances, whether he hap- 
pens to know anything about what he 
IS talking of or not, is very amusing. The 
great object of his discourse (or discourses 
rather, for there are two of them) on Eng- 
land, is to prove that the English govern- 
ment, instead of having any character of 
fireedom about it, according to the vulgar 
notion, is really the most despotic that has 
ever existed. The king, he maintains, is in 
fiict perfectly absolute, 3ie constitution being 
essentially and practically a mere monarchy, 
only with a crowd of inconveniences not to 
be found in states purely or openly mo- 
narchical ; and as for the people, they are 
less firee and more oppressed than most of the 
other nations of Europe. The principal con- 
sideration by which he makes all this out is 
the circumstance that it is a prerogative of 
the crown both to oonroke and to dissolve 
721 



the parliament when it^chooses. The Count 
d'Albon died at Paris in 1789. He is 
remembered not only for his books, but for 
a market which he built in the town of 
Ivetot, in Normandy, of which he was pro- 
prietor, with the following Latin words cut 
over the gateway : — " Gentium commodo, 
Camillns IIL" (Camille III., for the accom- 
modation of the nations) ; and for the gar- 
dens around his chateau at Franconville, near 
Paris, which were laid out in the English 
style with great taste, and of which a set of 
views was published, in 19 plates, in an 8vo. 
volume, in 1784. (^Biographie UniverselieJ) 

G. L. C. 

ALBON, MARQUIS DE FRONSAC. 
[Andre', Saimt.] 

ALBO'NI, PA'OLO, an excellent land- 
scape painter of Bologna of 'the beginning of 
the eighteenth century. After practising for 
some time in Bologna, Rome, and Naples, he 
went, in 1710, to Vienna, where he remained 
about thirteen years, when he was deprived 
of the use of his right side by an attack of 
paralysis. He returned in consequence to 
Bologna in 1722, and commenced painting 
anew with his left hand ; his pictures, how- 
ever, after this accident, although surprising 
under the circumstances, were very inferior 
to his previous works. He painted some- 
thing in the style of Ruysdael and other 
Dutch masters. His daughter, Rosa Alboni, 
also excelled in landscape painting. Alboni 
died in 1730. (Crespi, Vite de* Pitlori Bo- 
lognesi, ^c.) R. N. W. 

ALBORE'SI, GIA'COMO, a celebrated 
architectural painter of Bologna, where he 
was bom in 1632. He first studied the 
principles of architecture and perspective 
under Domenico Sonti, and afterwards be- 
came the scholar of Agostino Mitelli, whose 
daughter he married. Alboresi excelled in 
architectural painting in fresco, and executed 
many great works both in public and in pri- 
vate buildings in Bologna, Florence, and 
Parma. The western facade of the cathedral 
at Florence was painted by him, assisted by 
Antonio Maria Pasio. The figures in his 
pictures were painted by Fulgenzio Mondini, 
the scholar of Guercino, until 1664, when 
he died; they were afterwards painted by 
Giulio Cesare Milani. Alboresi died in 1677, 
aged for^-five. (Malvasia, FeUina Pittrice; 
Crespi, rite de* Pittori Bohgnesi^ See.) 

R. N. W. 

ALBORNO'Z, DIE'GO FELI'PE,acanon 
and treasurer of the church of Carthagena, 
who lived in the middle of the seventeenth 
century. He is said to have been bom of a 
noble family, but nothing appears to be 
known either of the place or period of his 
birth, or when he died. He was a man of 
great ability, leaming, and eloquence, and 
wrote a work of much merit, entitled " Car- 
tilla politica y Cristiana,** published at Ma- 
drid in 1666, in 4to., consisting of articles on 



ALBORNOZ. 



ALBORNOZ. 



the Tirtaes and vioes, in alphabetical order. 
He abo pnbliahed at Madrid in 1658, in 4to^ 
*' Las Guerras civiles de Inglaterra," irhich 
18 a translation from the Itwan of Maiolino 
BiflsaocionL (N. Antoniua, BibUotheca Hit- 
pana Nova, I 308.) J. W. J. 

ALBORNCyZ, GIL or ^GFDIUS DE, 
iraa bom of a noble ftunilT at Gaen9a in 
Spain about the beginning of the fborteenth 
century. He atudied at Saragossa, and after- 
▼ardfl at Toulooae, and, haying taken holy 
orders, became chaplain and privy councillor 
to Alfonso XI. king of Camle, who made 
him archdeacon of Alcantara, and afterwards 
caused him to be raised to the archiepiscopal 
see of Toledo. He accompanied Alfonso in 
his expedition against the Moors in Anda^ 
lusia, which end^ in the defeat of the Moors 
and the capture of the town of Algpesiras. 
After the death of Alfonso in 1350, his suc- 
cessor Pedro, styled "the Cruel," continued his 
favour to Albomox, until Albomoz ventured 
to remonstrate with him against his adulterous 
connection with Maria de Padilla. The king 
and his paramour resolved to get rid of their 
troublesome monitor ; and Albomoz, to save 
his life, was obliged to fly fh>m Spain. He 
repaired to Avignon, where Pope Clement 
VI. was then residing, who soon after made 
him a cardinal. Albomox also enjoyed the 
fkvour of Clement's successor. Innocent VL, 
who appointed him his legate in Italy, and 
intrusted him with the recovery of the papal 
states, which, during the absence of the popes, 
and at the instigation of the Emperor Louis of 
Bavaria, had been occupied by several power- 
ful fiunilies, Ordebiffi, Bialatesti, Vico, and 
others. Albomoz, having collected a body 
of mercenaries of various nations, proceeded 
to Italy in the summer of 1353. He first 
repaired to Milan in order to sound the arch- 
bishop Giovanni Yisconti, who was lord of 
the Milanese, and who had abo obtained 
possession of Bologna, notwithstanding the 
claims of the popes on that cit^. The arch- 
bishop received the legate with all respect, 
and professed in genend terms his devotion 
to the papal see. Albomoz, partly in order 
to lull the jealous suspicions of Yisconti, re- 
solved not to move at first towards Romagna, 
but to march direct through Tuscany towards 
Rome. The first enemy he had to encounter 
was Giovanni Vico, tjnnt of Viterbo. While 
at Siena, Albomoz availed himself of some 
dissensions which had arisen among the 
citizens of Perugia, to recover possession of 
that important city in the name of the pope. 
He then despatoh^ messengers to the great 
German company of mercenary adventurers 
commanded by the notorious Fra Moriale, 
who had formerly served in the Neapolitan 
wars under the standard of Louis of Hungary, 
but who were now wandering about Italy 
and plundering the territories of those towns 
which would not save themselves from spo- 
liation by paying money. These freebooters, 
722 



to the number of 8000 men, were at thai 
time ravaging the territory of Todi, not fiyr 
from Perugia. Albomoz, fearing that they 
might join his enemies, attempted to engage 
them for the service of the pope ; but they 
refbaed, saying that they preferred living as 
they then did. Albomoz then requested 
that at least they would not tun their arms 
against the pope, and he promised money 
and other fkvours to their chief Moriale, 
who came to terms, and, moving his men 
firom Todi, led them north of the Apennines 
into the Marches. Albomoz then march^ 
fhmi Pemgia to Montefiasoone, where he 
took up his winter quarters previous to at- 
tacking Vico of Viterbo. In the mean time 
he managed to win over to his side the ctti- 
zens of Orvieto. Vico, on hearing of this, 
marched against Orvieto, took it, and put to 
death several of the ehief men, and levied 
heavy oontribntions upon the citizens. Al- 
bomoz, whose troops were inferior in num- 
ber, especially in cavalry, and whose treasury 
was low, was obliged to look on, and act on 
the defensive. Having at last contrived to 
seduce, partly by bribes and partly by spiritual 
threats, a bod^ of the enemy's cavalry, he 
attacked Yico m the spring a£ 1354, and de- 
feated him between Orvieto and Acquapen- 
dente. He then reduced several towns in the 
neighbourhood ; and Vico, finding himself 
forsaken by most of his partisans, inade offera 
of surrendar. Albomoz allowed him a safe 
conduct for himself and femily, and even ap- 
pointed him governor of Cometa By tlus 
act of clemency he won general fkvour ; and 
not only Viterbo, but Nami, Temi, and the 
whole of Umbria, submitted to him. The 
pope was displeased with the indulgence 
shown to Vico ; but Albomoz explained to 
him the motives of his conduct, and urged 
the necessity of such policy. He now 
marched northwards against the brothers 
Malatesti, lords of RuninL He had previously 
sent to Rome Cola di Rienzi, the demagogue, 
who had been confined for some time in the 
prison of Avignon, and whom Albomoz had 
induced Pope Innocent to release, thinking 
he might be a useful instroment. Cola was 
received at Rome with great honour, and he 
began to put down the turbulent Roman 
barons and to enforce order. He also seized 
and put to death Fra Moriale, the f^booter 
chie£ Cola being shortly after murdered in 
a popular insurrection, the supremacy of the 
pope was temporarily re-estabUshed at Rome. 
The Malatesti, being defeated by the troops 
of Albomoz, entered into an arrangement 
by which they submitted to the pope, restored 
Ancona and other towns, and retained Ri- 
mini, Pesaro, and Fano as vassals and tri- 
butaries of the see of Rome. Polenta, lord of 
Ravenna, did the same; and Gentile da 
Mogliano, lord of Fermo, was obliged to 
surrender himself into the hands of the legate. 
Ordelaffi, lord of Forli and Cesena, and Man- 



ALBORNOZ 



ALBORNOZ. 



fredi, Icffd of Faeoun, atOl lield oat In the 
year 1356 Albomoz preached a cnuade 
against them, and granted ample indnlgencea 
to thoae who oontribated money for thif ob- 
ject Haying by these means collected men 
and money, he first marched against Ascoli, 
▼hich he took, as -vrell as Faenza, by capitu- 
lation. Forli and Cesena still held oat 
About this time some intrigues in the papal 
court of Avignon caused Albomoi to be re- 
called by the pope ; and the legate, having 
assembled at Fano a general parliament oi 
the cities of Romagna in April, 1357, made 
known his recall ; but he was entreated by 
all who were present to defer his departure 
for some months. In the mean time an in- 
surrection, encouraged by the legate's secret 
correspondence, broke out at Cesena with the 
cry of " The Cfanrch forever I " and the town 
was entered by the troops of the legate and 
plundered. Francesco Ordelaffi, lord of 
Forli, also surrendered to the legate; and 
thus the whole Romagna was restored to 
the papal allegiance. Albomoz returned to 
Avignon, but in the foUowing year he was 
sent again to Italy by the pope, who saw 
the mistake he had made in recalling him. 
On his return to Italy, Albomox went to 
Naples to appease some dissensions between 
Queen Joanna I. and several refractory | 
barons. On this occasion Albomoz instituted ' 
an inquiry into a sect of heretics called ^ 
Fraticelli, who were numerous in the king- 
dom of Naples. The sect originated in a ' 
division among the friars of the order of St 
Francis, and had been denounced in a bull ' 
dated 1318 by Pope John XXII. The Em- 
peror Louis of Bavaria furotected the Frati- 
celli, being in a manner his allies, against the 
court of Avignon. They were originally men 
who aspired to a higher degree of spirituality 
than the rest of their brethren, who professed 
an absolute renunciation of all property, 
whether personal or common, as being the 
rule of evangelical perfection, and as having 
been practised by Jesus Christ and his dis- 
ciples. This made them especially obnoxious 
to the wealthy clergy, and to the pamd court 
of Avignon in particular. The Fraticelli 
were persecuted by the Inquisition both in 
Italy and the south of France. Benedict XII. 
had excommunicated them in a bull dated 
1335, in which he made a long enumeration 
of the heads of their heresy. Among them 
were enthusiasts, who exaggerated the merits 
of St Francis, and assimilated him to Jesus 
Christ As usual in such cases, the Fraticelli 
were accused by their enemies of heinous 
crimes and of shameless profligacy, of which 
Genesius de Sepulveda, the biographer of Al- 
bomoz, gives most incredible details. The 
torture, which was applied to some of them, 
was a sure means of making them confess any 
atrocity. Sepulveda says that the cardinal 
was so shocked at the confessions of the ac- 
cused that he caused a number of these Fra- 
723 



ticelli, both men and women, to be seized 
and burned alive. 

In 1360 Albomoz took possession of the 
important city of Bologna by a secret treaty 
widi Giovanni da Ole^gio, who, being go- 
vemor of it for the Visconti of Milan, had 
made himself independent some years before. 
Bamabo Visconti remonstrated with Albomoz 
in support of his claims to Bologna, but the 
legate replied by asserting the anterior rights 
of the papal see over the same city. Visconti 
sent an army to recover Bologna, but the 
legate surprised and defeated it, and then he 
formed a league against Bamabo with the 
Marquis d'Este of Ferrara, Carrara lord of 
Padua, and Feltrino Gonzaga lord d Reggia 
Pope Urban V., who had succeeded Innocent 
VL, solemnly excommunicated Bamabo. 
After some defeats Bamabo sued for peace, 
which was concluded in March, 1364. 

In 1367 Pope Urban V. determined upon 
visiting his Italian dominions, which had 
been restored to him through the exertions of 
Cardinal Albomoz. He met the cardinal at 
Viterbo. After a few interviews, the pope 
one day demanded abroptly of Albomoz an 
account of his fifteen years* administration. 
The legate ordered a cart loaded with the keys 
of all the towns and fortresses which he had 
taken to be brought into the court of the 
palace, and told the pope that he had spent 
his own property in recovering those places for 
His Holiness. The pope, strack with this sig- 
nificant indication of the obligations which he 
owed the cardinal, took him to Rome, where 
the cardinal asked and obtained leave to re- 
sign his commission as legate. Albomoz 
returned to Viterbo, where he died three 
months afterwards, in August, 1367. His 
will, which is annexed to his life, written in 
Latin by Genesius de Sepulveda, provided, 
among other things, for the erection of a 
Spanish college at Bologna. He was one of 
the most remarkable men who have wielded 
at the same time the crosier and the sword. 
(Muratori, Annali iT Italia; Vita del Car- 
dinale Albomoz tradotta da F. Stefano da 
Murcia Betiore dd CoUegio degli Spagnuoli in 
Bdoma, 1590.) A. V. 

ALBO'SIUS JOANNES, or AILLE- 
BOUT, a French physician of the sixteenth 
century, was bom near Autun, practised me- 
dicine at Sens, and was physician to Henry III. 
of France. He published in 1587 an ac- 
count of a foetus which had remained in the 
uterus of a woman at Sens for twenty-eight 
years, and had acquired the hardness of 
stone by the deposition of earthy matter in 
all its tissues. The title of his work is ** Por- 
tentosum Lithopiediam, sive Embryon petri- 
factam Urbis Senonensis, in Utero per Annoe 
28 contentum," Sens, 1582. It contains a 
succmct account of the case, and a short 
commentary, both of which are well written. 
The strangeness and novelty of the event (for 
at that time no similar case was on record, 



ALBOSIUS. 



ALBRECHT. 



though there are now fieveral well-aathenti- 
cated examples of it), excited great curiosity, 
and the book was reprinted in varions forms. 
Simon de ProTanchere published the case 
with a commentary in French, and Cordffius 
inserted it at the end of his " Oommentarius 
in Librum priorem Hip|>ocnitis Coi de Mu- 
liebribus,*' with which it is also published in 
Spachius's ** Gyneciorum," p. 739. (with a 
coarse engraving of the mother and child at 
p. 479.), and in Bauhin's ** Gynieciorum Libri 
Tres." Rosset also wrote an account of the 
case, with his explanation of it, in the form 
of a dialogue in Latin verse, in a work which 
he called ** Scleropaliecyematis, sive Litho- 
psedii Senonensis . . . Causai," and which 
forms an appendix to his " 'TartpoTOftoTOKia, 
id est, Ccesarei Partus Assertio." In the 
copy of the latter inserted in Spachius*s **Gy- 
nsBciorum," p. 463., are two cases of large 
abscesses of the abdomen opened^ by the 
actual cautery, which were communicated by 
Albosins, of whose merits Rosset speaks very 
highly. {Life in Biographie MSdicale.) 

J. P. 
ALBRECHT ACHILLES. [Albert.] 
ALBRECHT, ALCIBIADES, margrave 
of Baireuth, son of Casimir, margrave of 
Brandenburg, and grandson of the Elector 
Albert Achilles, was bom at Anspach on 
the 28th of March, 1522. At the division 
of the Franconian principalities in 1541 
Baireuth fell to his lot. He was a dissipated 
and reckless soldier of fortune. He ori- 
ginally enlisted under the banners of the Duke 
of Alba, but was taken prisoner on the 2d 
of March, 1547, in one of his first battles, 
by the Elector of Saxony. Recovering his 
liberty he entered the service of the em- 
peror, and in 1551 laid siege to Magdeburg 
at the command of the Elector Moritz of 
Saxony. Next year we find him concluding 
a treaty with France at Chambord in the 
name of the Protestant princes of Germany, 
against whom he had been hitherto fighting, 
and carrying on war as a French partisan 
against the city of Niimberg and the bishops 
of Bamberg and Wiirzburg, whom he forced 
to cede some of their lands to him. In the 
course of the same year he made peace with 
the imperial court upon the condition that he 
should be allowed to retain his new ac- 
quisitiona. Hereupon Wiirzburg, Bamberg, 
and Niimberg entered into an alliance with 
the Elector Moritz with a view to recover 
their lost territories. The allied forces gained 
a victory over the margrave Albrecht at 
Sievershausen in the Hanoverian territories 
on the 9th of April, 1553, but the elector 
fell in the battle. The troops of the allied 
powers following up their advantage not- 
withstanding this loss, entered the terntory of 
Baireuth, and on the 22d of June took and 
destroyed the fortress of Plessenburg. Al- 
brecht after this disaster led an unsettled life 
as an exile, wandering from one coiirt of the 
724 



south of Germany to another. He died df 
consumption on &e 8th of January, 1555, 
while on a visit to his cousin the margrave 
of Baden at Pfortzheim. (Lang, Ge$tMickU 
dea Furstentkuma BairevUh, Gottingen, 
1801.) W. W. 

ALBRECHT L, prince of Anhalt : the 
year of his birth is unknown. He succeeded 
his father some time between the yean 
1290 and 1293, but the exact date is uncertain. 
His reign constitutes an »ra in the history 
of N<M:m Germany firom the circumstance <rf 
his having prohibited the use of the Wendiah 
language m his courts of justice. After the 
murder of the Emperor Albert I. in 1308, 
he took an active part in the intrigues which 
preceded the election of a successor to 
the imperial throne. Albrecht I. of Anhslt 
was liberal in his donations to the church. 
He died in 1316. (Beckmann, Historie des 
Fia-sUnthuma AnhalL Zerbst, 1710, foL) 

W.W. 

ALBRECHT IL, prince of Anhalt, son 
of Albrecht L, was, as well as his brother 
Waldemar I., a minor at the time of his 
fSeUher's death. The brothers reigned con- 
jointly till the death of Albrecht, which 
happened in 1362. Their relative Waldemar 
of Brandenburg having died childless in 
1320, their claim to be his heirs was un- 
contested by any member of the fiunily ; 
but the Emperor Ludwig IV. claimed tiie 
Mark of Brandenburg as a fief that had 
lapsed to the crown, and bestowed it upon 
his own son. It might be anger on account 
of this treatment, or it might be a belief of 
the story told by the Waldemar generally 
admitted to have been a mere pretender, that 
induced them to support in 1348 the claims 
of that adventurer. The principality of 
Anhalt suffered severely during the war to 
which his pretensions gave rise, which lasted 
till 1355. The burden of government during 
the greater part of this war lay upon Al- 
brecht, for Waldemar undertook a journey 
to the Holy Land in 1343. Albrecht stood 
high in the confidence of the Emperor Charles 
I\., and it is as one of his counsellors 
that his name is appended to the golden bull 
promulgated at Metz in 1356. Albrecht 
died in 1362, leaving his sons to the care of 
his brother, who only survived him a few 
years, fidlin^ in baUle against Bishop Gerard 
of Hildesheim in 1367. There were two 
other princes of the name of Albrecht in 
this family ; but neither of them calls for 
more particular notice. (Beckmann, Historie 
des Fiirstenthunu AnhaU, Zerbst, 1710, foL) 

W.W. 

ALBRECHT of Austria. [Albert.] 

ALBRECHT, BALTHASAR AUG US- 
TIN, a German historical painter, born at 
Berg, near Munich, in 1687. He studied 
painting in Munich, spent some years in Italy, 
and returned to Munich in 1719, when he 
was appointed painter to the court, and in- 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



spector of the ^ery. In the abbey chnrch 
of Schwanach, at Ingolstadt, at Eichgtadt, at 
Landshut, and at Diessen in Bavaria, there 
are altar-pieces by him. He died at Munich 
in 1765. (Lipowsky, Baieritches KUnstUr- 
LejeicoH.) R. N. W. 

ALBRECHT I. of Bavabia, the third 
■on of the Emperor Lndwig V. (who by the 
extinction of the ftmily of Lower Bavaria 
had succeeded to the whole territory), by his 
second wife Margareta of Holland, succeeded 
in the year 1349, along with his two elder 
brothers, to the joint sovereignty of Lower 
Bavaria and the provinces of Holland, Zea- 
land, Hainault, and Friesland. A fiimily 
compact entered into in 1353 gave the Ne- 
therland provinces, along with the district 
of Straubing and twenty-two communes in 
Bavaria, to Lndwig*s sons Wilhelm and Al- 
breeht along with their mother. Margareta 
died in 1356, and Wilhelm became insane in 
1358. Albrecht then assumed the reins of 
government, and guided them as admini- 
strator for his insane brother and himself 
till 1388, when the former died without 
heirs. Albrecht continued to govern in 
his own right till his death in 1404. He 
resided alternately at the Hague and Straub- 
ing, and left the reputation of a clement 
prmce without distinguishing himself parti- 
cularly either in civil or military capacity. 
His second son Albrecht, whom the Bavarian 
genealogists call Albrecht IL, died before 
him, according to some in the year 1387, ac- 
cording to others in the year 1399. (Am- 
pokhius, Ckronicon Bojoaricrum ; Pezius, 
Thesauri Anecdotonan noviMtmi, t. iii. pars 
iii. ; Joannes Adlzreiter, Boica Gentis An- 
naleSf pars ii. ; Ersch und Oruber, AUge- 
meine EncyclopSdie, voc " Baiem.") W. W. 

ALBRECHT III of Bavaria, the great 
grandson of Stephen IL, brother <^ Wilhelm 
and Albrecht L, whose portion of Lower Bava- 
ria was divided at his death into three parts 
hy his sons. Albrecht IIL descended from 
Johann, the third son, who received Milnchen 
and the territory dependent on it for his 
sharCr Albrecht, the son of Ernst I., is called 
m history ** the Pious," a name which he ap- 
pears, like many other princes, to have owed 
to his weakness and want of character. In 
youth he married clandestinely Agnes of 
Peman, the daughter of a barber or keeper 
of a bath, whom his enraged father, on the 
discovery of the misalliance, caused to be 
drowned in the Danube, in October, 1436. 
Ampekhius says that the young prince was 
long afflicted in consequence ; but his mar- 
riage with Anna of Brunswick took place in 
the same year. In 1438 Alhrecht became 
duke of Baiem-Miinchen by the death of his 
ikther. His reign was peaceable, but he left 
publie bosiness in a great measure to his 
wife. Having quarrelled with her towards 
the close of his life, he associated his two 
eldest sons with him in the government He 
785 



WB8 mbject to fireqnent attacks of the gout« 
and his chief occupations were music and 
hunting. On the death of the Emperor Al- 
bert II. the Bohemian crown was offered to 
the Duke of Baiem-Miinchen by the nobles 
ot that country, but he declined it, as likely 
to involve lum in stru^les incompatible 
with his indolent disposition. He died in 
February, 1460. (Arnpekhius, Chrmicon 
Bcioanorum; Adlzreiter, Boica Gentis An- 
tuuesi Ersch und Gruber, Attgemeine Encyeh- 
pSdie, voc " BMem.") W. W. 

ALBRECHT IV. of Bavabia, called by 
historians Albrecht the Wise, the son of Al- 
brecht III., was bom on the 14th of Decem- 
ber, 1447. It was the pradence and resolu- 
tion of this prince that laid the foundation of 
the greatness of his family. 

In early life he and some of his brothers 
were sent to Rome for their education. He 
made such progress in his studies, that in 
after life the rude nobles of Upper Germany, 
who were jealous of his superiority over 
them, called him in mockery the writer 
(der schreiber). 

Albrecht was under age when his father 
died in 1460. By the wiU of Albrecht IIL 
his two eldest sons were to govem jointly 
the hereditary territories of their family. 
John III. and Sigismund accordingly as- 
sumed the government, but the former dying 
without heirs in 1463, Albrecht IV. suc- 
cceeded as next in order to the jomt re- 
gency. This arrangement lasted only for 
the next two years. Sigismund, an unam- 
bitious self-indulgent man, resigned the task of 
prince to his brother Albrecht. Christopher, 
the fourth brother, an ambitious prince, and, 
on account of his courage and taste for magni- 
ficence, a favourite with the nobles, claimed 
to be admitted to a share in the government 
on the resignation of Sigismund. A league 
was formed among the equestrian order of 
the duchy to support his claims. The con- 
troversy was r^erred to the arbitration of 
Lndwig of Bavaria, of the line of Landshut, 
who pronounced in &vour of Albrecht 
Christopher and his partisans refused to 
acquiesce in the decision of the arbiter, but 
Albrecht broke up the confederacy by his 
politic arts. Christopher persisting in his 
intrigues, his brother caused him to he 
arrested, and, in spite of the remonstrances 
of his vassals and the mediation of the em- 
peror, kept him a prisoner till thirty-six of 
the equestrian order became securities for 
his future good behaviour. Albrecht, as 
soon as he found himself secure in the 
possession of undivided authority, turned his 
attention to the extension, consolidation, and 
permanent organisation of his states, and 
found therein ample occupation for the rest 
of his life. 

Passmg over many acquisitions which he 
made from time to time, he redeemed in 
1481 Stadt-am-hoC which his predecessors 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



had mortgaged to the hnrghen of the im- 
perial fm town Ratisbon; and in I486 
he peraoaded the citixena of Ratisbon 
themaelyes to do homa^ to him as their 
liege lord. This acquisition however he was 
obliged to abandon on account of the threats 
of the Emperor Maximilian L, who revised 
to allow so important a city to be alienated 
firom the empire. In 1493, on the extinction 
of the house of Abensberg, Albrecht pur- 
chased that Taluable territoiy Arom the em- 
peror, and incorporated it widi his dominions. 
The death of George the Rich, whose 
grandfiither had united .the inheritance of 
Sie Ingolstadt and Landshut branches of the 
Bavarian &mily, without male heirs in 1503, 
opened to Albrecht the prospect of once more 
reuniting the whole of Bavaria into one duke- 
dom. The rival pretensions of the female 
heirs of George gave rise to a war, at the 
termination of which Albrecht found himself 
in undisputed possession of the greater part 
of Bavaria as it had been possessed by his 
ancestor the Emperor Ludwig V. 

The states (landstiinde) of Bavaria, which 
had been rising into importance under the 
feeble princes who governed fragments of 
Bavaria, retained under Albrecht IV. the 
powers they had acquired, although it was 
reserved ibr the reign of his son to five 
them the constitution, which they retamed 
with little or no alteration till 1808. It 
was principally in the administrative ar- 
rangements of the central government that 
Albrecht's talent for legislation was felt 
He obtained the pope's leave for two of the 
ablest prebendaries of every cathedral in 
his territories to reside permanently at his 
court, without having their salaries stopped 
on aooount of their absence from their 
ecclesiastical duties. By this arrangement 
he secured the assistance of a body of 
well-educated counsellors without entailing 
any additional expense on the public revenue. 
He instituted a strict superintendence over 
the convents and monasteries, and punished 
the licentiousness of their inmates by the 
imposition of forced loons, which were ap- 
plied to alleviate the burdens of his subjecta, 
and defray the expenses of his territorial 
acquisitions. It was principally the free- 
dom of the inhabitants of Stadt-am-hof from 
the exactions and the aggressions of the 
lawless nobility in their vicinity, which the 
paternal government of Albrecht insured 
to them, that induced the burghers of Ratis- 
bon to think of snljecting themselves to 
the feudal superiority of Bavaria. 

To give permanence to the state he had 
in a manner founded was the last care of Al- 
brecht He had married ui 1487 Kunigunde, 
a daughter of the Emperor Frederick IIL, by 
whom he had three sons. Alarmed lest 
Bavaria should again after his death be par- 
titioned into a number of petty territories, he, 
with the consent of his only surviving brother 
726 



Wolfgang, and the sanction of the lantf- 
stiinde, concluded a fiunily compact, by which 
it was ordained that in all future time the 
eldest prince should succeed to the undivided 
political superiority in the duchy of BaTvia, 
and that the younger brothers should receive 
merely the title of Graf along with an animal 
pension. This compact, filially arranged m 
the year 1506, laid the foundation of the Ba- 
varian state. 

Albrecht IV. died on the 10th of Biarch, 
1508. (Ampekhius, Cknmicon Bofoariorum. 
The author of this chronicle composed it 
under Albrecht IV. AdUreiter, Boic<e Gem- 
tia Annalea; Heinrich, Deutsche Reich^ 
geschichie; Ersch und Gruber's AUaemeimit 
Etu:yclopSdie, voc " Albrecht IV.**; Uerzog^ 
voc ♦• Baiem.") W. 'W. 

ALBRECHT V. of Bavabia, son of ^11- 
helm IV., was bom in 1528, and succeeded 
his father in 1550. The Bavarian historiaiis 
call him " the Magnanimous." The prominent 
characteristics of his reign are attributable on 
the one hand to his love of the fine arts, on 
the other to his attachment to the Romish 
church, dispositions which have been in- 
herited by his descendants. 

Albrecht V. was liberal to such scholars 
as took up their residence either at his uni- 
versity at Ingolstadt, or his capital Miinchen. 
The musical establishment of his chi^iel-royai, 
under the direction of Orlando Lasso, was the 
most celebrated of its day. He was a mu- 
nificent patron of poets, painters, sculptors, 
and architects. The expenses occasioned by 
his indulgence of these tastes were a constant 
source of discussion between him and the 
diets of his states-general (Landstande), of 
which during his reign four were held at 
Landshut, five at Miinchen, and two at In* 
golstadt These debates generally ended, 
after the diet had duly represented the in»> 
poverishment of the country and the neces- 
sity of reduced taxation, with the duke's 
granting the complainants an extension of 
their privileges, and the stande taking upon 
themselves the payment of his debts. In 
virtue of these compromises, Bavariaobtained, 
in 1552, a general police edict (Landes-' 
poliseiordnung) ; in 1557 the confirmafioa 
of the privil4res and jurisdictien of the 
equestrian order ; and in the course of Al- 
brecht's reign no less than thirty additional 
charters (Freibriefe) to the thirty-four granted 
by his ancestors. 

The devotional turn of the duke showed 
itself in his liberal donations to diurches and 
monks, and especially to the Jesuits. The 
fiivour he showed to this new order excited 
the jealousy of the Landstiinde, who com- 
plained of tiiem as a substitute fbr an inqui- 
sition, and demanded libertr of conscience. 
The convention of Passau m 1552, and the 
religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, having 
proved unavailing to restore tranquillity, Al- 
brecht sent his counsellor Baomgarten to 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



Trent in 1561, to solieit the abolition of the 
celibacy of the clergy and the concession of 
the administration of both elements of the 
Lord's supper to the laity. £bd the conncil 
yielded, he was willing for the sake of peace 
to have conceded these points ; but as it stood 
firm, he adhered to the decision of the church. 
The consequence was considerable discon- 
tent among the equestrian order, and a par- 
tial conspiracy in 1564-5, which was crushed 
before it came to a head. Albrecht's judicious 
lenity prevented any renewal of the attempt, 
and the subject of religion was not again 
introduced at any diet held in his time. 

Albrecht V. died on the 22d of October, 
1579. (Adbsreiter, Boica Gentis Annalea, 
pars ii. lib. xi.) W. W. 

ALBRECHT of Brandenbubg. [Al- 
bert.] 

ALBRECHT II., margrave of Bbanden- 
BURO, son of Otho L, reigned from 1205 to 
1220. During the first year he had his bro- 
ther Otho II. for a colleague, but the death 
of that prince without heirs, in 1206, left 
him to the undivided enjoyment of power. 
Albrecht was a partisan of the Emperor Phi- 
lip of Suabia ; but after the murder of Philip, 
in 1208, he submitted to his rival Otho IV. 
He remained true to his new allegiance even 
after the pope had set up Frederick IL of the 
Hohenstaufen family in opposition to Otho. 
When Otho betook himself to a private life 
in 1215, Albrecht tendered his submission 
to Frederick, who, respecting his character, 
accepted it graciously. 

A war which Albrecht began with his 
namesake, the Archbishop of Magdeburg, in 
support of the claims of Otho IV. to the 
throne, was continued ftt)m motives of pri- 
vate hostility. Albrecht was dissatisfied with 
his deceased brother's liberality to the church, 
at the expense of the territories of Branden- 
burjg, and endeavoured to re^;ain some lands 
which had been granted by hmi to the Arch- 
bishop of Magdeburg. This fend kept Al- 
brecht n. in f^ employment during the rest 
of his life, and was the source of many suf- 
ferings to the subjects of Brandenburg, long 
after his death. Albrecht was succeeded by 
his two sons Johann I. and Otho IIL {Scrip- 
torea Herum Brandenbttrgentittm, Franco- 
ftirti ad Viadrum, 1751, 4ta ; Ziedlita, Stoats- 
beachrtibvng Pretutens. Berlin, 1828 ; Stein 
in Ersch und Oruber's Attaememe Eneydopd- 
die, voc ** Albrecht IL, Auu>kgraf von Bran- 
denburg.*') W. W. 

ALBRECHT of Bremen. [Albert.] 

ALBRECHT, duke of Brunswick, called 
by historians ** the Great," son of Duke Otho 
the Child, was bom in 1236. Through his 
fiither, Albrecht was a descendant of Matilda 
of Bavaria and Saxonv, dmighter of Henry IL 
of England. His fiid^er dying in 1252, Al- 
brecht gave in his sixteenth ^ear an indica- 
tion of his daring and energetic character, by 
taking the reins of government into his own 
727 



hands, and assoming the office of guardian of 
his younger brothers. In 1254 he married 
Elizabeth, daughter of Sophia of Brabant, 
with whom he lived seven years in a child- 
less marriage. He was knighted on the 
occasion of the tournament held in honour of 
his nuptials. 

Not long after his marriage he was in- 
volved in a feud with Gerhard, archbishop 
of Mayence. Hostilities were carried on after 
a desidtory fbshion for a considerable time ; 
but in 1258, while Albrecht was engaged in 
the siege of Asseburg, Gerhard and his allies 
made an incursion into the district of Gottin- 
gen. Wilke, the duke's principal ofiicer in 
that quarter, fell upon them unexpectedly: 
the archbishop was taken prisoner, and 
obliged to purchase his freedom with the 
outlay of a considerable part of the money 
with which Richard of Cornwall had pur- 
chased his vote at the imperial election. The 
garrison of Asseburg, notwithstanding the 
fiiilure of this attempt at a diversion in its 
fiivour, made such an obstinate defence that 
Albrecht was glad to get possession of the 
caatle on the condition of aUowing the garri- 
son to march out with the honours of war. 
Hostilities were terminated towards the close 
of the year by the election of Albrecht's 
brother Otho to be bishop of Hildesheim. 
He immediately turned his arms against the 
margrave Heinrich of Meissen, having em- 
braced the cause of his wife's brother in the 
disputes regarding that territory. He ac- 
quired some fimie, but little profit, in this 
campaign. 

After the death of his wife Sophia (1261), 
Albrecht engaged in a kind of knight-errant 
expedition to Denmark, in hopes to win for 
himself a wife and a crown. He succeeded 
in liberating Queen Margaret from the prison 
in which she and her son, afterwards Erie 
IV., were kept by the Count of Holstein ; 
was appointed regent of the kingdom, and 
fiattered with expectations of the queen's 
hand. His government, however, partly on 
account of a natural severity of disposition, 
and pertly on account of his yiel£ng too 
much to the queen's excessive appetite for 
revenge, was so oppressive, that the Danes 
rebelled, and in 1263 he returned to his own 
country. 

Here he learned that dnring his absence 
the fortune of the war in Meissen had turned 
against his brother-in-law. He assembled 
the neighbouring noUes^ at a tournament in 
1263, and having persuaded them to join 
him, broke immediately into the territory of 
Meissen. He was taken prisoner, and only 
recovered his liberty, after two years' con- 
finement, upon ceding eight towns and castles 
to the margrave, and paying in addition a 
ransom of 8000 marks. 

After recovering his liberty he proceeded 
to England for the purpose of marrying 
Adelheid of Monferrato, a niece of the Queen 



ALBRECHt. 



ALBRECHT. 



of England. This alliance, it appears from 
letters in Rymer's Foedera (i. 751. 738.), Iwid 
been contemplated at an earlier period, but 
had been broken off^ probably in consequence 
of his Danish engagement A letter of 
Henry III. to the collectors of the customs in 
London (Rymer, i. 838.) intimates that the 
duke had contracted debts in the city on that 
occasion which he was unable to discharge, 
and directs them to furnish him with the 
means. Notwithstanding this high matri- 
monial alliance, Albrecht*s finances continued 
in such a dilapidated condition that when the 
Hohenstaufen line became extinct by the 
execution of Corradino in 1268, he, who had 
the best claim to the lands in Suabia, of which 
that family had deprived his ancestors, was 
Unable to take part in the scramble for their 
succession. He appears to have obtained 
more for others than fbr himself : the privi- 
leges granted in 1266 by Henry IIL to the 
merchants of Liibeck trading to London 
appear to have been conceded at the request 
of the Duke of Brunswick. 

The income of the Duke of Brunswick was 
not increased by the partition of the terri- 
tories comprised within the dukedom between 
himself and his brother Johann, which was 
projected and carried into effect in 1268-9. 
It is possible, however, that this arrange- 
ment gave him the power of introducing 
better order into the management of his 
finances : at least from this period his re- 
sources seem to have kept steadily improving. 
Johann received for his share Liineburg and 
the lands between the Deister and the Leine ; 
all the rest fell to Albrecht, with the excep- 
tion of the town of Brunswick, which they 
continued to possess in common, exercising 
also in common sdl rights of feudal and terri- 
torial superiority. 

Albrecht had now attained his thirty-sixth 
^ear, and from this time forward his career 
18 unmarked by any such self-sacrifices as 
engaged him in the wars of his brother-in- 
law, or any such romantic projects of agg^ran- 
dizement as lured him to Denmark. It would 
extend this sketch to an undue length to re- 
capitulate ]dl the acquisitions of territory 
which he made in the course of the next 
eight years. They were chiefly at the ex- 
pense of his own feudal vassals, or the neigh- 
bouring nobles : sometimes he obtained grants 
from the fi«e towns for defending them 
against the rapaciou^ni^hts in their vicinity. 
The policy of conciliating the towns then 
rising into importance, of which the solicita- 
tion of privileges for the merchants of Liibeck 
at London was the first indication, was 
steadily adhered to by Albrecht He pro- 
tected the citizens of Hamburg, Lubeck, &c, 
while in his territories ; and conferred ex- 
tensive privileges on many of his own towns. 
On the other hand he ratlier sought to Pj^ce 
himself in opposition to the church. That 
two of his brothers were bidiops (at Hildes- 
728 



heim and Verden) was only in so &r of ad* 
vantage to him that it relieved him ttom the 
necessity of maintaining them. With all the 
rest of the prelates in the north of Germany 
(and sometimes even with them) he was 
almost constantly engaged in hostilities. His 
first enemy, the Archbishop of Mayenoe, was 
his enemy to the last Unable to gain any 
advantage over him by arms, this prelate 
had recourse to excommunication ; but this 
Albrecht endured with an equanimity rare 
in that age. He paid great attention to the 
proceedings in the provincial law courts in 
his states, and often presided in person. 

Rudolf L intrusted Albrecht in 1277 with 
the management of the imperial domams in 
Nether Saocony. The duke's brother Johann 
dying about the same time, he obtained as 
guardian of his infknt nephew the entire con- 
trol in his portion of the duchy. The con- 
centrated power thus placed in his hands the 
experience of ten years of skilful and states- 
numlike government promised to enable him 
to turn to account He did not however long 
survive this augmentation of his power : he 
died on the 15th of September 1279, in the 
forty-third year of his age, before he could 
accomplish any of the great undertakings 
which were expected from him, leaving his 
sons by a third wife, Heinrich and Al- 
brecht, heirs to his .territories. ( Versuch 
einer pragmatiachen Geschichte des dvrdi" 
lauchtigsten Houses Braunschweig und Lime- 
burg, Braunschweig, 1764, 8va ; Origimea 
Gueffica, edidit C. L. Scheidius, Hanover®, 
1753, fol. iv. 6 — 18 j Rymer's Fcedera, vols, 
i. and ii) W. W. 

ALBRECHT the Corpulent (der feiste, 
pinguis) of Brunswick, the second son of 
Albrecht the Great, is the common ancestor 
of the reigpaing house of Brunswick, and its 
junior branch the ro^al house of Hanover. 
His mother acted in his name from the death 
of his fiaher, 1279 till 1282, when Albrecht, 
having been knighted by Magnus, king 
of Sweden, appears to have assumed the 
management of his own affairs. In 1286 
Albrecht formed a compact with his elder 
brother Heinrich, to the effect that the ter- 
ritories which both had acquired by marriage 
should be held m common like those which 
had devolved to them by right of inheritance ; 
that the ecclesiastical fiefs should be adminis- 
tered in common, and neither should grant a 
temporal fief to any vassal without the con- 
sent of the other ; that neither should alienate 
any lands, or appoint stewards or similar 
officers, without the other's consent ; that nei- 
ther should engage in hostilities without the 
other's consent ; and that both should take 
care to live so economically as to prevent the 
lands of the duch^ from being burdened with 
debt These amicable relations between the 
brothers did not last long. In 1288 Albrecht 
and a younger brother, Wilhelm, embraced 
the party of SigfHed, bishop of Hildesheim, 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



ytho "was at war with Heinrich, and besieged 
their brother in the town of Hdmstfidt. 
These hostilities terminated in a compromiBe. 
In 1291 the three brothers were in arms 
against the bishop, but their alliance was not 
very cordial: ^brecht and Wilhelm con- 
cluded a separate peace, and Heinrich was 
obliged to follow their example. Wilhelm 
died in 1292. Albrecht, on what gronnds it 
does not appear, laid claim to be his sole heir, 
and Heinrich's opposition again led to a war 
between them. The period at which these 
hostilities terminated and the final arrange- 
ment of the brothers respecting the contested 
succession are unknown. Albrecht was ex- 
pensiye in his habits, and notwithstanding the 
compact of 1286, he sold more lands and pri- 
vileges than he acquired. It was to his 
necessities much more than to his liberality 
or talent as a ruler that many important im- 
provements made in the laws of the duchy 
and their administration in his day were 
owing. Helmstiidt and Brunswick obtained 
important extensions of their liberties in re- 
turn for sums advanced to their needy master $ 
and in 1293 the judicial organisation of his 
territories was materially improved by an 
onlinance published at Miinden, apparently 
in return for pecuniary assistance from the 
Landstande. Albrecht the Corpulent died in 
1318, leaving by his wife Rixa a large &mily, 
of which the three brothers Otho, Kagnus, 
and Ernst succeeded to his lands and dignities. 
Albrecht became bishop of Halberstadt, and 
Heinrich bishop of HildesheiuL (^Verauck 
einer pragnuUuchen Geachickte des dvrchlauch- 
tigsten Hauaet Brawuchweig und Limebwy, 
Braunschweig, 1764, 8vo.) W. W. 

ALBRECHT II. of Brukswtck was great 
grandson of Albrecht the Great The por- 
tion of the ducal possessions which fell to the 
share of. his grandfather Heinrich the Won- 
derful (Mirabilis) had, after being divided 
between his &ther Ernst and uncle Hein- 
rich, been reunited in the person of the 
former, on the death of the tatter's sons with- 
out issue. The united territory was governed 
in common by Ernst, Albrecht II., and three 
brothers of the latter, the two elder of whom 
died before him. The surviving brother, 
Friedrich, being the youngest of the family, 
took little concern in public a£^rs till after 
the death of Albrecht, and hence Albrecht 
is generally rewded as sole regent of the 
branch of the Brunswick £unily known by 
the designation of BraoQSchweig-Gruben- 
hagen from 1361 to 1384. He has the re- 
putation of having been an admirer of his- 
torical writings : his character as a ruler is 
less favourable. From his castle Salz der 
Helden he made predatory inroads into the 
territories of his neighbours like a common 
" Raub-ritter " of the time. Nor was he suf- 
ficiently master of that disreputable profession 
to gain by it The margrave of Meissen re- 
duced him in 1365, notwithstanding his castle 

YOL. L* 



was defended by a cannon said to have been 
the first ever ^ed in Lower Saxony, to such 
extremities, that he was glad to purchase 
peace by ceding some of his best towns. His 
necessities obliged him to pawn many lord- 
ships to neighbouring nobles, and to sell pri- 
vileges to the burghers of the more powerM 
towns. It thus happened that he left his 
dukedom materially curtailed and burdened 
with debts to his successors. It may be 
worth notice that Albrecht and his brothers 
were the first to introduce the white horse, 
the fiunily arms, in their privy seals. (Fer- 
swh einer praamatuchen Geachickte desdurck" 
Utuchtigsten Houses Braunschweig und Lune- 
burg, Braunschweig, 1764, 8vo.) W. W. 
ALBRECHT IIL of Brunswick, grand- 
son of Albrecht II., succeeded along with 
his two brothers, Ernst and Heinrich, to the 
uncontrolled exercise of their hereditary 
power on the death of their uncle and guar- 
dian, Otho, in 1439. The three brothera 
reigned conjointly till 1463, when, on the 
death of Heinrich, Ernst retii^ to a convent, 
and left Albrecht to govern alone in his own 
name and the name of Heinrich*s son, a 
minor. In 1481 a division of the territory 
between Albrecht and his nephew took place. 
The former survived this transaction five 
years, dying in 1486. Albrecht IIL without 
possessing distinguished, talents was a re- 
^>ectable states m a n ; he is memorable 
chiefly for his efiEbrts to improve the con- 
dition of the mining population of the Heu^z, 
and to render the working of the mines more 
productive. An Albrecht lY. of this fiunily 
is mentioned by its historians, but he died 
before his father in 1456, and, although ad- 
mitted according to the custom of the time 
and country to a share in the government, 
can scarcely be regarded as having been ac- 
tually a reigning prince. ( Versuck einer prag- 
matischen Geschichte des durcfdauchtigsten 
Houses Braunschweig und LSnehurg. Braun- 
schweig, 1764, 8va) W. W. 
ALBRECHT CASIMIR. [Albert.] 
ALBRECHT, REV. CHRISTIAN, one 
of the pioneers of Christian missionary opera- 
tions in the interior of South Africa, was a 
native of Suabia, in Germany, but the date 
of his birth we have not been able to ascer- 
tain. He was originally connected with the 
Netherlands Bfissionary Society, but became 
an agent of the London Missionary Society, 
by whom he was sent to South Africa. He 
arrived at Cape Town on the 19th of Januar}-, 
1805, whence he proceeded in company with 
some other missionaries into the wild and 
desolate region of Namaqualand, to intro- 
duce the knowledge of Christianity to the 
savage tribes by whom it is inhabited. Some 
of the dangers and difficulties of this benevo- 
lent undertaking may be conceived from 
the memoir of Africaner, from which 
also may be seen the success which attended 
the efforts of the devoted men with whom 
3 B 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



Albreebt was associated ; but a much ftiUer 
account of both is given in the work referred 
to at the close of this article. Albrecht eoxn- 
menced his Uboura among the Namaquaa od 
the 8 1st of January, 1806, and in May, 1810, 
he left his station at Warm Bath, north of the 
Great Orange river, and made a visit to the 
colony in company with hia brother Abra*' 
ham, who had accompanied him to Africa, 
and who shortly afterwards died from the 
effect of the climate, coupled with the hardships 
to which he had be«n exposed. While in the 
colony, Christian Albrecht married, at Cape 
Town, Miss Burgman, a lady of Dutch family, 
who entered zealously into all her husband's 
views. But a few months however had 
elapsed after their return to Warm Bath, 
when the missionaries were compelled by a 
threatened attach from Africaner and his 
followers to fly from that station. They and 
the natives under their instruction, after 
suffering many privations, and being com* 
pelled for some tune to shelter themselvea in 
holes dug in the ground, at length took refuge 
in the colony, whence Albrecht and his wife 
again returned early in 1812. Albrecht*s 
wife died in that year at Silver Fountain, on 
the border of the colony, but her husband 
returned into Namaqualand, and assisted in 
the re-establishment of the misaion at PeUa, 
south of the Great Orange rivar, where about 
five hundred of the former eongregation at 
Warm Baft were coUected. lU health obliged 
Albrecht once more to return to Cape Town, 
where he died suddenly on the S5th of July, 
1815, " leaving behind him," a* obaerved by 
Mr. Moffat, " a bright testimony of aeal, love^ 
and aelf-denial, seldom equalled.** (Moffat's 
Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern 
Africa^ chaps, v. and vi. ; Comaumtoolioiiyrom 
the Lcndon Missioneuy SodetyJ) J. T. & 

ALBRECHT of Fbbisimq. [Aijbsm.] 
ALBRECHT OF HALBERSTADT, a 
German poet who lived in the eariy part of 
the thirteenth century. Coneeniing his lifb 
we know nothing;', exe^ that in the year 
1212 he was staying with tha landgrave Her- 
mann of Thuriagk in hia castle of Zechen* 
bach. 

Albrecht is chiefly known to us as a 
translator of the poetical works of other 
nations into German, and his productions 
are classed among those of the German 
Minnesingers. The following works of his 
are extant : --*• 1. *' Tschionadnlander," that 
is, the history of Titurel and the guardians 
of the holy graal (properly called sang real, 
the real blood of Jesns Christ) which Joseph 
of Arimathea is said to have brought to 
England. The emerald vessel in which it 
was supposed to have been contained was 
brought in 1100 fh>m Palestine to Genoa; 
and this circumstance gave rise to various 
poetical works of the kind in Southern 
Europe. That of Albrecht is a free translar 
tion of a French romance by a writer of tib^e 
730 



of Kyot or Gi^ot : Albrecht was as- 
sisted in his task by his contemporary, the cele- 
brated poet Wolfram von Eschenbach. Ha- 
nuacriptB of this work exist in the libraries 
of Dresden, Hanover, and the Vatican. 
There is also a printed edition of it, pub- 
lished in 1477 without place, in. folio, whidi 
is extremely scarce. [Wolfram von Es- 
CBBNBACH.} 2. '* Gamuret" is a transla- 
tion of a similar romance by the same French 
writer. Albrecht only translated the first part 
of it ; the remainder is translated by Wol- 
fram von Eschenbach. The whole is con- 
tained in the folio volume of 1477 mentioned 
above. 8. A metrical translation of ** Ovid's 
Metam(»7>hose8," whieh Albrecht undertook 
in 1 2 10 at the request of Landgrave Hermann. 
In a strict sense it can scarcely be called 
a translation, inasmuch as Albrecht has 
omitted several parts, added and altered 
others, and also maerted several moral re- 
flections of his own. It was first printed 
under the title " Metamorphoaeon Libri XV., 
verdeutscht dureh Albertumvon Halberstadt 
um das Jahr 1210, auf Befehl Hermann's, 
Landgrafen in Thiiringen, und gedruckt zu 
Mayntz, 1545, fol." This is the oldest Ger- 
man translation of Ovid; the bmguage of 
Albrecht, however, was considered too harsh 
by the writers of the sixteenth century, and 
QeoTg Wickram of C<rfmar, without possess- 
ing any knowledge of Latin, undertook to 
remoddl Albrecht's trawalatioH, and to make 
it more readable. This altered edition ap- 
peared at Mainz in 1551, fi>L^ and was re- 
minted at FrankfM m 1564 and 1560, in ^to. 
This edition of Wiekzam was subsequently 
again remodelled by an anon^oua writer 
at Frankfurt in fimr sueceaaive editions, 
1609, 1625, 1681, and 1641, in 4to. ( Adelung, 
Magazin der Deutschen Smche^ ii. 3. 12, &c.; 
Koch, Kompendiwtt der J)eKiscken Literatur- 
Geschichte^ l 35. 97. ; iL 219. 306. ; Jordens, 
Lexikon DeuUcher IHchier vnd iVosaistes, iii. 
611, &c. ; Gervinus, Oeschiehie der National" 
Literatvr der Deutacken, iL 45, &c 2d edit) 

L.& 
ALBRECHT of RaLBBBSTAixr. [Ai.- 

BBBT.] 

ALBRECHT ai Hollahsl [Auibbcht L 
of Bavaria.] 

ALBRECHT, JOHANN FRIEDRICH 
ERNST, was bom in 1752 at Stade in 
Hanover, and studied medieme at Erfuit. 
After having finished his studies and taken 
his degree as doctor of medicine, he went 
to Reval as private physician to Count 
Mannteu^el. After staying a fSew years with 
the count he lived successively at Erfurt, 
Leipzig, and Dresden, and ocd^pied himself 
chiefiy with novel-writing. Afterwards he 
set up as a bookseller at Prague ; but not 
succeeding in business, he undertook the 
management of the theatre at Altona, where in 
his later years he resumed the practice of his 
medical profession, and died in the year 181dw 



ALBRCCHT 



ALBRECHT. 



' Albreeht was one of the most prolific 
Gennan novelists of the last centory, bat 
none of his works rise above mediocrity, 
although some of them were much reacL 
There is a class of CSerman readers who 
devour even the worst novels, whether they 
are the productions of €rermaa writers, 
or translations from foreign languages, and 
even writers of doubtful merit are thus 
raised to a temporary popularity by the 
great demand for novels. Nearly all the 
works of Albreeht have fallen into complete 
oblivion. The following list contains those 
which had at the time the greatest popu- 
larity :— I. «* Waller and Natalie," 2d edition, 
Leipsig, 1782, 3 vols. 2. '* Liebe ist ein wun- 
derlich Ding," Hamburg, 1787, 2 vols. 8. 
*' Faust der Zweite," Stettin, 1782, 2 vols. 
4. ** Sophie Berg," Leipzig, 1782, 2 vols. 5. 
** Laura di Sola," Hamburg, 1782, 2 vols. 6. 
** Therese von Edelwald," Frankfurt, 1784, 
S vols. 7. ** Lauretta Pisena," 2d edition, 
Leipsig, 1795, 2 vols. 8. ** Dreierlei Wir- 
kungen," Leipzig, 1782-90, 8 vols. 9. ''Die 
Familie Eboli," Dresden, 1791, 4 vols, la 
*'Dramatisohe Werke," Dresden, 1790. 11. 
*' Die Familie Medicis," Leipzig, 1795, 
S vols. 12. ** Sammlong neuer Schtuispiele," 
Hamborg, 1804. id. '' Maria de Luoca," 
Altona, 1801. 14« '* Ulrika della Marka," 
Hamborg, 1802, 2 vols. 15. *'Die Kreuz- 
fthrerinnen," Leipzig, 1804. (Wol^ Emy- 
^eptudie der DmiUctimt NatumaUiteratur, L 
4a) L.& 

ALBRECHT, JOHANN LORENZ,Doet 
laureate, also cantor and musical director in 
tbe cathedral of Miihlhaosen in Thoringia, 
was bom near that city in 1782. He stadied 
music under P. C. Raoehftiss, the organist of 
Mfthlhausen, and afterwards theology at 
Leipsig. The date of his musical appoint- 
ment IS 1758, and of his death 1773. His 
musical works are chiefly elementary, cri- 
ttoal, and historicaL (Gerber, Lexicon der 
Tmkibuder,) £. T. 

ALBRECHT, JOHANN LUDER, a lee- 
torer on law at Leipzig. He was a native of 
tihat town, the son of a respectable merchant, 
ffid bom in 1721. He studied in the uni- 
i^ersity there ftom 1744 to 1750 : in 1751, 
he obtained the degree of bachelor, m 1752 
ibaC <^ doctor^ He lectured on low from the 
tbae he took his degree of doctor till his 
death on the 4th of January, 1767, but does 
«oC i^pear to have obtained an appointment 
as pfofessot. He deserves a place here, nbt 
for his legal eminence, but as being one of 
the earliest writers in Germany to direct at- 
tention to the means of extending the eom- 
mercial industry of his native country. He 
puMished — 1. ** Dispotatio de vera Jurisdic- 
tionis veteris indole cjusque usu hodienM)." 
Leipzig, 1 752, 4to. 2. " Der Englische Kauf- 
mann oder Onmdsotze der Englischen Hand- 
iung, aoa dem Franzbsischen ubersetzt; nebst 
einer Vorrede von den Mitteln, wie Deutsch- 
781 



land, durch die Handlong reich werdcn 
konne." Leipzig, 1764, 8vo. This is the 
publication in wbich he pomta out the possi- 
bility of enriching Germany by increasing 
its trade. (Adelung, Supplement to Jochcr's 
ABgememes Gelehrlen-Lexicon.) W. W. 

ALBRECHT, JOHANN SEBASTIAN, 
was bom at Coburg on the 4th of June, 
1695, where his father was a tradesman. He 
studied at Jena and also at Leyden, and 
travelled through Holland and Germany 
during the period of his studentship. He 
took his degree of doctor of medicine at Jena 
in 1718. On his return to Cobui^ he com- 
menced with diligence the practice of his 
profession. In 1 730 he was elected a member 
cf the Academy of Natural History of 
Coburg, and in 1734 he was appointed pro* 
fessor of natural philosophy in the gymnasium 
of the same place. In 1737 he was made 
the district physician of Coburg. During 
his studies at Jena he presented two theses, 
the one on asthma, the other on the action of 
lead, which were printed at Jena in 1707 
and 1718. In 1742 he published a work on 
a disease prevailing amongst homed cattle^ 
entitled "Kurzgefasster Unterricht von der in 
der Nahe hin und her sich einschleichenden 
Homviehseuche und wider dieselbe dienende 
Mittel," 4to. Coburg« His other publications 
are on various departments of natural history, 
which he cultivated with much zeal. In 
1734 he published a work on foasils^ ^ Pro- 
gramma quo recentiorum plerorumque Phy- 
BJcorum Sententia Foesilia quiedam figurata 
universalis Diluvii esse Testimonia cm. an- 
tiquioribus Ingeniorum Montimentie adstruit 
et affirmat," 4to. Cobui^. In 1747 be edited 
aa edition of the botanical works of Jungius^ 
nnder the title **Joachimi Jungii Opiiscnla 
Botanico-Phyaica, omnia collecta, recognita 
et rrriaa, novisque Annotstiunculis illustrata 
cura J. S. Albreeht, M.D. Coburgi." 

Albreeht devoted much attention to the 
observation of those departures from normal 
growth in the animal and vegetable kingdom 
called monsters. Several papers on this sub- 
ject, although he did not understand the real 
nature of these i^normal growths, will be 
found in vols. v. vL vii. viiL of the " Acta 
Pfaysico-Medica Academin Cassarese Na- 
turae Curiosorum*" He died at Coburg in ' 
the year 1 774. ( Adelun^s Supj^emetU to Jcf- 
cher's AJlgem. OMrten-iexie&n*) E. lu 

ALBRECHT, JOHANN WILHELM. 
bom at Erfurt m 1703, was tbe son of J. 
Andreas Albreeht, a member of the senate 
of that city. Having completed his pre- 
Uminary edncation at Erfiirt and Gotha, he 
oommenoed the study of medicine at Jena in 
1722. He sAerwards went to Wittenberg, 
and still farther to advance his knowledge 
of anatomy and operative surgery, he visited 
Strassborg, and speftt six mon^ in Paris. In 
1727 he returned to Erfurt and received his 
doctor's degree,, his inaugural dissertation 
3 B 2 



ALBBECHT. 



ALBRECUT. 



being " De Morbis EpidemiciB.*' In 1729 he 
was appointed extraordinary professor of 
medicine in the university of the same place, 
and gave lectures on various medical subjects, 
as well as demonstrations in anatomy. In 
1734 he was invited to Gottingen, and made 
professor of anatomy, surgery, and botany, in 
the university whi<^ had been recently esta- 
blished there. He was the first reg^ularly 
appointed professor in the medical depart- 
ment of this university, and was suc- 
ceeded in his office by Haller. In addition 
to his lectures on several medical subjects, he 
likewise gave instruction in mathematics, 
and by too great assiduity in the performance 
of his duties hastened his death, which oc- 
curred at Gottingen in 1736. His works are 
as follow : — 1. " Observationes anatomicaB 
circa duo Cadavera masculina. Erford." 
1730, 4to. 2. " Tractatus physicus de Tem- 
pestate. Erford." 1731, 8vo. He denies that 
the weather is influenced by the course of 
the stars, and exposes the folly of those phy- 
sicians who pretend that they can determine 
the proper period for bleeding and other 
treatment by the position of the stars and the 
phases of ^e moon. There are also added 
observations on the lymphatics of the stomach. 
S. " Tractatus physicus de EfiFectibus Musices 
in Corpus animatum. Lips." 1734, 8vo. In 
this he gives a discourse on the nature of 
sound and the structure of the ear. He shows 
the power which music possesses of inducing 
and curing diseases, and states that it has 
often proved very beneficial even in cases of 
the plague. He applies to it the term '* Mu- 
sica M^catrix." 4. " De vitandis Erroribus 
in Doctrina medica. Got." 1734, 4to. 5. " De 
vitandis Erroribus in Medicina mechanica. 
Got." 1735, 4to. 6. " Dissertatio de Spiritu 
Vini, cgusque Usu et Abusu. Got" 1735, 
4to. 7. " De Loco quodam Hippocratis de 
Natura, qus nuUa prsecedente Disciplina, qua 
Opus sit in Homine perficit, male explicate. 
Got" 1735, 4to. 8. " Panenesis ad Artis 
medicse Cultores. Got" 1735, 4to. This 
contains several anatomical Observations. 
He also wrote in the ** Commercinm Lite- 
rarium" three papers: — " De Camphoro 
Usu in Purpura et Inflammationibus in- 
temis, 1735 ;" " De Vulnere Capitis, cum 
lieso Cerebro, Trepannatione Sanato ;" ** De 
Vi Corticis . Peruviani in sistendis Gan- 
grena et Sphacelo a Causa Interna natis, 
1 736." It is necessary to distinguish him from 
JoHANN Peter Albrecht, a native of Hil- 
desheim, who in 1673 published a dissertation 
" De Lue Venerea," imd wrote several other 
papers : and also from Johann Melchlor Al- 
brecht, a pupil of Haller, at whose suggestion 
1m wrote ** Experimenta qusdam m vivis 
AnimaUbus prtecipue circa Tussis Organa 
exploranda instituta." Gottingen, 1751, 4to. 
(John Matth. Gesner, Biographia Academica 
GoUingensis, HaL 1768, tom. L ; Haller, Bib- 
liotheca Anatomical tom. iL) G. M. H. 

732 



ALBRECHT of Magdeburg. [Al- 
bert.] 

ALBRECHT L of Mecklenburg was 
bom in 1319. He is called Albrecht IL b^ 
the genealogical writers of his country, it 
being their custom to enumerate eveiy 
member of a noble fiunily ; but he is the 
first who attained to princely rank as a duke 
of the Roman empire. He was still a minor 
when his father Henry IV. of Mecklenburg 
died in 1329. He took upon himself^ with the 
consent of his guardians, the government of 
his hereditary territories in 1335. He sur- 
vived till 1379, and, except during the last five 
years of that long period, his brother Johann, 
the eighth of that name in the Mecklenburg 
fimiily, was associated with him in the go- 
vernment Albrecht carried on several wars 
with varjring success against his neighbours 
the dukes of Pomerania, for the possession of 
the isle of Riigen, but was obliged to re- 
linquish it to them. In July, 1348, the Meck- 
lenburg territory was created a dukedom of 
the empire by Charles IV., who conferred 
upon Albrecht, his brother, and their heiiv, the 
title of dukes of Mecklenburg and princes of 
the Vandals. In 1354, Albrecht, at the so- 
licitation of the Hanse Towns, undertook an 
expedition against the piratical nobles of 
Schwerin and Ratzeburg, in which he ob- 
tained a complete victory. In 1359, the last 
count of Schwerin having died without heirs, 
Albrecht, who had claims to the succession, 
purchased the rights of his competitors, and 
annexiog the lands to his duchy, assumed the 
title of count of Schwerin in addition to his 
previous titles. Albrecht was ambitious of 
extending his territory, but he was also 
careful to preserve ordler and justice within 
it His dying injunctions to his sons were, 
to keep tiie roads within their dominions 
secure for merchants, and to preserve a good 
intelligence with the great commercial town& 
Albrecht I. died on the 19th of February, 14}79» 
leaving by his wife Euphemia, three sons and 
two daughters. (Matthias Joannes Beehr, 
Rerum Mecleburgicarum Libri Octo. Lipsis, 
1741, foL) W. W. 

ALBRECHT IL of Mecklbnborg, son 
of Albrecht L, is the third of that^name in 
the family tree, the second who wflA a duke 
and prince of the Roman empire. The year 
of his birth is unknown. He was elected 
king of Sweden, while his father was stiU 
alive, in 1363, by the states-general, who 
had declared Magnus Eriksen and his son 
Hako incapable of governing. /* 

The beginning of Albrechi^s reign was 
disturbed by the hostile efforts of the ad- 
herents of the old dynasty. In the first 
battle Magnus was taken prisoner, and Hako^ 
severely wounded, fled into Norway. Wal- 
demar, king of Denmark, showing a dispo- 
sition to assist the fugitive prince, Albrecht, 
in order to win him to his party, made haste 
to conclude a treaty by which he ceded to 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



Denmark some of the most valuable of the 
Swedish proYinces. Albrecht was about the 
same time persuaded by his father to repay 
assistance he had received from him by the 
cession of a part of the Swedish territory. 
The irritation created among the Swedes by 
these arrangements encouraged Hako in 1371 
to invade Sweden with a body of Norwegian 
troops. Albrecht was obliged to purchase 
the support of the clergy and the nobles by 
conferring privileges upon them, which de- 
prived the crown of almost all its power. By 
this means, however, he secured their co- 
operation against the immediate danger which 
threatened him. Hako was oblig^ to con- 
clude a peace with the prince who had sup- 
planted his family, and to rest contented with 
having obtained the liberation of his father 
and the settlement of an annual pension upon 
him. 

Nothing worthy of commemoration oc- 
curred till 1382. Albrecht was during the 
interval exciting additional discontents in 
the minds of his subjects by his breach of 
the promises made to them in the hour of 
danger, and by his preference of foreign 
favourites. In the course of that year Hako 
died, and Albrecht, relieved from his appre- 
hensions of so formidable a rival, undertook 
to recover the provinces ceded to Denmark 
by force of arms. His extravagance had 
emptied his treasury, and the states-general, 
aware of its impoverished condition, were as 
much averse to the attempt to recover the 
provinces as they had been to the giving of 
them up. Albrecht commenced the war 
regardless of their opposition, and having ob- 
tained an accession to his private funds by 
the death of his brothers Heinrich, who died 
childless in 1383, and Magnus, who died in 
1384 or 1385, leaving only one son and two 
daughters, minors, he carried on hostilities 
with sonie advantages till 1387. 

Oluf; king of Denmark, died in 1387, and 
the bold and ambitious Margareta, who suc- 
ceeded him, lent an unwonted energy to the 
counsels of Denmark* It was soon evident 
tiiat her object was to unite Denmark, 
Norway, and Sweden under one crown. Al- 
brecht now found himself engaged in a con- 
flict with a princess who was far his superior 
in genius, and supported, in addition to this 
superiority, not only by the Danes and Nor- 
wegians, but by no inconsiderable portion of 
the Swedes, He was defeated in the battle 
of Falkopping, on the 2 1 st of September, 1 388, 
and lost at once his crown and his liberty. 

He was detained a prisoner by Margareta, 
whom he had irritated by his taunts, till 
1395. In that year his nephew Johann, 
duke of Mecklenburg, brought about a con- 
vention between Albrecht and the Queen of 
Denmark, in virtue of which he was, upon 
being restored to liberty, to pay to her 
60,000 marks of silver, or in case he could 
not raise the money, give up his claims to 
733 



Sweden, Nine of the Hanse Towns became 
security for his fulfilling the terms of the 
treaty, and for that purpose their troops oc- 
cupied Stockholm. Albreeht was released 
Arom confinement, but it was not till 1405 
that, feeling his utter weakness, he testified 
his acquiescence in the arrangement made for 
him, and retired into a convent He died 
in 1412. (Matthias Joannes Beehr, Berum 
Mechburgtcamm Lihri Octo, LipsisB, 1741, 
fol. ; Sartorius, Geaehichte dea Hariseatuchen 
Bundes, Gottingen, 1802, et seq* 8vo.) 

W. W. 

ALBRECHT IIL of Mecklrnbitro, son 
of Albrecht II., who was for a time king 
of Sweden, is caJled by genealogists Albrecht 
y. : the Albrecht intervening between them 
was an elder brother, who bore for a short 
time the empty title of king of Denmark, 
and died before his father. The year in 
which Albrecht III. was bom is not men- 
tioned by the family historians, but the dis- 
pute between his mother and his cousin 
Johann XIII. of Mecklenburg, for the office 
of guardian, shews that he was a minor at 
the time of his father's death in 1412. He 
was declared of age in 1414, and concluded 
in the same year a treaty with his cousin, by 
which they divided the lands of the duchy 
between them, both continuing to exercise the 
ducal prerogative, and retaining equal au- 
thority over the Hanse Towns, Wismar and 
Rostock. From this time till the death of 
Johann in 1422, the two princes, except for 
a short interval, have only one history. The 
interval alluded to is that during which Al- 
brecht assumed (for none of the Swedes ap- 
pear at any time to have recognised his right) 
the title of king of Sweden. This was in 
the year 1416-7. Albrecht was besieged in 
Schleswig by Eric VIII., and obliged to 
purchase personal safety by resigning all 
claim to Uie crown. In 1416, Johann and 
Albrecht took an active part in restoring the 
authority of the senates of Llibeck and some 
other Hanseatic towns, which were for a time 
subverted by democratic insurrections. In 
1419 the same princes founded the univer- 
sity of Rostock. A war broke out in the 
same year between them and Frederick I., 
elector of Brandenburg, which lasted till 
1421. Johann, dying in 1422, left the care 
of his infant children to his cousin, who did 
not long survive him. Albrecht died at Tan- 
germilnde in 1423, in the midst of the festi- 
vities preceding his marriage with a daugh- 
ter of Frederick I. of Brandenburg, for the 
purpose of consummating which he had visited 
that town. On his deathbed he recommended 
his nephews to the protection of his good 
towns Rostock and Wismar. (Matthias Joan- 
nes Beehr, l?«rt<in MecleimrgicarumLibriOcto. 
Lipsiae, 1741, fol.) W. W. 

ALBRECHT IV. of Meckx^nbitroh (ac- 
cording to the genealogists Albrecht VII. ; 
their Albrecht VL was a son of Johann, 
3 B 3 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



duke of Mecklenburg, of the Stargard line) 
along with his brothers Magnus IIL and 
Balthasar II. succeeded their father Heinrich 
X. in 1477. During the next six years the 
names of all three brothers, Albrecht's stand- 
ing firsty are inserted in the charters and 
other state papers of the duchy : Magnus 
was, however, the real governor. Albrecht 
died without issue in 1483, in the forty-fifth 
year of his age. (Matthias Joannes Beehr, 
Berum Meeleburgicarum Libri Octo, Lipsiw, 
1741, foL) W, W. 

ALBRECHT V. of Mecki^enbuboh (called 
by the genealogists Albrecht VIIL) goyemed 
the duchy in coojunction with hia elder bro- 
ther Heinrich, from the death of their fiilher 
in 1503 till 1547. Their brother Erio^ who 
was nominally their colleague for a few years 
(he died in 1508), took scarcely any part m 
public affairs. 

From 1503 to 1521 uninterrupted har- 
mony appears to have prevailed between the 
brothers. Even during this period, however, 
the marked difference between their characters 
showed itself. Albrecht distinguished himself 
at tournaments; Heinrich bttrely acquitted 
himself respectably. Albrecht was a fre- 
quent visiter of the imperial court ; Heinrich 
only attended it when escape was impossible. 
Hemrich, as the elder brother, exercised the 
chief authority in their territories} and as 
yet Albrecht offered no opposition to this 
arrangement, although the pacific and even 
timid policy of hia brother must have often 
galled his more daring and ambitious ^irit 

Albrecht married, in 1521, Anna the 
daughter of Joachim L, dector of Branden- 
burg ; and fiM>m the time of hia contracting 
this alliance he began to evince diso(xiteBt 
with the subordinate part he had hitherto 
pla^red. In 1523 he undertook a journey to 
Spain, for the purpose of obtaining from the 
Emperor Charles V. an ii^unction to his brO' 
ther to make a diviaion of their hereditary 
territories. Heinrich expressed no open dia« 
content at the step taken by his brother j but 
the Landstand^ opposed the prcject of a par- 
tition, and it wsa allowed to fiiU to the 
ground. In 1525 a family compact was 
concluded by the brothers allotting certain 
domaina for the sustenance of each, and re- 
cop^iising their common authority over the 
prmeipal landa of the dukedom. 

Charles V. had not granted the desires of 
Duke Albrecht without demanding some ser* 
vice from him in return. The emperor ex* 
acted a pledge fVom the duke that he would 
lend hia aid to re-establish Christian II. of 
Dexunark, whose sulgects had deposed him. 
Charles promised to indemni^ Albrecht for 
any outlay he might incur m thia under* 
taking. 

The Lutheran doctrines were dbout this 

time making rapid progress in Mecklenburg, 

as in every other of the German states. T^ 

political and fimatical uisorrections which 

734 



subsequently terrified many of the pnnon of 
Germany had not yet occurred. . The ques- 
tion was regarded, in a great measure, as a 
mere monkish controversy. Neither o£ the 
brothers took a decided part. At first they 
favoured the reform preachers, so far as to 
protect them from violence. In 1524 Al- 
hrecht's own chaplain preached in fhvonr of 
Idither. In 1526 hoih brothers signed a 
proclamation against the innovations in re- 
ugioQs matters issued by the Archduke of 
Austria, the Elector of Brandenburg, and 
some other princes of the empire. In 1530 
they attended the diet, at which the con- 
fession of Augsburg was presented, and kept 
aloof from the Protestants. 

Albrecht*s ambition led him ultimately to 
embrace the R(»nan Catholic party. In 1527 
he gave refuge in his states to the catholic 
clergy whom Gustavus Vasa had banished 
from Sweden, extending this protection to 
them more in their character of political par- 
tisans of Christian II. than of religiooa 
confessors^ But in 1531 the honours heaped 
upon him during a visit to the imperial court 
rendered him a willing a^nt of the imperial 
policy. In 1532 Christian was taken pri- 
soner, and the Swedes of his party, hopeLes* 
of draining his release, began to cast their 
eyes upon Albrecht of Mecklenburg (one of 
whose ancestors of the same name had al- 
ready worn the Swedish crown) as his suc- 
cessor. Albrecht lent a willing ear to tha 
proposal, and thus entered the field as tha 
head of the Swedish Roman Catholics against 
the king who had introduced the Refomaa- 
tion into that kingdom. His brother^a pro- 
testant tendencies, and the succour he antici- 
pated from him, served however to neutraliK 
his religious zeal. 

In 1535 Albrecht, as ally of Christian 11^ 
undertook an expedition into Denmark. H« 
occupied Copenhagen ; was besieged thera 
by Christian III. ; and Charles V., who waa 
then engaged in hia African expedition. Vend'* 
ing no ear to his prayers for assistance, he wa» 
forced to surrender. The state of Alhrecht*f 
finances forbade his renewing the strugglcw 
The emperor at his request issued a mandate 
to the Landstande of Mecklenburg to con- 
tribute to the expenses of the war; but tbs 
injunction was evaded on the plea that the 
money was required to guard against an in- 
vasion which the Swedea were threatening. 
Albrecht was equally unsuccessful in his 
soUeitations that the emperor would keep 
his promise to repay the expenses he had 
incurred in the Danish wars: he left the 
claim at his death as a legacy to his sons. 

From 1536 to 1546 nothing oi moBkent 
occurs in the history of Albrecht Feeling 
in that year the infirmities of age growing 
upon him, he attended the diet at Ratia^ 
boane for the purpose of commending his 
sons to the protection of the emperor. He 
procured commissions for the two eldest in 



ALBRECMT. 



ALBRECHT. 



the army whick the Elector of Brandenburg 
▼as briDging to attack the Elector of Saxony 
and Philip, Urndgrave of Hesse. He was, not- 
withstanding his ailments, persuaded to take 
npon himseff the conmiand of the army raised 
by the emperor in Westphalia to invade 
Pomerania. Albrecht and his sons became 
in this manner prominent warriorB in the 
catholic ranks, his brother Heinrich having 
some years before embraced the protestant 
religion. The painfid spectacle of brother 
arrayed in arms against brother was averted 
by the death of Albrecht, which happened on 
the 10th of January, 1547 ; and might perhaps 
have been prevented, even if he had survived, 
by his brother's want of resolution. (Mat- 
thias Joannes Beehr, Remm Me^burgicarum 
Libri Octo. LipsisB, 1741, foL) W. W. 

ALBRECHT, margrave of Msisssir, 
(son and saccessor of (Hho the Rich,) called 
** the Prood " by some writers, reigned from 
1 190 to 1 195. During the life of Otho, Al- 
brecht, irritated by his attempt to transfer the 
inheritanoe to his younger brother Dietrich, 
kept him for some time a prisoner, and, ob- 
liged to release him by the emperor's com- 
mands, still carried on a war against him. 
Albrecht, after his Other's death, took for- 
cible possession of a large sum of money, 
which he had deposited for security under 
our Lady's altar in the monastery of Alten 
Zelle. Dietrich, to whom his father had 
left the territory of Weissenfels, laid claim 
to a share of the treasure, and on receiving 
a denial, formed an alliance with some of the 
neighbouring prelates who were inimical to 
Albrecht Their united forces proved in- 
adequate to keep the field against the 
margrave; and Dietrich, being obliged to 
seek additional assistance, was reduced to 
the necessity of marrying, in 1 198, Tutta, 
daughter of Hermann, landgrave f:^ Thiirin- 
gen, who, according to the chroniclers, was 
** very ugly," in oMer to obtain the support 
of her father. An attack, made upon the 
lands of Weissenfels in January, 1195, was 
repelled by Hermann and Dietrich. About 
the same time that he experienced this defeat, 
the margrave learned that the Emperor 
Heinrich VL was concerting measures to 
deprive him of the rich mines which were 
wrought within his territory : the otherwise 
nnprosperous state cf his affairs led Albrecht 
to endeavour to avert this storm by making 
his peace at court. With this view he un- 
dertook a journey to Italy, where the em- 
peror then was, bat returned without effecting 
his purpose. He died at Meissen on the 21st 
of June, 1195, while engaged in his prepara- 
tions to resist the Imperial troops concentrate 
ing on his fh>ntier. His death, and that of 
his wife, which took place only thirty days 
later, have been attributed to poison, some 
writers imputing the crime \o the emperor, 
and others to the monks of Alten Zelle. Our 
accounts of Albfeefat, as weB tiiose tiMt «K 
735 



&vonrable to him as those that are other- 
wise, are derived from writers Infected with 
the spirit of party, and little reliance is to be 
placed upon them. Enough however appears 
to indicate a bold and reckless spirit and 
stormy career. {Entwwff einer HiHorU 
deter Vfabtagraffeh zu Sackam, Erf^ 1740, 
4to. ; Eneh und Gruber, AUgemeinB Encf 
dopSdUj TOO. *« Albrecht der Stolac") 

W. W. 

ALBRECHT L, elector of Saxont, witf 
the second elector of the Anhalt fiunily. His 
fiither Bemhard succeeded to the electorate 
in 1180, on the deposition of Heinrich the 
LiotL Albrecht commanded the Oerman 
forces in the war of 1227, which terminated 
in regaining the part of the empire north of 
the Elbe which had been usurped by the 
Danes. He concluded a long but not very 
memorable life in 1260. He married He- 
lena, daughter of Otho the Child, duke of 
Brunswick, who survived him thirteen years. 
(llemnch^ Deutache Rekkg-getchichle, Jena, 
1789, 8vo. ; Menckenius, Seripiorea Batan 
Gemumiiconfm, prtBcipue Siunniearum, Lip- 
si«, 1728-30, foL) W. W. 

ALBRECHT IL, elector of Saxout, was 
the second son of Albrecht L, after whose 
death his sons Johann and Albrecht exer- 
cised the electoral privilege in common, bat 
arranged a partition of the territory by a £i- 
mily compact, in virtue of which the family 
separated into two branches. Johann was the 
ancestor of the Sachsen-Lauenburg line, 
Albrecht of' that of Saehsen- Wittenberg. 
Though the brothers exercised the electoral 
rights in common, their descendants became 
too numerous to continue the arrangement 
The electoral dignity was adjudged to the 
descendants of the younger brother, on the 
plea that h was inseparable ttauk the pos«> 
session cf the Wittenberg territory. Al- 
brecht IL died fai 1297. During his lifo* 
time he most have been regarded as a 
powerfU prince, for Rudolf cif Hapsbnrg at 
the time ti his election to the empire deemed 
the support of the Elector of Saacmiy cheaply 
purchased with the hand of his daughter. 
This princess survived her husband, and died 
in 1823. (Heinrich, Deutsche Rewhe-^'- 
achichie, Jena, 1 789, 8vo. ; Menckenius, Scrip* 
tores Berum Oermankamm pracipue Saxcni" 
carum, Lipsie, 1728-30, foL) W. W. 

ALBRECHT IIL, elector of Sixomr, son 
of the Elector Wenseslaus by a princess of 
Padua. Albrecht succeeded his brother Ru- 
dolf in 1419, and died without male heirs in 
1422. He was the last elector of the Anhalt 
family, and was saoeeeded by Friedrich the 
Warlike, margrave of Meissen. (Entwwrff 
einer Bistorie derer Pfalsagraffen zu Saehsen, 
Erftirt, 1740, 4to.» Menckenins, Seriptores 
Berum Oermanicarumf prtHipue Saxonicarum. 
Lipsis, 1728-80, foL) W. W. 

ALBRECHT the Cootagieon^ ( Aniaaosns), 
duke of 8AXMnr, a yovnger ten or the Etoetor 
3 B 4 



ALBBECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



Friedrich the BGld, iru born on the 17th of 
July, L443. He was kidnapped in 1455, along 
witik his elder brother Ernst, by Kunz von 
Kanfingen, bat rescued somewhere among the 
Erzgebirge. [Ernst, elbctob of Saxont.] 
He spent a good part of his early life at the 
oonrt of the Emperor Friedrich IIL, his 
mother's brother; and the attachment he 
then fonned to the house of Austria induced 
him to dedicate to its seryice many of the 
best years of his life. 

Albrecht married in 1464 Zedena, daughter 
of Georg von Podiebrad, king of Bohemia. 
His fiither died in the same year, and was 
succeeded in the hereditary territory of 
Meissen and part of Thiiringen by his sons 
Ernst and Albreeht, who governed them 
jointly till 1485, Ernst exercising as elector 
excluaiYe authority in the territory of Wit- 
tenberg, to whidi the electoral dignity was 
attached. In 1482 Wilhelm III. of Thii- 
ringen, their uncle, died without nearer heirs, 
and some dispute regarding their respective 
rights in the inheritance led to a division 
of their possessions in 1485. The elder 
brother divided the lands and left the choice 
of either portion to Albrecht: he chose 
Meissen. Albrecht thus became the founder 
of the Albertine line of the Saxon family, (the 
present royal fiunily of Saxony), as his 
brother became the founder of the Ernestine 
line, of which the ducal fiunilies of Saxony 
are branches. 

The principal events in the life of Al- 
brecht during the joint government of the 
brothers were these : — ux 1466 they con- 
quered Planen. In 1471 Albrecht,. on the 
invitation of some of the Bohemian barons, 
advanced at the head of a strong force to 
Prague, in expectation of obtaining the 
crown ; but the election falling in favour of 
Wladislaus, a Polish prince, he returned dis- 
appointed. In 1472 the brothers purchased a 
number of lordships in Silesia and elsewhere : 
this they were enabled to do by the abundant 
produce of their silver mines. In 1475 
Albrecht commanded the Saxon contingent in 
the army of Friedrich IIL in the war against 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy. In 1476 he 
made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, an 
account of which, with a careM enumeration 
of the ample indulgences he earned thereby, 
compiled apparently by one of his attendant 
priests, has been preserved by Menckenius. 
In the war between the emperor and Matthias 
Corvinus, king of Hungary, Albrecht in his 
brother's absence disc^ged the office of 
imperial standard-bearer. 

The brothers had their residence in Dresden 
fh>m the time of their fietther's death till 1480 ; 
Albrecht for the next five years resided at 
Tharand ; after the treaty of partition in 
1485 he made Dresden his.capitaL His 
.ft«quent absence from home on the emperor's 
service provoked complaints from the Land- 
stande, which led in 1488 to his transferring 
786 



the government of the duchy to his eldeal 
son Georg. 

Albrecht received in 1487 the command 
of an army against Matthias, king of Hun- 
gary, and was so successful in checking his 
incursions that this prince declared he was 
more afi^d of Duke Albrecht alone than the 
whole imperial army. Maximilian (after- 
wards the first emperor of that name) em- 
ployed Albrecht in 1488 to quell the dis- 
turoances in the Netherlands. His exploits 
on this occasion procured for him from the 
Lanzknechts under his comnumd the title of 
the Grerman Roland, and were the occasion 
of his being appointed by Maximilian, after 
that prince had ascended the imperial throne, 
hereditary governor-general of Friesland 
(July, 1498). The inhabitanU of Frieshind 
revolted during his absence, and besieged his 
son Heinrich in Franeker. Albrecht relieved 
him, and died not long after, on the 12th of 
September, 1500. 

Notwithstanding the treasures the duke 
derived from his silver mines, his latter days 
were embarrassed by accumulated debts. The 
great expense he incurred in the service of 
itke house of Austria in two wars in Hungary, 
and two in the Netherlands, were never re- 
paid him except by empty dignities, or emptier 
promises of succession to certain territories on 
the extinction of the reigning families. The 
annoyance resulting from his pecuniary em- 
barrassments is supposed to have hastened 
his death. Yet he retained to the last a 
devotion to the Austrian interest (perhaps 
more properly to the prerogative of the 
emperor) which was iziherit^ by his de- 
scendants. 

Notwithstanding this lavishing of treasure, 
and his almost continual absence from Dres- 
den, he was not inattentive to his duchy, nor 
did he neglect arrangements for consolidating 
and strengthening his family dominions^ In 
1486, he established a permanent executive 
council (Landesregierung) at Dresden ; in 
1488, a supreme court of justice, with appel- 
late jurisdiction, at I^ipzig ; in 1499, with 
consent of the emperor and his sons, he con- 
cluded a fiunily compact by which his younger 
son Heinrich renounced his claims to the 
Saxon possessions on being nominated his 
father's successor in Friesland, and Georg and 
his heirs, the eldest son always succeeding to 
the undivided dukedom, were invested with 
the hereditary territories. This was the foun- 
dation of what is now, though sorely curtailed 
in extent, called the kingdom of Saxony. 
(Menckenius, Scriptores JRenim Oemuuiica' 
nan pracipue ScLxonicarunu Lipsise, 1 728-30, 
fol. ; Hasse, in Ersch und Gruber's Ency^ 
clopMe^ voc ** Albrecht der Beherzte.") 

W. W, 

ALBRECHT, SOPHIE, was bom in 
1757 at Erfurt, where her fioher, J. P. 
Baumer, was professor of medicine and phi- 
losophy. After his death, in 1771, when 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHT. 



the was only fourteen yean of age, she 
married Johann Friedrich Ernst Albrecht, 
who, when a student, had lived m the house 
of her father, and had thus become acquiunted 
with her. In 1783, with the consent of her 
husband, she joined a company of actors who 
were then performing at Mains, under the 
management of Grossman, and in 1785 she 
joined Bondini's company at Dresden. Sub- 
sequently she returned to her husband at 
Altona. After his death in 1816, she 
retired to a suburb of Hamburg, where 
she spent the remainder of her life in 
very straitened circumstanoes, and died in 
1837. 

The poems both l]rric and dramatic of 
Sophie Albrecht are, with very few ex- 
ceptions, of an inferior kind, although she 
certainly poesetsed deep feeling and poetic 
power. These qualifications and her reputa- 
tion as an actress procured her the favour 
of the public. She was a woman of very 
superior talent to her husband, and would 
probably have produced something better 
if she had not paid so much deference to his 
judgment Her best poems are those of the 
descriptive and sentimental class : her prose 
works have, on the whole, less merit than 
her poems. Her poems and some prose 
essays were published at three different 
times, and form three volumes. The first 
bears the title " Gedichte und Schauspiele," 
Erfiirt, 1781, 8vo.; the second, "Gedichte 
und prosaische Aufsiitze," Erfurt, 1785, 8vo. ; 
the &ird, with the same title as the second, 
appeared at Dresden, 1721, 8vo. Her best 
novels are — 1. ** Aramena, eine Syrische 
Geschichte," 3 vols. Berlin, 1782-86. This 
uiovel is based upon an old German story 
written by Anton Ulrich, duke of Bruns- 
wick. 2. ** Graumannchen, oder die Burg 
Rabenbilhl, eine Geistergeschichte altdeut- 
schen Ursprungs,'* Hamburg and Altona, 

1799, 8vo. 3. Legenden aus den Zeiten der 
■Wunder und Erscheinungen," Hamburg, 

1800, 8vo. 4. ** Ida von Duba, das Madchen 
im Walde," &c, Altona, 1805, 8va Many 
of her poetical productions are also contained 
in periodical publications, and others have 
been set to music and are still popular. ^ (An 
interesting description of her extraondinary 
but amiable character is given in Giesecke's 
Handbuch fur Dichter und Literatoren^ 
i. 13, &c; Meusel, Gelehrtes Deuttchlandj 
L 47. ix .18. xiii 15. ; Jordens, Lexikon Deut- 
gcher Dichter tmd Prosaiiteny vi. 549, &c ; 
Wolff, Eiwyclapaedie der Deutachen National- 
Hteratur, i. 40, &c.) L. S. 

ALBRECHT the Degenerate (De^ner), 
landgrave of THirniNOEN, son of Hemrich, 
sumamed the Hammer, margrave of Meissen, 
was bom in 1240. Great pains were taken 
with his education. In 1254, while yet a mere 
boy, he was married to Margareta, daughter 
of the Emperor Friedrich II. In 1262 mar- 
grave Heinrich made a diviaon of his territo- 
737 



ries, by which Thiiringen and the Saxon pa^ 
latinate were allotted to Albrecht, Landsberg 
and some minor lordships to his younger 
brother Dietrich. In consequence of this ar- 
rangement Albrecht was called, till the death 
of his fhther in 1288, landgrave of Thiiringen, 
and under this title he is more frequently 
mentioned in history than under that of 
margrave of Meissen. 

Albrecht distinguished himself early by 
valour and military skill in the war of suc- 
cession in which his &ther was involved for 
his lands in Thiiringen ; and in 1268 he 
added to his reputation in a crusade against 
the unconverted Prussians. As a prince his 
character was respectable, till he was blinded 
by an unlawful passion for Kunigunde of 
Eisenberg. At the suggestion of this wo- 
man, by whom he had an illegitimate son 
(Apitz), he attempted to have his wife, who 
had brought him three sons, murdered in the 
Wartburg, in June, 1270. She escaped in 
consequence of the relenting of the men em- 
ployed to murder her, and took refUge in a 
convent, where she died in the month of 
August following. Dietrich, Albrecht's bro- 
ther, took her children under his protection. 
Albrecht stood at this tim« m hostile relations 
both to his brother and fiaher : the latter had 
been obliged in May, 1270, to provide for his 
security by extorting from his son a solemn 
oath that he would neither attack his terri- 
tories nor plot against his life. Albrecht 
married his mistress Kunigunde in 1272. 

Albrecht obtained, soon after, the legitima- 
tion of Apitz, by an imperial rescript, with 
the view of making him his heir in Thiirin- 
gen. He was compelled to settle the lands of 
Pleissen on Heinrich, the eldest son of his first 
wife, and the Saxon palatinate on the second, 
Friedrich with the bitten cheek. Albrecht's 
discontent with this compulsory arrange- 
ment led to a war between him and his bro- 
ther Dietrich in 1275, in which the former 
was victorious. A hollow truce ensued, during 
which the brothers engaged as allies of Otto- 
kar of Bohemia in his war against Rudolf I, 
which terminated in 1277. 

The restoration of peace to the empire was 
the signal for the renewal of the domestic 
broils of the family of Thiiringen. Albrecht 
undertook to compel by force of arms his le- 
gitimate sons to cede their right to Thiiringen 
in favour of his legitimised bastard. In 1281 
he drove Heinrich out of Pleissen. In 1283 
he made Friedrich a prisoner, and treated 
him with great cruelty in the Wartburg. 
Diezmann, his third son by Margareta, ap- 
pears to have kept on good terms with his 
Neither, for in 1283 he was in possession of 
the territory which had been taken fh>m 
Heinrich. 

In 1284 Albrecht's brother Dietrich died, 
and was succeeded by his son Friedrich the 
Stammerer -. Heinrich, margrave of Meissen, 
died in 1290. Albrecht and Friedrich the 



ALBRECHT. 



ALBRECHTSBERGER. 



Stammerer took possession of Meissen, Dres- 
den and the adjoining territory excepted, 
which had been bequeathed by Heinrich to 
his third sou, Friedrich the Little. This ar- 
rangement gave rise to a new family feud, in 
which Friedrich the Stammerer and his 
uncle Albrecht were allied against the sons 
of the latter. Diezmann, Albrechfs third 
son, wrested the Nether Lansitz from Fried- 
rich the Stammerer in 1288 ; and in the same 
year Friedrich with the bitten cheek took his 
own father prisoner. When Albrecht, at 
the intercession oi the Thiiringian nobles, 
recovered his freedom in' January, 1291, he 
gave vent to his hatred of his sons by selling 
all his rights in Meissen to his son Friedrich 
the Stammerer. On the death of this prince, 
in August, 1291, ^e sons of Albrecht seised 
his inheritance without consulting their father. 
Albrecht revenged himself by selling more of 
his domains. The Emperor Adolphus of Nas- 
sau purchased his rights in Thuringen and 
Meissen, and in his attempt to occupy them was 
engaged in a war against Friedrich with the 
bitten cheek and Diezmann, who kept posses- 
sion both against Adolphus and his successor 
the Emperor Albert I. till after Diezmann's 
death in 1307. The emperor was tired of 
the fhiitless strife ; Apitz was dead, and even 
the inveterate Albrecht began to feel the 
aimlessness of his struggles. The Land- 
gravine Elizabeth,whom Albrecht had married 
m 1290, brought about a reconciliation be- 
tween him and his surviving son. Friedrich 
was left in possession of Meissen, and in 
addition to this his father relinquished Thii- 
ringen to him, in return for an annual sti- 
pend. Albrecht, after concluding this arrange- 
ment, retired to Erftirt, where he died in 
1314. (Menckenius, Scriptores Rerum Oer* 
manicarum pracipue Seunmuntnan, LipsisB, 
1728-30, foL) W. W. 

ALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHANN 
GEORG, was bom at Kloster-Neuburg, near 
Vienna, February 3. 1736, The curate of 
St. Martinis Church, Leopold Rttner, having 
remarked his early love of music, undertook 
to give him instruction in thorough bass and 
<organ-playing. The organ which the curate 
procured for his yoong pupil is still preserved 
as a precious relic. His attention to his 
musical studies was unremitted. On his 
little clavichord, placed across his bed, he 
used to play himself to sleep, and his first 
morning duties were regularly devoted to it 
In order to prosecute his studies, he entered 
the college of the Benedictine abbey at 
Molk, where he completed the usual course 
of classical education, and afterwards filled the 
situation of organist there for twelve years. 
It was the custom of the choir of this church 
to perform little dramatic compositions during 
the carnival, at one of which the Emperor 
Joseph II. chanced to be present, who, 
struck with young Albrechtsberger*s singrnff-, 
gave hira a ducat He now applied hims^ 
738 



' diligently to the study of the great Italxatt 
' and German masters, especially Pergolesi, 
' Caldara, the Bachs, Handel, Fux, and Graun. 
After a few years the emperor again visited 
' Molk, and heard him on the organ with such 
' satisfaction, that he promised him the sitna« 
tion of his principal organist whenever it 
should become vacant Some time after- 
ward he went to Raab as organist, then to 
Mariataferl, and finally to Vienna as kapell- 
meister in die choir of the Carmdites. Here 
he became acquainted with Mann, then chief 
organist of the hnperial chapel, with Renter, 
and with Haydn. In 1772 the emperor ftil- 
filled his promise bv appointing Albrechls- 
berger to the situation which the death of 
Mann rendered vacant, and in 1792 he suc- 
ceeded Leopold Hoffinann as kapell-meister at 
the cathedral of St Stephen. Here his public 
career began. He addressed himself dili- 
gently to composition, and became known as 
one of the most accomplished instmctors of 
his time. What he enabled others to do by 
imparting that power which is the result of 
knowledge, and without which even genius 
can only grope its doubtful way, Uie works 
of some of the most eminent composers of hia 
time testify. A little while bcffore his death, 
he composed a Te Denm, which he intended 
for performance at the conclusion of the 
peace of Vienna, and the return of the em- 
peror to his capital ; but he did not live to 
accomplish his design. A few days before 
his end, he requested his wife to retain the 
score until the occurrence of some important 
event in the imperial fiunily, and then to 
present it as the last effort of a grateftd 
and faithftd subject to his prince. On the 
marriage of the Emperor Leopold witk 
her Royal Highness Caroline Augusta of 
Bavaria, it was presented to him by one 
of Albrechtsberger's daughters, and re- 
ceived, as it deserved, with cordial kindnesai, 
and requited with more than empty thanks. 
The ii^&rmities of age neither ruffled his 
temper, nor blunted the love of his art ; and 
on the 7th March, 1809, he died, as he had 
lived, in the &ith, and with the resignation 
of a Christian. His mortal remains rest in 
the same burial-ground with those of Mozart ; 
and a few months afterwards those of their 
common friend Haydn were deposited in the 
same spot Albrechtsberger had out of 
fifteen children but one surviving son and 
two daughters. Among his pupils the most 
eminent were ^ethoven. Hummel, Moa- 
cheles, Eybler, Seyfried, F. Schneider, and 
Weigl. His published works consist chiefly 
of fugues for the organ, as well as for stringed 
instruments, and elementary treatises. His 
celebrated " Treatise on Harmony, Thorov^h 
Bass, and Composition " has been traBSlated 
into English and puHished by Cocks. The 
Chevalier de Seyfried collected and published 
a complete edition at Albrechtsberger's theo- 
retical wwks, which, he Jcutly says, '*form a 



ALBRECHTSBERGEk. 



ALBBET. 



tndT classieal and complete system, which 
neither the lapse of time nor the caprice of 
fashion can change or destroy.*' Similar ^ 
testimony to their excellence is thos given [ 
hy an erudite English musician : — ** The 
theoretical works of Albrechtsber^er are 
amon^ the most enlarged and scientific dis- ' 
quisiuons that have appeared j their author 
haying not only the mmd of a practical and 
experienced musician, but also the power of 
communicating clearly and philosophically 
the principles on which he combined and 
wrote.** Of this laborious and learned writer's 
unpublished compositions more than 250, 
chiefly masses, litanies, motets, and offer- 
tories, are preserved in the library of Prince 
Nicholas von Esterhaay-Galantna, (Sey- 
fHed, Memoir of AUn-echUberger.) £. T. 

ALBRET, ALAIN, lord <d, was great 
grandson of Charles of Albret, constable 
of France, killed at Agincourt, A.Db 1415 
[Albret, Chablbs, lord of], and grand- 
son of Charles second lord cf Albret of 
that name, a warrior of some distinction in 
the English wars of Charles YII. Alain 
was bom about a.d. 1443, and succeeded his 
grandfiither in the lordship a.d. 1471, and 
afterwards acquired the county of Drenx. 
He married Fran9oise of Blois, daughter of 
the Count of Penthidvre, and by virtue of 
this marriage claimed for his children the 
right of succession to the duchy of Brittany, 
which the house of Blois had long dis- 
puted with that of Montfort, then in posses- 
sion of the duchy. He joined the league of 
the French princes and nobles against Anne 
of Beaujeu, regent during the minority of 
her brother, Charles VIII. (a.d. 1486> but 
submitted upon the approach of the regent's 
army. An offer fnm Fran9oi8 IL di&e of 
Brittany and his confederates, of the hand of 
Anne, eldest dau^ter of Fran^iS) and heiress 
to the duchy, induced Alain, who icas now 
a widower, to join the malcontent party again. 
He assembled a body of three thousand or 
lour thousand men, and began his march 
toward Brittany, which the French had in- 
vaded; but was compelled to capitulate (▲.sl 
1487) at Nontron, in Perigord, to the forces 
which the regent had orderod to oppose him. 
He engaged to renounce his alliance, and to 
give hostages for his fidelity, but broke 
through his engagement, and appeared in 
Brittany with a force equal to lus former 
army, which he had brought by sea firom 
Fontarabia. The Duke of Brittany, who 
had been in the mean time somewhat relieved 
from the pressure of the French army, de- 
layed the marriage, which was indeed most 
unsuitable, Anne being a mere child of ten 
or twelve years old, and Alain forty-five, | 
with a large family by his first wife, and ' 
rough and forbidding in person, manners, ' 
and disposition. Violent jealousies ensued ; 
and Alain was charged with the design of ! 
murdering the Duke of Orleans, who was ' 
7-9 ' 



one of those concerned in delaying the mar- 
riage. He escaped from the battle of St. 
Aubin de Cormier, in which the Bretons and 
their allies were defeated bv the French 
(a.d. 14S8), and remained m the duchy, 
hoping to obtain the hand of Anne fh>m 
those who on the death of Duke Fran9ois 
succeeded to the management of affairs. He 
went to Spain to solicit the aid of Ferdinand 
and Isabella in behalf of the Bretons and 
their confederates ; some Spanish auxiliaries 
were sent to Brittany, but neither their arrival 
nor the countenance of the King of England, 
Henry VIL, enabled Alain to succeed m his 
suit. When Anne was espoused by pro- 
curation (a.9i 1490) to Maximilian, arch- 
duke of Austria, Alain, enraged at his dis- 
appointment, made his peace with the Sling 
of France, now out of his minority ; and, in 
consideration of a fhll pardon and a sum of 
money, beside other advantages, delivered up 
to the French the city and castle of Nantes, 
which he had surprised. In 1503 Alain was 
placed by Louis XII. at the head of an army 
destined to invade Spain, on the side of Bis- 
cay ; but he attempted nothing of importance, 
and his army gradually wasted away under 
the difficulties of a mountainous country and 
fiedling supplies. Jealousy of the marshal of 
Oi^, his colleague, and the apprehension of 
exciting Ferdinand of Spain to attack Navarre, 
the queen of which had married Alain's son, 
are supposed to have restrained Alain from 
more vigorous operations. He died at Castel 
Jalottx, m Guienne, a.d. 1522. (Simonde de 
Sismondi, Histoire des Framfah; Mezeray, 
Histoire de France; Lobineau, Morice, and 
Daru, Histoire de Bretagme ; VAri de viri- 
fier ka Dates,) J. C. M. 

ALBRST, CHARLES, lord of, constable 
of France in the fifteenth century. He 
was son of Amaud Amanieu, lord of Albret 
in the Landes of Gasoogne, and of Mar- 
guerite, daughter of Pierre (Peter) I., duke 
of Bourbon. A sister of Marguerite had 
married Charles V. of France, so that Charles 
d' Albret was cousin-german to the king, 
Charles VL He held the lordship of Albret, 
the viscounty of Tartas, and the office of 
great chamberlain, in all which he succeeded 
his Esther ; and in 1407 or 1408 the county 
of Dreux was given him by Charles VI., in 
acquittance of a sum of money which had 
been due to his &ther. The county of Lucca 
in Italy was also granted him by the same 
king in payment cf another sum, but the 
Lord of Albret never was able to realise any 
benefit from this grant. In 1402 he was 
appointed constable of France ; and in the 
same year officiated as one of the sponsors 
of Prince Charles, afterwards Charles YII. 
From A.D. 1403 to a. D. 1406 he was en- 
gaged in carrying on war with the English in 
Limousin and Guienne ; he attempted in vain, 
by a correspondcnoe'with some <k the towns- 
men, to gain possessios of Bordeaux, then in 



ALBRET. 



ALBRIC. 



the .power of the English^ but he snoceeded in 
taking several smaller fortresses. In 1407, 
at the time of the murder of the Duke of 
Orleans, he was at Paris, and subsequently 
took part with the Orleans or Armagnac 
party against theBourguignon or Burg^dian 
faction ; in consequence of which (a.d. 1411) 
he was declared by the Burgundians (in 
whose power Charles VL then was) to be 
deposed from his office, and the Count of 
St, Pol was chosen in his room. He was 
again recogpused as constable by an edict 
after the treaty of Bourges (a.d. 1412), 
but a subsequent edict confirmed the title 
of St PoL On the flight of the Duke of 
Bourgogne or Burgundy from Paris and the 
restoration of the supremacy of the Ar- 
magnacs (a. d. 1413) he was fully restored. 
He took part in the subsequent hostilities 
against the Duke of Burgundy, and was 
present at the siege of Soissons, A. d. 1414. 
On the apprehension of the inyasion of 
France by Henry V. of England, the constable 
was appointed to command the French army, 
with power equal to that of the king himsefr. 
He commanded at the disastrous battle of 
Agincourt or Azincourt, 25th of October, 
1415, when he fell with a great number of the 
chief nobility of France in a defeat which 
was mainly owing to his incapacity and pre- 
sumption. (Juvenal des Ursins, Histoire 
de Charles VL ; Monstrelet, Chroniques; 
Mezeray, Histoire de France; Simonde de 
Sismondi, Histoire des Francis; L*Art de 
verifier Us Dates,) J. C. M. 

ALBRET, HENRI OF. [Henri II. 1 
king of Navarre.] 

ALBRET, JEAN OF, son of Alam, lord 
of Albret and of Fran9oi8e of Blois, was bom i 
about A. D. 1469. [Albret, Axain, lord , 
OF.] In 1484 he married Catherine, queen 
of Navarre and countess of Foix, and was ' 
united with her in the government of her 
states. [Catherine, queen of Navarre.] 
He showed little ability or vigour ; and when 
Navarre was occupied by Ferdinand the ' 
Catholic, king of Spain, he retired, after a faint 
attempt at resistance, to the French side of , 
the Pyrenees. On the death of Ferdinand 
he attempted to recover Navarre, but his 
troops having been defeated, and he having 
fkiled to take St. Jean Pied du Port (a. d. 
151 6), he gave up the enterprise. On this oc- 
casion his wife said to him, ** If nature had 
made you Catherine and me Jean, we should 
still have had the sovereignty of Navarre." ! 
Jean of Albret died at Pan the same year. ' 
{VArt de verifier les Dates; Mezer^, His- 
toire de France; Anquetil, Histoire de France.) 

J. CM. 

ALBRET, JEANNE OF. [Jeanne, 
queen of Navarre.] 

ALBRIC (called also Albricns, Albricius, 
Albericus, or Alfricus), an English philo- 
sopher and physician, of whose personal his- 
tory little is known. He was bom in London, 
740 



and is conjectured by LeUmd (^Conunent de 
Scriptor. Britan, cap. 289.) to have lived in 
the reigns of John and Henry III. at the 
beginning of the thirteenth century ; though 
Moreri, Chanfepi6, and other authorities sup- 
pose him to have belonged to the elevenUu 
He studied first in the universities of Oxford 
and Cambridge, and afterwards travelled in 
foreign parts in order to make still further 
progress in leaming. He is said to have 
been a great philosopher, an able physician, 
to have been well acquainted with polite lite- 
rature, and to have had also a great talent for 
science. Several of his works are still in 
existence in different English libraries, but 
none of them (as far as the writer is aware) 
have ever been published. (Bale, Scrip- 
ton lUustr. Magn, Britann,; liloreri. Diet 
Hist.; Chaufepie, Nouv, Diet Hist, et CriL; 
Fabricius, Biilioth. Med. et Inf. Latin; Biogr. 
Univers.) W. A. G. 

ALBRICCI, ORA'ZIO. [Moccm, Fran- 
cesco.] 

ALBRPCI, VINCENZO, a Roman com- 
poser and organist, was for a time in the 
service of Christina, queen of Sweden. About 
the year 1660 he was residing at Stralsund, 
whence he went to Dresden, having been 
appointed by John George II. his vice-kapell- 
meister, where he enjoyed a high degree of 
musical reputation and mfluence. When, on 
the death of this prince, his large musical 
establishment was broken up and dismissed, 
Albrici, in 1680, accepted the situation of 
organist in St Thomas's Church at Leipzig. 
Here he remained but a short time, having 
yielded to the entreaties of his son that he 
would not officiate in a Lutheran church. 
His next residence was Prague, whither 
he went in 1682, and held the appointment 
of organist of one of the churches in that 
city till his death. Notwithstanding the 
terms of respect uid admiration with which 
Albrici is spoken of by his contemporaries, 
it does not appear that his published composi- 
tions were many. Some of them doubtless 
exist in the libraries of Dresden and Prague, 
and Breitkopf 's collection of manuscript com- 
positions (1761) contained the following 
pieces : — 1. " Te Deum," for two choirs, with 
mstrumental accompaniments. 2. " Kyrie," 
for voices. 3. " Mass,*' for voices. 4. " Symbo- 
lum NicsBnum," for voices and instruments. 
6. "The 150th Psahn," for voices and in- 
struments. (Gerber, Lexicon der Tonkunstkr.) 

E. T 

ALBRION, DOlilNGO DE, a Spanish 
sculptor, who, together with Nicolas Larraut, 
executed towards the close of the sixteenth 
century the statues of Aaron and Melchisedek 
in the chapel of the sacnmient in the cathe- 
dral of Tarragona. Ponz praises these sta- 
tnes for their correctness of design and the 
tasteftil simplicity of their draperies. (Ponz, 
Viage de Espana; Bermudez, Diccionario 
Historico, ^c.) R. N. W. 



ALBRIZZI. 



ALBUMAZAR. 



ALBRIZZI, or ALBERI CI, ENRFCO, 

an Italian historical painter, bom in the 
neighbourhood of Bergamo in 1714. He 
studied under Ferdinando Cairo, at Brescia, . 
irhere many of his best pictures are pre- 
served ; the church De' Miracoli contains 
severaL He died in 1775. (Ayeroldo, SceUe 
Pitture di Breacia; Tassi, ViU de PiUori, 
4v. Bergamaxhi.) R. N. W; 

ALBRrZZI, ISABELLA TEOTO'KI, 
bom at Corfu about 1760, was the daughter 
of Count Teotoki, who belonged to one of 
the first fimiilies in the Ionian islands. She 
married, at Venice, the patrician Giuseppe 
Albrizzi, who was one of the state inquisitors, 
but a man of a very different character from 
what people are apt to suppose an inquisitor 
to be. Isabella was fond of literature and 
of the arts, and her house at Venice was 
much frequented by men of distinction, both 
Batives and foreigners. She has been called 
by Byron, in a note to his Marino Faliero, 
the Venetian De Stael ; but Ippolito Pinde- 
monte pays her a different and more delicate 
compliment when he styles her, in one of his 
epistles, " the wise Isabella." A woman of 
learning, wit, and fashionable accomplish- 
ments, she was no less distinguished for her 
domestic worth, and the care she bestowed 
upon her family. She travelled at various 
times about Italy and France, and she became 
acquainted with Alfieri, Cesarotti, Cicognara, 
Spallanzani, Mustoxidi, Foscolo, Rosini, Ca- 
nova, Visconti, Denon, D'Hancarville, Cuvier, 
Mdlin, Humboldt, and Madame de Genlis. 
She wrote several works, which are charac- 
terised by delicacy of taste and sound criti- 
cism. I. **I Ritratti," 8va Brescia, 1807, 
has been often reprinted. In this work she 
delineates in brief but happy touches the 
moral and intellectual character of several of 
her distinguished contemporaries ; among 
odiers, Alfieri, Cesarotti, Pindemonte, Fos- 
colo, and D'Hancarville. 2. ** Vita di Vit- 
toria Colonna;" an Italian historical cha- 
racter of the sixteenth century. 3. " Opere 
di Scultura e di Plastica di Antonio Canova," 
4 vols. 8vo. Pisa, 1831. This is one of the 
best works on the productions of the great 
modem Italian sculptor. She also wrote a 
ftineral eulogium on Giustina Renier Michiel, 
a Venetian contemporary lady, author of an 
interesting work on the origin of the Vene- 
tian national festivals. Countess Albrizzi 
died at Venice in 1835. (Tipaldo, Biografia 
dwU Jtaliani iUuxtri del Secolo XVI IL e dei 
dontemporanei,) A. V. 

ALBUCASIS. [Abu-l-kasim.] 
ALBUMAZAR, a cormption fh>m Abu 
Ma'shar, is the ** kunya ** or appellative of a 
celebrated Arabian astronomer named JaTar 
Ibn Mohammed Ibn *Omar Al-balkhi, who 
was bom at Balkh, in Khorasan, about a. h. 
260 (a. d. 7 7 6 -7 ). Albumazar, who followed 
the profession of the law, is said to have been 
at first a decided enemy to philosophy and 
741 



the study of the natural sciences, which he 
considered as incompatible with true religion. 
However in the forty-seventh year of his 
age he began to study mathematics and 
astronomy, and became in time one of the 
most renowned astrologers of hJs age, 
although he cannot be denied the merit of 
having also made some important astro- 
nomical observations. The astronomical tables 
known by his name ** Zy Abu Ma'shar,**. 
were made from his own observations. 
He wrote the following works : — 1. *' Kitabu- 
1-mudakhel *ila ahkami-n-nojum " (** The 
Book of Introduction to the Science of the 
Laws of the Stars, or Astrology "). A copy 
of this work is in the B^eian library. 
{NicolTs Cat No. 272.) It is divided into 
eight "makalat" (discourses), each of which 
is subdivided into a certain number of 
*' fbssul** or chapters. It was translated into 
Latin, and printed at Augsburg under this 
title, " Introductorium in Astronomiam Albu- 
masaris abalachi octo continens Libros par- 
tiales. Augusts Vindelicorum 7 idus Fe- 
bruarii, 1489, 4to. ; " afterwards reprmted at 
Venice in 1506. 2. '* Kitabu-1-kiranat ti ah- 
kami-n-nojum" (**The Book of Coigunc- 
tions : on the Laws of the Stars"), which 
was likewise translated into Latin and printed. 
3. " Albumasar, de magnis Coigunctionibus ; 
ac eorum Profectionibus : Octo continens 
Tractatus ; " printed by Erhard Ratdolt, Augs- 
burg, 1489, 4to., with the same woodcuts 
as in the former work. In the colophon it 
is stated that the work was revised by Jo- 
hannes Angelus (Magistri lohannis Angeli 
Viri peritissimi diligenti Correctione). It was 
reprinted at Venice in 1515, 4to. Abu 
Ma*shar is sud to have written a treatise 
on astrology, entitled '* Oltif" C Thousands 
of Years"), in which, among other strange 
propositions, he maintains that the world was 
created when the seven planets were in con- 
junction in the first degree of Aries, and will 
end when they shall assemble in the last 
degree. We have still by him another treatise 
on the same sutject, which was also trans- 
lated into Latin, and published for the first 
time at*Venice by Giovanni Battista Sessa, 
without date : Albumasar " Flores Astro- 
logie;" reprinted at Augsburg by Erhard 
Ratdolt, in 1488, under the title of ** Flores 
Albumasaris." 

Albumazar was a contemporary with 
the celebrated Arabian philosopher Al-kindi, 
but he proved his bitterest enemy, and 
never ceased to persecute him as long as 
he lived. He died at Wasit in a.h. 278 
(A.D. 885), at a very advanced age, since 
he is reported to have been upwardis of one 
hundred years old. His life and a list of his 
writings, amounting to about fifty, chiefly on 
astrolo^, were given in Arabic and Latin 
by Casiri, from an anonymous bio^phical 
work in the Escurial ** Arabica Philosopho- 
rum Bibliotheca." Some of his works are 



ALBUMAZAR. 

preserved in that library, Nob. 913. 93S. 971. 
(Casiri, Bib, Arab. Higp. Ex. I 850. $ Abfi- 
l-faraj, Higt Dyn. p. 161. ; Delambre, HtBt, 
de VAstrcn, au mayen Age, Paris, 1819 ; Ibn 
Khallekfin, Biog. Diet transL by De Slane, 
L 825. ; D'Herbelot, Bib, Or. toc " Abu- 
Haaschar.") P. de O. 

AL-BU'NF (Ab6-l-'abbds Ahmed Ibn 
Abi-l-haaui * AU Ibn Yiisof), a Mohammedan 
diyine, who wrote chiefly on the art of 
divination and the constmetion of talismans. 
He was a native of Bdnah, now Bona, the 
Hippo Regia of the Romans, but resided 
mostly at Fez or Telemsan, in which latter 
city he filled the office of mokri or reader of 
the Koran in the mosqne. According to 
HQi Khalfkh (Xw. BH>L sub. voc " Shems*'), 
Al-buni died in a. h. 625 (a.d. 1227-8). He 
wrote several works, of which the following 
are best known : — 1. ** Shemsa-1-ma'arif ** 
(** Sol Scientiaitmi **), being a mystical treatise 
on the names and attribntes of God ; copies 
of which may be fouid in the Escnrial 
library. No. 920., as well as in the library of 
the British Museum. 2. " Al-lama'tu-n-nfi- 
Wmiyyah-fS-1-auTBdi-r-rabbluiiyyah" ("Rays 
of Light : on the Manner of addressing the 
Lord in Prayer*'), of which there is a copy in 
the royal library at Paris, No. 687. 3. A com- 
mentary npon his own ** Shemsn-l-ma'arif** 
which is in the Escnrial library, NoL941.y 
and several more. (Al-makkm, Moham, 
Dym. i. 406. ; D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. sub. voc. 
•• Albonni, Bonni ; " H^i KhalfUi, Lex, Bibl 
▼oc *« Shems, Latayei;** ftc) P. de G. 

ALBUQUERQUE, ALFONSO DE, (or, 
as the Portugnese write his name, AF- 
FONSO D'ALBOQUERQUE,) sumamed 
•• the Great," and « O Marte Portuguei ** (the 
Portuguese Mars), owing to his great ex- 
ploits, was bom in a. d^ 1453, at a country 
▼ilia near the town of Alhandra, about twenty 
miles from Lisbon, and not at Melinda in 
AArica, as generally stated. He was the 
seeond son of Gonsalvo d'Alboquerque, lord 
of Villaverde, who was descended of a bastard 
branch of the royal family of Portugal In 
his youth he was page to Alibnso V. of 
Portogal, and joined the expedition which 
that king led, in 1480, to the assistance <!i 
Ferdinand, king of Naples, then at war with 
the Turks, as well as that sent to the relief of 
the fort of Gracuza at the mouth of the river 
L6k (Luco), near Larache, in 1489. He 
was next appointed equerry (estribeiro) to 
King John IL In 1503 he accompanied 
his cousin (or, as some call him, uncle) Don 
Francisco d'Alboquerque to the East Indies, 
and distinguished himself by his courage and 
good conduct The object of the expedition 
was to assist the King of Cochin, who had 
been attacked by the Zamorin of Calicut, his 
implacable enemy. Unable to resist his ad- 
versary, the KLing of Cochin had been com- 
pelled to abandon his dominions ; but, on the 
arrivid of the Portuguese, the balance of 
742 



ALBUQUERQUE. 

irictory was q ilckly changed. The Ibfoes of 
the Zamorin were immediately driven from 
Cochin, and the fugitive prince was reinstated 
in his kingdom. In return fbr their im- 
portant services the King of Cochin granted 
the two Albuquerques permission to buUd a 
fort, which may be considered as th> foun- 
dation of Uie Portuguese empire in the East 
Indies. 

After this exploit the two Albuquerques, 
leaving behind them a squadron of three 
ships, and one hundred and fifty men in the 
fort at Cochin, set sail for Europe with a 
very rich carga Francisco and the ahipa 
under his command were never heard of 
more; but Alfonso arrived at Lisbon July 16. 
1504. He was favourably received bv the 
king, who sent him out to India again, in 
1506, in command of a squadron composing 
part of a fleet of sixteen ships under Tristan 
Da Cunha. For a time the two commandera 
carried on a successful warfare against Ui« 
Moorish cities on the eastern coast of Africa, 
until Da Cunha, sailing for the Indies, left 
Albuquerque in command of the Ambion 
seas. No sooner was he left to himself tlum 
he determined upon undertaking something 
more glorious and profitable than the piratical 
warihre in which he had been engaged, and 
he formed the design of attacking the small 
island of Ormus, at the mouth of the Persian 
Gulf^ which was at that time one of the 
peat emporiums of the East He i^peared 
m sight of Ormus Sept, 25. 1507, after re* 
ducing on his voyage there most of the chief 
trading towns between the Red Sea and the 
Persian Qul£ His message to the kiagif 
whose territory he invaded, was in theee 
terms: ** I come not to bring war, bat peace x 
peace, however, is not to be obtained nnleae 
by pajring tribute to the king my mastor, 
who is so great a lord that it is better to be 
his vassal than to command empires." Seylb* 
d-din (or Ceifadin, as the Portngtiese authors 
write his name), was at that time king of 
Ormuz, but the government was reatty in 
the hands of a eunuch, named Kcji- Attar, 
who advised him to r^ect the demands of 
Albuquerque and to prepare for the attaek. 
After the shipping and part of the town had 
been burnt, Koji-Attir admitted the Por* 
tuguese into the town y but as soon as he 
saw the handfUl of men to whom he had 
surrendered, he took up arms again and com* 
pelled Albuquerque to evacuate the place; 
Albuquerque sailed for the island of Socotra, 
off Cape GuardafuL 

In 1508 Albuquerque received from Lisbon 
a secret commission authorising him to su- 
persede Don Francisco d' Almeida, vieeioy of 
the Indies. He accordingly set sail for the 
const of Malabar, and arrived at Cananor. 
Having communicated his orders to Almeida, 
who was already prejudiced against him \ff 
the report of some officers who hod served 
under him at Ormna, Almeida declined 



ALBUQUERQUE. 



ALBUQUERQUE. 



to tnrreiider the government, and finally 
threw him into prison at Coehin, where he 
remained three months. The arrival of the 
great marshal of Portugal with a nomeroiu 
fleet restored Albuquerque to liberty. Al- 
meida set sail for Portugal, but he was 
killed m the Bay of Saldanha, in South- 
em Africa, in an affray with the natives 
[Almeida, Francisco d*] ; and Albu- 
querque was appointed general and com- 
mander-in-chief of the Portuguese possessions 
in India. 

The first measure of Albuquerque's go- 
vernment was to attack Calicut. The mar- 
shal, having entreated Albuquerque to em- 
ploy him in this service, obtained the 
command of a squadron. Jealousy of Albu- 
querque, whose division had first effected a 
landing, induced the marshal to venture too 
&r into the city in hopes of gaining posses- 
sion of the Zamorin's palace, in which he 
sacoeeded; but the Indians having rallied, he 
was surrounded and slain with most of his 
men. Albuquerque, in attempting to rescue 
him, was desperately wounded, and the Por- 
tuguese were obliged to return to their ships. 
Albuquerque next turned his arms against 
Goa, one of the most important commercial 
cities of bidia, which he took, but was 
unable to hold. That city belonged to the 
Sultan of the Deccan, and was governed by an 
Arab named Bdekhan, who, like most go- 
vernors on that coast, paid little obedience to 
his sovereign. He was absent from Goa 
when the Portuguese attacked it, but he lost 
DO time in collecting a large force and march- 
ing against Uie Portuguese; and after a series 
of well-conducted attacks regained possession 
of his city, and compelled Albuquerque to 
shut himself up in the citadel After an ob- 
stinate defence, which lasted several months, 
the Portuguese evacuated the citadel and 
took to their ships, August 15. 1510. In 
the ooorse of the year Albuquerque, having 
received strong reinforcements ttoim Lisbon, 
attacked Ckw a second time, the garrison of 
which made a most obstinate resistance, but 
were at length overpowered and put to the 
sword (Nov. 25. 1510). Albuquerque erected 
a fort and coined silver and copper money at 
Goa, which he designed to make the capital 
of the Portuguese dominions in the East. 
In 1559 it became the seat of the govera- 
ment, and of an archbishop and primate of 
ihelndiea. 

Albaquerqne's next exploit was still more 
brilliant A detachment of the fleet, which 
bad been sent out the preceding year, was 

rudly ordered to proceed to Malsicca under 
command of Diogo de Vasconoellos, to 
revenge the death of several Portuguese who 
had Wn murdered by the natives in 1 509. 
But either from jealousy of that commander, 
or from a wish to monopolise every oppor- 
tunity of accoutring fkme in India, Albu- 
querque forbid Vasconcellos to sail to his 
743 



destination under pain of death ; and when 
that general actually set sail for Malacca, he 
was stopped by a superior force, imprisoned, 
and sent back to Portugal, and three of his 
officers were put to death. Vasconcellos once 
removed, Alimquerque himself undertook the 
expedition to Malacca, and sailed frcmi Cochin 
in May, 1511, with an armament of nineteen 
ships and fourteen hundred fighting men. 
On arriving off the coast ot Sumatra he re- 
ceived friendly messages from some of the 
kings of that island ; but the Arab rulers of 
Malacca, having united their forces, pre- 
pared for resistance. They however were 
defeated, the city was taken, and immediately 
peopled by Malayans and other natives of 
the East. Immense wealth was obtained on 
this occasion. The fifth of the spoU reserved 
for the King of Portugal is said to have been 
bought on the spot by merchants for 200,000 
gold cruxadoes ; and if we believe the Por- 
tuguese writers, three thousand pieces of 
cannon were taken. After building a church 
and a foit at Malacca, despatching friendly 
embassies to the kings of Siam, Pegu, and 
other neighbo«iring princes, and leaving a 
strong garrison in Malacca, Albuquerque set 
sail for the coast of Malabar; but on his 
passage there, near the coast of Sumatra, he 
encountered a violent storm which destroyed 
the greater part of his fleet His own vessel 
struck on a rock and was dashed to pieces. 
As he was putting off from the wreck in the 
long-boat he saw one of the crew fiOl Arom 
the ship's mast into the sea, upon which he 
plunged in after him and saved him ftom 
certam death. 

Albuquerque reached Cochin with the 
scattered remains of his fleet at the end of 
February, 1512. No sooner had he landed 
than he determined to proceed to the relief 
of Goa, which in his absence was hard 
pressed by Ildekhan ; but finding his army 
greatly redi|ped in numbers by the casualties 
of war and shipwreck and the garrison which 
he had left at Matocca, he was obliged to 
wait for reinfbrcements fh>m Portugal At 
last, on September 3. 1512, he set sail for 
Goa. Bdekhan and the Zamorin of Calicut, 
thinking all further resistance hopeless, sued 
for peace, and the Portuguese empire in 
India was more firmly established than ever. 

In 1518 Albuquerque received orders from 
Lisbon to prosecute the war in the Red Sea. 
Seeing India quiet, he sailed with the whole 
of the Portuguese fleet to attack Aden, a 
considerable commercial town of Arabia. 
His fbrce, which was much larger than usual, 
amounted to one thousand Portuguese, and 
four hundred Malabar soldiers commanded 
by Portuguese officers ; he was nevertheless 
repulsed by the inhabitants, and compelled 
to put to sea. Albuquerque then entered the 
Red Sea with the first European fleet that 
had sailed in its waters; Init having ex- 
perienced much hardship and danger on bis 



ALBUQUERQUE. 



ALBUQUERQUE. 



voyage, he rctarned without achieying any- 
thing of importance. 

Albuquerque's last enterprise was a second 
attempt upon Ormuz. Ever since his fidlure 
at that place he had suffered his beard to 
grow, having made a vow never to shave it 
until he had taken Ormuz. His power being 
now increased, he proceeded to accomplish 
his desi^ The King of Ormuz, a weak 
and spiritless prince, made no resistance ; he 
admitted the Portuguese into the citadel, 
surrendered all his artillery, and allowed the 
flag of Portugal to be placed on his own 
palace. He moreover assigned the Por- 
tuguese a large and conmiodious house for 
their &ctory. Soon after the accomplish- 
ment of his favourite design, Albu(|uerque 
felt himself indisposed, and was obliged to 
return to Goa. At the mouth of the Persian 
Gulf Albuquerque met a Portuguese vessel 
bearing despatches from Lisbon, and was in- 
formed by the captain that Suarez had been 
appointed governor of Lidia, and that Pereira 
and Vasconcellos had been promoted to high 
offices. "Whatl" exclaimed Albuquerque 
in Qtter astonishment, '* Suarez governor! 
Pereira and Vasconcellos, whom I sent to 
Portugal as criminals, intrusted with high 
command I To the grave, miserable old man ! 
to the grave : it is high time I '* His illness, 
aggravated by vexation, proved fiitaL He 
died December 16. 1515, in his sixty-third 
year. His body was conveyed to Goa, and 
buried in the church of our Lady, which he 
had built; but about the close of the sixteenth 
century his bones were transported to Por- 
tugaL 

Albuquerque has undoubted claims to the 
epithet ^* grande," which the gratitude of his 
countrymen has affixed to his name ; and the 
affairs of the Portoguese in India were raised 
by him to the highest state of prosperity. 
But it must be borne in mind that he had to 
contend with people who were far inferior to 
him in all the muniments of war. The Portu- 
guese historians represent him as scrupulously 
honest and just, though severe ; but, on the 
other hand, where territory was to be gained 
for his country, or &me for himself, he was 
stopped by no consideration of right and 
wrong. His character is well exemplified in 
a scheme which he is said to have proposed 
to the Emperor of Ethiopia for destroying 
the commerce of Egypt, and converting that 
fhiitful land into a barren desert, by turning 
the course of the Nile. Albuquerque left a 
son, also named Alfonso, who wrote a history 
of his father's campaigns under the following 
title : " Comentarios do grande Affonso Dalbo- 
querque Capitao Geral e Govemador da 
India," &c. Lisbon, 1557, fol., and ib. 1576, 
fol. (Barbosa Machado, Be6/to^ ZuWt ^Mt 
i. 23. ; Barros, Decada Segunda ; Faria, Asia 
Portug. voL I part iL cap. 10. ; Ribadeneyra, 
HiaL de la India Oriental, lib. ii cap. 9.; 
Maffei, Hist Ind, lib. v. ; Lafiteau, Higt des 
744 



DecouverteSf ^. des Portugais, ffc, p. 520. ; 
Mariz, Dudogos de varia Mistoria, Coimbra, 
1684.) P. de G. 

ALBUQUERQUE, ANDRE', a Portu- 
g^ese general, descended from the great 
Affonso Albuquerque, was appointed viceroy 
of India in 1591. During hus government he 
took by storm the fortress del Morro, other- 
wise called Pena de Chaul, one of the strong- 
est places in India ; gained a signal victory 
over a petty king of those parts named 
Masico ; and defeated the King of Acheen^ 
in Sumatra, in a naval engagement He was 
replaced in 1597 by Dom Francisco de Gama. 
Another Andre' de Albuquebqce, who is 
said to have been a nephew of the preceding, 
was general of the Portuguese cavalry during 
the war between Portugsd and Spain, and was 
killed at the battle of Elvas in 1659. (Lafi- 
teau, Histoire des D^couvertes et Conqttites des 
Portugais dans le Notweau-Monde, Paris,. 
1733, 2 vols. 'Ito., and Moreri's Spanish Trans- 
lation.) P. de G. 

ALBUQUERQUE, BRAS AFFONSO, 
son of the great Affonso de Albuquerque, 
was bom at Alhandra in 1500. His Christian 
name was at first Bras ; but when his father 
made himself known by his exploits, he was 
persuaded by King Manoel of Portugal to 
change it into Alfonso. Albuquerque fol- 
lowed at first the profession of arms, and had 
the command of a vessel of war. He was 
afterwards appointed " Veedor " or manager of 
the royal patrimony, in which capacity he 
distinguished himself by his zeal and his in- 
tegrity. Having been promoted to the office 
of president of ^e senate, he performed great 
services during the dreadful plague which 
ravaged Lisbon in 1563, and by his wise 
regulations succeeded in arresting the pro- 
gress of the epidemic disease. He died at 
Lisbon in 1580. He wrote several works, 
among which the following are the most im- 
portant :— 1. " Comentarios do Grande Affonso 
Dalboquerque Capitao geral, e Govemador da 
India, &c." Lisbon, 1557, fol., afterwards 
reprinted in 1576. This contains an account 
of his father's campaigns, and was translated 
into French by Jean Mamef, Paris, 1579, 
4to. ; ** Tratado da Antiquidade, Nobreza, e 
Descendencia da Familia dos Alboqnerques." 
This is a genealogical history of his own 
fiimily. It was never printed, but it is quoted 
by P. Anto. Caet Sousa in his ** Apparat k 
Hist. Gene, da Casa Real Portug,*' p. 38. § 17. 
In the " Cancionero" by Resende (Lisbon, 
1516) are some poems attributed to Albu- 
querque. (Barbosa Machado, Bib, Lusit 
L 26. ; N. Antonius, BiMiotheca Hispana 
nova, i.) P. de G. 

ALBUQUERQUE. DUARTECOELHO 
DE, marquis of Basto and count of Per- 
nambuco in Brazil, made his first campaign 
in that country under his nnde, Mathu» de 
Albuquerque. Having been appointed go- 
vernor of San Salvador conjointly with a 



ALBUQUERQUE. 



ALBUQUERQUE. 



Portuguese officer named Bagnuolo, he de- 
fended that city when it was besieged by the 
Dutch in 1638. When the revolution broke 
out which separated Spain from Portugal, 
and the whole of Brazil fell into the hands of 
the Portuguese, Albuquerque retired to Ma- 
drid, and was rewarded by Philip IV., who 
appointed him gentleman of his bedchamber. 
He died at Madrid in 1658. Albuquerque 
wrote an account of the war of Brazil with 
the Dutch from 1630 to 1639 : ** Memorias 
diarias de la Guerra del Brazil por Discurso 
de nueyo Aiios empezando desde el mdcxxx." 
Madrid, 1 654, 4ta (Southey, Hist of Brazil^ 
i. 447.) P. de G. 

ALBUQUERQUE, JUAN ALFONSO 
DE, a iayourite of Peter (the Cruel) of Cas- 
tile, was descended from the royal fiunily of 
Portugal He was one of the courtiers of 
Alfonso XL, by whom he was appointed 
tutor to his son and heir, Peter. Instead, 
however, of instilling into the mind of his 
pupil sentiments of virtue, Albuquerque fos- 
tered rather than checked his vicious pro- 
pensities, and thought only of securing his 
fiivour. Accordingly, when in 1350 Peter 
succeeded his father Alfonso, — who died of 
the plague before Gibraltar, — he raised Al- 
buquerque to the post of great chancellor of 
Castile, and intrusted the entire management 
of a&irs into his hands, whilst he launched 
himself in the career of vice and dissipation. 
Intimately allied with the queen-mother, a 
woman of designing temper and revengeful 
disposition, Albuquerque made common cause 
with her, and they mutually assisted each 
other in their plans. One of their first acts 
was to prevail upon the young king to 
order the execution of Leonor de Guzman, a 
lady of considerable influence at court, who 
had been Alfonso's mistress. Upon the death 
of her royal paramour, Leonor, dreading the 
resentment of the queen-mother, had retired 
to the city of Medina Sidonia, which formed 
part of her apanage. Through the per- 
fidious persuasion however of Albuquerque, 
who pledged his word that she had nothing 
to fear from the king, she proceeded to 
Seville ; but no sooner had she entered that 
city than she was arrested b^ Peter's order, 
and placed under a guard m the Alcazar. 
From Seville she was soon removed to Car- 
mona, and thence to Talavera, where she was 
despatched by poison. Albuquerque's next 
victim was Garcilasso de la Vega, Adelantado 
mayor * of Castile, a nobleman who had 
rendered himself obnoxious by presuming 
to advise the king to dismiss his unprin- 
cipled favourite. Garcilasso was accused 
of conspirmg against Peter, was summoned 
to his presence, and put to death before 
his eyes. Soon after his accession, Peter 
had become deeply attached to a lady of 

* The office of the Adelantado mayor, one of the 
most important In Castile, was hereditary. Its duties 
conMsted in guarding the frontiers against the Moors. 
VOL. I. 



rank, named Dona Maria de Padilla ; and 
so great was his infatuation, that although- 
early in 1353 he had been prevailed 
upon to marry Bhmche de Bourbon, the 
daughter of Pierre de Bourbon, he de- 
serted that princess two days after her mar- 
riage ; and notwithstanding the just remon- 
strances of John of Valois, king of France, 
who was her near relative, he continued to 
live with Maria as before. Perceiving that 
Doiia Maria, who was an ambitious and de- 
I signing woman, had prevailed upon Peter to 
confer the most lucrative offices upon her own 
relatives, and that he himself was daily losing 
his master's favour, Albuquerque decided, if 
possible, to avert the blow, and he accord- 
mgly represented to the king the propriety of 
dinnissing her from court, and quieting the 
anger of the French by showing a little more 
attention to his wife Blanche. But it was too 
late. No sooner had the favourite given his 
counsel, than, unable to control his passion, 
Peter banished him from court, and de- 
prived him of all his honours and emolu- 
ments. Albuquerque retired to his estates, 
where he long meditated revenge. At last, 
profiting by the rising of some Castilian 
noblemen who had been ill-treated by the 
king, he took up arms and joined them. Being, 
however, defeated by the royal forces, he 
was obliged to take ref^e in Portugal, by 
whose king, (John L), he was kindly re- 
ceived. Peter tried in vain to secure the 
person of Albuquerque. He sent an embassy 
to Lisbon to demand the surrender of his 
favourite, and threatened the Portuguese 
king with his vengeance. His threats, how- 
ever, were disregarded; and Albuquerque 
again joined the revolted barons. He was 
carrying on the war with great vigour and 
success, when he died suddenly in 1354, not 
without suspicion of having been poisoned 
by a Jewish physician named Paul, whom 
Peter had bribed. (Mariana, Hist Gen, de 
EspaHay lib. iii. cap. 16.) P. de G. 

ALBUQUERQUE, MATHI'AS DE, a 
Portuguese general officer descended firom 
the same fiimily, served against the Dutch 
in Brazil. Having distinguished himself 
by his bravery as well as by his talent 
in the art of fortification, he was in 1628 
intrusted with the government of the pro- 
vince of Pemambuco, and soon after with 
the command of all the Portuguese forces 
until the arrival of Don Fadrique de Toledo. 
Being recalled to Europe in 1635, Albu- 
querque took an active part in the revolution 
which separated Portugal fVom Spain. Hav- 
ing succeeded Count d'Obidos in the com- 
mand of a division of the Portuguese army, 
he took Almendral, Alconchel, Villanueva del 
Fresno, and other fortified places in Estrema- 
dnra ; and in 1644 gained the important vic- 
tory of Campo Mayor, where the Spaniards 
under Torrecusa were completely defeated. 
As a reward for his services on this occasion 
3c 



ALBUQUERQUE. 



ALBUTIUS. 



John IV. made Msthiai count of AUegrete, 
and raiaed him to the dignity of grandee 
of PortupL The campaign of 1645 pro- 
mised &ir to he as proaperoos as that of 
the previoos year, or 1644. Albnqnerque 
commenced by the taking of Telena ; but 
haying soon after qnanelled with Vascon- 
cellos, another Portuguese general acting in 
concert with him, he achieyed nothings asked 
for permission to leaye the serrice, which 
he obtained^ and repaired to Lisbon, where 
he died in 1646. (Sonthey, Hi»L of BraxUj 
I 440. ; Lad^de, HUi, Gen, de Portugal) 

P.deG. 
ALBUS OVIDIUS JUVENTI'NUS. 

[OVIDIUS.] 

ALBU TIUS, a physician at Rome, who 
may be mentioned to giye an idea of the 
wealth acquired by some of the medical men 
in that city about the beginning of the 
Christian sera. He is said by Pliny {Hi»L 
Nat xxix. 5. ed. Tauchn.) to haye gained 
two hundred and fifty thousand sesterces per 
annum, i. e. (reckonmg with Hussey, ** An- 
cient Weights and Money, &c" the mille 
nummi or sestertium to be worth, after the 
reign of Augustus, 7/. 16«. 3d), about one 
thousand nine hundred and fifty-three pounds, 
two shillings, and sixpence. W. A. G. 

ALBUTIUS, CAIUS, surnamed SILU8, 
or, according to Jerome (^Ap, Euseb, Chro- 
fucon, Ofymp. 193. 3., B.c. 6.) Silo, a Ro- 
man orator, bom at Noyaria in Cisalpine 
Gaul, where he held for some time the office 
of adile. On one occasion, as he was de- 
ciding a cause, the parties against whom 
he was giying judgment draggled him by 
his fleet from the tribunaL He immediately 
left the city and went to Rome, where he was 
receiyed into the house of the orator Lucius 
Munatius Plancus, under whom he studied 
rhetoric so successfully that he soon became 
able to put his master to silence. He then 
set up a school of his own, where he was 
accustomed to declaim in eyery different style, 
he occasionally pleaded causes, but at length 
retired fh>m the forum altogether, in con- 
sequence of two eyents record^ by Suetonius. 
The first of these was the loss of a cause by 
an imprudent challenge to the defendant, 
who was accused of impiety towards his 
parents, ** to swear by the ashes of his fkther 
and mother, which lay unburied }" the se- 
cond was the danger he incurred by an in- 
yocation to Brutus, whose statue stood in 
the court at Mediolannm (Milan), where he 
was speaking. 

At an adyanced age, being troubled with 
a painful disease, he retired to Noyaria, and 
haying called toother the people, and ex- 
plained to them m a set speech the reasons 
of his determination to end his life, he 
staryed himself to death. (Suetonius, De 
dart* Ehetoribus, c. 6. ; Seneca, Controvera, 
iii ProoBm.) P.S. 

ALBUTIUS, or ALBU'CIUS, TITUS, 
746 



a Roman, who liyed in the latter half of the 
second and the beginning of the first centuiy 
before Christ m went to Athens in his 
youth, where he became perfect in the 
Epicurean philosophy, and where also he ac- 
quired so much of Greek tastes and manners 
that he took less pride in his Roman birth 
than in his Grecian education, and thereby 
incurred the ridicule of his contemporaries, 
especially of Lucilius the satiric poet, who 
put an attack upon him into the mouth of 
Q. Mucins Scsyola the augur. During his 
goyemment of Sardinia as propnetor (b. c. 
105) he gained certain insignificant successes 
oyer some robbers, for which he held a kind 
of triumph in the proyince, and requested a 
**snpplicatio'' at Rome, which was refused 
by the senate. On his return to Rome 
(b. c. 108^ he was accused of maladminis- 
tration (repetundflo) by C. Julius Cesar ; 
CiL Pompeius Strabo, who had offered him- 
self as accuser, not being allowed to under- 
take the office, because he had been qusstor 
to Albutius. Cesar undertook the case at 
the request of the Sardinians. Albutius 
was condemned, and went into exile to 
Athens, where he applied himself wiUi great 
equanimity to the study of philosophy, the 
consolatiims of which, Cicero remaiks, he 
would not haye needed if he had kept to the 
principles of Epicurus by not meddlmg with 
public afiGurs. 

Albutius left behind him some orations, 
of which Cicero speaks slightingly. He is 
known to haye fkiled in his prosecution of 
Q. Mucins SceyoU the augur, for malad- 
ministration (repetonde) in his goyemment 
of the proyince of Asia. 

Yarro {De Be Ruettca^ ilL 2. §. 17.) men- 
tions a Lucius Albutius as a learned man, 
who wrote satbres in the manner of Lucilius ; 
and some suppose him to be the same person 
with Titus Albutius the philosopher. This 
supposition requires us to assume that the 
name is wrongly giyen in Varra (Emesti, 
Clavie Ciceronutna ; and OreUi's Ommuuticon 
TvUianwn, art ** Albutius.'') P. S. 

ALCACO'BA(or ALCAZOVA) 80T0- 
MAYOR, 'SIMON, a Portuguese nobleman 
who in 1522 entered the seryice of Charles V. 
He had acquired, eyen at that time, the repu- 
tation of an able nayigator and learned geo- 
grapher. His earlier history, and the reason 
why he left his natiye country to enter a 
foreign seryice, are unknown. Charles was, 
when he engaged Alca9oba, equipping a fieet 
in consequence of a report that some French, 
vessels had been despatched to the West 
Indies. Alca^oba's appointments indicate the 
hip^h opinion entertained of him : he M9B no- 
minated to the command of a ship, and placed 
in the royal household, with an annual salary 
of fifty tiiousand marayedis, and other fifty 
thousand for his equipment 

In 1524, when the kings of Portugal and 
Spaun nominated each a certain number of 



ALCACOBA. 



ALCACOBA. 



sriMterB to settle the line of demarcation be- 
tween their poesessions in the eastern Archi- 
pelago, Alcagoba was one of those nomi- 
nated by Charles V. The Portuguese arbiters 
however refused to act along with him and 
another of the Spanish party, on the ground 
that they were Portuguese subjects, and had 
entered the Spanish service without licence 
from their sovereign. Herrera says ** Alca- 
coba denied this" (whether that he was a 
Portuguese subject, or that he had not per- 
mission to enter a foreign service, does not 
clearly appear): but Charles, unwilling to 
give umbra^ to the Portuguese, appointed 
another in his stead. 

The Portuguese and Spanish kings having 
been unable to come to an understand- 
ing respecting their daims in the Mo- 
luccas, Alcai^oba was appointed, in 1527, to 
the command of a fleet destined to protect 
the Spanish interests in those regions. He 
was mmiediately despatched to Corona to 
hasten the equipment of his squadron, but 
does not appear to have got ready for sea 
when, in 1529, the cession of the Moluccas 
by Spain to Portugal caused it to be put out 
of commission. 

Thus thrown out of employment, Alca^oba 
volunteered in the same year his services to 
discover and subdue, at his own expense, 
two hundred leagues of coast on the South 
Sea, from Chinchu, the termination of the 
grant to Francis Pixarro, in a southern di- 
rection towards the Straits of Magalhaens. 
The agreement was concluded on the same 
day with that of Pizarro, but was not carried 
into effect In 1534 another contract was 
entered into by the king and Alcaf oba, by 
which the latter undertook to sail through 
the Straits of Magalhaens, and discover and 
settle at his own cost two hundred leagues 
on the coast of Pern from the Adelantado of 
Diego de Almagro southwards. 

Alca9oba sailed from Gomera on the 8th 
of October, 1534, in two good ships well vic- 
tualled, and carrying 250 seamen and sol- 
diers, and reached the coast of Patagonia on 
the 17th of January 1535. Having encoun- 
tered rough weaker in attempting to pass the 
Straits of Magalhaens, he returned and landed 
his men at Puerto die Lobes ; but after ad- 
vancing a short way inland, was obliged, in 
consequence of bad health, to resign the 
active command to his lientexuutt, Rodngo de 
Isla, and return to the ships. A part ot the 
troops under Rodrigo having mutinied on 
account of the hardships they encountered, 
made their way back to the ships, murdered 
Alca^oba, the pilot, and two or three others, 
and threw their bodies into the sea. A son 
of Alca^oba who accompanied him on the 
voyage escaped narrowly. The mutineers 
quarrelled soon after among themselves : 
Roderigo de Isla availed himself of the dis- 
pute to re-establish his authority, and after 
putting the ringleaders to death, abandoned 
747 



the enterprise and sailed for the Spanish set- 
tlements to the north. (Antonio de Herrera, 
Historia General de los Hechos de he Ccutel- 
lanos en las Islas y Tierra Firme del Mar 
Oceano, Madrid, 1730, foL) W. W. 

ALCADI'NUS, an eminent physician of 
Syracuse, whose fitther*s name was Gersinus, 
and who studied philosophy and medicine at 
Salerno, and afterwards taught these sciences 
himself at the same place. He was physician 
to the emperors Henry VL (a.d. 1190 — 
1198) and Frederick XL (a. d. 1212— 1250) 
during their residence in the kingdom of 
Naples, and died at the age of fifty-two. It 
was at the command of Frederick IL that he 
composed a poem, ** De Balneis Puteolanis*' 
("On the Baths of Poszuoli,*') in elegiac 
verse. Of this poem, however, eighteen 
strophes, or epigrams as the^ are called, are 
ascribed to a certain Eustasius or Eustatius 
de Matera, who is said to have lived under 
Charles IL of Naples (a.d. 1285—1309), and 
to have written a work, **De Natura et 
Temperie Hominis" ("On the Nature and 
Temperament of Man"). A manuscript at 
Naples, written on ^mrchment in the thirteenth 
century^ and beautiftdl^ illuminated, contains 
thirty-four of these epigrams, and is merely 
entitled " De Balneis prope Neapolim." Two 
manuscripts in the Vatican library, (one of 
the fourteenth century on parchment, the 
other of the fifteenth on paper,) both men- 
tion Eustatius as the author, and say nothing 
about Alcadinus; while on the other hand 
a manuscript at Naples of the seventeenth 
century on paper ascribes the work partly 
to Alcadinus and partly to Eustatius. A 
pKper manuscript of the end of the fifteenth 
or the beginning of the uxteenth cen- 
tury, in the university library at Marburg 
in Hesse Cassel, contains thirty epigrams 
without making any mention of the author's 
name. Jo. Elysius, in the beginning of 
the sixteenth century, (CoUectio de B<3neie, 
Venet foL 1558, p. 212.), mentions Alca- 
dinus as the anthor of tlmty-one epigrams, 
each consisting of twelve lines, on the baths 
of Possuoli, and adds that the same person 
composed rather earlier a work on the 
triumphs of Henry VL, and another on the 
actions of Frederi<^ IL, to which ^e epilogue 
of the poem "De Balneis Puteolanis" alludes. 
Ja Franc. Lombardus, who wrote somewhat 
later, but in the former half of the sixteenth 
century (^De JBabteie , . , . PutatL . . . Sytwpsu), 
portions out the poem, and ascribes to Alca- 
dinus the prologue and epilogue and seven- 
teen epigrams ; to Eustatius he attributes the 
remaining nineteen epigrams. As the poem 
is not very often met with, the epilogue men- 
tioned above will serve as a specimen of the 
versification of the age. 

** SuHclpe, lol mundl, tlbl quem transroitto libellum, 
De tribus ad dominan tertiui iate venit. 
Primus babet partes civilis in arte triumphi, 
(or. Patriot ciriU in arce triumpho*,) 
Mira Fcdertci gesta secundus babet. 
3C 2 



ALCADINUa 



ALC^US. 



Ttm loca, quam viret, qtiain nomina pene lopulta. 

Tertiiu orbata* (or EuboicoM) Istc reformat aquas. 
Cctarii ad laudcm tres scripslmiu ccce libcllot, 

FlriniiM est Tcrbum quod stat in ore trium. 
SI vacsit, annales Teterum lege, Cesar, a? orum. 

Pauper in Augusto nemo poeta Aiit ; 
Euboid ratls, C*sar, reminboere restrl, 

Ut possit natl icrlbare facu tul." 

The poem was first published at Naples, 
1505, 4to., by Sigism. Mayr, under the name 
of Eustatius de Matera. (Paciaudi, De Sacris 
Christian. BaineiA, ed. 2. Rom. 1658, 4to., 
cap. 6. p. 50.) It was published a second 
time at Venice, 1587, 4to., under the same 
name; and a third time at Naples, 1596, 4to., 
and ascribed to Alcadinus. It is also to be 
found in seTcral collections; for instance, 
in Jo. Franc Lombardi **Eiorum quse de 
Balneis aliisque Miraculis Puteolanis scripta 
sunt Synopsis,*' Naples, 1547,4to., ed. Matth. 
Cancer, and Venice, 1566, 4to., impens. Anelli 
Sanviti ; also in " Italia Illustrata Varior.," 
Frankfort, 1600, fol. ; and in Gneyii et Bur- 
manni "Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Histo> 
riarum Italiae," tom. ix. p. 4. In the " Col- 
lectio de Balneis," Venice, 1553, fol., ap. 
Juntas, p. 203 — 208. ; and in Jul. Cees. Ca- 
pacii "• De Balneis Liber, ubi Aquarum, quie 
Neapoli, Puteolis, Bajis, Pithecusis extant, 
Virtutes, &c," Naples, 1 604, 4to. ap. Constant 
Vitalem. (Choulant, Handbuch der Biicher' 
kunde fur die altere Medicin, Leipzig, 1841.) 

W, A.G. 
ALC^US CAAxcubO of Mitylene, the 
earliest of the .^lian lyric poets. The most 
active and eventfUl part of his life falls be* 
tween about 615 and 602 B. c, and his own 
history is closely connected with the poli- 
tical occurrences in his native island during 
that time. Alceus belonged to one of the 
noble &milies of Mitylene, which were en- 
gaged in a struggle with the democratical 
party. Men of uwuence placed themselves 
at the head of their respective parties : the 
leader of the nobles was Melanchrus, who 
involved his country in a civil war. The 
party hostile to him was headed by two 
brothers of Alcicus, Cicis and Antimenidas, 
in conjunction with Pittacus. . About the 
year b. c. 612 a battle was fought in which 
Melanchrus was slain. Alcteus does not 
appear to have joined his brothers in their 
contest against Melanchrus, who is even men- 
tioned with great praise by the poet, un- 
doubtedly because he acted on behalf of the 
nobles, who had in Alcseus a vehement and 
passionate partisan. Some years after these 
events, during a war between Athens and 
Mitylene, which was carried on in Asia for 
the possession of the maritime town of 
Sigeum in Troas, Alcasus served in the 
Mitylenean army under the command of 
Pittacus. The islanders were defeated, al- 
though Pittacus slew Phrynon, the most 
gallant Athenian, in single combat, b. c. 606. 
The spirit that breathed in the poems of 
Alcseus procured him the character of a man 
748 



of courage ; yet he fled in battle, and lost hia 
armour, which the Athenians took and dedi- 
cated in the temple of Athena (Minerva) 
at Sigeum. Alcseus docs not appear to have 
returned to Mitylene immediately after, the 
close of this war. The struggle between the 
two parties iu Mitylene now became fiercer, 
as we may infer firom the fact that a number 
of persons successively placed themselves at 
the head of the popular party to defend its 
rights against the oligarchs. These leaders 
of the people, who are sometimes called 
tyrants, and sometimes sssymnetSB were Myr- 
sdus, Megalagyrus, the Cleanactids, and 
others, the last of whom was the wise Pit- 
tacus. During these struggles Alcseus en- 
deavoured by his poetry to rouse his party to 
a resolute resistance. The popular party 
however gained the upper hand, and the 
oligarchs were expelled ttom the island. 
Pittacus, who was invested with the office of 
sesymnetes from 590 to 580 b. a, thwarted 
all the attempts of the nobles, and especially 
of Alcseus and his brother Antimenidas, to 
recover their estates and to effect their re- 
turn. The poet continued to attack the 
popular party with the greatest bitterness in 
his poems ; but at last, seeing that all hopes 
were lost, he went abroad and visited distant 
countries, and among others Egypt, while his 
brother Antimenidas traversed a great part 
of Asia, and served with distinction in the 
furmy of the Babylonians. Alcseus is said 
to have at last become reconciled to Pittacus. 
The year and place of his death are un- 
known. 

The poems of Alcseus were chiefly ad- 
dressed to particular firiends, and at first they 
seem not to have been much known beyond 
the island of Lesbos, partly because they 
were written in the Molie dialect, and partly 
perhaps because they had only a local and 
temporary interest But subsequently they 
were considered by all the Greeks as master- 
pieces ; and among the nine lyric poets in 
the Alexandrian canon, Alcseus occupied, 
according to some authorities the first, and 
according to others the second place. Ari- 
stophanes and Aristarchus prepared the first 
correct editions, in which the poems were 
divided into at least ten books, and great 
care was taken to insure the correct repre- 
sentation of the metre. It is not known how 
the poems were arranged in these editions, 
except that the hymns formed the com- 
mencement Besides these hymns, the poems 
of Alcsus consisted of odes, patriotic war 
songs, erotic and symposiac songs, and epi- 
grams. All were characterized by strong 
passion and enthusiasm. With Alcseus, as 
with most poets of the .^k>lic school, poetry 
was the outpouring of his deepest emotions, 
excited by the occurrences of the time^ in 
which he lived. Independent of their high 
poetical merits, the loss of the poems of 
Alcseus is much to be regretted, as they 



ALC^US. 



ALCiEUS. 



would have enabled us to gain a clearer in- 
sight into the public and private life of the 
JEolians. The metrical structure of the 
poems of Alcseus was generally lively, and 
they appear, like the odes of Horace, to have 
consisted of strophes of the same metre (mo- 
nostrophic poems). One particular kind of 
strophe which is frequently used by Horace 
is called the Alcaic, and is said to have been 
invented by Alcsus. 

The number of fragments of Alcseus still 
extant is considerable, and from them, as 
well as from the frequent imitations of Ho- 
race, we are able to form a pretty correct 
idea of their general character. The first 
collection of these fragments was made by 
Henry Stephens, in his Fragments of the 
nine principal Lyric Poets, Paris, 1560, 8vo. 
Another collection worth noticing is that by 
F. Stange, Halle, 1810, in 8vo. A more com- 
plete collection was niade by C. J. Blomfield, 
m the ** Mu^um Criticum," 1814, voL i., 
whence they have been incorporated in 
Gaisford's ♦♦ Poetao GrsBci Minores.". The 
most recent collection is that by A. Matthise, 
I/eipzig, 1827, 8vo., to which additions and 
supplements have been made by Welcker, 
Seidler, Osonn, and Bergk, in several philo- 
logical journals of Germany. There were 
many ancient treatises on the poems of Al- 
CSBU8, but they are all lost 

The most important among the modem 
essays on Alc»u8 are — Plehn, Leshiaconan 
Liber, p. 169—175. ; Bode, Geschickte der 
Lyriachen Dichtkungt der Hellenen, ii. 378, 
&c. ; MHUer, History of the Lit. of Ancient 
Greece, I 166, &c There is a spirited 
translation, or rather imitation, of one of the 
fhigments of Alcseus by Sir W. Jones. L. S. 

ALCJEUS (*AAiccuos), a native of Messenia, 
was the author of a number of epigrams still 
extant in the ** Anthologia Grieca." Some of 
the epigrams bear the simple name of Alcseus, 
while in others the epithet " Messenius " is 
added, so that in many cases it is uncertain 
which Alcseus is meant It is generally sup- 
posed that the Messenian poet was a con- 
temporary of Philip in. of Macedon, and 
that he is the poet mentioned by Plutarch 
(^Flamininus, 9.), though others thmk that he 
was the Epicurean philosopher, who together 
with other philosophers of the same school 
was expelled from Rome in b. c. 174. (.£lian, . 
Var. Hist ix. 12.; Fabriciua, Biblioth, Greeca, 
iv. 459.) U S. 

ALCJEUS ('AAicojbr), the son of Miccus, 
a Mitylenean, who afterwards removed to 
Athens. According to Suidas he wrote ten 
comedies which belonged to the class called 
the old Attic comedy. He was a contempo- 
rary of Aristophanes, for in the year b. c. 
388 he contended with one of his comedies, 
**Pa8iphae," for the prixe with the second 
Plutus of Aristophanes, but he only gained 
the fifth prixe, as has been inferred from a 
very obscure passage in Suidas. The title of 
749 



this comedy, as well as those of four others, 
*' Endymion," ** Ganymede," " Callisto," and 
** The Holy Marriage" (Upbs ydnos), all of 
which represented mythological subjects, 
seem to indicate that Alcseus belonged to the 
period of transition from the old to the 
middle Attic comedy, and that in many of 
his plays he followed the principles of the 
latter school. Besides the five comedies 
mentioned above we know the titles of three 
others, "The Adulterous Sisters" (&8cA4»al 
fjLotx^viSfitreu), the ** Comodotragoedus," and 
" Palaestra," which is the name of a courtezan. 
A few fragments of the comedies are still 
extant in Athenseus and the grammarians. 
(Casaubon, On AthenceuSj iii. 206. ; Fabricius, 
Biblioth. Greec. ii. 282. and 405. ; Bode, 
Geschichte der Dramat Dichtkunst der Hei- 
lenen, ii. 386.) 

Suidas also mentions an Athenian Alcseus, 
a tragic poet, whom some call the earliest of 
the tragic writers in Greece. Macrobius 
{Saturnal. v. 20.) quotes a passage Arom a 
tragedy called ** Caelum," which he ascribes 
to Alcseus. Beyond this nothing is known 
about him. L. S. 

ALCALA' Y HERRE'RA, ALFONSO 
DE, a Spanish poet of the sixteenth century, 
was bom at Lisbon, September 12. 1599, 
but was originally from Toledo. He is said 
to have been by profession a merchant, but 
he devoted aU his leisure hours to the culti- 
vation of literature. He wrote — 1. " Jardin 
anagramatico de divinas Flores Lusitauas, 
Espanholas, e Latinas, em o qua! se contad 
683 Anagramas, e seis Hymnos Chrono- 
logicos." Lisbon, 1654, 4to. ("The Garden 
of divine Flowers, Portuguese, Spanish, and 
Latin, containing Six hundred and eight}'- 
three Anagrams and Six chronological 
Hynms") 2. ^ Corona y Rainillete de Flores 
salutiferas. Antidote del Alma, &c" Lisbon, 
1677, 8vo. ; a collection of Spanish poems 
on sacred sulijects. 3. ^ Novo Modo cu- 
rioso, Tratado, e Artifijcio de escrever, assim 
ao divino como ao humano, &c." (or *'A 
jiew Treatise on the Art of writing on mun- 
dane, as well as divine. Subjects"). Lisbon, 
1679, 8vo. 4. **MeditaQoens de Santa Bri^da 
traduzidas de Latin em Portugez" ("The 
Meditations of St Bridget, translated froiii the 
Latin into Portuguese"). Lisbon, 1678, 4to. ; 
and several other works, chiefly Portuguese, 
the list of which may be seen in Barbom and 
Nicolas Antonio. But the work by which 
Alcala is best known is a collection of novels 
entitled " Varios Effectos de Amor en cinoo 
Novelas exemplares y nuevo Artificio para 
escrivir Prosa y Verso sin una de las Letraa 
vocales" (" Several Effects of Love exhibited 
in five exemplary Novels, or a new Art of 
writing Prose without one of the Vowels") ; 
printed at Lisbon, 1641, 8vo., and ib. 1671. 
The first novel, entitled " Los dos Soles de 
Toledo ("The two Suns of Toledo"), is 
written without a ; " LaCarro9a de lasDamas* 
Sc 3 



ALCALA. 



ALCAMENEa 



(**The Carriage of the Ladies")* which is 
the second, without e ; and so respectivelj the 
other three, called «*La Peria de Portugal*' 
(•• The Pearl of Portugal"), " La Peregrina 
Hermitana" ("The fidr Pilgrim and Her- 
mit"), **La Serrana de Cintra" ("The 
country Girl of Cintra"). The last edition 
of these norels contains, hesides, a long letter 
written without the letter a. This idle whim 
IS not original ; the same having heen prac- 
tised bj Tryphiodorus, whom Addison so 
pleasantly ridicules as one of the lipogram- 
matists or letter-droppers of antiquity. In the 
eighteenth century a Spaniard named Juan 
H&rtmez de Moya followed in the track of 
Alcala, and wrote a noyel entitled "Meritos 
disponen Premios" ("Good Deeds call for a 
Reward"^ without the letter a. Alcala y 
Herrera is erroneously called Alcala y He- 
nares in the " Biographic Universelle." (Bar- 
bosa Maehado, Bibioth. Lusit 1 27. ; Nioo- 
laus Antonius, BihUotheca Hiapcma Nova, 
I 9.) P. de G. 

ALCALA', PEDRO DE, an ffieronymite 
monk belonging to the oon^;regation of 
Alcala de Henares in the provmce of Gua- 
dalajara, accompanied Ferdmand and Isabella 
to the conquest of Granada. On the taking 
of that city in 1492 he was attached to the 
new church, and being well Tersed in the 
Arabic language, was employed as a mission- 
ary to preach the gospel to the Moorish po- 
pulation of Granada. Alcala wrote an Arabic 
grammar in Spanish, the first published in 
any yemacular language in Europe, " Arte 
para ligeramente saber la Lengna Arabiga," 
together with a Spanish and Arabic dictionary, 
" £1 Vocabulista Arabigo en LetraCasteUana," 
in which the Arabic words are given in 
Roman letters. There are two editions of it, 
one of 1501, the other of 1505, both in 4to. 
This work is considered a great bibliogra- 
phical curiosity, and is greatly sought idler 
on account of its extreme rarity. It was 
the second book printed at Granada, the 
first, " Vita Christi," bearing the date of 1495. 
(N. Antonius, Bib, Hup, Nov, iL ; Schnurrer, 
Bif>L Arab, p. 16.) P. de G. 

ALCA'MENES CAAKa^^io7f),an Agid,was 
the tenth king of Sparta, Aiistodemus in- 
cluded. He ascended the throne b. c. 7 79, and 
Teigned thirty-eight years. In his reign the 
town of Helos was finally subdued, and accord- 
ing to Pansanias he commanded in the first 
expedition of the first Messenian war (b. g. 
743). Without any previous declaration of 
war, his troops marohed in the de«d of the 
night against Amphea, a border town of 
Messenia. The gates were open as in the 
time of peace, and entering without re- 
sistance, they massacred the inhabitants 
in their beds and at their altars. Before 
the fifth year of this war Alcamenes was 
dead. (Pausanias, iv. 5. 3. ; Eusebius, Chron, 
i. 166. ; Clinton, FcuL HeU. Appen, 6. i.) 

R. W— n. 
750 



ALCA'MENES ('AAxo^^nif), one of the 
most eminent in the list of ancient sculptors, 
was a native of Athens, and a scholar of 
Phidias. He lived in the fifth century be- 
fore the Christian sera. Alcamenes is dis- 
tinguished for his works in marble, in bronxcy 
and also in the mixed materials so much in 
use in that time. His most celebrated pro- 
duction was a statue of Venus, always re- 
ferred to by ancient writers as the *A^po8fni 
ip ro7s Kfnrois, or Venus of the (xardens; a 
work of such extraordinary excdllence, that 
it was said Phidias himself had assisted in 
finishing it Alcamenes and Agoracritas 
[AGORAcarrus] executed two statues of 
Venus, which were submitted to the judgment 
of the Athenians. That by Alcamenes ob- 
tained the minority of votes ; not, we are told, 
from the superiority of the work, but because 
the Athenians chose to give the pvferenoe 
to their own countryman. Agoracntus was a 
native of *Paros. It has been a question whe- 
ther the Venus " ir Kfirots " was Uie diosen 
statue. A strong argument against this being 
the case is found in the eircumstanee of the 
Venus of the Gardens being always men- 
tioned with unqualified commendation ; while 
the statue made in competition with Agora- 
critus is admitted to have gained its distinc- 
tion merely or chiefly finom the acddent of 
the artist h&ng a follow-citizen of his judges. 
The Garden Venus was admired especially 
for the extreme beauty of the bust or neck» 
the arms, and the hands. P ausanias mentions 
several works by Alcamenes ; among them 
a statue of Dionysus, of ivor^ and gold, at 
Athens ; a statue of Mars m the temple 
of that god ; two of Minerva ; and a colossal 
statue of Hercules. One of the statues of 
Minerva is said to have been executed in 
competition with his master, Phidias. Ak»- 
menes, according to this account, was sur- 
passed by Phidias from not having calculated 
at first the effect his work would have when 
elevated to the height from which it was in- 
tended ultimately to be viewed. But the story 
is very improbable, and deserves little atten- 
tion. Two statues, one of Procne, meditating 
her plot against her child, and one of Itys, are 
also mentioned. They were at Athens. Pau- 
sanias speaks of a statue of Hecate by Alca- 
menes which was in the Acropolis at Athens, 
and observes that Alcamenes was the first 
artist who represented this goddess in her 
triple or tripartite form. Alcamenes also 
executed the sculptures in the posterior pedi- 
ment of the temple of the Olympian Jupiter: 
they illustrated the battle of Uie Lapiths and 
Centaurs. The subjects are given at length 
in the description of Pausanias, who also re- 
marks in this place that Alcamenes enjoyed 
a reputation second only to Phidias. To 
these works may be added a statue of an 
Athlete, in bronze, distinguished by the epi- 
thet of ** encrinomenos," and a statue of ^- 
sculapius at Mantinea. Cicero (iV. D, L 30.) 



ALCAMENES. 



ALCANDRIN. 



and Valerius Maximus (vuL 11.) speak in 
tenns of great praise of a statue at Athens^ 
by Alcamenes, of Vulcan. The sculptor 
had indicated the lameness of the god, but 
had managed it in so masterly a manner that 
no positive defbrmity was discernible by 
which the general excellence of the work 
was impaired. (Pansanias» Ub. L ii t. TiiLj 
Pliny, Hist Nat xxxIy. 8. xxxvi. 5.; Lucian, 
l>e imagg.) R. W. jun. 

ALCA'MO, CIULLO D', a SicUian, sup- 
posed to be the earliest writer of Italian 
poetry, and to have lived towards the end of 
the twelfth century. The proper fbrm of his 
Christian name is Vincenzo, the augmentative 
form of which is Vincenciullo, and Ciullo is a 
Sicilian form of abridgment. He is called 
of Alcamo, from a castle of that name about 
twenty miles from Palermo. The only pro- 
duction of this writer still extant is a ** Can- 
aone" or "Cantilena," reprinted by Allacci 
and afterwards by Crescimbeni in his 
*'Comentaij intomo alia sua Istoria della 
volgar Poesia." In this poem occur these 
lines : — 

** Se tuto avera donaMtml quanto a lo SaUdino^ 

B per i^iuntaqoanu lo Soldaiia'* 
" If thou ihouldtt give me at much wealth aa Saladin 
hai. and In addition what the Soldan haa." 

From these words it was inferred by some 
writers, and among others Allacci, better 
known in England as Leo AlUtius, that 
Ciullo d* Alcamo must have written the poem 
between the year 1187, in which the name of 
Saladin became fiunous in the West ft'om his 
taking Jerusalem, and 1193, in which his 
career was dosed. Crescimbeni was of 
opinion that this evidence was not satis&c- 
tory, as even in our own days it is common 
to make use of the name of CrcBsus in a 
similar war, as an example of enormous 
wealth, although he has been dead some 
thousands of years. Tiraboschi observes 
that Crescimbeni's argument would be sound 
if the poet had merely said ** the wealth of 
Saladin," but since the expression he uses is 
** as much wealth as Saladin has," he is inclined 
to restore to him his honours as the father of 
Italian poetry, which are entirely based on 
the inference drawn from these Imes. The 
poem itself is written in imitation of the Pro- 
ven9al poets, and it is agreed on all hands 
to be utterly unworthy of notice, except ftt>m 
its antiquity. The earliest mention of it is 
by Dante, who quotes a line of it in his 
" Convito," as an example of ruggedness and 
inelegance. (Crescimbeni, X' Istoria della 
volgar Poena, and Comentarj nUomo aUa 
wa Histaria, voL L p. 99, &c., iL parte ii. 
7 — 1 1., where the canjsone is given entire ; 
Tiraboschi, Sioria deBa Letteraiura ItalianOj 
edition of 1777, iv. 308. ; Maxxuchelli, Scrit- 
tori rf* Italia, L 362.) T. W. 

ALCANDRIN or ARKANDUM. These 
are the corruptions of the name of some Arabic 
writer, whose work on astrology " De Vcri- 
751 



tatibus et Predictionibus Astrologicis, was 
published in Latin at Paris in 1542, by R. 
Roussat, a writer on anatomy. It was several 
times translated into French. There are one 
or two old English astrological works which 
go by this name. (Lalande, BibL Astron.) 

A.DeM. 
ALCA'NTARA, DIE'GO DE, a Spanish 
architect contemporary with the celebrated 
Juan de Herrera, and employed by him in 
preparing his designs for tike Escurial in 
1572. In consequence of the ability he 
showed on that occasion, and in other matters 
intrusted to him by Herrera, he was ap- 
pointed to succeed ueronimo Qili, in 1575, 
as surveyor of the works at the royal villa or 
palace of Araiyuez; and in 1584 at the 
cathedral of Toledo, as he previously had 
been of the Alcasar in that city. He also 
superintended the building of the church and 
convent belonging to the order of San Jago 
at Ucles (1583). It does not however ap- 
pear that he was employed as the sole arclu- 
tect of any building, or that any was executed 
entirely from his designs, notwithstanding 
the very high tenns in which he was recom- 
mended by Herrera to Philip IL for his su- 
perior ability as an architect But as he 
died (at Toledo, April lltii, 1587) at an 
early age ^ siendo mo«H'* it is said, idthough 
he must have been between thirty and 
forty, it is probable that had he lived a few 
years longer, he would have had oppor- 
tunities put in his way, from which, whatever 
talent he showed; his want of experience at 
first, and th|B necessity of accepting engage* 
ments undes others, had till then excluded 
him. That he had acquired the favour and 
good will of Philip, may be taken for granted, 
as that king bestowed on his widow and three 
children an annual bounty of forty ftmegas 
of wheat He is also said by Bermudex to 
have practised sculpture with much success, 
though none of his works in it are specified 
bv ttiat writer. (Llaguno, Noticias de be 
Arquitectot y Arquitectura de EepaOa ; Ber- 
mudes, Diceumario de loe^Prqfeeaoree, &c.) 

W, H. L. 
ALCA'NTARA, SAN PEDRO DE, a 
xealot of the fifteenth century, and founder of 
a monastic order, a brief notice of whose ex- 
traordinary mode of life will illustrate the 
state of rdigious asceticism at that period in 
Spain. He was bom in 1499, at Alcantara, 
in the border province of Estremadura, and 
entered the order of Saint Francis, of which, 
in 1538 and 1542, he was provincial. His 
extreme love of solitude induced him to 
withdraw to the mountain of Arrabida on 
the coast of Portugal, near Cape Espichel, 
where he established the order alluded to, 
which was approved in 1554 by Pope Julius 
III. Saint Theresa, his countrywoman, a 
voluminous and eloquent writer, gives the 
fbUowing account of a visit which she made 
him :—-** He told me," says she, ** if I re- 
3c 4 



ALCANTARA. 



ALCAZAR. 



member right, that for the space of forty 
yeans he had only slept an hour and a haLT 
durmg each twenty-four hours, and that this 
partial victory over sleep was the greatest of 
all his penitential labours, his only means of 
success being either to kneel or stand con- 
tinually ; when he did repose, it was seated, 
and with his head leaning against a piece of 
wood fixed in the wall ; he could not Ue along 
if he so would, for his cell was, as is well 
known, only four feet and a half in lengdi. 
During all these years he never covered his 
head with his cowl, even in the hottest sun 
or heaviest rain. He walked barefoot ; his 
covering was a vest of hair-cloth, as tight as 
could be borne, and over it a loose habit of 
the same material. He told me that in very 
cold weather he put it off and left open the 
door and window of his cell, in order that by 
afterwards closing them and wrapping him- 
self up he might content his body the more 
with good shelter and repose. He usually 
took food only once in three days : an ex- 
clamation at this moved him to inquire 
whereat I wondered, for to those who inured 
themselves to it, he said, it was not only pos- 
sible but light A companion of his assured 
me that he went sometimes eight days with- 
out eating ; this would be while he was in 
prayer, for he had long periods of inspiration 
and great extacies ; of which I was once a 
witness. His poverty was extreme, and in 
his youth he had suffered terrible mortifica- 
tions : he told me that he had passed three 
years in a convent of his order, and not known 
a single brother but by his voice, for he 
had never once lifted his eyes from the 
ground, and whatever road he had occasion 
to go, it was only by following the footsteps 
of the other friars that he could pursue it 
He never looked at women, and he cared 
nothing whether he could see or were 
blind. But he was very old,** says the good 
lady saint, ** when I talked with him ; and 
so spare indeed that he looked like a 
figure made up of the roots of trees. With 
all his sanctity," she concludes, ** he was 
very affable, but of few words, except in 
answering questions, and then his speech was 
very savoury, for he had a delicate under- 
standing." He died on the 18th of October, 
1562, and was canonised by Pope Clement 
IX. About two leagues from the port of 
Setubal (frequently called St Ubes), and at 
the southern base of the verdant Sierra de 
Arrabida, still exists the fiunous sanctuary 
and convent of San Pedro de Alcantara. 
Brotherhoods of the order (Frailes Alcan- 
tarinos) are found in various parts of the 
Peninsula. {Obrcuy cartas de Santa Teresa 
de Jeeut, 6 vols. 4to. Madrid, 1793; Mi- 
iiano, Diccionario Geograjico, ^c, article 
" Setubal," Madrid, 1826. ; Dictumnaire 
Universd Historique, ^. neuvihne edition par 
une Sociit£de SavaiUf tome xiv. Paris, 1810.) 

W. C. W. 
752 



ALCA'ZAR, ANDREAS, (Alcazar, or 
Valcacer,) was bom at Guadaligara, and was 
chief professor of surgery in ihe university 
of Salamanca, where he published^ in 1575, a 
work entitled ^'Chirurgise Libri Sex, in 
qulbus multa Antiquorum et Recentiorum 
subobscura Loca hactenus non declarata, 
interpretantur." It treats of wounds of the 
head, thorax, and abdomen, of wounds and 
other affections of the nerves, of the morbus 
GalUcus, and of the prevention and cure of 
the plague. The greater part of that which 
relates to wounds is taken from the works of 
Galen and Guy de Chauliac. In the first 
book, which was printed sepuately with the 
title ** De Vulneribus Capitis," Salamanca, 
1582, Alcazar describes and gives drawings 
of a trepan which he invented. Its centre- 
pin could be lifted up without taking the 
saw fh)m the head, so that the boring could 
be completed in one operation; and there 
was a cylinder round the saw which could 
be lifted up or let down so as to adapt the 
same saw to bones of different thickness. 
The former of these improvements is re- 
tained to the present time. 

The most interesting of the six books is 
that on syphilis, for the treatment of which 
Alcazar was in his day much renowned, 
though his method seems to have been only 
that which was generally used. He maintained 
(lib. vi. p. 17 1.) that the disease was of ancient 
origin, and that its great outbreak in Europe 
at the end of the fifteenth century was due to 
the soldiers of the armies of Alfonso Y., king 
of Aragon, and of John, son of Rene, duke 
of Anjou, being supplied with human flesh 
for food in the scarcity which prevailed 
during the war between those princes about 
the year 1456 ; a story which he took from 
Leonardo Fioravanti, who, if he did not in- 
vent it, certainly received it on very bad 
authority. [Fioravanti, Lbonardo.] As- 
true has given a complete analysis of this 
book. (Astruc, De Morbie Venereis, Libri 
novem, p. 792. ed. 1740, 4ta ; N. Antonius, 
BibUotheca Hiepana Nova,) J. P. 

ALCA'ZAR, BALTASAR DE. a Spanish 
poet who lived at Seville about the begmning 
of the seventeenth century. He was the 
author of several short poems, called by the 
Spaniards *' redondillas." No collection was 
ever made of them, but Pedro de Espinosa, a 
native of Antequera, published several " le- 
trillas" and "madn^es" in his collection 
entitled " Flores de E^panoles ilustres," 
Valladolid, 1614, 4to. Quintans, in his 
" Tesoro del Pamaso Espaiior' (Paris, 1840, 
4to.) has likewise published one of Alcazar's 
best redondiUas. P. de G. 

ALCA'ZAR, LUIS DE, a Spanish Jesuit, 
descended from noble and rich parents, 
was bom at Seville in 1554. At the age of 
seven years he swallowed a silver medal, 
which being stopped in the larynx put his 
life in the utmost danger. He was almost 



ALCAZAR. 



ALCEDO. 



suffocated, vhen by a sudden effort the medal 
was disengaged and was thrown out by 
coughing. The physicians having declared 
his death unavoidable, his delivery was 
regarded by his parents and by himself 
as a miracle, and it was attributed to the 
direct interference of God. Young Alcazar 
secretly formed the desi^ of devoting him- 
self entirely to his Saviour, and he carried 
it into execution, notwithstanding the grief 
of his parents, whose only son he was. In 
1569 he entered the society of Jesuits, and 
after having taken orders, he first taught 
the philosophy of Aristotle, and afterwards 
divinity, at Cordova and at Seville. Com- 
bining great learning with an amiable cha- 
racter and uncommon generositpr and charity, 
he was universally beloved m his native 
town, Seville, where he lived the greater part 
of his life. At his death, which took phice 
on the 16th of June, 1613, all Seville was in 
mourning, and a great number of citizens 
were present at his funeral. Alcaxar, whose 
name is also written Alcasar and Alcazar, 
laboured principally to exphiin the Apo- 
calypse ; his opinions are very ingenious, 
and show a great deal of solid learning. His 
works are — 1. ** Vestigatio Arcani Sensus in 
Apocal^L Accessit Opusculum de Sacris 
Pondenbus et Mensuris. Antwerpice, 1604, 
foL ; 1619, fol. Lugduni, 1626, fol." 2. ** In 
eas Veteris Testamenti Partes quas respicit 
Apocalypsis, nempe Cantica Canticorum, 
Psalmos complures, multa Danielis, aliorum- 
que Librorum capita, Libri V. Accessit de 
Malis Medicis Opusculum. Lugduni, 1631, 
foL"* (N. Antonius, BibUotheca Hiapana 
Nova, ii. 18. ; Alegambe, BiUioUu Script 
Soc, Jes, sub voc. ** Ludovicus Alcasar.'*) 

W. P. 

ALCAZAR. [Paret y Alcazab.] 

ALCA'ZAR Y PEMPICILEON, DON 
LUIS DE GONGORA, a Spanish noble, 
lived in the seventeenth century, and is the 
author of a work on the grandeur of the 
republic of Genoa : *' Real Grandeza de la 
Serenisima Republica de Genovaescrita en 
Lengua Espanola. ** Madrid, 1 665. This work 
has been translated into Italian by Carlos 
Esperon, D.D. Genoa, 1669, fol. (N. An- 
tonius, Bibliotheca ffispana Nova, ii 37.) 

"W P 

ALCAZOVA. [Alcacoba.] 

ALCEDO, ANTONIO DE. Less is known 
than could be desired of the life of this de- 
serving geographer. He was a native of 
Spanish America; he published his ''Dic- 
tionary of American Geography ** at Madrid, 
1786, after having been twenty years engaged 
in compiling it ; he was at the time of its 
publication a colonel in the royal guard, and 
states in his preface that his studies had been 
often interrupted by his military avocations. 
This brief account comprehends almost 
everjrthing that is known of him. Alcedo 
mentions m his prefiuse that it was his inten- 
753 



j tion, instead of quoting his authorities at the 
end of each article, to give in the last volume 
short sketches of the lives and writings of 
! each, in the manner of Nicolas Antonio, 
I arranged in alphabetical order. It is much 
I to be regretted that he did not keep his word, 
for even notices as meagre as those of An- 
tonio would have been a material addition 
to the deficient biography of Spain. Alcedo 
mentions that some of his accounts of places 
were drawn from personal observation, but 
more obtained fSrom the library of printed 
and manuscript works relative to America 
and oral communications of a distinguished 
person who had filled for forty years high 
offices in the Indies. He also states that he 
I had access to official documents, and had re- 
ceived valuable information firom Don Juan 
I Manuel Moscoso, bishop of Cuzco, Don Jo- 
seph de Ugarte, the Franciscan Pedro Gon- 
zalez de Agueros, the Capuchin Francisco 
de Ajefrin, and oUiers. llie work is com^ 
piled with a good deal of critical accuracy, 
' and fills a gap in the historv as well as the 
I geography of Spanish America. Thomson 
I mentions that the jealousy of the Spanish 
' government occasioned the suppression of 
i the work; ''that the copies which escaped 
' were very few \* that " a very small number 
' of copies, not exceeding five or six, exist 
in this kingdom ;" and that " the late en- 
' deavours to procure any from the Conti- 
I nent have always been unsuccessful, even 
I when attempted by official pursuit, and at 
unlimited expense.*' There are two copies of 
the Spanish Alcedo (1786) in the library of 
the British Museum. The book is entitled 
'. " Diccionario Geographico-Historico de las 
< Indias occidentales o America .* es a saber de 
[ los Reynos del Peru, Nueva Espana, Tierra 
Firme, Chile, y Nuevo Reyno de Granada. 
Escrito porel Coronel D. Antonio de Alcedo, 
Capitan de reales Guardias Espanolas. Ma- 
drid, 1786, 4to. TomiV.'' It has been trans- 
I lated into English by Mr. G. A. Thompson, 
I whose translation (with considerable additions 
. from, more recent authors) was published in 
London in five volumes in 1812-15. An 
Atlas to Alcedo was published in 1816 by 
A. Arrowsmith. (Alcedo's Prtface to his 
Dictionary, and Thompson's Preface to his 
Translation.) W. W. 

A'LCETAS CAAicA-oj), a brother of Per- 
diccas, one of the fiivountes and generals of 
Alexander the Great In the wars that fol- 
lowed the death of Alexander, Alcetas seconded 
the ambitious views of his brother, Perdiccas, 
and co-operated with him against Ptolemy, 
Antipater, and Antigonus. When Perdiccas 
invaded Egypt to attack Ptolemy (b. c. 321), 
he joined Alcetas with Eumenes in the com- 
mand of Asia Minor. On the death of Per- 
diccas (b. c. 321), Alcetas and Eumenes were 
condemned to death by the Macedonians in 
Egypt, and Antigonus was intrusted with the 
prosecution of the war against them. Alcetas 



ALCETAS. 



ALCHABITIUS. 



retired to Pisidia, where he had hoped to 
find a permanent refuge, and to become 
master of the district With this view he 
had made every effort to conciliate the good 
will and affection of the Pisidiana, and with 
their assistance, and in concert with Attains, 
the admiral of Perdiccas, he endeavoared to 
make head against Antigonus. He was 
however defeated, and obliged to take refbge 
in TermesBUS, a veiy strong city in Pisidia. 
Here he and his Pisidian friends held out for 
some time, till at last the old men of the 
city, who were in the interest of Antigonus, 
engaged to deliver Alcetas up, if Antigonus 
would draw the younger citisens (the ft-iends 
of Alcetas) out of the town by a feigned 
attack. This was done, and the old men then 
fell upon Alcetas, who, to avoid being taken, 
slew himself. (Diodoros, xviii. c 45, 46. ; 
Thiriwall, History of Greece^ vii. 233.) 

R. W-^i. 

A'LCETAS CAXjc^tos), the son of Tha- 
rypus, king of Epibus about b.c. 370, was an 
ally of Jason, the celebrated Tagua of Thes- 
saly, and also of Athens. In b.c. 873, to- 
gether with that prince, he appeared at 
Athens to intercede for Timotheus the Athe- 
nian general, when accused before the Athe- 
nian people of negligence in the discharge 
of his duty. Through their joint influence 
Timotheus was acquitted. Till the death of 
this Alcetas the states of Epirus were go- 
verned by one king : on his decease his two 
sons, Neoptolemus and Arybbas or Arymbas, 
agr^ to divide the kingdom equally be- 
tween them. (Demosthenes, TimoUL; Clin- 
ton, Fasti Hakn, ii. 110.; Pausanias, L 11. 
3. J Thiriwall, Hist of Greece, v. 61.) 

R.W— n. 

AXCETAS ('AAk^os), king of Epibub, 
was the son of Arybbas, or Arymbas, and the 
grandson of the Alcetas mentioned above. 
His temper was so ungovernable that his 
father banished him, so that his younger 
brother JEacideB succeeded to the throne. 
On the death of iEacides, the Epirots ap- 
pointed Alcetas as his successor, but he com- 
mitted such outrages that his subjects put him 
to death, together with his two sons. He was 
for some time (about b.c. 315) engaged in 
hostilities with Cassander, the son of Anti- 
pater, which however ended in an alliance 
bemg made between them. He was succeeded 
by Pyrrhus, who invaded Italy b. c. 260. 
(Pausanias, i. 11. 5. ; Diodorus, xix. c 88. ; 
Thiriwall, Hist of Greece, vii. 316.) 

R.W— n. 

AXCETAS CAAk^cu), the eighth king of 
Macedonia, according to Eusebins, and the 
fourth fh>m Perdiccas. He reigned twenty- 
eight or twenty-nine years, and flourished 
about B. c. 580. (Clinton, FasH HeUen. ii. 
221.) R. W— n. 

ALCHABI'TIUS, an Arabian astrologer, 
whose real name was 'Abdu-l-'aziz. He 
lived in the reign and at the court of Seyfh- 
754 



d-daulah ( Abu-l-hasan 'All), sultan of Aleppo, 
of the dynasty of Hamadan, about the middle 
of the tenth century of our sera. His works 
were known among the Arabs of Spain, 
by whom they were communicated to the 
Christians. As early as the twelfth oenturr, 
Joannes Hispalensis translated into Latin 
a treatise l^ him on judicial astrology, 
which was printed for the flrst time at 
Venice, in 1481, by John and Gregory de 
Forlivio, with a conunentary by Jolm of 
Saxony. ** libellus Ysagogicus Abdilazi (id 
est Servi gloriosi Dei : qui dicitur Aleha- 
bitius ad Magisterum) (sic) Judiciorum As- 
trorum : interpretatus a loanne Hispalensi, 
scriptumque in eundem a Johanne Saxonie 
editum utili Serie oonnezum," 4to. Re- 
printed at Venice by Erhard Ratdolt, 1482, 
4to. ; at Venice, 1502, 4to. ; and lastly, at 
Leyden, without date. This last edition 
contains also a short treatise by Petrus 
Turrelli, **De oognoacendis Infirmitatibus." 
(Delambre, Hist ae VAsirom, au Mojfen Age, 
p. 168—171.) P. de G. 

ALCHADE'B, R ISAAC BEN SO- 
LOMON BEN ZADDIK THE LEVITE 

a Spanish rabbi who hved and wrote during 
the Utter part of the fifteenth .century. 
Wolff calls him «* Alcadeph " (tpnrDK), but 
upon what authority he does not say. Al- 
chadeb, or rather Chadeb, both in Hebrew and 
Arabic, means the hunchback ; al is the Arabic 
article; whence we infer that this soubriquet 
had been bestowed on some one of his an- 
cestors during the dominion of the Moors in 
Spain. He was a celebrated astronomer ; 
his works are — 1.*' Orach Selulah " C The 
Paved Way") (fVow. xv. 19.), which treatsof 
the calendar, the Hebrew festivals, and other 
matters connected with the sacred year, and 
the division of time among the Jews ; it is 
among the manuscripts in the library of the 
Vatican, on paper, and was written a. bc 
5242 (A. D. 1482). 2. «' Leshon Hazahab" 
("The Wedge of Gold") (Jot*. viL 21.), 
which treats of the various weights and mea- 
sures mentioned in Scripture and their 
names : it was printed at Venice, in 4to., ac- 
cording to Buxtorf and De Rossi, but pro- 
bably without date, as no year is given. 
3. " Maasse Chosheb" (« The Work of the 
Artist") (^Exod. xxi. 1.), which is a work on 
arithmetic. AH these three works were 
among the manuscripts of R. Oppenheimer's 
library, and should consequently be in the 
Bodleian library at Oxford : the "* Orach Selu- 
lah " was also in the royal library at Paris, and 
in De Rossi's collection, who possessed no 
less than three manuscript copies. 4. " Keli 
Chemdah" C*The precious Instrument"), 
which treats of the planetary Sj^stem, also of 
the construction of the artificial globe, and 
of the astrolabe : this work is among the 
mper manuscripts of the Vatican library. 
Wolff also mentions a manuscript which was 



ALCHADEB. 



ALOHINDUS. 



in the library of the Oratory at Paris, which 
explained the construction of some mathe- 
matical instrument, which both he and De 
Rossi are of opinion is the ** Keli Chemdah ** 
of Alchadeb. 5. Bartolocci, under ** Isaac 
ben Tsadik Alcharib (snilDK)* ^' (^ ^^ 
■ays others call him) Alchadeb," says this 
author wrote •♦ Derec Selulah " (« The Paved 
Way"), a title taken from (Jer.xTiiL 15.), 
the negative particle ** lo " (not) being omitted, 
which, he says, are astronomicad tables, 
written against the tables of R. Tmmanuel 
Bar Jacob Baal Hackenaphaim : they are 
among the paper manuscripts in the Vatican, 
and were written ▲. h. 5242 (a. d. 1482). 
This is not the same work as the '* Orach 
Selulah," though by the same author. Bar- 
tolocci has given this author three times 
over, yet he evidently considers them all as 
the same person, for he attributes the ** Orach 
Selulah" to them all three. (Bartoloccius, 
Biblioth. Mag, Rabb, iiL 890. 920. 925. ; 
Wolfius, BiblioUi. HAr, L 648. iiL 558. ; 
De Rossi, Duion. Stone, degU Aut. Ebr. 
L 450 C- P- H- 

ALCHER, a Cistertian monk of the abbey 
of Clairvanx in the twelfth century, is the 
author of a treatise entitled ** De Anima," 
or otherwise, ** De Spiritu et Anima." This 
treatise is published among the works of 
Hugo de S. Victore, where it forms the second 
dissertation **De Anima," and among the 
works of Augustin, (torn, iii of the Cologne 
edition, 1616), to both of which writers, as 
well as to o^ers, it has been incorrectly at- 
tributed. It is also published in the eighth 
part of Tissier's ** BibliothecaCisterciensium." 
The following treatises, found in most editions 
of Angustln*s works, have been ascribed to 
Alcher :— «« De diligendo Deo ; " "* De Medita- 
tionibus;" ** De Contritione Ck>rdis;" '^Ma- 
nuale ; " and ** Soliloquium." ( Adelunff, Sup- 
plement to Jocher's Attgememes GMrten- 
LexicoiL) A. T. P. 

ALCHFRED. [Alfrbd.] 

ALCHFRID, oderwise AHLFRID, or 
EALFRID, or ALUCHFRID, or ALUC- 
FRID, son of Oswio, king of Northumbria, 
has usuallv been assum^ to be the same 
person with Aldfirid, or Alfred, the illegiti- 
mate son (or supposed son) of Oswio» who 
became king of Northumbria in 685, upon 
the death of Oswio's son and successor Eg- 
ftid. Dr. Lingard, however, appears to have 
shown that they were two disdnct persons, 
and that this is clearly the account given 
by Bede, the onl;|r original authoritv^. On 
this view, all that is known of Alchmd will 
fidl to be related under the name <^ his 
fiither Oswio, during whose reign he acted a 
conspicuous part, and with whom he was 
associated in the regal authority, but after 
whose death he is no more heard of (Bede, 
Ecclet. Hist iii. ; Eddius, Vita S. WUfridi, in 
Gale, XV Scriptorea^ fol. Oxon. 1691, p. 46, 
&c. ; Lingard's Hist. ofEng, i.) O. L. C. 
755 



ALCHINDUS, or ALKINDU8 (Abu Jd- 
suf Ya'kiib Ibn Is'hak Ibn As>sabbah Al-kin- 
di), an Arabian astrologer and physician, was 
bom at Basrah about the close of the eighth 
century of our era. He descended in a di- 
rect line from Amru-1-kays, chief of the 
Arabian tribe of Kindah, and hence his pa- 
tronymic Al-kindi, which the Latin writers 
of the middle ages corrupted into Alchindus. 
His£ither,lsluuc, had been Sahibu-sh-shor- 
tah, or captain in the guards under the 
irhWirfafA ojf Al-muhdi, and th pt of his son 
Hariin Ar-rashid. When still young, Al- 
kindi repaired to Baghdad, then the court 
of Al-mamun, and devoted himself to the 
study of the mathematical and philosophical 
sciences, which that enlightened monarch 
was then fostering in his states. He soon 
became so learned in them, as to deserve 
from his contemporaries the surname of 
filosuf (the philosopher). Al-kindi wrote 
upwards of two hundred diffiBrent works on 
philosophy, logic, music, geometry, arithmetic, 
astronomy, medicine, &C., a list of which, 
classed under different heads, may be seen 
in the *' Arabica Philosophorum Bibliotheca," 
ublished by Casiri, with a Latin trans- 



The following were translated into Latin 
during the middle a^ : — 1. ** De Tem- 
porum Mutationibus, sive de Imbribus," which 
was edited by Joannes Hieronymus i 
Scalingiis, Paris, 1540, foL, and seems to 
be an extract firom a larger astronomical 
work by Al-kindi. Another Latin translation 
of this work had already appeared at Venice. 
" Alkindus-Sophar Astrorum Indices, de 
PluviisetVentis ac Aeris Mutatione." Venice, 
1507, 4to. 2. " De Rerum Gradibus." Argento- 
rati (Strassburg), 1531, fol. with the ** Tacuini 
Sanitatis," by Eiluchasem el Imithar (Abii-1- 
hasan Mokhtar ?) Medici de Baldath, and 
the treatise ** De Virtutibus Medidnarum 
et Ciborum," by Alben Gnefit (Ibn Wafid ?). 
3. " De Medicinarum compositarum Gra- 
dibus investigandis Libellus" (the subject of 
which is the same with that treated in the 
above); Venice, 1584, 8vo. *, besides former 
editions of Venice, 1561 and 1603. He also 
wrote ** De Ratione sex Quantitatum ; de 
Quinque Essentiis ; de Motu Diumo ; de Ve- 
getalibus ; de TheoriA Magicarum Artium ;" 
which last work gave him the reputation of 
being a magician, as happened with the best 
natural philosophers of the middle ages. Ibn 
Khaldun in his " Historical Prolegomena" 
(BritMut, No. 9574. foL 189.) says, that Air 
kindi wrote for the Khalif Al-mimun a book 
entitled " Sef^," in which he predicted the rise 
and fall of empires, the change of dynasties, 
and other remarkable events. ** The work," 
adds that author, ** was kept with the greatest 
care among the treasures of the khalifii ; but 
on the taking of Baghdad by the Tartars 
under Holagu, it perished together with 
other invaluable treasures of literature." 



ALCHINDUS. 



ALCIATL 



(Casiri, Bib. Arab. Hisp. Eac. i. 853. ; Abu- 
l-faraj, HuL Dyn. 179.) P. de O. 

ALCIA'TI, A'NDREA, a celebrated 
lawyer in Milan, was bom at Alzato in the 
Milanese, on the 8th of May, 1492. He was 
an only son ; his parents were noble, and his 
father Ambrogio had held the office of de- 
curion in Milan, and bad been sent on one 
occasion ambassador to Venice. 

After studying the classics in Milan under 
Giano Parrasio, he was sent in his fifteenth 
year to study law at the unirersity of Pavia, 
where his teacher was Oiasone Maino: he 
afterwards went to Bolo^a, where he placed 
himself under Carlo Ruino. In 1513, while 
still a student, Alciati published a commen- 
tary on the last three books of the Ck)dex of 
Justinian : he boasts in his pre&ce that he 
wrote it in the space of fifteen days. He 
obtained the degree of doctor in 1514, and, 
returning to Milan, practised as an advocate 
for the next three years, and was, although 
he had not attamed the legal age, admitted 
a member of the CoUegio de' Giureconsulti. 
The reputation acquired as a practising 
lawyer, he increased by his publications. 
His Paradoxes (" Paradoxorum Juris Civilis 
Libri sex)," were published in 1517, and were 
followed in 1518 by a work which he en- 
titled ^ PrsDtermissomm Libri duo," a kind 
of scrap-book. 

He was appointed, towards the close of the 
same year, professor of civil law in the uni- 
versity of Avignon, where he remained till 
November, 1521. His first course of lectures 
was attended by seven hundred pupils, and 
Leo X. coi^erred on him the title of count 
palatine of the Lateran. This promising 
dawn was soon overcast: a pestilential disease 
broke out in Avignon and frightened away 
the students; the municipal rulers wished 
to reduce his salary, and paid it irreguhirly, 
and Alciati returned to Milan. 

In Milan he resumed the practice of the 
law with such success that he was promoted 
to a high office in the state, which however 
he soon resigned, alleging that the discharge 
of its duties interfered with his studies. He 
was an inhabitant of Milan in 1524, how 
much longer does not appear. He returned 
to Avignon, and was called thence to fill a 
chair of civil law in the university of Bourges 
in the spring of 1528. 

He remamed at Bourges fh>m 1528 to 
1532. As usual, he soon grew tired of his 
appointment, and intrigued for a professorship 
in Bologna. He was retained at Bourges 
however for the period mentioned, first by a 
pension of three hundred crowns, which was 
obtained for him fi'om the King of France in 
1530, and afterwards by flattering com- 
pliments from the king and dauphin, each of 
whom at different times attended one of his 
lectures. 

About the end of 1532 Alciati returned 
to Italy, Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, 
756 



having conferred upon him the appointment 
of professor in Pavia, an annual salary of 
fifteen hundred crowns, and the honorary 
title of senator. He continued professor in 
Pavia till 1587, when that district having 
become the theatre of war, he was obliged to 
suspend his lectures. Alciati's history during 
the remaining eighteen years of his life is 
little more than an enumeration of his fre- 
quent and fickle changes fhnn one nniversty 
to another. He lectured on law four years 
in Bologna, two in Pavia, four in Ferrara, 
and three in Pavia. He died at Pavia in 
1550, according to some on the 12th of 
January, according to others on the 14th of 
Februarv. 

The frequency with which Alciati trans- 
ferred his services fh>m one university to 
another marks a fickle character, but his 
success in obtaining new appointments as 
soon as he threw up the old implies the ex- 
istence of a respect for his talents. This was 
not owing to the justice or depth of his legal 
knowledge, for his works are of the character 
that might have been anticipated fh>m the 
precocious boy who boosted that he could 
compose a commentary on three books of the 
Codex in fifteen dajrs. His deficiency in 
le^ attainments was detected both by the 
university jurists and the practising lawyers 
of his day : his admirers and supporters were 
the men in high station who wished to shine 
as patrons of literature. His recommendation 
to them was a certain superficial readiness 
and brilliancy. His conversational smart- 
ness, carried mto the professor's chair, earned 
him the encomiums even of Erasmus ; but 
time has not confirmed even the belles-lettres 
reputation of AlciatL 

The works of Alciati are more numerous 
than valuable, yet have been often reprinted. 
His law publications, his ** Annotations on 
Tacitus," his " Emblems," and some tracts on 
antiquarian and philological subjects, are col- 
lected in six volumes folio, published at Lyon 
in 1560. This collection has been several 
times reprinted. The most important of the 
juridical works are commentaries on the 
Digest, on some titles of the Codex, and 
some tables of the Decretals : " Paradoxorum 
Juris civilis Libri VI. ;" " De Verborum Obli- 
gationibus;" "De Appellatiouibus;" "De Ver- 
borum et Rerum Significatione ;" " De Ver- 
borum Significatione Libri IV. ;" " Tractatus 
de Presumptionibus ;" ** De singnlari Cer- 
tamine ;" " De Magistratibus, civflibusque et 
militaribus Officiis Liber;" " Dispunctionum 
Juris Libri IV. ; " ** Parergorum Juris s. 
obiter Dictorum Libri XII." His nephew and 
heir, Francesco Alciati, afterwards cardinal, 
caused a selection of his uncle's legal opmions 
to be published : this appears to be the book 
entitled " Responsa nunquam ante hac edita," 
published at Lyon in 1561, and frequently 
reprinted. Zilettus has included several of 
Alciati's dissertations in his great collection of 



ALCIATI. 



ALCIATL 



law tracts. The literary work of Alciati which 
has been most generally praised and most fre- 
quently reprinted is his ** Emblemata," short 
moral allegories in Latin verse, of which the 
English i^der may form a conception by 
imagining Qnarles*s Emblems stripped of their 
Galvinistic theology. He published a se- 
lection of Latin epigrams, ** Epigrammata se- 
lecta ex Anthologia LatinA,** and a glossary 
to Plautns, along with an essay on his metres, 
** De Plautinorum Carminum Ratione," an- 
nexed to the Basil octavo edition of Plantus 
in 1568. Alciati left in MS. a history of 
Milanese affiurs, **Reram Patriae, seu His- 
torisB Mediolanensis Libri IV., published at 
Milan in octavo in 1625, and inserted in the 
second part of Grtevius's Thesaurus. A 
number of his unpublished writings are pre- 
served in various Italian libraries. (Mazzu- 
cheUi, Scrittori (T Italia; Andres Alciati 
JvriacontulH Mediolaneima Commentaria et 
Tractatua, Lngduni, 1560, foL ; the Life of 
Alciati prefixed to the edition of his Em- 
blemata, published by Claude Mignault in 
1581.) W. W. 

ALCIATI, FRANCESCO, bom on the 
1st of February, 1522, was nephew of Andrea, 
educated by him, and left heir of the money 
which his penurious disposition had led him 
^o accumulate. After the death of his uncle 
he was appointed professor of civil law in the 
universi^ of Pavia. In was his good fortune 
in this capacity to become tutor to St Carlo 
Borromeo, who, fascinated by the elegant ac- 
complishments of his preceptor, zealously pro- 
moted his interests at the papal court. Called 
to Rome by Pius IV., Francesco was appointed 
referendaiy to the pontiff, and apostolic 
nuncio to the king of Bohemia ; and then in 
succession bishop of Aria, Clarmont, and 
Civitate near Benevento. The last-mentioned 
benefice was conferred upon him on the 5th 
of September, 1561, and he held it till a short 
time before his death. He was created car- 
dinal, with the title of Santa Maria in Portico, 
on the 12th of March, 1565. He held at dif- 
ferent times several honorary and also several 
lucrative appointments at court, among others 
that of confessor to Pius V. He died on the 
19th of April, 1580, leaving his nephew, 
Cesare Alciati, his heir. He published no- 
thing of his own, but a MS. collection of 
his private letters was preserved in the 
Ambrosian library at Milan, and a MS. col- 
lection of his Iqnd opinions in the library of 
the ViscontL He published a collection of 
his uncle's legal opinions. (Mazzuchclli, 
Scrittori rf* Italia.) W. W. 

ALCIATI, GIOVANNI PA'OLO, is 
generally called a Milanese, but he says him- 
self that his native country was Pieidmont. 
He was rich, of good fiunily, and had borne 
arms- With a view to form or freely pro- 
fess his opinions on religion, he withdrew 
to Geneva, where he was admitted to the citi- 
zenship, and attached himself to the Italian 
757 



Protestant refugees who from the year 1551 
had formed a church in that place. In the 
year 1558 the minister and elders of this 
Italian church, remarkmg among its members 
differences of opinion respecting the doctrine 
of the Trinity, desired the council of Geneva 
to permit them to prepare a particular con- 
fession of £uth to which every member of 
their church should be obliged to subscribe. 
This was levelled at the heretical opinions of 
V. Gentile, G. Blandrata, and Alciati. The 
proposal of the Italian consistory commu- 
nicated by Calvin to the council was con- 
firmed, and after a conference of three hours' 
duration between Calvin and such as had 
any doubts upon the articles of faith thus 
drawn up, they were signed on the 18th of 
May, 1 558, by the Italian Protestants with the 
exception of six or seven individuals, who, 
however, were induced to sign some time 
afterwards through fear of being expelled 
from Geneva. Bayle quotes Uie authority of 
Calvin to show that, among others, Alciati 
signed the formulary of the Italian church 
at Geneva. But here a difficulty occurs as to 
the movements of Alciati. Beza (letter 81. 
and Life of Calvin) leaves it in doubt 
whether Alciati left Geneva before or after 
the trial of Gentile in September 1558 was 
concluded, and he attributes his leaving simply 
to the stings of conscience (**solo mals con- 
seientise vulnere adactus"). The notes in 
Spon*s history of Geneva (edition of 1730) 
refer to a trial of Alciati, to his bemg deprived 
of his citizenship in the year 1559, and to 
his being banished for life from the city and 
territories of Geneva as a favourer of the 
opinions of Servetus. On the other hand, 
Peter Martyr, in a letter dated Ziirich, 1 1th of 
July, 1558, informs Calvin that ** Joannes 
Paulus Pedemontanus,*' by which name 
doubtless Alciati is meant, had been seen 
there, had been exhorted not to disturb the 
unity of the church, and to conform to the 
formulary of the Italian church at Geneva, 
but without effect, and that he had been per- 
suaded by Bullinger to leave Ziirich, and 
had withdrawn to Chiavenna. And yet, 
again, about the time at which Alciati is thus 
supposed to be withdrawing to Chiavenna, 
he must have been employed in obtaining 
the release ot Gentile from prison in Gex, 
where he had retired in 1558, and had begun 
to spread opinions which had been condemned 
at Geneva. 

Alciati and Blandrata at last went to 
Poland, and were admitted to communion 
with the Reformed churches there. After 
a time heretical opinions respecting the 
Trinity spread among these churches, though 
checked by letters from Calvin and by dis- 
sensions among the innovators themselves, 
which in 1565 occasioned the resolution of 
the diet of Petrikow, ordering them to sepa- 
rate Arom the Reformed churches, and to form 
a distinct congregation. Alciati retired to 



ALCIATL 



ALCIATL 



Danzig, where, after some years* residence, 
he died. A small congregation of Socinians 
subsisted secretly for some time after in Dan- 
aig, bat gradually died away. Its connection 
with Alciati is not ascertamed, nor are the 
dates fixed of these late events in Alciati's 
life. The " Bibliotheca Anti-Trinitariomm" 
says that he wrote two letters to Gregorio 
PauU in 1564 and 1565, dated from Hus- 
terilts, in which he maintained that Jesus 
Christ did not exist before he was bom of 
the Virgin. The dissensions in Poland had 
been increased by Gentile, who was invited 
thither by Aiciati and Blandrata, and he is 
represented by Beaa (letter 81.) as charac- 
terising Alciat as a Mohammedui, and Blan- 
drata as a Samosatenian. From the charge 
of Mohammedanism, repeated by more than 
one writer, Bayle has defended Alciati, and 
says ^ it is certain Alciati's heresy was the 
true Socimanism." Mosheim, while he says 
** it is not easy to determine the particu- 
lar char^ against Alciati,'* concludes that 
he " inclmed to Arianism, and did not enter- 
tain such low ideas of the person and dignity 
of Jesus Christ as those that are adopted by 
the Socinians.*' This would seem probable 
from the evidence brought forward by Bayle 
himself! Nor does Mosheim allow that Al- 
ciati can properly be called a Servetian, as is 
usual with writers of the sixteenth century, 
because he differed firom Servetus in general 
as well as upon his peculiar doctrines re- 
specting the Trini^. (Bayle, Dictionnaire 
Critique, voc " J. P. Alciat," « V. Gentilis," 
" G. Blandrata;" Mosheim, EccksiatticeU 
History^ book iv. chap. iv. sections 6, 7, 8. 
and notes ; Spon, Histoire de Genivej reetiJUe 
et augmaO^ 1730, notes pw 303, 304.) 

A. T. P. 

ALCIA'TI, GIOVANNI PA'OLO,* a iia^ 
tive of Milan and a Jesuit, who was professor 
of rhetoric in the socie^s college at Brera 
in the Milanese, about uie year 1724* He 
published in that year a congratulatory address 
to the Dominican monks on the election of 
Benedict XIII., who was a member of their 
order. (Mazsuchelli, Serittori <f Italia,) 

W.W. 

ALCIATI, MELCHIOUE, was the son of 
Giovanni Paolo Alciati, a patrician of Milan, 
and Francesca de* Conti Balbini. He was pro- 
fessor of civil law at Pavia, and died, accord- 
ing to Sitoni in December, 1613, according to 
Piccinelli in 1618, at Torre de' Corvini, in 
the territory of that city. He published a 
treatise on tiie relative peoedenoe of the great 
feudataries of the emfMre, doctors of common 
law, &c., entitled " De prseoedentia inter feu- 
datarium CflBsarei, Pontificiinqne Juris doc- 
torem, et feudatarinm habentem annezatum 
Comitatus et Marchise dignitatem. Ticini apud 
Vianum,'* 1600, 4to. Four other juridical 
treatises are attributed to him ; but the writers 
who mention them do not state the time and 
place of their publication, or give any clue to 
758 



their tenor. The titles are — ** De acquirenda 
Possessione;** ** In Ca^sareas Constitutiones 
Statns Mediolani;" **I>e novi operis nuntia- 
tione;" "De Ordine Graduum Status Me- 
diolanL" Some rhymes by Melchiore Alciati 
are to be found in a little volume entitled 
*' Componimenti di divers! nel Dottorato 
di Leggi dell* Abate Francesco Sorbellone. 
In Pavia per gli Eredi de Girolamo Bartoli," 
1599, 8vo. (Mazzuchelli, Serittori ^Italia.) 

W. W. 

ALCIA'TI, TERENZIO, bom at Rome in 
1570, descended from a noble and rich family 
which was originally from Milan. In 1591 
he entered the order of the Jesuits, and after- 
wards taught philosophy during five years, 
and divinity during seventeen years, at the Je- 
suits' college in Rome. He subsequently be- 
came studiorum pnefeotns at this college and 
held the office during thirteen years, where- 
upon he was appointed vice-pnepositus of the 
House of Profession at Rome. Esteemed by 
the cardinals for his great learning, he was 
appointed censor by the Sancta Congregatio 
Sacri Officii ; the Suicta Congregatio Rituum 
chose him their consultor, and he became di- 
rector of the Pcsnitentiaris Vaticane. In the 
ninth general congregation of the Jesuits, 
Alciati was Uie deputy of the Roman province. 
The general of the Jesuits chose him to pre- 
side as vice-provincial over the assembly of 
the Jesuits of the province of Rome, but he died 
of apoplexy on Uie 12th of November, 1651, 
at the moment when he was going to discharge 
these functions. He is the author of several 
works on divinity, which are written in Ita- 
lian, and which he published under the name 
of Eminius Tacitus. Alegambe gives the 
titles of them transhUed into Latin : " Vita 
P. Petri Fabri primi Sociorum & P. N. Ig- 
natii. Roms, 1629, 8vo.:" this book is a 
translation of the Latin work of Nicolaus Or- 
landinus. **OratiodePa8sioneDominusqnam 
habuit ad Clementem VIII., Anno 1602. 
Romss, 1641, 12mo." Alciati was commis- 
sioned by Pope Urban VIII. to refute Sarpi, 
the author of the " Istoria del Concilio Tri- 
dentino," but death prevented him from ac- 
complishing this work. However, he had col- 
lected very valuable materials, of which Car- 
dinal Pallavicini afterwards made use for hia 
** Istoria del Concilio diTrento," (Alegambe, 
BibL Script Soc, Jes, sub voc. ** Terentius 
Alciatns ; " Jocher, Aligem, Gderhten-Lexi" 
con, sub voc. " Alciata") W. P. 

A'LCIBIADES CAAjct«ui8ns), son of Clei- 
nias, an Athenian remarkable for his ability 
as a soldier and statesman, for the great and 
varied influence which he exercised over the 
fortunes of Greece, and for the versatility 
and splendour of his talents, was bom about 
B.C. 452-0, when Athens was rapidly rising 
to its highest power. In early youth he 
seemed marked out for distinction by the 
most brilliant endowments of person, of 
station, and of intellect Though high an- 



ALCIBIADES. 



ALCIBIADES. 



cestry conferred no direct political privileges, 
it was not indifferent in his own eyes, or 
those of his fellow-citizens, that he descended 
from the noblest families of Athens. By his 
&ther*s side he traced his ancestry into the 
heroic ages, through Ajax up to Jupiter ; and 
his mother Deinomache was one of the Alc- 
nueonidse. He inherited one of the largest 
fortunes of Athens, swelled by the sarings of 
a long minority ; and with his wife Hipparete, 
daughter of Hipponicus, he received ten ta^ 
lents, the largest dowry that had been given 
in Greece. His person was remarkable for 
beauty, an advantage which he abused to 
licentiousness. His powers of mind were 
extraordinary, and he enjoyed peculiar 
advantages m their cultivation ; bemg the 
ward of Pericles, who was connected with 
him on the mother's side, and the favourite 
pupil and companion of Socrates. But his 
great qualities were alloyed by a frivolity of 
mind, shown in the unportance which he 
attached to pre-emmence and display, and in 
a childish love of notoriety, which constantly 
led him into wanton and offensive excesses. 
And he is liable to the graver charge of an 
intense selfishness, which postponed truth, 
justice, and patriotism to self-aggrandizement, 
or to the gratification of a headstrong will. 
The advice which he is said to have given to 
Pericles when at a loss in what palatable 
shape to render his accounts to the state, may 
be taken as an index of his character : ** It 
would be better to study how to avoid render- 
ing them at alL" 

The life of Alcibiades by Plutarch beg^ 
with a long series of very amusing stories, to 
which we can only refer. At the age of 
eighteen, according to the Athenian Uw, he 
attained his minority. In B.C. 432 he served 
at the siege of Potidsa, in company with So- 
crates, who there saved his life in battle. On 
that occasion, the crown and suit of armour, 
the prize of the most distinguished com- 
batant, was awarded to Alcibiades, at the 
instance of Socrates, to whom it appears to 
have been more justly due. Eight years 
later, at the battle of Delium, Alcibiades in 
his turn saved the life of the philosopher. 
Their intimacy has caused Alcibiades to fill 
a prominent place in the dialogues of Plato. 
They sought each other's society from widely 
different motives : ** Socrates saw in him 
many elements of a noble character, which 
might be easily perverted; alSllities which 
might greatly serve or fatally ixgure his 
country ; a strength of will capable of the 
most arduous enterprises, and the more dan- 
gerous if it took a wrong direction ; an ar- 
dent love of glory, which needed to be puri- 
fied and enlightened ; and he endeavoured 
to win all these advantages for truth, virtue, 
and the public good. It was one of the best 
tokens of a generous nature in Alcibiades 
that he could strongly relish the conversation 
of Socrates, and deeply admire his exalted 
759 



character, notwithstanding his repulsiTe ex- 
terior, and the wide difference of station and 
habits by which they were psoted .... But 
their intimacy produced no lasting fruits. It 
was the immediate object of Socrates to mo- 
derate the confidence and self-complacency of 
Alcibiades, to raise his standard of excellence, 
to open his eyes to his own defects, and to 
eonvince him that he needed a long course of 
inward discipline before he could engage 
safely and usefully in the conduct of public 
affiiirs. But Alcibiades was impatient to 
enter on the brilliant career which lay before 
him. The mark towards which his wise 
monitor directed his aims, though he felt it 
to be the most truly glorious, was not only 
distant and hard to reach, but would probably 
have diverted him from the darling objects 
of his ambitious hopes. He feared to grow 
old at the feet of Socrates, charmed into a 
fine vision of ideal greatness, while the sub- 
stance of power, honours, and pleasure slipped 
away from his grasp. He forced himself 
away from the siren philosophy which would 
have beguiled him into the thraldom of reason 
and conscience, that he might listen to the 
plainer counsels of those who exhorted him 
to seize the good which lay within his reach, 
to give his desires their widest range, to cul- 
tivate the arts by which they might be most 
surely and easily gratified, and to place un- 
bounded confidence in his own genius and 
energy. Before he entirely withdrew from 
the society of Socrates, he had probably begun 
to seek it chiefly for the sake of that dialectic 
subtlety which Socrates possessed in an un- 
rivalled degree, and which was an instrument 
of the highest value for his own purposes. 
His estrangement from his teacher's train of 
thinking and feeling manifested itself not so 
much in the objects of his ambition as in the 
methods by wluch he pursued them. It be- 
came more and more evident that he had 
lost not only all true loftiness of aim, but all 
the sinceri^ and openness of an upright soul ; 
and the quality which in the end stamped his 
character was the singular flexibility with 
which he adapted himself to tastes and habits 
most foreign to his own, and assumed the 
exterior of those whose good will he desired 
to pain." (Thirlwall, Hist, of Greece, chap. 

XXIV.) 

To keep himself before the eyes of the 
people suited both the temper and the policy 
of Alcibiades. Many of his eccentncities 
seem to have been directed to this end. He 
served, like all Greek citizens, in the army, 
and, as has been stated, %ith credit. He had 
a powerfrd and persuasive eloquence, which 
he used unscrupulously ; ** flattering the 
people in the mass," says Andocides, "• and 
despiteftdly using any individual." He la- 
vished his wealth, sometimes in idle frolic or 
prodigal magnificence, sometimes in a more 
serious and well-considered splendour. ** He 
was not only liberal to profusion in the legal 



ALCIBIADES. 



ALCIBIADES. 



and customary contributions with which at 
Athens the affluent charged themselves, as 
well to provide for certain parts of the naval 
service as to defrav the expense of the public 
spectacles, but aspired to dazzle all Greece at 
the national games. .... He contended at 
Olympia with seven chariots in the same 
race, and won the first, second, and third, or 
fourth crown, — success unexampled as the 
competition. He afterwards feasted all the 
spectators : and the entertainment was not 
more remarkable for its profhsion and for 
the multitude of the guests than for the new 
kind of homage paid to him by the subjects 
of Athens. The Ephesians pitched a splendid 
Persian tent for him ; the Chians furnished 
provender for his horses ; the Cyzicenes, vic- 
tims for the sacrifice ; the Lesbians, wine and 
other requisites for the banquet . . . Reflecting 
men could not but ask whether an^ private 
fortune could support such an expenditure, and 
whether such honours were in harmony with 
a spirit of civic equality." (Thirlwall, lb.) 
And such a doubt might well be increased by 
his light and fearless violations not only of 
individual rights and persons but of the ma- 
jesty of the public tribunals and of religion. 
" At these things," says Plutarch, " the best 
citizens of Athens were much offended, and 
were afraid withal of his rashness and inso- 
lancy : " and he goes on to quote a passage 
ih>m .^schylus applied to Alcibiades by Ari- 
stophanes, to the effect that a lion's whelp 
should not be brought up in a city, but that 
whosoever rears one must let him have his 
own way. 

The family of Alcibiades had been con- 
nected with Sparta by the respected tie of 
hereditary hospitality. That tie, which had 
been broken by his grandfiither, Alcibiades 
wished to renew, and to constitute himself 
the head of the Spartan party. But the 
Spartan government, jealous probably of his 
temper and i^orant of his power, preferred 
to retain their connection with Nicias, the 
recognised leader of the aristocratic party ; 
and thereon Alcibiades went over to the 
opposite extreme. His first public measure 
seems to have been a proposition for increas- 
ing the tribute paid by the Athenian allies, 
which was doubled in amount, he being one 
of the commissioners appointed to effect the 
change. This appears to have been before 
the peace between Athens and Sparta, 
B. c. 421. Soon after that peace he came 
forward as the advocate of the democratic 
party against the Spartan alliance ; and by a 
clever and unscrupulous trick, in which he 
outwitted the Spartan ministers, obtained the 
enactment of a treaty of alliance with Argos, 
Elis, and Mantineia (b. c. 420). This meant 
little less than a declaration of hostilities 
against Sparta, and soon led to open war. 
In D. c. 419 Alcibiades was elected one of 
the board of generals (strategos); and he 
bore an active part in the complicated wars 
760 



and negotiations carried on in Peloponnesus 
during the next three years, a period un- 
marked by any leading events in his personal 
history. He is however charged with having 
been a leading agent in procuring the atro- 
cious decree by which the male citizens of 
Melos were put to death by the Athenians, 
their lands occupied by Athenian settlers, 
and their families enslaved; a transaction 
infamous in history under the name of the 
Melian massacre. 

At this time Alcibiades and Nicias were 
the unquestioned leaders of the democratic 
and aristocratic the war and peace parties : 
the latter desirous above all thmgs to secure 
by a good understanding with Sparta that 
power and wealth which had grown up so 
wonderfully in some sixty years ; the former 
eager to extend them, and open new prospects 
of conquest, gain, and glory to the young, 
the needy, and that large class of citizens 
who in one way or another were to be fed 
at the public expense. The only man who 
could be formidable to either wasHyperboIus, 
Cleon's successor as leader of the lowest 
class of citizens. He had the boldness to 
threaten Alcibiades with ostracism, but was 
himself banished under that strange law, 
through the co-operation of the two leaders, 
of whom Nicias hated him on political, as 
heartily as Alcibiades on personal, grounds. 
Soon 2Ufter (b. c. 415) the cardinsJ event of 
the war came under discussion, the inter- 
ference of Athens with the affairs of Sicily. 
That she did interfere was principally due to 
Alcibiades, whose arguments are presumed 
to be faithfully represented by Thucydides 
in the speech ascribed to him (vi. 16 — 18.). 
A powerful armament was voted, in the 
command of which he was joined with Ni- 
cias and Lamachus. But before it sailed, the 
general exultation was damped b^ a strange 
occurrence, never clearly explained. One 
morning most of the Hermie (stone figures 
of Mercury placed in the streets as .guardian 
images) were found defaced. This was a 
great sacrilege, and raised an extraordinary- 
commotion. Inquiry was made; rewards 
were offered to witnesses and informers ; and 
finally, a charge of profaning the Eleusinian 
mysteries, connected with the mutilation of 
the Herms and the existence of a plot against 
the democracy, was brought against Alci- 
biades. To the charge of profimation the 
excesses of his youth gave colour : the rest 
of it had not even plausibility. Alcibiades 
begged for a trial before he was sent out in 
so high a command. But his enemies had 
the ear of the people, and it was not their 
object to give him a fair hearing : it was 
therefore voted that he should proceed with 
the fleet, and return when summoned to 
answer the things laid to his charge. On 
reaching Sicily, those hopes of powerfhl 
support by which the expedition had been 
recommended were found to be futile. The 



ALCIBIADES. 



ALCIBIADES. 



commanders differed in their views : finally, 
those of Alcibiades were adopted. But be- 
fore his talents could tell, he was recalled to 
stand hia trial ; and trial, in the then temper 
of the people, he held equivalent to condemn- 
ation. He escaped on the Toyage ; and, not 
appearing, was pronounced accursed, and sen- 
tenced to death with confiscation of property. 

Whether or not Alcibiades was capable of 
carrying to a prosperous issue the great hopes 
with which Uie Sicilian expedition was un- 
dertaken, his colleagues and successors proved 
yneqnal to the task. [Nicias ; Deho- 
'sTHENES.] He threw his talents into the 
opposite scale, and appeared at Sparta as the 
avowed enemy of his country. {Tkucyd, vi. 
89 — 92.) By his advice, a Spartan was given 
to command the Syracusans, a very sparing 
yet effectual aid; and a permanent station 
was fortified and garrisoned by the Spartans 
at Deceleia, a town of Attica, about fifteen 
miles from Athens, to the great inconve- 
nience and u^xxrj of that city. The total 
loss of the Sicilian armament (b. c. 413) 
gave new spirits both to the open enemies 
and the discontented allies of Athens. By 
the ready agency of Alcibiades, the is- 
lands and Ionia were urged into revolt; 
and a treaty was concluded between Sparta 
and Tissapfaemes, satrap of Ionia, on terms 
more fkvourable to the Persian interests than 
to the honour of Greece (b. c. 412). But 
about this time the cordiality and unity of 
purpose of Alcibiades and the Spartans de- 
clined. By the annual change of magistrates, 
a party unfrien^y to him came into office : 
and ^e king, Agis, hated hun, belieying 
him to have seducd his wife, Timoea. This, 
indeed, Alcibiades is said to have avowed, 
intimating that he was governed not so 
much by any preference for the hidy as by 
ambition that his posterity should fill the 
throne of Sparta ; and it is a remarkable but 
not solitary instance of the levity with which 
he would let the indulgence of a whim cross 
deep schemes of policy. In this and in other 
respects he strikingly resembles a man much 
inferior to himself^ the second Duke of 
Buckingham. According to the secret and 
crafty policy of Sparta, the commander of 
the army in Asia was instructed to get rid of 
Alcibiades as a dangerous person. But he 
was warned of the danger, and took refhge 
with Tissaphemes, a Persian satrap. 

"Whatever party Alcibiades attached him- 
self to, that party always seems to have taken 
a start from that moment. Such had been 
the case when he was driven from Athens ; 
such was now the case when he was driven 
from Sparta. He soon estranged Tissa- 
phemes ttoxn. his new allies, made him re- 
duce their pay, upon which the Spartan power 
of maintaining a fleet greatly depended, and 
led him to see that the policy of Persia was, 
not to substitute the ascendancy of Sparta on 
the coasts of Asia Minor for that of Athens, 



but to preserve the one to counterpoise the 
other. He fiiscinated Tissaphemes by his 
unrivalled talents of social intercourse ; and 
the notoriety of his ikvour, and belief in his 
power, soon reached and made a deep im- 
pression in the Athenian armament then 
quartered at Samos. Of the rich Athenians 
a large proportion was disgusted by the length 
of the war, and by the pressure upon property 
which it occasioned. One heavy bunlen was 
the obligation of acting as trierarch, or cap- 
tain of a ship, which involved a great expense 
for the equipment of the vessel, and was com- 
pulsory upon men of a certain fortune. An 
mfluential party in the Samian armament was 
therefore well disposed to embrace the ad- 
vantages consequent on the restoration of 
Alcibiades, backed by the wealth of Persia : 
and that he coupled his restoration with the 
establishment of an oligarchy, professing that 
he could not feel secure so long as the govem- 
ment rested in the party which had banished 
him, was probably an additional inducement 
to ftoher his plans. A deputation was sent 
to Athens headed by Pisander, who speedily 
obtained a decree by which he with ten others 
was authorised to negotiate with Tissa- 
phemes and Alcibiades. But nothing was 
effected, in consequence of the excessive 
demands of Alcibiades, who appears to have 
resorted to that method of concealing the 
trath, that his influence was not sufficient to 
induce the satrap to break absolutely with 
the Peloponnesians. Meanwhile that revo- 
lution at Athens still proceeded which lodged 
(b.c.411) the sovereign power in the council 
of Four Hundred. But the temper of the Sa- 
mian armament was changed. Thrasybulus 
and Thrasyllus, officers of subordinate rank, 
but men of talent, had gained a command- 
ing influence in the absence of the leading 
oligarchists. An oath to support the demo- 
cracy was imposed upon persons suspected of 
favouring the new government; and Alci- 
biades was recalled by a vote of the soldier- 
citizens, who, in the abeyance of the con- 
stitution, claimed the sovereignty as vested 
in their assembly. His first action was an 
important benefit to his country, inasmuch as 
he prevented the army frt>m returning to 
Athens to restore the constitution by civil 
war. And in the course of the same year 
which had witnessed the revolution, the 
Four Hundred were overthrown without the 
agency of the army ; the sovereign power 
was vested in a selected body of five thousand 
citizens ; and Alcibiades and other exiles were 
recalled. 

His promises to bring the gold of Persia to 
relieve the Athenian exchequer proved vain r 
as Tissaphemes had deserted the Peloponne- 
sian, so now he deserted the Athenian interest 
But under the command of Alcibiades a suc- 
cession of brilliant victories — at Cynossema 
and Abydos (b. c. 411); at Cyzicus (b. c. 
410) ; in the two following years the acqui- 
3d 



ALCIBIADES. 



ALCIBIADES. 



sition of Chalccdon and Bysantium ; the 
renewal of Athenian sapremacy throughont 
the Hellespont and Propontis, -whereby the 
control of the Eozine, and a lucrative re- 
yenoe derived from tolls levied on ships 
passing through the straits, were secured ; — 
all thtte successes testified the ability with 
which the affinirs of Athens were now con- 
ducted. Four years after his recall (b. c. 
407), Alcibiades for the first time since his 
banishment returned to Athens : he was 
enthusiastically received; his property was 
restored ; the records of the proceedings 
against bim were sunk in the sea; the curse 
publicly laid on him was as solemnly re- 
voked; and he was i^pointed commander- 
in-chief of the forces by land and sea. He 
signalised his abode in Athens, where he 
staid four months, by conducting the annual 
procession to celebrate the mysteries at Eleu- 
sis ; a ceremony which had been discontinued 
since the occupation of Deoeleia. Returning 
to the scene of war, his first action was an 
unsuccessful attempt on the island of Andros. 
Soon after, while the fleet was quartered at 
Notium, near Ephesus, a general engagement 
was brought on, in his absence and against 
his express orders, by the rashness of his lieu- 
tenant, Antiochus ; when the Peloponnesian 
fleet, commanded by Lysander, gained the 
advantage. This, though attended with no 
material loss, waa enough to disgust the 
Athenians, who seem to have considered Al- 
cibiades' past successes only as giving them 
a claim on him for more brilliant exploits. 
It waa urged that the wealth of the state was 
squander^ upon himself and his favourites ; 
and the luxurious indulgence of his habits 
gave plausibility to the charge. He was su- 
perseded, and hereon retired to lus estates 
m the Thracian Chersonese, on which, in 
anticipation of such an event, he had built a 
castle, thinking it unsafe to return to Athens. 
Formerly, when he made his escape on being 
recalled from Sicily, he is reported to have 
replied to the question, whether he did not 
dare trust his country ? *' In everything else ; 
but as to my life, not even my mother, lest 
by mistake she should put in a black ball 
for a white." The same mistrust influenced 
him now, and that it was a just one is shown 
by the proceedings which very shortly en- 
sued upon the battle of Arginusse. 

Here ends the public life of Alcibiades. He 
held no fhrther office; and the only thing 
recorded of him is that he endeavoured by 
his advice, being then resident on the spot, 
to prevent the final defeat of the Athenians 
St .Sgos-potami, b.c. 405. After the capture 
of Athens and the establishment of the ty- 
ranny of the Thirty he was condemned to 
banishment Not thinking himself safe in 
Thrace, he passed into Asia, and was honour- 
ably received by Phamabazns. He was about 
to visit the court of Persia, or probably had 
begun his journey, apparently with the hope 
762 



of gaining over Artaocerxes to help in the 
enfranchisement of Athens, -when the house 
in which he slept was surrounded at nigbt 
by a band of men, who set it on fire, and 
when he rushed out sword in hand, (for no 
one, says Plutarch, awaited his onset,) de- 
spatched him with missiles, B.C. 404. The 
authors of this deed are unknown . it is charged 
severally upon the jealousy of Phamahaxos, 
the fear and hatred of the Spartan govern- 
ment, and the revenge of a noble £unily, 
one of whose usters he had seduced. Al- 
cibiades left a son of the same name, of no 
repute or eminence, and a fortune- which, 
contrary to public expectation, proved smaller 
than his patrimony. From the terms of the 
statement we may infer that his patrimony 
had not been greatly diminished, which jm 
quite as surprising. (Thucydides; Xenophon, 
HeOen.; Plutarch, Alcibiades; Thiilwall's 
Hiat, of Greece^ vols. iii. and iv.) A. T. M. 
A'LCIBIADES» one of the Christian 
martyrs at Lyon, a.d. 177, concerning whom 
the following story is related by Eusebius 
(^Hi»U Ecc, V. c. 3.), from the epistle of the 
churches at Vienne and Lyon, which was 
written at the time. Alcibiades, being an 
ascetic, lived only upon bread and water. 
While the martyrs were in prison, one of 
them, named Attains,, declared that it had 
been revealed to him that Alcibiades did 
wrong in not using the creatures of God, and 
was therein an occasion of scandal to other 
Christians. Upon this Alcibiades partook of 
any kind of food indifferently, giving God 
thanks, according to that which is written^ 
1 Tim. iv. 8, 4. P. S. 

ALCI'DAMAS C^AiriSa^uis), a native of 
ElsBa, a city of .£olis in Asia Minor. He 
waa a pupil of Gorgias and a contemporary 
of Isocrates, whose life extended fh)m b.c. 
436 to B. c. 338. He wrote a treatise on 
Rhetoric, a panegyric on Death, and a few- 
other works of which only the titles are pre- 
served. There are extant under the name of 
Alcidamas two orations or rhetorical essaya 
entitled respectively 'O8u0-o-(^t ^ Kara IlaXa- 
fiifiovs wpo^offlast ** Ulysses, or against Pala- 
medes for treachery," and n«pl iw to^ 7po- 
VTohs }<&/ous ypai^vrtov % r^l Ifi^urrSiv, ** On 
those who majie written discourses, or on So- 
phists." The first is a frigid rhetorical efibrt, 
in which Ulysses is made to appear as the 
accuser of Palamedes, whose treachery to the 
Greek cause at the siege of Troy is the sub- 
ject of the speech. The second is written in 
I disparagement of those who delivered written 
: discourses : it is said Uiat such persons Imow 
I nothlog of rhetoric and philosophy. This 
^ oration contains many commonplace and 
trivial remarks mixed up with some that are 
sufficiently pertinent and true. The remarks 
in the seventh chapter on the great superi- 
ority of an extemporary speech over a written 
discourse pronounced from memory, are good. 
Tzetzes speaks of having read many orations 



ALCIDAMAa 



ALCIMUS. 



of Alcidamas; and he adds that Alcidamas 
found fiuxlt -with laoerates, a statement which 
may either be grcmnded on thia oration on the 
Sophists, or may be derived from independent 
evidence. The laborions diligence of Iso- 
crates and his practice of composing written 
disooorses point him out as precisely one of 
the class against whom the oration is aimed. 
It is however doabtftil if these orations are the 
genuine work of Alcidamas. Of the two the 
second has the more merit 

These two orations were first printed in 
the ooIle(^on of Greek Orators by Aldns 
Manutins, Venice, 1513 ; fhey are' also con- 
tained in Beiske's edition of the Greek Ora- 
tors, 1774 ; and in Bekker's Attic Orators, 
1823. They were translated into French by 
Anger, 1781, 8vo., and into German by Dil- 
they, 1827, 4to. (Fabrichis, BibUoOu Grae, 
iL 776.) G. L. 

ALCrMACHUS, a Greek painter of un- 
certain age. He probably lived about the 
time of ^ezander the Great He was cele- 
brated fbr a picture of the victory of the t^ 
mous Athenian Paneratiast I>iozippus,who, at 
the Olympic games, contended naked with 
a Macedonian completd|y armed, and van- 
quished him. (Pliny, ai»t, Nat zxxv. 13^ 

R.N.W. 
ALCI'MENES ('AAiu/i^t), a comic poet 
of Athens, who appears to have been a con- 
temporary of .Sschylus. Beyond this cir- 
cumstance, which is inferred from the ftct 
that Tynnichus, a younger contemporary of 
iEschylus, was a great admirer of die works 
of Aldmenes, no&ing is known about him. 
The name of one of his plays has been made 
out by conjecture in the following manner. 
Among the works of the lyric poet Alcman, 
Snidas mentions one called **The Female 
Swimmers " (KoKvftiSmaaL), This poem, which 
appears to have been a drama, is ascribed by 
Ptolemnus Hephiestion to Alcmanes, which 
some writers consider to be a mistake for 
AlcmsBon, that is, Alcman. But in the same 
page of Hephsestion, ** the Female Swimmers " 
is ascribed to Alcimenes, which is therefore 
fhe name which, as some critics think, is to 
be substituted in the other passage for Alc- 
manes. This ^lay, if it was one, must have 
had great merits, as Tynnichus is said to 
have been so fond of it that he would not 
part firom it even at night (Suidas, v.'AAiri- 
/Urfis and 'AAx/udif ; Ptolemaus Hephtest 
p. 30., ed. Roules ; Bode, GeacMefUe der 
dramat Dtehikiaut der Hdknen, iL 171, &c) 
Suidas also mentions a tragic writer of the 
name of Alcimenes, whom he calls a native 
of Megara. (Meineke, Hittoria Critica 
Comieorum Grtecontmj p. 481, &c.) L. S. 
AL'CIMUS ('AAicifuw), called also Jacimus 
or Joachim (^diutftot)^ a high priest of the 
Jews in the time of Judas Maceabsus. He 
was of the race of the priests, but not entitled 
to the dignity of hi|^ priest In the per- 
secution of Antiochns Epiphanes he apoeta- 
763 



tized, and was afterwards made high priest 
by Demetrius Soter (b.c. 169). According 
to Josephus he had been alr^y appointed 
to that office by Antiochns. He was esta- 
blished in his office by means of an army 
which Demetrius sent under Bacchides into 
Judfta, but he soon disgusted the Jews by 
his treacherous cruelty, m putting to death a 
large party of his opponents, who had gone 
to him under a promise of safe conduct In 
a very short time the successes of Judas 
Maccabseus compelled Alcimua to leave 
Judaea. He went to Demetrius, and induced 
him to send another army against Judas 
under Nicanor, which was entirely defeated 
at Capharsalama. A third army, composed 
of the choicest troops of Syria, was sent into 
Judiea under Bacdudes and Alcimus ; Judas, 
who had merely a handfol of men with him, 
was defeated and slain, and Alcimus was 
a^ain established at Jerusalem, where he 
died very shortiy afterwards, from a stroke 
of palsy which came upon him while he was 
in the act of pulling down the wall of the 
Temple, which divided the court of the Gen- 
tiles from the court of the Israelites (b.c. 
159, 160.) (1 Maceabee$f vii. ix. ; Josephus, 
Jewish AiUtq. zii. c 9. $ 7.) P. 8. 

A'LCIMUS ALFTHIUS, a Latin writer 
of the fourth century. He was a rhetorician, 
and taught at Bnrdigala, now Bordeaux, as 
we learn from Ausonius, who addressed 
him in a strain of the highest compliment in 
his '* Commemoratio Professornm Burdiga- 
lensium.'' He is noticed also by Jerome, 
who, in his Chronicle ad Ann. Christi 360, 
mentions him as one of the first rhetori- 
cians and teachers in Aqnitania; and byC. 
Sidonins Apollinaris (EpisL lib. v. ep. 10. ; 
lib. viii. ep. 11.) as having been a teacher of 
rhetoric at Nitiobriges (now Agen), and a 
man of nervous eloquence. His name writ- 
ten at length appears to have been Latinus 
Alcimus Avitns Alethius. The only remains 
of him are seven short poems, which, consi- 
dering the age in whidi he lived, are re- 
markable for their elegance. They are given 
by Meyer in his " Anthologia veterum La- 
tinorum Epigrammatum et Poematum," 2 
vols. 8vo. Leipzig, 1835. From an expres- 
sion of Ansomus that the writings of Alci- 
mus conferred more honour on the Emperor 
Julian than the imperial dignity, and more 
honour on Sallnst (prefect of Gaul) than the 
consulship, it has been supposed that he com- 
posed a history of his own time ; but this 
ooEgecture rests on no solid foundation, and 
it is more likelj that he had celebrated them 
in some rhetorical paneoyrics. (Wemsdorf, 
Poette Latbn Minorta ; Meyer, Anthologia.) 

J. CM. 

ALCI'NOUS CAXidwuj), a Platonic phi- 
losopher whose period is uncertain. It seems 
most probable uiat he lived under the early 
Boman emperors. He wrote an introduction 
to the philosophy of Plato, under the titie of 
8d 2 



ALCINOUS. 



ALCIPHRON. 



'Evrro/A^ 4) JiiSaffKoXuchif rSw UXAr'tttfos 'Hay- ' 
Aiiritfr, ** An Epitome or Manual of the Doc- 
trines of Plato : " in the editions the title is 
given with some yariations. This introduc- 
tion is sometimes described as perspicuous 
and elegant, but it has little value as an ex- 
position of Uie Platonic doctrines. The Pla- 
tonists of this period, such as Albinus, Alci- 
nous, and Maximus Tyrius, lived at a time 
in which we must not expect to find a correct 
and complete exhibition of Plato^s philosophy. 
The work of Alcinous is an instance of the 
practice of the hiter philosophers of ascribing 
to the founders of their schools the notions of 
those who came after them. Among other 
instances mentioned bv Ritter, we find Alci- 
Qous attributing to Plato an acquamtance ' 
with all the forms of the syllogism, because 
he uses them ; an inference which leads us 
to form a low opinion of the writer's philo- 
sophical talent That somewhat Of the spirit 
of Plato should pervade those who made his ^ 
works their study, may be reasonably ex- ^ 
pected. Thus Alcinous declares that Ood 
cannot be known in and by himself, and that i 
there is no mode of expression for his nature ; 
we can only attempt by negations or ana- ' 
logics, or by ascending from the lower to the | 
highest, to form for ourselves the illimitable I 
idea of God. I 

Alcinous represents the Soul of the Uni- 
verse (^ ^vx^ "^^^ KifffAov) as always existing, 
and not created by God, who only ftshions it 
and calls it into activity, that by the contem- 
plation of him it may receive the forms and I 
ideas of his thoughts. Thus the idea viewed ' 
with reference to God is the knowledge of . 
him, with reference to man it is the first ob- 
ject of knowledge, with respect to matter 
(6\ri) it is its measure, with respect to the { 
world of sense it is an example or instance, 
and with respect to itself it is an essence 
(oviTta). (Ritter, Getchichte der Philosophie, 
iv. 249, &c) 

Alcinous first appeared in the Latin version 
of Pietro Balbi which was published at Rome 
with Apuleius, 1469, fol. The Greek text 
was first printed in the Aldine edition of 
Apuleius, 1521, Svo. The latest print of the | 
Greek text is by J. F. Fischer, Leipzig, 1783, j 
8vo., in his edition of four dialogues of Plato : I 
the text of Fischer is from the edition of ' 
Alcinous which is at the end of the second , 
edition of Maximus Tyrius by D. Heinsius, ' 
Leyden, 1614, Svo. It was translated into j 
French by J. J, Combes-Dounous, Paris, | 
1800, 8vo. ; and into English by Stanley in 
his History of Philosophy. j 

Another Alcinous, of whom nothjng is 
known, is the author of some Latin epigrams 
which are printed in Burmann's Anthologia 
Latina. G L. ' 

ALCI'ONIO PIE'TRO. [Alctonids.] | 

AXCIPHRON CAAx(<^i'), a rhetorician 
or sophist, whose age can only be coi^eotured 
fh>m his writings, which are among the few 
764 



extant specimens of Greek epistolary comp6-* 
sition. He appears to have been an imitator 
of Lucian, without, however, approaching 
the freedom and purity of his modd ; and if, 
as some have thought, he is himself imitated 
by Aristaenetus, we have only to fix his date 
between the two, a. d. 150 and 350 (?> 
His epistles may be divided into four da^es. 
Piscatory, Amatory, Parasitic, Rustic, 
and are chiefiy valuable as exbibiting a 
picture of domestic manners. It is how- 
ever doubtfiil if the letters represent the 
manners of the age of Alclphron ; they are 
considered by some critics as merely a piece 
of patchwork made up of shreds of former 
writers. The style is deformed by a per* 
petual affectation of minute Atticisms, to 
which the good keeping of the characters 
is sacrificed : peasants and fishermen speak. 
and write with the art of Demosthenes and 
Lysias. The utmost praise which can be 
conceded to him is Uiat of a certain nalveti^ 
or point ; he had thoroughly imbibed the 
spirit of the new comedy, and makes us 
pleasantly acquainted widi the courtezans 
and parasites of Greece. The first edition 
of Alci|)hron, comprising only forty-four 
epistles, is in the collection of Aldus Mann- 
tius, Venice, 1499, 4to. They were edited 
by Bergler, Leipzig, 1715-1718, who added 
twenty-eight letters, and by Wagner, Leipzig, 
1798. The letters of Alciphron were trans- 
lated into French by the Abbe de Richard, 
with notes, Amsterdam and Paris, 1785, 
3 vols. 12mo., and into English by Munro 
and Beloe, London, 1791. In 1801, Bast 
published an inedited epistle of Alciphron. 

Alciphron, the philosopher of Magnesia on 
the Mseander, mentioned by Athenasus (i. 31. 
ed. Gaaaub.) is supposed to have been a dis- 
tinct person, chiefly, it would seem, on the 
ground that it is difficult to suppose a philo- 
sopher to be author of such epistles. (Wag- 
ner, Pre/at in AJciph. EpisL ; Fabricius, 
BibUoih, Grac. i. 588.) B. J. 

ALCI'STHENE, a female of uncertain age 
and country, mentioned by Pliny as having 
attained distinction in painting ; he notices 
particularly a picture of a " diuicer *' by her. 
iHUt Not XXXV. 40.) R. N. W. 

ALCMiEON CA?ucfiaiw\ a very celebrated 
natural philosopher of antiquity, was the son 
of Pirithus, and a native of Crotona. He was 
a pupil of Pythagoras, and must have lived 
therefore in the sixth century before Christ 
According to Chalcidius (Comment in Plat 
Tim, p. 368. ed. Fabric), he was the first per- 
son who dissected human bodies ; but this 
fact is doubted by LeClerc and Sprengel, 
among other reasons, because he was a Py- 
thagorean, and therefore had an especial 
horror of dead bodies. He is therefore ge- 
nerally supposed to have confined his dissec- 
tion to animals ; but even this was a most 
important step, and a great improvement on 
the method of learning anatomy by the ca- 



alcm/T:on. 



ALCMyEONIDJE. 



snal inspection of victims offered in sacrifice, 
the dressing of wounds, &c He is supposed 
to have discovered the Eustachian Tuhe, as 
Aristotle mentions, in order to correct, his 
statement that goats breathe through their 
ears. (HistAnim. lib. L cap. 9. §1. ed. Tauch.) 
This would seem to prove that he had ob- 
served the canal leading from the ante- 
rior and inner part of the tympanum to the 
fauces; and, if we suppose that in the animal 
which he dissected, the membrana tympani • 
had been accidentally destroyed, we may 
easily account for his strange assertion. He 
supposed the reasoning portion of the soul to 
be situated in the brain, according to the 
doctrine of his master Pythagoras. He thought , 
that the sense of hearing was caused by the ' 
vacuum in the ear, into which the external 
air penetrates, because all hollow bodies are | 
sonorous; smell he attributed to respiration; 
and taste he supposed to be owing to the . 
softness, moistness, and heat of the tongue. 
He considered that the first part of the body 
that was formed in the embryo was the head, | 
as bein^ the seat of the reason ; and that the j 
fcBtus did not receive its nourishment by the | 
mouth or by the umbilical cord, but that 
the whole surface of its body absorbed the 
nutritive juices like a sponge. He is also 
the earliest author who has left a theory con- 
cerning sleep, which takes place, according 
to him, when the blood retreats into the 
larger vessels, and ceases when this fluid 
again disperses itself over the whole body; 
when, however, there is a complete stagna- 
tion, death ensues. Nothing remains of his 
works except the titles of a few of them. He 
is said by Diogenes Laertius (De Vii. Philo- 
sopk, lib. viii. c. 5.) to have been the earliest 
writer on natural philosophy (ipviriKht \6yos), 
and by St Isidorus Hispalensis (Orig, lib. l 
c 39.) to have invented fables (fabula), 
(Le Clerc, Hist, de la M^decine ; Fabricius, 
Bibliotheca Graca, xiii 48. ed. vet.; Sprengel, 
Hi9t de la M^decine ; C. G. Kiihn, De Philo- 
soph. anteHippocr. Medicina Cidtor. in Acker- 
mann's Optuada adHistoriam Medidnee per' 
tinentia^ Norimb. 1797, 8vo., and in Kiihn's 
Opuxida Academica Medica et PhUoloaicaf 
Lips. 1827, 1828, 2 vols. 8vo.) W. A. G. 

ALCM^aNIDiE CAAif/ioiwfJa*), one of | 
the most illustrious among the Eupatrid 
(noble) families of Athens. It traced its | 
pedigree to Alcmseon, who, bein^ expelled ', 
by the Dorians fi-om the Messenian Pylus, I 
migrated to Athens about the year b.c. 1100. | 
Down to the end of the Peloponnesian war, { 
there were members of this family who exer- j 
cised the greatest influence in Athens. Me- 
gacles, the sixth of the archons for life, and 
Alcmseon, the last of their number, are called 
Alcmsonids, but as the office of archon for 
life, according to all accounts, belonged ex- , 
clnsively to the descendants of Medon, it has 
been supposed that Megacles and Alcmason 
were connected with the Alcmeonids merely 
765 



on their mother's side. The first historical 
personage who was certainly an AlcmaK>nid 
18 the archon Megacles, who, in the year b. c. 
612, in his zeal for the aristocracy of Athens, 
in coi^unction with his associates, murdered 
Cylon in the sanctuary of the dreaded god- 
desses (Eumenides). Alcmaeon, the son of 
this Megacles, performed some kind services 
to the ambassadors whom CnBsus, king of 
Lydia, had sent to Delphi to consult the 
oracle, and when Croesus was informed of 
this, he invited Alcmseon to Sardis. In 
order to reward his friend, the king per- 
mitted him to take from the royal treasury 
as much gold as he could carry at once. The 
greedy Athenian put on a wide vest, and the 
largest boots he could find, and after having 
filled every part of his dress, he even covered 
his hair with gold dust. The kmg, on seemg 
the contrivance of Alcmseon, burst into a fit 
of laughter, and not only allowed him to 
keep the treasure with wmch he had loaded 
hiniBel^ but gave him, in addition, as much 
again. This circumstance is considered by 
Herodotus as the foundation of the ^^Kealth 
for which the Alcmseonids were subsequently 
distinguished ; and he adds that henceforUi 
Alcmseon kept chariots and four, with which 
he gained a victory in the Olympic games, 
perhaps the first that was ever won by 
an Athenian citizen. Two generations later 
the wealth of the house of the Alcmseonids 
received a further increase through the mar- 
riage of Megacles, the son of Alcraason, with 
Agariste, the daughter of Cleisthenes, of 
Sicyon. [Megacles.] The sons of this 
Megacles were Cleisthenes, the reformer of 
the Attic constitution, [Cleisthenes,] and 
Hippocrates. The latter became the father 
of Megacles, the fitther of Isodice, who was 
married to Cimon, and of Agariste, the wife 
of Xanthippus and mother of Pericles. The 
son of the reformer Cleisthenes was likewise 
a Megacles, whose daughter Dinomache was 
married to Cleinias and became the mother 
of Alcibiades. (Pausanias, ii. 18. 7. ; Hero- 
dotus, vi. 125, 126. ; Isocrates, De Bigis^ 
c. 10. ; Plutarch, Cimon^ 4. ; Boeckh, Ad Pin- 
dari PytK vii. 300, &c.) L. S. 

ALCMAN CA\Kfuiy), the lyric poet of 
Sparta, was originally a Lydian of Sardis, 
and for some time a slave in the house of 
Agesidas, a Spartan. He was however sub- 
sequently emancipated, though it is not pro- 
bable that he gained the full rights of Spartan 
citizenship. In one of the fragments ( No. 11.) 
of his poetry, still extant, he makes a chorus 
of virgins say of himself "that he waa no 
man of rough and unpolished manners, no 
Thessalian or ^tolian, but sprung fVom the 
lofty Sardis." The statement of Suidas that 
he was of Messoa, one of the districts of 
Sparta, is incorrect, or only means that the 
residence of his old master was situated 
there. According to the ancient chrono- 
logists, by some of whom he is called 
3d 3 



ALCMAN. 



AI.CMAN. 



Alcmseon, he lived aboat b. c. 671 — 631, 
and was a contemporary of the Ljdian king 
Ardyg. This period agrees with the state- 
ment in Suidas, that he was older than 
Stesichoms and the preceptor of Ari^nj 
and there are some allusions in his extant 
poems which refer to the same age : con- 
sequently he liyed at a time when music had 
already been improved by the Spartan po'tts 
Thaletas and Terpander, and when the Spar- 
tans themselves, alter the successful termi- 
nation of the first Messenian war, had both 
leisure and inclination for the arts and re- 
finements of life. From some of the frag- 
ments of his poetry it would appear that he 
devoted himself to the cultivation of poetic 
art, and invented some new metrical forms. 
In one of these firagments he thus expresses 
himself: "Come, muse, clear- voiced muse, 
lead off for the maidens with a song of varied 
melody in a new form $*' and he elsewhere 
alludes to the originality of his various me- 
tres. Hence, according to the I^atin metrical 
writers, several different forms of verses 
were^ known by the name of *' Alcmanica 
metra." The poetry which he composed was 
generally choral, and consisted of Parthenia, 
or songs sung by choruses of vir^ns, besides 
hymns to the Gods, Paeans, prosodu or proces- 
sional songs, and bridal hymns. These were 
generally sung or represented by choruses of 
young men or maidens, who however were 
not, as in the choral odes of Pindar, invaria- 
bly identified with the character of the poet, 
nor the mere organ by which he expressed 
his thoughts and feelings. On the contrary, 
many of Alcman's parthenia contain a 
dialogue between a chorus of virgins and the 
poet, ani in most cases the virgins speak in 
their own persons. Still he was both the 
leader and teacher of his choruses ; and 
sometimes we meet with addresses of the 
maidens to the poet, sometimes of the poet 
to the maidens joined with him. In one 
beautiful" fragment written in iambics he 
thus addresses them : *- No more, ye honey- 
tongued, holy-siuging virgins, are my limbs 
able to bear me; would that I were a 
Cerylus, which with the halcyons skims the 
foam of the waves with fearless breast, the 
sea-blue bird of spring.'* Alcman was also 
noted for erotic poems, of which he was by 
SQme considered the first Greek writer, and to 
the licentious spirit of which his character was 
said to correspond. (Athenseus, xiii 600. ed. 
Dmd.) These were probably sung by a single 
performer to the cithara. Another species of 
his compositions was the clepsiambic, con- 
sisting partly of singing and partly of com- 
mon discourse, the accompaniment of which 
was an instrument similarly named. (Hesy- 
chius, 8. V.) In this, as well as in other 
forms of his poetry, he is thought to have 
imitated an older poet, Archilochus. The 
metre of the peculiar anapsstic verses (^ifiga- 
rfipta), sung by the Spartans as they advanced 
766 



to battle, was also attributed to Alcman ; but 
we cannot from this infer that he composed 
war-songs, for there is no trace of it in any of 
his fragments, nor anything corresponding in 
the general character of his poetry: and 
though he made use of the anapaestic metre, it 
was only in connection with other ihythnas, 
and uot m the same way as the war-poet Tyr- 
tsus. It appears, then, that the oompositioDs 
of Alcman were somewhat varied m metre 
and poetic character, as they were in dialect. 
This variety may in some measure be at- 
tributed to his blending the characteristiGs of 
the Phrygian poetry and music with tfaoae 
of the Laconian, as well as to his imitation 
of Archilochus, Terpander, and Tfaakte& 
He is generally considered as the first poet 
who imparted to the Spartan dialect any 
grace and polish, and so fiir modified its 
peculiar asperities as to make it suitable §ar 
poetry. (Pansan. iii. 15.) This dialect how- 
ever does not in his poems appear in its 
genuine state, though many Spartan idioma 
are fi>nnd in them, but rather with such an 
admixture of the language of epic poetry, 
that it forms a poetical diction, based indeed 
upon the peculiarities of the Spartan language, 
but elevated and refined by the union of 
other elements. These peculiarities how- 
ever are not equally striking in all Alcman's 
compositions ; they are most prominent and 
frequent in fragments of a joyous and hearty 
character, which pourtray his own way of 
life, and hif fondness for eating and drinking, 
to which he was much addicted ; so much so 
in (act that he is described as the " gourmand 
Alcman" (6 wa/jupdyos 'AAic/uCy, Athen. x. 
4 1 6.) But even in his poems of this description 
there is a mixture of the JEolic dialect, fi)r 
which some persons account by the fact that 
lyric poetry was introduced into Peloponnesus 
by an /Eolian of Lesbos, called Terpander. 
In the remaining fragments the dialect has but 
a slight tinge of the Doric, and resembles the 
epic, especudly in the hexametric poems, and 
others of a dignified and stately character. 
The strophes of his choral compositions con- 
sist partly of verses of different kinds, and 
partly of repetitions of the same kind ; but 
there are no instances in which a strophe and 
antistrophe occur in connection with an 
epode or third strophe, as was usual in the 
later choral poetry of Greece. Scnne of bis 
odes consist of fourteen strophes with an 
alteration in the metre affcer the seventh, 
which was probably connected with a change 
in the character and ideas of the poetry. 

The extant fragments of Alcman, though 
some of them are very beautiftU, scarcely 
warrant the admiration which the ancients 
have expressed of him; but this may be from 
their extreme shortness, or because they are 
very unfavourable specimens. They are 
however distinguished by lively conceptions 
of nature, and abound in those personifications 
of the inanimate which characterised the 



ALCMAN. 



ALCOCK, 



earliest Greek poetry: thus the dew (in 
Greek, Hersa) is called by him the daughter 
of Zeus and Selene, of tiie Crod of heaven 
and ibe moon. MiUler (Literature of Oreece, 
p. 197.) thns speaks of him : ** He is re- 
markable for simple and cheerftd views of 
human life, connected with an intense en- 
thusiasm for the beantiM in whatever age 
or sex, especially for the grace of virgins. 
A corrupt, refin^ sensuality neither belongs 
to the age in which he lived nor to the cha- 
racter of his poetry ; and although perhaps 
he is chiefly conversant with sensual existence, 
yet indications are not wanting of a quick 
and profound conception of the spirituaL" 
We may however olieerve that the terms in 
which the ancients spoke of the licentiousness 
of Aloman's erotic poetry are so strong that 
we cannot well aoc^uiesce msuch a favourable 
representation of it According to Plutarch 
and other writers Alcman died of the same 
kind of disease as SuUa, the morbus pedi- 
eularius. The Fragments of Alcman were 
first printed in H. Stephens' collection of the 
poems of the nine cSiief lyric poets, Paris, 
1650, 8va The last ediUon is by F. T. 
Weleker, Giessen, 1815, 4ta (Pansanias, iii 
15. a.; SaHaa, Alcman ; Eusebius, Ouron. 
Armen. Ofymp, 30. 4. ; Pliny, Hist Nat xL 
33. ; Plutardi, Stdla, c 36. ; Clinton, Fagt, 
HeO. I 189. 195.) R. W— n. 

ALCO, or ALCON, a statuary of whose 
date and country there is no notice in any 
ancient writer. He was the author of a 
statue of Hercules, of iron, at Thebes. He 
is sud to have made choice of this material 
in allusion to the hardy patience of the god 
he had to represent. Alco probably lived 
in the earlier ages of sculpture, and some 
antiquaries have placed him in the eighth 
•entury before Christ. (Pliny, Hist Nat 
xxxiv. 14.) R. W. jun. 

ALCOCK, REV. GILBERT, a puritan 
dergjyman, who was silenced for noncon- 
formity. All that is known of him is that on 
the 3d of April, 1671, he presented a petition 
to the convocation on behalf of himself and 
other sufferers for nonconformity, in which 
he alleges that the ceremonies retained in the 
Church of England are the causes of stumbling 
to Christians, of dishonour to God, and of 
joy to wicked men Concerning the treat- 
ment to which nonconformist ministers were 
sul^'ected, he says, — " If a mhiister preach 
true doctrine and live virtuously, yet omit the 
least ceremony for conscience sake, he is im- 
mediately indicted, deprived, cast into prison, 
and his goods wasted and destroyed ; he is 
kept from his wife and children, and at last 
excommunicated, even though the articles 
brought against him be ever so false." But 
on the other hand, — " Those who observe 
your ceremonies, though they be idolaters, 
common swearers, adulterers, or much worse, 
live without punishment and have many 
friends." 

767 



The above passages are quoted by Brook 
from a copy of the petition in the *' MS. 
Register** of Mr. Roger liaurice, a very 
valuable document for &e history of the early 
puritans. (Brook's Lives of the Puritans, 
I 170.) P. a 

ALCOCK, JOHN, (Alcok, Alkok,) was 
bom at Beverley in Yorkshire, and educated 
in Cambridge, in which university he re- 
ceived the degree of doctor of laws in 1461. 
In this year Alcock held the living of St 
Margaret's, New Fish Street, London. On 
the 29th of April, 1462, he was made dean 
of the Chapel Royal, St Stephen's, Westmin- 
ster, and he enjoyed in succession prebends 
in three cadiedraU, namely, of South Aulton, 
Salisbury, in 1468 j of Brownswood, St Paul's, 
from the 16th of December in the same year ; 
and of Husthwait, York, from the 2l8t of 
January, 1478. In July, 1473, he resigned 
the vicarage of Caster St Trinity in the 
diocese of Norwich into the hands of the 
Bishop of Norwich, and accepted instead, on 
the 28th of May, the church of Wrensham. 
Some of his preferments were probably 
gained by services in the state, for on the 
29th of April, 1462, he was made Master of 
the Rolls. Edward IV. sent him ambassador 
to John II. king of Castile, in 1470, and 
on the 26th of August, 1471, Alcock was, 
at the head of the English commissioners, 
empowered to treat with other Scotch com- 
missioners concerning the truce between the 
two kingdoms, and mutual reparation for the 
violations of it committed by both parties 
during the Ute troubles in England. These 
negotiations with Scothmd were not termi- 
nated till 1473. In the mean time Alcock 
was made bishop of Rochester, having licence 
granted March 17. 1471, for his consecration 
•♦ without the church of Canterbury," but he 
still appears in the above commission in 
August, 1471, as Master of the Rolls (" Ma- 
gister Johannes Alkok custos rotulorum can- 
cellariaB nostrie, legum doctor.") On the 20th 
of September, 1473, he became keeper of the 
great seal until the former chancellor, the 
Bishop of Bath and Wells, should recover his 
health. A patent of the 1 3th year of Edward I V. 
(1474) creates the Bishop of Rochester tutor 
of the Prince of Wales and president of his 
council (** pedagogns principis ac praesidens 
concilii sni ") ; another m the next year makes 
Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, governor 
of the prince (** gubemator principis hospitii 
ac totius status sui") and in the next year 
there is a commission to Edward, prince of 
Wales, concerning the government of Wales. 
It was now that Edward IV. sent Bishop 
Alcock and Earl Rivers with the prince to 
reside in the inarches of Wales, and to hold 
the prince's court at Ludlow ; and this was the 
original of the council in the marches of 
Wales. There is in the town hall of Shrews- 
bury, in a book of records belonging to the 
town, a memorandum, by which it appears 
' 3d 4 



ALCOCK. 



ALCOCK. 



that " John, byshop of Worcestr, p'sident of 
my lord prince councell,** with others of the 
council, made there on the 10th day of April, 
1479, tvo ordinances for the good of that 
town, ** by thassent and aggrement" of its 
officers and inhabitants. Tbos memorandum, 
proving that John Alcock (now bishop of 
Worcester) exercised the power of a lord 
president of the council of the marches, has 
been correctly copied only in Owen and 
Blakeway's Eustory of Shrewsbury. Alcock 
was translated by papal bull, in 1477, from 
the see of Rochester to Worcester, of which 
see the temporalities were restored on the 
25th of September. 

Besides presiding in his council. Bishop 
Alcock was the principal religious instructor 
of Prince Edward, and in the year 1483 was 
removed from this charge by the protector, 
Richard, duke of Gloucester, although he 
was not imprisoned, like others of the ^oung 
king's most faithful servants. This is ex- 
pressly mentioned by the contemporary John 
Ross, although John Russell, bishop of Ro- 
chester, is called by Godwin and by others 
the prince's tutor. Ross also remarks Alcock*s 
fidelity and careful training of the prince in 
religion and virtue ; and yet after the death 
of Edward Y . Alcock is found at the court of 
Richard IIL At the time when ambassadors 
came from Spain, the Bishop of Worcester 
is among the five bishops named as present 
with the king, and on the 20th of Septem- 
ber, 1484, he heads the commission to treat of 
the marriage between Prince James of Scot- 
land and the daughter of the Duke of Suf- 
folk. But this connexion with King Richard 
did not hinder Bishop Alcock's being em- 
ployed by Henry VII. as one of his com- 
missioners, in 1486, to ratify the truce with 
Scotland, nor even prevent his being made a 
second time Lord Chancellor for a year and 
a half, from March 6. 1486 ; and it is re- 
markable that he was afterwards president 
of the coimcil of another Prince of Wales, 
Arthur, son of Henry VIL This is proved 
by an order of that prince's council, dated 
Hereford, January 31. 1494, which is sub- 
scribed by " Jo. Ely, R. Powes," and others, 
the first of whom was John Alcock, who, in 
I486, by a second translation, had become 
bishop of Ely. The bulla provisionis for 
this bishopric was given October 6., and the 
ro^al assent and restitution of the tempo- 
ralities are dated December 7. 1486. 

His political career must have closed soon 
after, for on April 27. 1494, bishop William 
Smyth acted as president of the council 
established in the Marches of Wales. All 
are agreed as to the piet^ of his private life. 
Bale records his studies, abstinence, and 
virtue, and declares that no man in Ensland 
had higher reputation for sanctity. Alex* 
ander Barklay wrote a lamentation on the 
death of the " gentle cocke " — a play upon his 
name which is observed also in the bishop's 
768 ' 



own works. He added to every one of his 
episcopal residences, especially Ely palace, 
where he built the ''hall with the gaUery." 
(Robertus Stewarde, Continuatio Historut 
EUengia, in Wharton's Anglia SacreL) The 
east window of the choir of St Giles, Bial- 
vem, records his rebuilding of that church, 
and, as well as a window in Malvern SLMary's;, 
bids a prayer for the soul of John Aloodc, 
bishop of Worcester. There is an error pro- 
bably in the former calling him chancellor or 
president of the council m the first year of 
Edward IV. He much enlai^^ Wesbary 
church, and rebuilt it on the north side. In 
Hull he founded a school, and in 1484 built a 
chan^ on the south side of Trinity Church, 
in which his parents were buried, and endowed 
it for a chantor. These acts were done hj 
him as bishop of Worcester. As bishop oSf 
Ely the church of St Mary's, Cambridge, is 
said to be indebted to him, though he cer- 
tainly was not the greatest contributor to 
the building. His greatest work, however, 
was the founding of Jesus College, Cambridge. 
The dilapidated and aknost deserted Priory 
of St. Rhadegund Barnwell being suppressed, 
he obtained a grant from Henry VII. U> 
restore the building tpom its ruins and to 
convert it into a college ; and according ly, 
in 1496, a master, five fellows, and six scho- 
lars were hiducted by him into the revenues 
of his nunnery. He was an exeell^t archi- 
tect, and was controller of the royal works and 
buildings under Henry VIL (WaifsBibliO' 
graphia.) At the east end of the north 
aisle of Ely Cathedral is a chapel which bears 
his name, being built by him m 1488, and in 
which he was buried under a monument 
which has remained de&ced since 1621. He 
died at Wisbeach, most probably October 1. 
1500. His writings are — 1. **Galli Cantus 
ad Confr^tres suos Curatos in Synodo apud 
BamweH," printed in 4to. 1498, at London, 
by Pynson, and by Wynkyn Worde. 2. 
** Mons Peifectionis ad Carthusianos," Lon- 
don, 1501, 4to. 3. "Spousage of a Virgin to 
Christ," 1486, 4to. 4. A poetical paraphrase, 
in English, on the seven penitential psalms, 
which is in the Worsley library. 6. " Abbey 
of Seint Sperite that ys founded in a Place 
that ys clepyd * Conscience.'" This was 
publi^ed in Latin at London, 1531, in 4to^ 
and again in English at Westmestre by 
Wynkyn Worde, m 4to. There are three 
MS. copies of it in the library of the uni- 
versity of Cambridge, and one in the Harleian 
collection, Codex 2406. art 41. It is an 
allegory of an abbey of the Holy Spirit, in 
which Charity is the abbess. Wisdom prioress, 
and Meekness subprioress. It contams ^ the 
charter of the Holi Gost ;" an account of 
how the abbey was destroyed, and the abbess 
and her fair convent found again; and, in 
the last chapter, how God put his four daugh- 
ters to the abbess of the Holy Ghost, namely, 
Mercy, Truth, Peace, and Righteousness^ 



ALCOCK. 

Besides these are one "book of homiliesi one 
of meditations, and a sermon on Luke viii. 8. 
{Rotuli ScoHce et Cdlendarium Rotuhrum 
Patendum in TVurt Londmensi ; Godwin, De 
Prasulibus; Tanner, Bibliotheca Brit Hih,; 
History of Skrewsbwy, by Owen and Blake- 
way, 1. 231, 232. 261, note ; Johannis Rossi 
Bistoria Begum AngUa, edited by Thomas 
Heame, p. 212. 217. ; The Hiatorie of Cam- 
bria^ translated by H. Lloyd, continued by 
David Powell, D.D., London, 1584, p. 389, 
&c. ; Antiquities of Worcester Cathedral, by 
Thomas Abingdon ; Wharton, .^In^to^ocra; 
Newoonrt, Bq>ertorium Londinense ; Leland, 
Itinerary, L 55. iL 111.) A. T. P. 

ALCOCK, JOHN, was bom m London, 
April 1 1th, 1 7 1 5. When seven years of age 
he entered the choir of St. Paul's, Mr. Charles 
KLing being at that time master of the boys : 
at fourteen he was articled to Stanley, himself 
a very young man, though organist of the 
Temple and of St Andrew's, Holbom. Li 
1737 he was elected organist of St. Andrew's 
church at Plymouth, where he published 
*' Six Suites of Lessons for the Harpsichord,'* 
and " Twelve Songs." About five years 
afterwards he accepted the appointment of 
organist at Reading, where he published ** Six 
Concertos for Instruments," and ** Two Col- 
lections of Psalm Tunes, original and se- 
lected." In 1749 he was elected organist of 
Lichfield Cathedral (being appointed at the 
some time to the incompatible situation of vicar 
choral) and master of the boys. In 1755 he 
took his bachelor's decree at Oxford, and five 
years afterwards resigned the situation of 
organist and master of the boys at Lichfield, 
retaining only his place of vicar choral. He 
was then elected orjpnist of Tamworth and 
Sutton-Coldfield, which offices he was allowed 
to hold in addition to that which he jpossessed 
in Lichfield Cathedral He took his degree 
of doctor in music at Oxford in 1765. Al- 
cock's reasons for resigning his post as or- | 
ganist of the cathedral may be coigectured 
from his own words. '* I had to teach the 
lads twice every day, and personally to play ' 
at church ; thus I was unable to attend my | 
scholars in the country more than two days 
in a fortnight, m^ son (though perfectly | 
competent) not bein^ allowed to take my 
duty. Some of the vicars were permitted to 
be absent four or five months together, while ' 
I can affirm that in twenty-two years I have 
but twice missed attendance so long as a 
week. Tet with all this strictness towards 
me, the cathedral service is sadly disregarded. 
All the thne I was organist, there was not a 
book in the organ-loft fit for use but what I 
bought or wrote myself, for which I never 
was paid one half^nny." This neglect of 
their libraries has been common to cathedral 
dignitaries in general, and its necessary con- 
sequence is the loss of much, if not most, of 
their valuable contents. 

In 1771 Dr. Alcock published his volume 
769 



ALCOCK. 

of twenty-six anthems, ti is by this work 
that his merits as a composer must be tested, 
and they will suffice to give him a respectable 
rank among his contemporaries. The date is 
affixed to every composition, of which some 
had been written nearly half a oentury before 
their publication. Many are solo anthems, 
in which the composer's object seems rather 
to have been Uie exhibition of some singer's 
flexible voice than to give just expression 
to words, an error into which too many 
second-rate church writers have fallen. 
Among his ftill anthems will be found a few 
which claim a much hi^er rank. Among 
these are, " Unto thee have I cried, O Lord ;^' 
"Hold not thy tongue, O God;" and "Why 
standest thou so far off ? " In 1770, his glee 
"Hail, ever-pleasing solitude," gained the 
Catch-club prize, perhaps then deservedly, 
for Webbe, Stevens, and Dr. Cooke had not 
revealed the polish and variety of which glee 
writing is susceptible. In 1802 Dr. Alcock 
published another collection of psalm-tunes, 
selected and original He died at Lichfield 
in 1806, at the advanced age of ninety-one, 
having been more than twentv years the oldest 
vicar-choral of die cathedral, where he con- 
tinued to attend in his place nearly to the 
close of life. His son was organist of New- 
castle-under-Lyne. (Bingley, Musical Bio' 
graphy ; Dr. Alcock's Anthems, &c.) £. T. 
ALCOCK, THOMAS, was bom at Roth- 
bory in Northumberland in the year 1784. 
Having received his preliminary education at 
a school in the neighbourhood, he selected 
the medical profession, and was apprenticed 
to a surgeon at Newcastle-on-Tyne. La 1805 
he beciune resident medical officer at the 
Sunderland Dispensary, and in 1806 or 1807 
commenced his medical studies in London, 
in Mr. Brookes' school of anatomy and at the 
Westminster HospitaL Having received his 
diploma at the College of Suroeons, he en- 
tered upon his profeMional duties as a gene- 
ral practitioner in London, and met wiUi 
such success as to induce him in 1825 to 
devote himself to the practice of surgery 
alone. In 1813 he obtamed the appointment 
of surgeon to St James's workhouse, which 
he held till 1828. In 1823 he made a visit 
to Paris, in part to ascertain the effects of the 
chlorides of soda and lime ; and on lus return 
he published the results of his investigations 
in an ^l* Essay on the Use of the Chlorurets 
of Oxide of Sodium and Lime as powerftil 
disinfecting Agents, and of the Chloruret of 
Oxide of Sodium as a Remedy of consi- 
derable Efficacy in the Treatment of Hospi- 
tal Gangrene, phagedenic, syphilitic, and 
other ill-conditioned Ulcers, Mortification, 
and various other Diseases." London, 1827, 
8vo. In this treatise the author introduces 
in a more prominent maimer than had been 
previously done in England, these agents, 
which had for some time been extensively 
employed in France by M. Labarraque. He 



ALCOCK. 



ALCUIN. 



deficribes the mode of their preparation, en- 
deavoun to collect the acattered information 
relating to the aubject, and adds some fiirther 
observationB -which were the result of his own 
experience. In 1828 Mr. Aloock undertook 
to give lectores on surgery at a school in 
Little Dean Street. He died in 1833. He 
possessed considerable talent, and was &your- 
ably known to the profession as a practitioner 
of much industry and ingenuity. 

About the year 1824 he delivered lectures 
on some of the practical points in surgery to 
the students of die late Borough Dispensary, 
which appeared in the Lancet for the years 
1825-6. They were afterwards published, 
with many additions, as a separate work by 
him under the title of " Lectures on practical 
and medical Surgery." London, 1830, 8yo. 
They do not cojitain many new &cts or 
inductions, but give some good practical 
instructions on subjects which are frequently 
omitted in s^rstematic medical and surgical 
works, especially with r^^ard to the investi- 
gation of disease and the taking of cases: 
the rules which he lays down are well de- 
serving attention, though, perhaps, they are 
too strict to be generally^ followed. These 
lectures, moreover, contun some judicious 
remarks on venesection, and the accidents 
which may arise from it He also published 
a plate, representing a section of the leg 
after amputation bdfow the knee ; London, 
1826, folio ; and the "^ Practical Observations 
on the Diseases of Children, bv the late 
Charles Haden, with additional Observations 
and a biogn^hical Notice of the Author." 
London, 1827, 8va He communicated several 
papers to various medical journals, as, " An 
Essay on the Education and Duties of the 
general Practitioner in Medicine and Sur- 
gery ;" ** Practical Observations on Fractures 
of the Patella and Olecranon ; " and ** A Case 
of congenital Division of the Palate in which 
Union of the divided Parts was effected," 
which were published in tiie " Transactions 
of the associated Apothecaries and Surgeon- 
Apothecaries," 1823. In his ** Observations 
on the Inflammation of the Mucous Mem- 
brane of the Organs of Respiration," pub- 
lished in the " Medical Intelligencer," vol. L, 
he shows the close relation between the 
severe forms of measles, small-pox, scarla- 
tina, and hooping cough, and the inflamma- 
tion of some part or parts of the mucous 
membrane of the organs of respiration. 
He published also " Observations on the suc- 
cessful Treatment of Syphilis in its primary 
Stage without Mercury," in the ** Medical 
Repository" June, 1814, and ** An Essav on 
the Treatment of Laceration of the Peri- 
neum," in the " London Medical and Phy- 
sical Journal," September, 1820. (MS. Com" 
munication,) G. M. H. 

ALCUIN, whose complete name is Flaccus 
Albinus Alcuinus, is tiius distinguished firom 
others of the name Albinus. His name 
770 



Alcuin is apparentiy only a dip^y modified 
form of the Saxon name Alcwm or Alchwin. 
In ha letters to Charlemagne he sometimes 
calls himself simply Albinus, and sometimes 
simply Flaccus. in some of his letters he 
styles himself Albinus Magister. It has been 
stated by some writers that for some reason 
or other he changed his name Alcuin into 
Albinus; but Einhard (Eginhard) in his lifo 
of Charlemaj^ speaks of the two names as 
distinct (Albinus, cognomento Alcuinus), and 
he gives Albinus as his real name, by which 
alone he is often designated both by himself 
and others. The name Flaccus was evidently 
an addition, made after the foshion of thie 
times ; and Albinus also may have been an 
assumed name. 

The princ^ authorities for the life of 
Alcuin are his own works, partienlariy his 
Letters, and an anonymous Life in Latin, the 
author of which, as it is condnded from a 
passage in the Life, wrote before the year 
A. D. 829. This anonymous writer dtea 
Sigulfus, a pupil of Alcum and his successor 
in the abbey of Ferridres, as his authority. 
Sigulfhs had been the teacher of this author 
of the Life of Alcuin. 

Alcuin was bom at York in England of a 
noble femily If the j^ear 735 'a correctly 
given as the year of his birth, he could not 
have been a pupil of Bede, as it is sometimes 
stated; for Bede died in or about 735. Alcuin 
was educated in the cloister school of York, 
where he had for his teachers Egbert, arch- 
bishop of York, and afterwards Aelbert, or 
Albert. It has been conjectured that he ac- 
companied Aelbert to Jiame on a mission for 
the purchase of books. In his youth he was 
actively employed in the school at York; 
and on the promotion of Aelbert to the see 
of York in 766, Alcuin had the charge of the 
school, which he superintended to the year 
780. On the death of Aelber^ and the pro- 
motion of Eanbald to the see of York in 781, 
Alcuin went to Rome to receive the pallium 
for him. At Parma he met with Charlemagne, 
who invited him to settie in his dominions, an 
offer which Alcuin accepted. After complet- 
ing his mission he came to the court of Charles 
in 782, with whom he lived on terms of the 
closest friendship to the end of his life. 

Charles immediately provided for Alcuin 
by giving him the abbey of Ferridres in the 
diocese of Sens, and that of St I^ipus at 
Troyes. Alcuin was the most learned man 
of his age, and Charles, though he had re- 
ceived no regular education, possessed a 
vigorous understanding and a taste for know- 
ledge. Einhard says that he studied rhetoric, 
dialectic, and astronomy under Alcuin. The 
example of the king was foUowed by others, 
and the fomily and court of Charles became a 
kind of school of which Alcuin was the head. 
At that time the court had no fixed residence, 
and Charles was much engaged with his 
Saxon wars. Alcuin seems to have constantiy 



ALCUIN. 



ALCUIN. 



iblloved him, for lie speaks of bein^ distracted 
by secular oocupations and the fktigaes of his 
▼arioQs joumies. It was aooordin^y dnrmg 
the winter months, the period of cessation from 
hostilities, that the king and his master ehiefl j 
devoted themselyes to their studies. 

Alcnin paid a yisit to England about 790, 
but he was again in France about the year 
793, and never left it again. The heresy of 
Felix, bishop of Urgel, and of Elipandus, 
biriiop of Toledo, about this time brought 
Alcum forward as a oontroyersialist The 
heresy, which consisted in maintaining that 
the £ion was adopted of the Father and was 
not his proper son, had spread from Spam 
across the Pyrenees. A synod was convened 
in 794 at Frankfort on the Main, at which 
Alcuin assisted, and in which the heresy of 
Felix and Elipandus was oonftited out of scrip- 
ture. {Frag, Vet Script De OestCaroUMagni; 
Duchesne, Hist Framccr. Script iL 207.^ Al- 
cuin had previously been on terms of fhendly 
communication with Felix, and had addressed 
a kind letter to him with the view of reclaiming 
him from his heresy. In order to resist the 
progress of these opinions, and to conflrm the 
Catholic foith in the dominions of Charles, 
Alcuin wrote a work intituled ** Liber Albini, 
qnem edidit contra Hssresin Felicis,** which 
was first printed in Froben's edition of Aleuin's 
works. It consists of a collection of passages 
from the Scriptures which are opposed to the 
opinions of Felix, and of like passages from 
the Oreek and Latin fothers ; and, conform- 
ably to the plan on which it was written, it 
contains little 1^ Alcuin himself, and is free 
from all personalities. 

It was about the year 796 that Alcuin, be- 
ing weary of the busy life which he had led 
alwut the person of Charles, obtained from 
him the abbey of St. Martin at Tours, to 
which he retired. Here he devoted himiself 
with his usual activity to the restoration of 
monastic discipline and the revival of learn- 
ing. As books were scarce, he founded a 
library, which he partly fomished frtmi Eng- 
land, and to which he added by causing va- 
luable books to be transcribed. He succeeded 
in establishing a school, which under his su- 
perintendence became the chief place of leam- 
mg in the kingdom of the Fnmks : so great 
indeed was its reputation that scholars flocked 
to it from all parts, and an old chronicler ex- 
presses his admiration of Alcuin's labours by 
declaring that "■ the modem Gauls or Franks," 
as he ciQls them, had become the rivals of the 
ancient Romans and Athenians. From this 
school there came some of the most dis- 
tinguished scholars of the following age, as 
Rabanus Manrus, Hatto, Sigulfus, and others. 
Alcnin also diligently employed himself during 
his retirement at Tours in his studies, the 
fruits of which were several learned works, 
•ome of which were intended for the purposes 
of instruction. 

His increasing age and infirmities, which 
771 



he often refers to in his letters, at last con" 
fined him altogether to his abbey at Tours ; 
and on this ground he excused himself from 
complying with Charles's request to assist at 
tiie ceremony of his coronation as emperor 
at Rome (▲.!». 800^- He also resigned his 
two abbeys, which Charles gave to his scholars 
Fredegisus and Si^ulftis ; and he spent the 
last few years of his lifo in the tranquil re- 
tirement of St. Martin's. His last employ- 
ment was the revision of the Latin text <Xf the 
Bible, which he had undertaken at the request 
of Charles. He died on the 19th of May, 804, 
and was buried in the church of St Suirtin: 
an inscription by himself, in Latin elegiacs^ 
was put on his tomb. 

In the vear 803 the monies of St. Bfartin 
drew on themselves the displeasure of King 
Charles, by sheltering an ecclesiastic who had 
been sentenced to nnprisonment byTheodidf^ 
bishop of Orleans. Theodulf obtainedCharles's 
warrant for the apprehension of the offender, 
who was accordingly seised, but rescued by 
the monks of St Martin's and the popuhuse. 
Charlemagne, in a letter still extant (Froben, 
L 174.), gave the monks a stem rebuke for 
their resistance to his authority. Alcuin had 
resigned his abbacy before this event, though 
he was still living at St Biartin's. The in- 
ference that he incurred the displeasure of 
Charles on this occasion is not supported by 
the letter, though it is addressed to Alcuin and 
the monks. The letter alludes to Alcuin as 
having been sent to them for their edification 
and to wipe away their evil fome; but Alcnin 
is not expressly blamed ; nor can he be con- 
sidered as comprehended among the monks, 
who are termed by the king the ministers of 
the devil, and ordered to come to him and 
make satisfaction for their crime. Alcnin, as 
appears from a letter (p. 169. lb.), was how- 
ever anxious to maintain the privileges of 
the church. 

The inteDectnal and moral oharBcter of 
Alcuin will best appear from a rapid survey 
of his principal wntmgs. The first collection 
of Alcum's works was made by Andr# dn 
Chesne (Queroetanus), ** Alchuini Abbatis, &c. 
Opera qu» haotenus reperiri potuerunt omnia, 
studio et diligentia Andres Qnercetani 
Turonensis, Lutet Paris. 1617, foL" But this 
is superseded b^ the much more complete 
and critical edition of Froben, prince-abbot 
<^ St Emmeram at Ratisbon — «* Beati Flaoci 
Albini sen Alcnini Opera post pronam Edi- 
tionem de novo collecta, multis Locis emendata 
et Opusculis primum repertis plurimum aucta 
variisque Modis iUustrata, cura ac studio 
Frobenii S.R.L Principis et Abbatis ad S. 
Emmeramum. RatisbcNue, 1777," 2 vols. fol. 

The episties of Alcuin in Froben's edition 
amount to two hundred and thirty-two, 
among which are ineluded a few episties of 
Chailemagne in answer to Alcnin. There 
is prefixed to them a " Synopsis E^istola- 
mm," which gives a general view of the 



ALCUIN, 



SLCmUf. 



contents of each letter : the period -which they 
comprise extends from the year 787 to the 
beginning of the next century. It is how- 
ever certain that this is not a complete col- 
lection of Alcnin*8 epistles, and indeed Perts 
has recently discovered others. The cor- 
respondence of Alcnin generally relates to 
topics of business or to ecclesiastical matters : 
it never assnmes the character of learned dis- 
quisition or philosophical discussion. The 
letters are addressed, among others, to 
Popes Adrian I. and Leo IIL, Offa, king 
of the Mercians, and to various bishops 
and other ecclesiastical persons. In one of 
them addressed to Bishop Aginus he respect- 
fhlly reminds him of his promise to give him 
some relics of saints (aliquas sanctorum re- 
liquias). The letters to Charlema^e, thirty 
in number, are the most interestmg in the 
collection. The mild temper, the sincere 
piety, and the una£Fected humility of the man, 
are apparent in all his correspondence. To- 
wards Charles his letters show the most pro- 
found devotion and respect; and yet the cor- 
respondence between the great king and his 
teacher is in the style of friendship : Alcuin 
addresses Charles by his assumed name of 
David, to which he sometimes adds **mo6t 
beloveid'* (dilectissimus). Though his Latin 
style is fiur from being free from unclassical 
expressions, it is flowing and perspicuous : he 
wrote Latin with ease and perfect freedom 
from all affectation. His letters are often 
concluded by some Latin verses. The^ are 
among the best specimens of the Latimty of 
the middle ages. 

The numerous theological writings of Al- 
cuin may be divided into exegetical or 
expository, do^atical, and polemical His 
exegetical writmgs are not based on a phi- 
lological study of the Scriptures, and bear no 
resemblance to the class of writings which at 
the present day are designated by that term. 
Alcuin followed in the steps or Bede and 
others his predecessors, and accordingly he 
adopted their allegorical mode of exposition. 
His works of this class are contained in the 
first volume of Froben's edition. His ** In- 
terrogationes et Responsiones in Librum 
Geneseos," otherwise entitled " Qusstiunculss 
Albini in Genesin," consists of two hundred 
and eighty short questions on the signifi- 
cation of passages in the book of Genesis, 
with the answers : this work was subse- 
quently translated into Anglo-Saxon, and ' 
there are said to be many MSS. of this ' 
version. The "Enchiridion sen Expositio 
pia ac brevis in Psalmos posnitentiales ; in 
Psalmum cxviii. et graduales," was written ' 
at the request of Anion (otherwise known ' 
under the assumed name of Aquila), arch- 
bishop of Salzburg, who wished to have an 
exposition of the penitential psalms from ' 
Alcuin. This exposition, which may serve 
as a sample of Alcuin's method, is a com- ' 
mcnt on the words of the psalms, in the form ' 
772 I 



of edifying reflections, principally taken from 
the works of Ambrosius, Jerome, and Au- 
gustine ; or as Alcuin expresses himself in 
tiie introduction, he took the writings of the 
holy fathers who have at great length 
examined every verse of the psalms, and 
culled f^tmi uieir remarks &e choicest 
flowers to satisfy his friend's demand. His 
most complete commentary is that on the 
Gospel of St John, in seven books, " Com- 
mentaria in S. Joannis Evangelium," which 
was written at the request of Gisla, a sister 
of Elmg Charles, and her friend Rechtrudau 
In his letter to Gisla prefixed to the com- 
mentary, which is in reply to the well-written 
letter oi the two ladies in which they made 
their request, Alcuin speaks of the sources 
whence he drew his chief materials: Au- 
gustine, Ambrosius, the homilies of Pope 
Gregory, and Bede, and other holy fiuhers : 
— " he adopted," he says, •• the opmions and 
the words of all those writers, rather than 
trust anything to his own presumption, and 
he used the ntmost caution, aided by divine 
grace, in laying down nothing contraiy to 
the opinions of the holy fii&ers." This 
passage shows Alcuin's profbund submission 
to the authority of the church, which cha- 
racterises all his writings : it shows also that 
neither bold original views nor a disposition 
to question received opinions formed any 
part of his intellectual character. In one it 
his letters to Adrian L he acknowledges the 
pope as the vicar of St Peter and the heir of 
his wonderfbl (mirifica) powers. The sin- 
ceritjr of the acknowledgment cannot be 
questioned. 

Among Alcuin's dogmatical writings there 
is a treatise on the Holy and Indivisible 
Trinity (" De Fide SanctsB et Individual Tri- 
nitatis Libri Tres"), which is accompanied by 
a letter to King Charles. This was one of 
the latest of his works, having been written 
about the year a.d. 603. 

Of the polemical writings of Alcuin, a 
work against the heresy of Felix has been 
already mentioned. But he wrote another 
and more complete work, at the command of 
Charles, in reply to a work of Felix, no 
longer extant, in which Felix had supported 
his erroneous views. In this work, which is 
entitled *' Contra Felioem Urgelitanum Epis- 
copum Libri Septem," Alcuin found it ne- 
cessary to follow the order observed in the 
book which he had undertaken to confiite» 
and accordingly he makes the alleged con- 
fusion and want of method in his adversary's 
book an apology for whatever want of method 
may be imputed to his own. Alcuin's main 
object is to support the true doctrines of the 
church by the testimony of the holy fiithers, 
such as Jerome, Augustin, Gregory, and 
others, as Alcuin states in one of the two 
letters to Charles which are prefixed to the 
work. 

Alcuin also wrote certain works which 



ALCUIN. 



ALCUIN. 



Biay be aasigned to the cUus of morals, one 
of which, on the duty and adyantages of 
confession, is addressed to the youths of the 
school of St Martin's. He also wrote various 
treatises which belong to the class of religions 
formularies, such as ** Liber Sacramentorum,** 
** De Psalmorum Usu," and others. 

The grammatical works of Alcuin are of 
no value at present further than to show 
what were the studies of that a^, and as 
monuments of the inde&tigable mdustry of 
this excellent man. There are extant a 
treatise on grammar, ** De Grammatica," 
which is chiefly confined to the forms of 
words ; a small treatise on orthography ; 
a dialogue on rhetoric and virtues between 
Alcuin and Charles ; and a short treatise on 
dialectic, also in the form of a dialogue be- 
tween Alcuin and Charles. In this treatise 
he defines dialectic to be " the rational dis- 
cipline of inquiring, defining, and discussing, 
and also efficient in distinguishing truth from 
falsehood." Thus he uses the term in the 
sense in which it was used by some ancient 
writers, and in a wider sense than the term 
logic is now generally used by writers on 
lo^c. There is also attributed to Alcuin 
"De Cursu et Saltu Luna ac Bissexto," a 
treatise on the course of the moon and on 
the mode of determining the festivals of 
the church which depend upon it. It 
has been inferred from a letter of Alcuin 
to King Charles, that he was acquainted 
with the true figure of the earth ; but such 
an inference is not necessarily derived from 
this letter. Besides this, Alcuin, who was 
well acquainted with the Latin writers, and 
probably with some of the Greek writers 
also, could not be ignorant that the spherical 
form of the earth was well known to the 
ancient Greek geographers and astronomers 
of the Alexandrian schooL 

A work entitled ** Disputatio Pnerorum per 
Interrogationes et Responsiones " was first 
printed by Froben, who attributes it to Alcuin, 
though it is not expressly assigned to Alcuin 
in the MS. which contains this and other 
works of his. This work, which is chiefly 
taken from Isidore's Origines, is a kind of ca- 
techism in the form of question and answer : 
it treats of God and his attributes, on the na* 
ture of man, on matters of fiuth, and the like. 

There are no historical writings by Al- 
cuin; and even his biographies are in the 
nature of homilies and intended for religious 
edification. The following works are by 
Alcuin :— I. " Scriptum de Vita a Martini," 
according to some MSS. a homily which was 
intended for the feast of St Martm, or a kind 
of panegyric on the virtues of this saint 
2. ** Vita S. Vedasti Episcopi Atrebatensis," 
a work of the same kind on St Vedastus, 
bishop of Arras, which seems to have been 
founded on an earlier work. 3. *' Vita 
S. Richerii," also founded on a previous 
work. 4. "De Vita S. Willibrordi," or a 
773 



Life of St Willibrod, a native of Nortlium- 
berland, the apostle of the Frisians and the 
first bishop of Utrecht, which was written at 
the request of the Archbishop of Sens : this 
life is written twice ; in prose for the purpose 
of being read to the brethren in the church, 
and in verse for private reading and edifica- 
tion. 

The Latin poetry of Alcuin was first col- 
lected by Duchesne ; but the edition of 
Froben is more complete, and the various pieces 
are better arranged according to their sub- 
jects: the doubtful or spurious pieces are 
placed in an appendix. The greater part of 
his poetry is in hexameter verse and in Latin 
elegiacs. Many of the pieces are short, and 
the subjects of them are venr varied, such as 
stories from the Old and ^ew Testament ; 
inscriptions for various churches, altars, and 
statues ; exhortations or moral verses ; epi- 
taphs, epigrams, and senigmas; and there is a 
tolerably long poem in Latin elegiacs, en- 
titled " De Rerum Humanarum vicissitudine 
et clade Lindisfiimensis Monasterii," ad- 
dressed to the monks of Lindisfame on the 
occasion of their sufierings from the Danes 
in 793, in which Alcuin descants on the un- 
certainty of all human things and suggests 
topics of consolation and exhortation. An- 
other still longer poem consisting of more 
than 1650 hexameter verses, and now uni- 
versally assigned to Alcuin, is entitled 
" Poema de Pontificibus et Sanctis Ecclesise 
Eboracensis." It is a poetical history of the 
bishops and holy men of the church of York 
up to the time of Alcuin, and was probably 
written about the year 785. 

There are other poems attributed to Al- 
cuin, the authenticity of which is doubtful. 
One of them, which consists of above 500 
hexameter verses, is entitled, " De Carolo 
Magno Rege et Leonis Papse ad eundem ad- 
ventu," or ** Carolus Magnus et Leo Papa ;" 
it begins with a very long and tedious pane- 
gyric on Charles; the main sulgect is the 
meeting of Charles and Pope Leo III. in or 
about 799. Many of the lines are vigorously 
written, and show that the author was fami- 
liar with the classical Latin poets. Canisius 
assigns this poem to Alcuin for the following 
reasons : it is known that Alcuin wrote on 
the exploits of Charles ; the style resembles 
Alcuin's ; sometimes he calls Charles by the 
name of David. The author of the poem 
was certainly a contemporary of Charles ; but 
some critics collect fh>m it that he was a 
young man, and Alcuin in the year 799 was 
far advanced in years. 

Alcuin's models in his Latin poetry were 
the classical Roman poets, whom he had 
carefUUy studied. The versification is easy 
and generally correct If he sometimes fiiils 
in observing certain niceties both of expres- 
sion and metre, it must be remembered that 
his was not an age of critical study such as 
we now live in. Yet though his verses are 



ALCUIN. 



ALCUIN. 



not free from blemishefl, he poaseased mncfi 
69U!iUty, and his command of the Latin, as he 
understood it, was nndoabtedly greater than 
most modem scholars possess. Some of the 
fieuilts observable in Alcnin's poetry may be 
due to transcription; others are to be im- 
puted rather to carelessness than ignorance : 
he wrote much, and often with great rapidity, 
for he wrote with ease. Tet it is easy to select 
short passages from some of his poems whieh 
have great merit and hardly any frmlts^ 

As to the authorship of the ** Libri Carolini 
Quatuor" there is great diffieolty. Some 
writers have assigned this work to Alcuin, 
though there is no direct evidence of his 
being the author ; andothora, as Froben, who 
has omitted it in his edition, consider that 
Alcuin had nothing to do with it This 
work first appeared in 1649 in 12ma : 
" Opus iUvstnssimi et excellentissinu sen 
spectabilis Viri Caroli llagni nutu Beg^M 
Francorum, &c, contra Synodum qun in 
Partibus GnBoin pro adorandis Ima^inibns 
stolide sive arroganter gesta est" This woriL 
was directed against the synod of Nicsa, 
held in 787, which had re-established the 
veneration (wpoaxwriffis) of images. The 
decree of the synod was forwarded to 
Adrian L at Rome, and by him to Charles in 
792, who sent it to Alcuin, then in England, 
and requested him to oonfrite it Alcuin con- 
Aited the decree in a work, not now extant, 
in whieh he showed that such veneration was 
inconsistent with the Scriptures and the eariy 
fath^^ The decree of the synod of Nice 
was afterwards condemned at the synod of 
Frankfort (794), at which Alcuin assisted. 
The " Libri Carolini Quatnor " were pro- 
bably written about the time of the synod of 
Frankfort : at least there seems Sufficient 
reason to assign them to the period of Charles's 
reign, and it is highly probable, if this sup- 
position is true, that Alcuin had some share 
in their compositbn. The work is expressly 
directed agunst the decree of Nicssa as to 
images, and is written with some bitterness 
against the Greeks ; which is so fiur an argu- 
ment against Alcuin*s having had a share in 
it The assertions of the Nicene synod are 
examined one by one, and refuted by refer- 
ence to the Bible, and St Jerome and St Au- 
gustin, with much logical skilL The use of 
images is not altogether rqected ; it is oon- 
sidered to be consistent with biblical truth 
to possess but not to adore images and pic- 
tures (flaod illsB non haberi sed adorari a 
nobis mhibeantur) ; nor should they be re- 
jected as ornaments of churches and memo- 
rials of past events ; it is only the adoration 
(adoratio) of them which should be abomi- 
nated. 

Alcuin, the most learned man of his age, 
was the friend and adviser of one of th« most 
energetic and able princes that ever sat on 
a throne. In his enlarged sehemes for the 
restoration and enoooragement of learning, 
774 



Charles was aided by the industry and know- 
ledge of Alcuin. Theology was tiie principal 
pursuit of Alcuin, but with him it was prac- 
tical rather than speculative : its ol^ect was 
to secure a virtuous life; From some ill 
nndentood expressions of his own, and from 
a passage or two in the anonymous Life, it has 
been ioKTredthat Alcuin was unfeivonrable to 
secular studies. That the ibnnder of schools, 
the restorer of ancient leaming, the diligent 
student of Roman antiquity, should, even in 
his old age, have condemned or discouraged 
such pursuits, would require strong evidence. 
The fact is exactly the reverse. He distinctly 
states that secular learning is the true foun- 
dation on which the education of youth should 
rest ; grammar and discipline in other phUo- 
sophic^ subtleties are recommended; and 
he states, oraaiBtently enough, as any Chris- 
tian may do at the present day, that by cer- 
tain steps of (human) wisdom the scholar 
may ascend to the highest poiot of Christian 
(evangeliea) perfection. With him every 
thing is subordinate to religion, and when 
secuhur studies come in oomparison with 
theological, the superiority of the theological 
is emphatically asserted. But this does not 
lead to the ii^erenoe, and his writings dis- 
tinctly contradict it, that he was unikvour- 
able to the stodies in which he excelled and 
which he recommended by his preoe|its and 
his teaching. The activity of Alcum was 
the striking part of his intellectual character. 
In originaHty, in large and comprehensive 
views, he was eminoitly deficient ; he did 
not possess more than a reasonable amount of 
dialectic skill ; abstruse speculation and philo* 
sophical inquiry were beyond his sphere. 
He was too good a son of the church to 
transgress the limits which were prescribed to 
her children. His leaming and lus prodigious 
industry made him the firat man of his age ; 
and his honesty of purpose and his services 
to education entitle him to our grateful re- 
membrance. He was a good, but not a great 



A list of the editions of Aleuin is given 
by Mr. Wright m his very useful work 
entitled ** Biographia Britannica Liteiaria,*' 
London, 1642 ; and abundant references 
to the numerous editors and commenta- 
tors of Alcuin, in a well-digested article on 
Alcuin in BShr's ** Gesehichte der Ro- 
mischen Literatur im Earolingischen Zeit- 
alter,** which has been chiefly followed for 
the Acts here stated. The latest life of 
Alcuin is by F. Lorenz, Halle, 1829, which 
was translated into English by Jane Mary 
Slee, London, 1887, 8va G. L^ 

ALCYO'NIUS,or ALCIO'NIO, PEB'TRO, 
a distinguished scholar who lived at the com<- 
menoement of the sixteenth century. He was 
bom, as appears from a passage in his work 
on exile, between 1490 and 1500, and in the 
city of Venice, as appears from the testimony 
of his contemporary Giraldi, for Alcyonius 



ALCYONIUS. 



ALCYONIUa 



'himself was amions to conceal the place of 
his birth. He studied the Greek language 
under Marcus Musurus of Candia, then pro- 
fessor at Venice, on whose death in 1517 he 
was an unsuccessftil candidate for the vacant 
place. At that time he gained his living by 
acting as corrector of the press, and, it is stated 
by some authors, in the celebrated establish- 
ment of Aldus Manntius; but Maczuchelli 
denies that his employment by Aldus is sup- 
ported by contemporary authority, though he 
admits that Alcyonius corrected the press for 
the first edition of his own treatise " De Ex- 
silio" which was published b^ Aldus in 1522. 
In the same year he left Venice for Florence, 
where, by the patronage of the Cardinal 
Giulio de' Medici, he obtained the professor- 
ship of the Greek language with a handsome 
salary, to which the cardmal added a pension 
of ten ducats a month to engage him to trans- 
late Galen's treatise on the parts of animals from 
the Greek. On the election of his patron to the 
papacy in the following year, under the name 
of Clement the Seventh, Alcyonius became 
eager to transfer his residence to Rome, but 
was refused permission to leave Florence by 
the Signoria, or executive government, on the 
ground that no one was yet provided to fill his 
situation. He therefore left Florence without 
their leave, in December, 1523, but found 
himself disappointed in his hopes of prefer- 
ment at Rome. The only situation he could 
procure was the chair of doquence at the Ro- 
man gymnasium, and the troubles of the times 
prevented the regular payment of his salary. 
In September, 1526, the chamber assigned 
him in the Apostolic Palace, contiguous to 
that of Bern! the poet, was plundered by the 
troops of the Colonna faction, and in 1527, 
when the Constable de Bourbon took Rome 
by storm, Alcyonius was driven to take 
refuge in the castle of St. Angelo with his 
patron Clement The treatment he received 
from the pope was so little in accordance 
with what he considered due to his merits, 
that on the restoration of quiet at Rome he 
joined the Action of the cardinal Pompeo 
Colonna, the enemy cf Clement VII. In a 
few months after he died at that city, before 
attaining his fortieth year. 

With tegard to the character of Alcyo- 
nius, all £ose who had opportunities of 
knowing him speak with ^version, and he 
is alluded to in terms of strong contempt by 
Giraldi and BemL He is accused of gluttony 
and drunkenness, vanity, pride, and caprice. 
His printed works are not numerous, com- 
prising one volume at translations, and one 
of original matter, both in Latin. The volume 
of translations is from Aristotle, and contains 
**On Generation and Corruption," **On. 
Meteors," and ''On the World," and the 
books ** On Animals," commonly called the 
I^urva Naturalia. These were published 
at Venice in 1521 by Bemardinus Vitales, 
and were frequently reprinted in subse- 
775 



qiient editions of Aristotle ; but the ori- 
ginal edition, of which there is a copy in the 
British Museum, is rare. The correctness of 
the translation was impugned by Juan Gines 
Sepulveda, the Spanish scholar, who had 
himself translated the same portions of Ari- 
stotle, in a separate work, entitled ** Errata 
Petri Alcyonii in interpretatione Aristotelis 
a Ja Genesio Sepulveda collecta." The 
criticism was so biting, that Alcyonius 
bought up and destroyed all the copies of 
it he could obtain, in consequence of which 
it became so rare that it is not included 
either in Mylius's edition of Sepulveda, 
** Opera quss reperiri potuerunt omnia," 
Cologne, 1602, or in that of the Spanish 
Academy of History, ** Opera cum edits, 
turn inedita," Madrid, 1780. Another accu- 
sation which was brought against Alcyonius 
was that his style was too Ciceronian, and 
that he had paid more attention to imitating 
the manner of Cicero than to reproducing the 
matter of Aristotle. This complaint may 
perhaps be adduced as collateral evidence to 
exonerate him from a charge which was pre- 
ferred in connection with his original work, 
*'Medices Legatus de Exsilio," Venice, 
1522 (from the press of Aldus). This is a 
dissertation on the evils and consolations of 
exile, thrown into the form of a dialogue 
between three of the Medii.:i fiunily, from one 
of whom, Giovanni de' Medici, then papal 
legate to Bologna, aftei wards Pope Leo X., it 
derives its title. Both the general arrangement 
and the turn of style are imitated from Cicero, 
and with so much success that it was for a 
long period commonly believed that Alcyonius 
had plagiarised a large portion of the com* 
position firom the lost treatise of Cicero, 
^ De Gloria." The story received, indeed, a 
" local habitation " from Paul Manutius, who 
stated that the treatise *' De Gloria" was in- 
cluded in the catalogue of the books of Ber- 
nardo Giustiniani, who left hit library to a 
convent of nuns of which Alcyonius was the 
medical attendant, that the volume was after- 
wards nussing, and that it was taken for cer- 
tain that Alcyonius, who had ftee access to 
the books, had dexterously purloined it, more 
esjpecially as his treatise *' De Exsilio " con- 
tamed some passages that seemed too good 
for his own composition. Mazxuchelli and 
Tiraboschi have shown that this story rests on 
no solid grounds. The only direct witness 
a^;ainst Alcyonius is Paul Manutius, who was 
his personal enemy : the evidence deduced 
from an examination of the work is all in 
fiivour of the accused. The style is of an 
even tenor throughout ; the subject of exile 
is strictly adhered to, which does not seem 
closely connected with that of glory, and allu- 
sions to recent events and manners, which 
form in fact the most interesting feature in 
the book, occur too frequently to allow of 
the insertion of a passage even of moderate 
length entirely f^rom £e hand of Cicero. 



ALCYONIUS. 



ALDABt 



Tbese arguments are so strong that an im- 
partLal -r^er is inclined to wonder at the 
confidence with which a subsequent writer. 
Coupe, in some remarks appended to a not 
Tery fkithM French translation of Alcyonius, 
in his ** Soirees Littendres/* expresses his opi- 
nion that the treatise on Exile is nothing else 
than the treatise on Glory disfigured, in order 
not to be known, and says that he recognises 
almost throughout "the manner of Cicero 
in dialoguing ; his plans, his divisions, his 
abundance, his harmony, his sensibility, his 
morals, and his enchanting variety." The 
** Medices Legatus" was reprmtedby Mencken, 
in coxgunction with some similar works, in 
his ** Analecta de Calamitate Literatorum," 
Leipzig, 1707, 12mo. Alcyonius left a num- 
ber oi manuscripts, comprising some trans- 
lations from the Greek, some Latin poetry 
and orations, a tragedy on the death of 
Christ, and some letters, none of which have 
been published. They are enumerated by 
Mazzuchelli, in his very elaborate article on 
this author. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori (tltaUa, 
L 376— ^83.; Tiraboschi, Storia della Lette- 
ratura Italiana, edit 1772, I 242.; Coupe, 
Soirees LitUrairea^ xvi. 1 — 55.; Works of 
Alcyonius referred to.) T. W. 

ALDABI, R. MEIR IBN (caUed Si- 
phardi, or the Spaniard (^^-j^^ pj^ -1>KD 'H 
^IIDD), a Spanish rabbi who lived and 
wrote during the middle and latter part of the 
fourteenth century ; he was the nephew of the 
celebrated Rab or Rav Asher [Asher ben 
Jechiel], and was the author of ** Shevile 
Emuna" ("The Paths of Faith*'), a work 
of great authority among the Jews; it is 
divided into ten paths or treatises as follows : 
— L On the existence and attributes of the 
Creator. IL Of the creation of the world, 
of the spheres and their motions, and of the 
stars. IIL Of the creation of Adam and 
Eve. IV. Ot the formation and growth of 
man in the womb. V. On the means for 
preserving the health of the body. VL On 
the soul and its faculties, and on intellectual 
light VIL On the soul's health. IX. On 
the rewards reserved for the pious, and the 
punishments to be suffered by the ungodly. 
X. Treats of the deliverance of Israel, the 
advent of the Messiah, and resurrection of 
the dead, and on the future life. There is a 
very copious extract firom the first chapter 
of the tenth path of this famous work 
in the treatise on the advent of the Messiah 
at the end of the Bibliotheca Lat Hebr. of 
Imbonati ; the notes to chapter ^ of Jac. 
Voisin's translation of R. Israel on the soul 
may also be consulted. ^Israel Ben Moses. ] 
The " Shevile Emuna'* is also frequently cited 
by Allard Uchtmann in his annotations and 
observations on the " Bechinath 01am." [Je- 
DAJAH Ben Abraham Happeninl] The 
" Shevile Emuna " was completed in the 
year 5120 (a.d. 1360), as appears by a note 
of the author at the end: it was first printed 
776 



at Trent by Joseph Otheling, a.m. 5319 
(a.d. 1559), 4to.; afterwards at Amsterdam 
by Dan. de Fonseca, a. H. 5387 (a.d. 1627), 
4to. ; and finally at the same place by Jos. 
Probs, or Proops, a.m. 5468, (a.d. 1708), in 
small 8vo., in die square Hebrew letter. 
(Bartoloccius, BiblioOu Mag, Rahb. iv. 15. ; 
Wolflus, Biblioth, Hebr, i. 745. iii. 667. iv. 
896. ; De Rossi, Dizion. Storic, degii Aut. 
JEbr. i. 45, 46. ; Imbonatus, Adventus Megsia^ 
p. 46— 53.) C.P.H. 

ALDARI, R. AARON ABU (inHK "T 
>«^y-|^» UN)» ^^<> ^ called by Ae Siphte 
Jeshenim, Ben Gerson, the son of R. Gerson, 
is the author of a commentary on the Pen- 
tateuch, which together with the commen- 
taries of three other rabbis, namely, R. 
Jacob Kanisal, R. Samuel Almosnino, and 
R. Moses Albelda, was printed at Constan- 
tinople in one volume folio without date. 
We find no Airther account of this writer, 
or of the time at which he lived. ( Wolfius, 
BiblioOi, Hebr. L 1 14.) C. P. H. 

ALDAY, JOHN. We know nothing of 
this writer except as the translator of a French 
work that was highly popular in the middle 
of the sixteenth century: " Theatrum Mundi; 
the Theatre or Rule of the World, wherin 
may be scene the running Race and Course 
of every Man's Life, as touching Miserie and 
Felicitie, &c., written in the French and Latin 
Tongues by Peter Boaistuau, &c" There 
were three editions of this translation, the 
last and the most correct of which appeared at 
London in 1581. Boaistuau's work contains 
many passages of quaint satire upon the 
manners of his age which Alday has trans- 
lated with considerable spirit (See extracts 
in Dibdin's edition of More*s** Utopia.") There 
are also in Boaistuau's work several pieces in 
verse, which are also translated by Alday with 
some elegance. (See Ritson*s " Bibliographia 
Poetica," also"Bibliograghical Memoranda," 
Bristol, 1816.) Dr. Dibdin is of opinion that 
there are resemblances between particular 
passages in Burton's " Anatomy of Melan- 
choly" and Alday's translation of Boaistuau; 
and he gives a pa^ or two in support of 
this opinion, referrmg generally to Burton's 
" Love Melancholy," which occupies more 
than two hundred pages of that remarkable 
work. Burton, the most voracious of readers, 
was no doubt fiupiliar with Alday's book. 
But such supposed general resemblances 
are often more fanciful Uum real C. K. 

ALDE, H, VAN, a plunter and engraver 
who lived at Amsterdam in the middle of the 
seventeenth century. Heineken enumerates 
three pieces after him — the portrait of 
Gaspar de Charpentier, an ecclesiastic of 
Amsterdam, engraved by Van Aide in 
1650 ; and the portraits of Admirals Ruyter 
and De Witte, engraved in folio after Van 
Aide, by Mich. Mouzyn. (Heineken, Die-, 
tiemnaire des Artistes aont nous auons des 
Estcm^es,) R. N. W. 



ALDEGATL 



ALDEGREVilR. 



ALDEOATI, MARCO or MARGAN- 
TCVNIO, a poet, was bom at Mantua, and 
lived at the end of the fifteenth century ; he 
was professor of poetry at Ravenna in 
1483. None of his works (with one ex> 
oeption) appear to have been printed, but, 
the following is as copious an account of' 
them as can be obtained : -^ 1. An elegy 
prefixed to a poem by Matteo Chironio upon 
the passage of the E«mperor Frederic III. 
through Ravenna, preserved in manuscript 
at Ravenna in the library of the Abbe Gi- 
nanm. 2. A mutilated Latin poem in twelve 
books, entitled ** Gigantomachia," deposited 
in the library of thie Marquis Ferdinando 
Aldegati at Stimtna. From the events alluded 
to in this poem, it must have been written 
between the years 1495 and 1511. 3. Giam- 
battista Moreali of Modena also had in his 
possession twenty-eight verses of the com- 
mencement of anoCher poem called ** Hercu- 
leidos," written in praise of the ancient Her- 
cules, and dedicated to Hercules L duke of 
Ferrara. In this poem the author notices the 
Gigantomachia. 4. An elegy on the death of 
Galeotto, lord of Faenxa, in 1488, published 
in the ** Biblioteca Codicum Manuscriptorum 
Monasterii S. Michaelis Venetiaram prope 
Musianum,'* p. 16. 5. Four books of elegies 
inreserved in the Laurentian library at 
Florence ; a particular account of which (with 
copious extracts) is given by Bandini in his 
^ Catalogus Codicum Latinorum Bibliothecs 
MedicesB Lanrentians,'' voL iiL p. 829 — 847. 

6. Three books of amorous elegies in praise 
of one Cinxia, which were in the possession 
Gff the Abb6 Matteo Luigi Canonic! of Venice ; 
preceded bv a dedicatory epistle, in verse, to 
Caidinal Francesco Gonzaga, legate of Bo- 
logna. At the end of the third book are the 
f<£owing lines : — 

** Uantua ma genuit, fodt me Cynthia Tstanit 
Aldegattorum gk>rU dicar ego." 

7. Another elegy, written by him in 1488, 
on occasion of &e discovery of the municipal 
statutes of Ravenna, which had been long 
lost, was found in that city by the Marquis 
Camillo 8preti, and presented by him to 
Cardinal Luigi YalentL The above account 
being taken from Tiraboschi, the statement 
as to the respective possessors of Aldegati's 
works refers of course to the period when 
Tiraboschi published his book, viz. 1771. 
(Tiraboschi, Storia ddia Letierahtra Italianoj 
vLl391.) J.W.J. 

ALDEGRE VER, HEINRICH, a cele- 
brated German painter and engraver of the six- 
teenth century, was bom at Soest in Westpha- 
lia in 1502. Of his fionily nothing is known, 
but whilst still young he was induced to visit 
Niimberg, through the reputation of Albert 
Diirer, with whom he placed himself as a 
scholar. Aldegreverapphed himself diligently 
to painting and to engraving, acquired great 
skill in both arts, and became one of the most 
distingaished of the old German masters. He 

▼OL.X. 



worked ver^ much in the style of Albert 
Diirer, and it is probably for this reason that 
he was sometimes called Albert of Westpha^ 
lia ; Sandrart calls him Albrecht Aldegraf in 
his text, yet inscribes his accompanying por-- 
trait "Henrich Aldegraf fl Soest Westphalus/'^ 
He is called also Albert by Nagler in his* 
Kiinstler Lexicon, but this is an error ; his 
correct name is Henry Aldegrever, which, 
with the date of his birth, we learn from 
two portraits of himself engraved by himself, 
both of which are in the print room of the 
British Museum. His monogram consists of 
an H and an A ih one character, with a small 
G between the lower part of the legs. 

Although Aldegrever painted several pic- 
tures and acquired a great reputation as a 
punter, he appears to have practised paint- 
ing only for a few years, and to have after* 
wiffds devoted himself exclusively to engrav* 
ing, chiefly frimi his own designs. He ranks 
in the first class of what are termed the ** little 
masters," so called from having engraved 
principally plates of small dimensions, and in 
a minute and laboured style. He worked 
almost entirely with the graver, having etched, 
according to report, only one plate, which is 
very scarce ; it represents Orpheus playing to 
Enrydice, with the date 1 528. He cut also only 
one plate in wood : it is without date. AJde- 
grever*s plates are very numerous ; they amount 
to considerably more than three hundred, and 
bear dates, according to some writers, frx)m 
1522 until 1562, and according to others, from 
1525 until 1558. The date of his death is 
not accurately known ; it is supposed to be 
1562. His engravings are well and finely 
executed, but they are strictly Gothic in style ; 
his figures, though generally correctly drawn, 
are frequently hard and sometimes lean, and 
his draperies are stiff and sharp, like the 
greater part of those of Albert Diirer, whose 
style he never forsook. 

Aldegrever's pamtings are of the same cha- 
racter as his engravings, but they are not 
numerous ; they are chiefly remarkable for a 
richness of colouring. Sandrart speaks with 
praise of some works in the churches of Soest, 
and also two wings which Aldegrever painted 
to a picture by Albert Diirer in a church in 
Niimberg. In the town-hall of the same 
place there is a picture of Shadrach, Meshach, 
and Abed-nego in the fiery furnace, by Al- 
degrever ; and there are also some pieces by 
him in the galleries of Munich, Schleissheim, 
and Vienna. In the gallery of Munich there 
is a very excellent portrait of a man with a 
red beard. The gallery of Berlin also pos> 
sesses a remarkable picture by this master ; 
it represents the last judgment, and contains 
a great variety of figures. 

As Aldegrever's prints are very numerous, 
our space will admit only of mention of some 
of the most prized : — Two portraits of him- 
self^ one wiuiout and the other with a beard, 
with name and age, and the dates 1530, 

SB 



ALDJBGfiVCa 



ALDEGUELA. 



IBtiukxxyin, and 1637, statis xxzy^, a por* 
trait of Martin Lather, 1540 ; one of Pliil^ 
MeUmchthon, of the same year ; and two others 
of John of Leyden, king of the Anabaptiats, 
and of the fanatic Bernard Knipperdolling, 
taken after their arrest and imprisonment, 
hy the bishop of Monster : many small plates 
iUostrating the biblical histories of Joseph 
and his brethren; Thamar and Absalom; 
David and Bathsheba ; Adam and Eve driren 
from Paradise ; Lot and his daughters ; Judith 
and Holophemes ; the good Samaritan ; Sa- 
sannah and the Elders; the rich man and 
Lazarus, &c. : also sereral from pro&ne his- 
tory and ancient mythology ; Bomulus and 
Remus exposed upon the biuiks of the Tiber ; 
Tarquin and Lncretia ; Mutios ScsBvola be* 
icae Porsenna ; the battle of Hannibal and 
Seipio ; Marcus Curtins about to leap into the 
gulph; Titus Manilas ordering the execa- 
tion of his soxi, in which Aldegrever has in- 
troduced an mstrument very similar to the 
guillotine used by the IVench daring the Re- 
ydutaon, it bears the date 1553 » Medea and 
«|ason ; thirteen plates of the laboors of Her- 
cules, which are very scarce, and are reckoned 
among AldegreTcr's best works: he executed 
likewise many allegorical pieces ; also a West- 
phalian mamage procession in tweWe pieoes, 
and two others in eight pieces ; a plats sup- 
posed to represent the Count D'Archamband 
lulling his son immediately before his own 
death, with this inscription, ^ Pater, ne post 
soam mortem filiua di^enerans male periret, 
earn obtruncavit ;" this design is remarkably 
well drawn : a man with a sword sorprising 
a monk and a nun together in a field ; eight 
plates illustratinff the empire of death ; six 
plates of people of both sexes accompanied by 
^eath, dated 1562 ; and a number of anabap- 
tists naked in a bath. In the opinion of 
Bartsch, the last two works mentioned are 
not by Aldegreyer. 

Besides the above, and many others not here 
enumerated, Aldegrever executed a great 
variety of ornamental designs for dlversimths, 
and also for booksellers. Heineken, in his 
" Dictionnaire des Artistes dont nous avons des 
Estampes," has given a complete list of Alde- 
gre ver's pUtes ; and the greater part of them 
are minutely described in the " Peintre Gra- 
veur" of Bartsch. R. N. W. 

ALDE6UEXA, JOSEF MARTIN DE, 
a Spanish architect of considerable repute in 
Ipa dav, waa bom at Manzaneda, in the dio- 
oese of Terael, 1 730. He was a pupil of Josef 
Corbinos ot Valencia ; and almost as soon as 
he quitted him and set up for practice him- 
scdf^ he was appointed to superintend the 
building of the church and college of the 
Jesuits at TerueL So satisfiictorily did he 
acquit hMsself on that occasion that he was 
shortly forwards engaged by Don Isidro 
Carvigia, bi#hop o£ Cuenca, to finish the 
qhurch of San Felipe Neri, which he was 
erecting in that city at his own expense. 
778 



From this time his professional character was 
established. Returning to Cuenca, he waa 
employed on the church of the Nuns of S. 
Pedro, the church and convent of S. An- 
tonio, those of the Franciscan Nuns de la 
^Concepcion, the Hospital, and other edi- 
fices. At Malaga he constructed the new 
aqueduct which supplies that city with water 
from about the distance of two leagues ; he 
was also employed there on the college of 
S. Telmo, and rebuilt the church of the An- 
gustines. He was next commissioned by the 
council of Castile to complete the bridge at 
Ronda ; a noted and extraordinary work of 
its kind, which is carried across a ravine 
whose sides are nearly perpendicular and 
310 varas or Spanish yanis in depUi. At 
Ronda he also erected some public buildings. 
In 1793 he accompanied the engineer Do* 
mingo Belesta and his pupil Silvestre Bonilla 
to ^imada, for the purpose of surveying and 
taking plans of the piJace of Charles Y. in 
the Alfaiambra, it being the intention of the 
government to convert that pile of building 
mto a college fin* educating two hundred Ame- 
rican youths of ^ood fiunily from the Spanish 
American colonies; but that scheme was 
never carried into effect Aldeguela died at 
Mahiga in 1802. (Cean Bermudez, in Appen- 
dix to Uaguno's Notidaa de hs ArquUtctot y 
Arquitectura de Etpana.^ W. IL L. 

ALDERE'TE, BERNARDO DE, a Spa- 
nish Jesuit, a native of Zamora, where he was 
born about the dose of the sixteenth oentaiy. 
He is said to have entered when very young 
into the society of the Jesuits, among whom 
he acquired such reputatioa for leammg and 
ability, that he was appointed reader of theo- 
logy at that society's college in the univenily 
of Salamanca, and he was the first of his 
order upon whom the university conferred 
the degree of doctor. He died at Salamanca 
in 1657. He wrote the following works: — 
1. ^ Commentaria et Disputationes in tertiam 
Partem S. Thome de sacris incamati Verbi 
Mysteriis et Perfectionibus." Leyden, 1652, 
foL 2. ** De Yisione et Sententia Del" lb. 
1662, foL 3. ** De Voluntate Dei, Prndeati- 
nati(Hie, et Reprobatione." Salamanca, 1657, 
4to. (N. AnUmius, BibL Him. Nov. ii. 22a) 

P. dea 

ALDERETE, or ALDRE'TE (as his 
name is written in some of his works), BER- 
NARDO JOSE" DE, a writer on the history 
and the ecclesiastical antiquities of Spain, was 
bom at Malaga in Andaluma, about the middle 
ofthesixteenthcentury. Hehadatwin-brother 
named Jos6 de Alderete, who has often been 
confounded with him, as both were eccle- 
siastics, both wrote on ecclesiastical subjects, 
and there was also a very close personal re- 
semblanoe between them. Jos^ obtained a 

Erebend at Cordova, which he resigned in 
ivour of his brother Bernardo, in order to 
enter the society of Jesuits. Bernardo was 
appointed grand vicar (vioario genenUt) by 



ALDERETE. 



ALDEftEtfi. 



the Arohbishop of SeviUe, I>oii Pedro de 
Castro ; Imt he obtoined permiflrioa to reside 
at Cordora. He was one of Che best Spanish 
writers of to time, and gained great celebrity 
for his knowledge <tf Greek, Hebrew, and 
Arabic, The year of his death is not known. 
AldereCe was the author of the following 
works : — 1. ** Origen y Prineipio de la Lengoa 
CasteUana,** Rome, 1606, 4ta, sifterwards 
reprinted at Madrid in 1674, with the 
~ Tesoro de la Lengoa CasteUana,** by Sebas- 
tiaa CoTarmbias de Orosca This is by ftr 
the best work on the origin of the Castilian 
or Spanish langoage. The author, who was 
learned in the Heln«w and Arabic languages, 
goes deeply into the aobjeet, which he treats 
with nncommon skilL S. **■ Varias Antigae* 
dades de Espana, Africa, y otras Prorineias," 
Antwerp, 1614, 4tOu; and ib. 1724, 4ta ; a 
work of great emditicii on the history and 
antiquities of ^Dain and Africa, dedicaited to 
Don Pedro de Castro y Qninones, archbishop 
of ScTille. 3. ** Relacion de la I^lesia y Prela- 
dos de CordoTa," or the ecdesiastical history 
of CordoTa, with a list of its bishops, saints, 
martyrs, &c This was nerer prmted, bnt 
Oil Gonsalez Da^ila made nse ^ it for his 
collection intituled ** Tkeatro de las Iglesias 
de Espana," Madrid, 1645-50, foL« in which 
the ecclesiastical history of Cordova is chiefly 
taken ftt>m the above work by Alderete. 4. 
** Relacion de hi Planta de la Capilla Real y 
de sa Estado temporal y espiritual** This is 
an account of the royal cfa]q>el founded in the 
cathedral, formeriy the mosqae, of Cordova, 
by Ferdinand IIL of Castile and Leon. 5. 
** ^aarofUvm, srve coruscantia Lamina, trinm- 
phalisqae Cmcis Signa, sanctoram Martymm 
Albennom Urgavonensinm Bonoei, Mazi- 
miani et aliormn. Sanguine purpurata.** This 
work, which relates to the discovery made at 
Arjona in Andahisia of the bodies of some 
Spanish ecclesiastics put to death by the 
Arabs, and known as uie martyrs of Aijona, 
was published in the form of a letter to Pope 
Urbanus VHL, Cordova, 1690, foL Alderete 
wrote also a work on the antiquities of 
Andalusia, which was never printed; and 
others, the titles of which are given in 
Micolas Antonio. Augustas PfeifFer, in his 
** Fasciculus Disputationum philosophicarum," 
in the sixth essay ^ De Lingua Protoplas- 
torum,** speaks in very high terms of Al- 
derete, whom he calls " S c r i pt o r Hispanus 
doctissimus.'* (N. Antonius, Bib. Him. Nov. 
L 220.) P. de G. 

ALDERETE, DIEGO GRACIAN DE, 
the son of Diego Garcia, keeper of the ar- 
mour (armero mayor), of Ferdmand and Isa- 
bella, was bom about the end of the fifteenth 
Centurv, and died at a verv advanced age, in 
the reign of Philip IL His fkdier sent him 
to studv at Louvain, under the cdebrated 
Luis Vives, and he became well versed in 
Greek, Ladn, and philosophy. Charles V. 
made him one of his secretaries ; and after 
779 



the death of that emperor, he was detained 
is the same sitoation l^^ his son and successor 
Philip IL« and enjoyed great ihvonr at court 
He is extolled 1^ his countrymen as a man 
of piety and learning. His works are prin- 
cipally translations, such as a Spanish version 
of Xenophon, ** Las Obras de Xenopbonte 
divididas en tres Partes,'* Salamanca, 1552, 
foL ; another of Thncydides, ** La Historia 
de Thucydides," Salamanca, 1564, foL; and 
one of Uie manl works of Plutarch, ** Las 
obras Monlea de Plntareo.* AlcaH, 1542, 
foL, and Salamanca, 1571, foL He also trans- 
late fhmi Isocrates, Dion Chrysoetom, 
Agapetus the Deacon, &e., besides a Spanish 
version of the history of the African war 
under Charies Y., written in Latin bv Calvete 
de la EstreUa, " La Concpista de Africa en 
Berberia, escrita en Latm per Christoforo 
Calvete de la EstreUa,** Salamanca, 1558, 
8TO., and another of the ** Arrets d'Ajnour," 
by Martial d'Auvergne, ** Arrestos de Amor." 
Salamanca. He pubikhed also a collection 
of diflferent treatises on the art of war, trans- 
lated fWnn the Greek, Latin, and French. 
Barcelona, 1566, 4to. (N. Antonius, Bib. 
Him, Nova, I 286.) P. de G. 

ALDERETUa [Amatits Lusitahits.] 

ALDERIIfUS, COSMO, a Swiss com- 
poser of the sixteenth century. He published 
** Hymni Sacri a 4, 5, and 7 voc.^ Bern, 
1553. E. T. 

ALDERPSIO, ALBERTO. Maszuchelli 
calls him ** a celebrated lawyer of the last 
centvy," that is, of the seventeenth. He was 
a native of Moroone in the district Picentinx 
in the kingdom of Kaples. His lifo can onhr 
be traced by tfte dates of his pnUications. He 
published at Naples in 1671 a treatise on the 
mterdict for the restitation of possession 
**De Assistentia ad germannm Intellectum 
Regift Pnigmaticse, srre Continuationes ad 
enndem Tractatum Horatii Barbati de restitu- 
torio Interdicto, ac de revocanda Possessione 
sive de Assistentia pnestanda"); in 1675, at 
the same place, a treatise on s^bolical con- 
tracts C^ Tractatus de symbohcis Contracti- 
bus"); in 1683, still at Naples, on the dif- 
ferent classes of heirs (" De Hfcredibus illis- 
que diversis Tractatus '^; and in 1686, also 
^ere, on actions in matters of inheritance 
(** De hsereditariis Actionibus^). That all these 
were published in his fifetime appears from 
the dedications prefixed to them. (Mazzu- 
eheUi, ScriOori 3* BaRa ; Adelnng, Supple* 
mad to Jocher's A^^emeineg OeUMen-Lexi" 
C9n.) W.W. 

ALDEBSON, JOHN, M.D., was born at 
Lowestoft itaSuffoIk,in the year 1758. Hav- 
ing been fbr some time snreeon in the Nor- 
foUc mSitio, he went to HuU and commenced 
practice there about the year 1788. Shortly 
afterwards he removed to Whitby in Yorit- 
shire, but did not long remain there, and 
returning to HuU soon laid the foundation of 
an extensive praetioe as a physician, which, 
8s 2 



ALDEBSOH. 



ALDERSON, 



for ttort than fbrty yean» he cnldTBted with 
eminent success and credit. He died in 1829, 
having for many years filled the offices of 
physician to the General Infirmary as well 
as to the Lying-in Charity of HnlL By his 
ability, benevolence, and liberality, he held a 
very high place in the estimation of all within 
his district (which for a proyincial one was 
unusually extended), and statues were by 
general subscription erected to his memory, 
and placed in front of the General Infirmary 
and in the hall of the Mechanics* Society. He 
was the brother of Dr. James Alderson, late 
physician at Norwich, and fiuherof the present 
br. James Alderson of HulL Dr. Alderson 
took great interest in literary as well as 
medical subjects, and endeavoured to excite 
the mercantile part of the town in which 
he lived to the cultivation of the arts and 
sciences. He was a warm and active patron 
of the philosophical societies in Hull ; on 
several occasions he acted as president and 
delivered addresses to the members, in which 
he pointed out that ** commerce and literature 
have always gone hand in hand," and that 
" literature is indispensable to the happiness 
and prosperity of a conmiercial town." ■ 

The following treatises were published by 
Dr. Alderson:— I. " An Essay on the Nature 
and Origin of the Contagion of Fevers." Hull, 
1788, 8vo. His observations principally refer 
to the contagion which gives rise to jail or 
hospital fever. He considers the matter of 
contagion to be an excretion from the lungs, 
gives proofs that it may be generated in con- 
sequence of a number of persons being con- 
fined in a small space, and points out the 
most effectual means of purifymg the air and 
arresting the progress of the disease. 2. ** An 
Essay on the Rhus Toxicodendron, with cases 
of its effects in paralytic affections and other 
diseases of great debility." Hull, 1794, 1796, 
1804, and 1811, 8va This treatise contains 
the first account of experiments performed in 
this country, to ascertain the power of the 
Toxicodendron as a medicine. The botanical 
characters and habits of the plant are first 
described, and then several cases are related 
in which the beneficial infiuence of the re- 
medy had been observed. They are princi- 
pally cases of nervous affections, as henuplegia, 
paralysis from lead, chorea, &c. In small 
quantities it acted as a gentle aperient, pro- 
ducing also slight convulsive actions of the 
limbs ; larger doses were followed by verdgo, 
with nausea and more general cramps. The 
spasmodic movements of chorea gradually 
subsided under its influence. 8. '^ An Essay 
on the Improvement of poor Soils." London, 
1802 and 1805, 8vo., showing how much 
agriculture may be improved by attention to 
a proper mixture of earths, and b^ a suc- 
cession of plants dissimilar in their habits 
from each other. 4. " An Essay on Appa- 
ritions," read in 1805 at one of the meetings 
of the Philosophical Society at Hull, first 
780 



published, unknown to the author, in the 
Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal in 1810, 
reprinted by him, and appended to his fourth 
edition of the Essay on the Rhus Toxicoden- 
dron in 1811, and published as a separate 
work, London, 1823, 8vo. In this essay Dr. 
Alderson relates several cases in which hal- 
lucinations ot various sorts clearly depended 
upon bodily ailments, and ceased with the re- 
turning health of the sufferers *, and he refers 
their causes, not to the perturbed spirits of 
the dead, but to the disordered frmctions 
of the living. This production is supposed 
to have formed the groundwork of Ferriar's 
" Essay towards a Theory of Apparitions," 
and also of Dr. Hibbert's ** Philosophy of 
Apparitions." He also communicated ** Geo- 
logical Observations on the Vicinity of Hull 
and Beverley," in Nicholson's Journal, voL 
iil 1799. Frost's ** Address to the Literary 
Society at Hull, 1831," contains a brief account 
of Dr. Alderson's life. (MS. Communication.) 

G. M. H. 

ALDE8, THEODORE. [Slade, Mat- 
thew.] 

A'LDFRID, otherwise ALFRED, EAL- 
FRED, AELFRED, ALFRIDE, ELD- 
FRID, and EALDFERTH, king of Nor- 
thumbria, was, according to Bede, of ille- 
gitimate birth, and was thought to be the son 
of King Oswio or Oswin. Dr. Lingard con- 
ceives that the general assumption of later 
writers, that he was the same person with 
Oswio's son Alchfr^d, has been derived from 
a mistake of William of Malmsbury. Alch- 
frid appears to have been legitimate, whether 
he was younger than his brother Egfrid, who 
succeeded to the throne on the death of Os- 
wio in 670, or, being elder than Egfrid, had 
died before his fistther. In either case, if he 
was a different person from Aldfrid, or 
Alfred, he was certainly dead before the 
death of Egfrid in 685. During the reign of 
Egfrid, who is sud to have sought his de- 
struction, Alfr^ had taken reftige amon^ the 
Irish monks of Hy, or lona, in the Hebrides; 
and there he acquired a knowledge of letters 
and a love of study, which he retained during 
his life, and which procured him, in his own 
day, the name of the learned king. There 
also he first became acquainted with Adom- 
nan. ^Aoomnan.] The war against the 
Picts, m which Egfrid met his death, at the 
battle of Nechtansmere, or Dunnechtan, seems 
to have been occasioned W the protection 

fiven to Alfred in the Pictish territory, 
liis event, at any rate, placed Alfred on the 
Northumbrian throne, to which, we are told, 
he was called by the unanimous voice of the 
thanes or nobles. Eddius, in his ** Life of 
St Wilfred," designates him Rex Sapientis' 
simus (the most wise king) ; and Bede de- 
scribes him as most learned in the Scrip- 
tures, (vir in Scripturis doctissimus). Be 
is said to have governed his kingdom with 
great wisdom, and to have materially ]^ro- 



ALDFRm. 



ALDHELBt 



moted the civilisatioii of his sabjects, both 
by his strict administration of justice and 
through the learned men he drew to his 
court fh)m other parts of Britain. But 
he seems scarcely to haTe retained the 
eminent place which had been held among 
the Anglo-Saxon princes by his immediate 
predecessors ; and the only military event 
that marks his reign is an expedition against 
the Picts in 699, which he did not conduct in 
person, but placed under the command of the 
Alderman Beorht or Berht, whose fortune it 
was to be signally defeated and slain. The 
consequence of this and the prerious victory 
gained by the Picts from Egfrid seems to 
have been a considerable cuii^ulment of the 
Northumbrian territory: it is probable that 
the debateable tract, on the eastern side of 
the island, extending from the Tweed to 
the Forth, which had been long settled by 
a Saxon population, and which came in 
a later age to be known by the name of 
Lodonia (signifying the Marches or Bor- 
ders), still suryiving in the name Lothian 
retained by the principal part of it, passed 
from this date under the dominion of the 
Picts. The most memorable passage of the 
domestic history of Alfred's reign b his con- 
test with the ftmous bishop Wilfrid, which 
will fitdl to be noticed under that name. Al- 
fred died on the 24th of December, 705 ; and 
was succeeded by his son Osred, then a child 
in his eighth year, his only issue, as far as is 
recorded, bv his wife Cyneburg, or Kenburg, 
daughter of Penda, king of Mercia (Bede, 
JEccL Hist iv. v. ; Saxon Chrmide; Eddius, 
Vita S. WUJridi, m Gale, XV Scriptores, 
fbL Oxon. 1691, pp. 74, &c ; Bale, Scrip- 
tores Maj, Brit I 87. ; Pits, De Beb, Angl, 
p. 115. ; Tanner, Biblioth. Brit Hib,, both at 
" Alfiredus," and again at ♦* Ealfhsdus,*' where 
he, or Wilkins his editor, forgetting the former 
article, erroneously asserts that no mention 
of this most learned king occurs either in 
Bale or Pits; ^tb^. Britan. "Aelfred;" Lin- 
gard. Hist Eng.; Allen's Vindication of the 
ancient Independence of Scotland.) G. L. C. 
ALDHELM, SAINT, a distinguished Saxon 
ecclesiastic, is stated in his life, supposed to 
have been written by William of Mahnsbury, 
to have been the son of Kenter (otherwise 
Kenred, or Conred), a near relation, but not, 
as some asserted, the nephew, of Ina, the &- 
mous king of Wessex, who reigned f^om 689 
to 728. Aldhelm was probably bom in Wilt- 
riiire ; but although, besides the nearly 
worthless modem notices of him by Bale, 
Pits, and Dempster, and a more elaborate 
compilation fW>m ancient documents by Ice- 
land, we hare two early lives of him, one of 
which, at least, goes into considerable detail, 
the date of his birth can only be conjectured. 
The earliest of the two original lives is by 
Faricius, an Italian, who became a monk of 
MalmsbuiT, and died abbot of Abingdon in 
1117: it IS printed in the Antwerp ** Acta 
781 



Sanctorum" fVom the only knowi^ nana- 
script, which is in the Cotton library (Faus- 
tina B 4). The other life, of which Wil«^ 
liam of Malmsbury, the historian^ has been 
rather assumed than proved to be the author, 
is of much greater extent, and exists in va- 
rious manuscripts. It is found however in 
two very different forms, the one being ap- 
parently a very brief compendium of the 
other. The compendium, of which only one 
, manuscript is known (Cotton MS. Claudius 
, A 5), was printed by Mabillon, in 1677, in 
, the ** Acta Benedictinorum,'* Sseculum rv., 
j part i. p. 726, &c. : he obtained a loan of the 
i Cotton MS. through Sir Joseph Williamson, 
secretary of state. The ftiU life was printed 
I in 1691 at London by Henry Wharton in 
{ the second volume of his *'Anglia Sacra," 
^. 1 — 49. ; and the same year at Oxford by 
Thomas Gale in his "Historian Britannicie, 
&c., Scriptores XV," pp. 837—382. Gale's 
edition came out first, but Wharton's had 
been printed off before it appeared. The 
transcripts from which they prmted are sup- 
posed by Wharton to have been both made 
from the same ori^nal, a manuscript in 
the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, 
written about the end of the fifteenth cen- 
tury, in a very difficult hand; the conse- 
quence of which is, that the two editions 
exhibit many variations. MTharton boasts 
that on the whole his is by far the more 
correct But the text of the manuscript is 
evidently as corrupt as the writing is bad ; so 
that the narrative of the shorter life is for 
the most part more satisfiictory so far as it 
goes. The notion of the writer with regard 
to the age of Aldhelm, as to which, however, 
he confesses that he had no distinct inform- 
ation, is, that he was probably bom some 
years before 640; but this is quite incon- 
sistent with what he goes on to relate, that 
I his first teacher, under whom he was placed 
i by his parents when a little boy, was the 
' celebrated Adrian, who came over with The- 
1 odore, and established a school in Kent It 
is quite certain that Adrian did not arrive in 
England till the close of the year 670, The 
state of the fact, however, wi& regard to one 
material sentence in the narrative may re- 
quire to be correctly stated. The words 
** Ibi pusio Graecis et Latinis eruditus Uteris'* 
(instructed there when a little boy in the 
Greek and Latin), which in the shorter life 
printed by Mabillon immediately follow the 
statement about his having been put under 
the care of Adrian to be taught the first ele- 
ments of learning (primis imbuendus ele- 
mentis), clearly do not refer to Aldhelm at all, 
as they stand in Wharton and Gale (the latter 
of whom, by the bye, quietly omits ** pusio" 
altogether), but to Meildulf, or Meldun, to 
whom the writer attributes the origin of the 
monastery and town afterwards called from 
him Mealdubery, and by corroption Mealmes- 
, bery or Malmsbury. Leland's account is^ 
i Se 3 



ALDHELBl 



ALDHELH. 



that tkis MgJMnlf (or Maildulplins, as he calls 
him) was Aldhelm's first teacher ; that under 
him he was instmcted in Latin; that he then 
went to Canterbury to acquire dialectic and 
rhetoric, and that there also he was taught 
Greek by Adrian and Theodore. In the life 
attributed to William of Malmsbury a pas- 
sage is giren from a letter of Aldhelm's in 
which he styles Adrian the teacher of his 
rude in&ncy — ^ mesBque mdis infiuttim ye- 
nerando pneceptori Adriano." If this letter 
be genuine we cannot suppose that Aldhelm 
was older than fourteen, or fifteen at the 
most, when he became a pupil of Adrian's i 
and his biith therefore could scarcely have 
happened before 655 or 656 at the earliest. 
In the letter, wWoh. is addrcMed to Adrian, 
Aldhelm goes on to observe that during a 
second period of attendance m the echoed in 
Kent (dum post prima elementa iterum apud 
YOB easem) he had been attacked by an ill- 
ness which had compelled him to return 
home; and this had hi^pened about three 
years before his writing the letter. His bio- 
grapher's account is, that after returning to 
Wessex tram his first residence in Kent he 
had assumed the reli^ous habit in the mo- 
nastic community at Malmsbury which had 
arisen out of the school established by Meil- 
dulf This society he now r^oined ; and at 
length his eminent ac<|uirements placed him 
at the head of the semmary, which under his 
direction obtained such reputation as to be 
resorted to by scholars both fh>m Ireland 
and France. He and his brethren were 
afterwards formed into a regular monastery, 
Aldhelm being made abbot, according to the 
charters exhibited by the house in later 
times, by Leutherius, bishop of Winchester, 
in 675 ; but, as Aldhelm could scarcely have 
been then twenty years of age, the proba- 
bility is (as Mr. Wright suggests m his 
^ Biographia Britannica Literana," p^ 213.), 
that the charters were forgeries, and that the 
foundation of the abbey dT Malmsbury is to 
be dated some years later. Aldhefan's other 
biographer, Faricius, relates that he afterwards 
EAid a visit to Rome on the invitation of 
Pope Sergius L ; and it has been supposed 
that he probably accompanied Ceadwalla, king 
of Wessex, who went to Rome to be -bap- 
tized, and died there in 689. In 705, i^tpa- 
rently without resigning his abbacy, he was 
made the first bishop of Sherbom, then, dis- 
joined firom Winchester ; and he died at a 
place variously called Dnnting, Duldng, or 
Doulting, near Westbury in Wiltshire, on 
the 25th of May, 709. That is the day as- 
signed to him in the Roman calpwdar ; his 
right to a phuse in which at aUt however, has 
been dispiUed. 

The works of Aldhelm thai have come 
down to us are all in Latin, and are partly in 
prose partly in verse. Some epistles written 
to him as weil as by him are w the collec- 
tions of the " i;pistphB a Boniftcii," 1629 and 
782 



1789 ; in Usher*s " Veterum Epistolamm Syl- 
loge," 1632 and 1696 ; in Wharton's Auctua- 
rium to Usher's ** Historia Dogmadca," 1690 ; 
and in the ** Bibliotheca Maxima Patmm,'* 
1677, &c. His most fiunous composition is 
a treatise on the virtue of chastity, which 
has been variously described as all in prose, 
all in verse, and partly in prose partly in 
verse. There are m fisct two works by Ald- 
helm on this sulject That which he wrote 
first is in prose, and, having been heM in 
great estimation among our Saxon ancestorsy 
exists in several manuscripts. At its close 
the author intimates his intention of treating 
the same theme in verse ; and the perfonn- 
anoe thus promised has also been preserve 
Fabridus, in his ** Bibliotheca Latina Infimse et 
MedisB ^tatis," states that one of these trea- 
tises, which he calls " Liber de Virginitate," 
was published in quarto at Deventer by Jac. 
Faber in 1512 ; but, although the same state- 
ment is repeated by other biographers or 
bibliographers, none of them tluit we have 
met with mentions whether this was the 
prose or the metrical work. The prose trea- 
tise is said to have been published at Pari% 
"apud Mich. Somnium'* (aL Sonnium), in 
1576 ; and it is contuned in the Basle col- 
lection entitled Orthodoxographia, and in 
several of the BibliothecoB Pstrum ; but the 
best edition of it is that given by Henry 
Wharton at the end of his " Bedss venera- 
biUs Opera quiedam Theologica, &€." 4ta 
Lond. 1693, p. 283 — 369. The metrical 
work (sometimes entitled ** De Laude Vir- 
ffinum," sometimes " De Laude SS. Patrum el 
Virginum,") was published by Canishu, as 
he seems to suppose for the first time, in his 
** Antiquis Lectiones," fol. Ingolstadt, 1608, 
tom. V. par. 2. p. 798. ; and it is also contained 
in the re-arranged edition of that work by 
Basnage, fol. Ajatwerp, 1725, tom. L p. 709, 
In both editions it is followed by another 
poem, entitled ** De Octo prineipalibusYitiis'' 
(sometimes spoken of as ** De Pugna O^io 
principalium Virtntnm"). Both of these 
performances are in hexameter verse ; as are 
also a collection of riddles entitled ** .£nig- 
mata," which are said to have been fint 
printed at Basle in 1557, and an edition of 
which, in 12mo., was published by Uie Jesuit 
Martin Debrio, at Mentz, in 1601. All these 
poems are also contained in most of the col- 
lections entitled Bibliothecss Patrum. Ald- 
helm has the reputation of having been the 
first of his countrymen who wrote anything 
in Latin verse ; and a work of his, now lost, 
is quoted in the life attributed to William of 
Mahnsbury, in which he seems to sav that 
he had therein for the first time unfolded to 
his countrymen the rules of Latin prosody 
and metre. In respect of all that appertaina 
to taste in composition, both his verse and his 
proae are vicious in the extreme. But h]# 
linguistic knowledge was certainly remark- 
able for that age. His biographer Fabrioivs 



ALDHELM. 



ALDIKL 



awmres ns tihat he knew Greek ahnott as well 
as if it had been his native tongue, and that 
he could aleo read the Old Testament in the 
original Hebrew. His acquaintance with the 
Greek language is eyident from his writings 
that remain. Aldhelm (whose name is in the 
Latin of the middle ages written variously 
Aldhelmus, Adelmus, Anthelmus, Althelmns, 
Adelhehnus, Alddinus, &c.) is said to have 
also excdled in Saxon poetry ; but none of 
his verses in his native tongue are now 
known to exist (Besides the ancient bio- 

rhies, the editicBS of Aldhelm's works, and 
other sources quoted in the article, see 
Bede, EccU§. Hist v. 19. ; Leyserus, Histo* 
ria Poelarwn Medii ^vi^ p. 198, &c, and 
Wright's Biograpkia Brikumica Littraria, 
T0iLl842.) O. L. C, 

ALDI'NI, GIOVANNI, nephew of Gal- 
vni,the discoverer of galvanism, and brother 
of the count Antonio Aidini, a distinguished 
Italian statesman, was bom at Bologna on the 
10th of April, 1 763. From his earliest years he 
showed a predilection for the stud^ of natural 
philosophy. In 1 798 he was appomted to suc- 
ceed Oanterzani, who had been his own instruc- 
tor in physics, in the university of Bologna. 
He was ooe of the earliest and most active 
members of the National Institnte of Italy, to 
the foundation of which he contributed, and 
in 1807 he was made a knight of the Iron 
Crown and a member of the council of state 
at Milan. Though thus in &vour with Na- 
poleon's government, he preserved, like his 
brother, his credit with the Austriaas, and 
continued in the enjoyment of their patronage 
and protection till his death on the 1 7th of 
January, 1834. He left his philosophical in- 
struments and a large sum in money to found 
a public institution in Bolo^im for the 
instruction of artisans in physics and che- 
mistry. 

The most conspicuous merit of Aidini was 
his activity in endeavouring to render public 
such discoveries either of lumself or others as 
he conceived likely to be of public use. He 
was wen acqnamted with the modem lan- 
ffuages, fond of traivelling, and indefktigable 
m conveying scientific int^gence from one 
end of Europe to the other. The three 
principal ol^ects which engaged his atten- 
tion at different periods, were the medical 
vses of galvanism, the discovery of his illus- 
trions unde ; the utility of gas, particularly 
in the illumination of lighthouses, and the 
advantages of a fire-proof dress for persons 
engaged in extinguishing oonfla^frations. 
The following is a list of such of his works 
as we can find: — 1. and 3. Two Latin dis- 
sertations on galvanism, mentioned by his 
biographer, Rambelli, who does not give 
the titles. 8. ** Precis d'Experiences gal- 
vaniques," Paris, 180S, 8vo. ; an account of 
some interesdng experiments made by A Mini, 
principaUj upon the bodies of dead animals. 
This work was translated from the French 
783 



manuscript into English, and published under 
the title of *< An Account of the late improve- 
ments in Galvanism, by John Aidini," Lon- 
don, 1803, 4to., with an appendix, containing 
experiments upon the bodies of executed cri- 
minals, performed by Aidini in Newgate and 
Bologna. The title-page contains an engrav- 
ing (^ a gold medal presented to the author 
as a token of respeet by the medical profes- 
sors and pupils of Guy's and St Thomas's 
hospitals. 4. ** Essai th^orique et experimen- 
tal sur le Galvanisme, avec une s6rie d'Ex- 
p^riences," Paris, 1804, 4ta; an hnportant 
work, in which numerous experiments are 
methodically arranged. The dedication, which 
is to Bonaparte, commences thus : ''That day 
will be for ever memorable in the histoij w 
galvanism on which, though hardly arrived 
m Italy, yon permitted me to develope before 
^ou the |[yrincipal experiments of this science, 
m the nudst of the vast political and military 
occupations with which 5 on were surrounded." 
6. ** Osservasioni sal l^usso del Mare." Milan, 
8vo. Obervations on the tide of the sea, con- 
sidered as a motive power for mills, a work 
which owed its origin to the expression of a 
wish on the part of Eugene BeauhamaiB, then 
viceroy of Italy , that the ebb and flow ctf the sea 
into the lagunes might be turned to some use- 
ful account 6. ** Speriense sulla Leva idran- 
lica." Experiments on the hydraulic lever. Bii- 
lan, 181 1, 8vo. 7. ** Saggio esperimenCale suli* 
estema applicasione del Vapore all' acqua dei 
Bagni, &c." Milan 18 18, 6va Essay on the ex- 
ternal application of steam to the water of baths 
and to silk-weaving. 8. ** General Views on the 
application of Galvanism to medical purposes, 
pnncipally in cases of suspended Animation." 
London, 1819, 8vo. The dedication, which is 
to the Royal Humane Society, is dated firom 
London, June 15th, 1819, and in the notes 
Aidini expresses his acknowledgments to 
Mr. Pettigrew, secretary of the Humane So- 
ciety, for his assistance in enabling him to 
publish the dissertation in English. 9. ** Sag- 
gio di Osservasioni sui mexzi atti a migliorare 
U costrasione e I'illuminazione dei FarL" 
Milan, 1823, 8vo. ** Selection of observations 
on the best means of improving the construc- 
tion and illumination of ligh&ouses." The 
fhmtispiece of the work is a view of the light- 
house at Trieste, the first illuminated with gas, 
a cirenmstance on which Aidini dwells with 
much national pride. The subj^t was one 
that he had studied with care during his last 
visit to Engbmd, and he repeatedly aeknow- 
ledges his obligalkms to the courtesy of the 
brethren of the Trinity House, and of 8te« 
Tenson, Brewster, and Playfidr. 10. " L'Art 
de se preserver de Taction de la Flamme." 
Paris, 1830, 8vo. **The art of preserving 
oneself fipom the action of flame.*^ 11. ^^A 
short account of experiments made in hair, 
and recently repealed in G«ievia and Pans, 
for preserving human life and o^eefs of value 
fromdestmetioD by Fire." Lcmdon, 1880, 8yo. 
3b 4 



ALDINI. 



ALDOBRANDmt 



12. " Exp^rienceB fidtes a Landres,*' &c. 
Paris, 1830, 8vo. An acooant of similar ex- 
periments made in London. The three last 
works are devoted to the description of a 
Jund of asbestos armour invented by Pro- 
fessor Aldini, by which he proposed to 
render the wearers proof against the effects 
of fire. The experiments made on the in- 
yention in Paris and London appear, ac- 
cording to the published accounts, to have 
Jbad a satisfiictory result so fiur as the pro- 
.tection was concerned, but the invention has 
never been brought into general use, chiefly, 
it may be snppo^d, from the expensive na- 
ture of the equipment, and from its being 
fbund somewhat cumbrous in the active ex- 
ertions which firemen are expected to make. 
At the end of the eleventh work in the list, 
Aldini announced his intention of publishing 
a larger treatise in English, to be entitled 
** The Art of preservingfiremen and work- 
men from the action of Flame, and of saving 
human life in cases of Fire ;" but it does not 
appear that this work, which was probably to 
be an augmented translation of the tenth in 
the list, was ever published. This list of his 
works is probably miperfect, though collected 
from several different sources. Many of 
them were translated into several languages, 
and one, according to Rambelli, was ren- 
dered into Turkish. {Life by Bambelli, in 
Tipaldo, Bioarqfia degli liaUani iUustri dd 
Secoh XVIjL, iv. 287, &c ; Henrion, An- 
nvaire Biograpkique, L 10. ; Qu^rard, La 
ZatUrature Frangaige contemporaxne^ L 16.; 
Catahgue of Printed Books in the BriUeh 
Museum, London, 1841, L 170.; Works of 
Aldini quoted.) T. W. 

ALDFNI, TOBFAS, a native of Cesena 
in Italy, was physician to Cardinal Eduardo 
Famese in the early part of the seventeenth 
century. He was also curator of the bo- 
tanic garden at Rome belonging to this 
prelate. In 1625 he published a work con- 
taining a description of some of the rarer 
plants contained in the Famese garden, 
with the title *< Exactissima Descriptio ra- 
riorum quamndam Plantarum qute conti- 
nentur Romse in Horto Famesiano. RomsB,'* 
folio. The work was illustrated with figures 
of the plants described, which are very well 
executed. It contains the first account of 
the Acacia Famesiana, which was introduced 
into the Famese gaiden in 1616, and has 
since become naturalized in Europe. This 
work is said to have been written by Peter 
Castellus, who was also a physician at Rome, 
and some have supposed that Aldini was only 
an assumed name ; but Bartholin, who was a 
friend of Castellus, says that Aldinus was 
only assisted in this work by Castellus. No 
allusion is made to this circumstance in the 
book. ( Jocher, ASgem, CMehrt-Lexicon, and 
Adelung's Supplement; Ersch and ember's 
AUgem. Encyc.) E. L. 

ALDOBRANDFNI, a Tuscan fiimUy 
784 



originally from the village of Larciano, near 
Pistoia, but settled at Florence in the twelftb 
century. They are mentioned by the chro- 
nicler Dino dompagni as belonging to the 
high Guelph or Neri party. Several members 
of the Aldobrandini family filled public offices 
in the republic as priori and gonfldonieri. 

SiLVESTRO AxDOBRAiTDiNi, bom in 1499» 
distinguished himself as a jurist, and was for 
a time professor of law at Pisa. On the fidl 
of the republic in 1530 he was exiled with 
many others, as being opposed to the MedicL 
He then entered as a civilian the service of 
Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, and afterwards of 
Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino. He was next 
employed by Pope Paul IIL in various admi- 
nistrative omces, and at last was made fiscal 
advocate at Rome. Pope Paul IV. made him 
a member of the board of administratiom 
called '' consulta." Silvestro died at Rome 
in 1558. He wrote several works on juris- 
prudence : — 1. ** Commentarium in Lib. I. In- 
stitut. Justiniani." 2. ** Institutiones Juris 
civilis.'* 3. " De Usuris." He left several 
sons, one of whom, Ippolito Aldobrandini^ 
was made pope in 1592. FClehent VIIL] 
Another son, Giovanni Aldobrandini, was 
made bishop of Imola, and afterwards caidinal, 
by Pius v., in 1570. He was employed in 
several important missions, and died in 1573. 

ToMUASo Aldobrandini, another brother 
of Clement VIIL, was made secretary dT 
brieft by Pius V. in 1567. He was a dis- 
tinguished scholar. He made a Latin version, 
with notes, of the Lives of the Philosophers, by 
Diogenes Laertius, which was published at 
Rome in 1594, folio ; and he wrote a Latin 
commentary on the work of Aristotle "On 
the Sense of Hearing." The translation of 
Diogenes and the notes have some merit. 
The commentary on the work of Aristotle 
does not appear to have been published. 

There were two cardinals Aldobrandini, 
nephews of Clement VIIL ; one of them, PIetbo 
Aldobrandini, was made archbishop of Ra» 
venna. He was a learned man and a patron 
of learning: He wrote ** Apophthegmata de 
perfecto Principe.*' The other cardinal, 
Cinzio Aldobrandini, was a great friend 
of Tasso, who dedicated to him his ^ Gera- 
salemme Conquistata." Another nephew of 
Clement VIIL, Count Gian Francesco Aldo- 
brandini, was made general of the papid 
troops, and was sent by his uncle to Hungary 
in 1695 with a body of 6000 men to assist the 
Emperor Rudolf IL agamst the Turks. He 
made several campaigns in Hungary, and 
died at Waradin in 1601. His son, Sil- 
vestro Aldobrandini, was made a canlinal, 
and his nephew Giangiorgio, was made 
prince of Rossano in the kingdom of Naples. 
Olimpia Aldobrandini, the only daughter 
and heiress of Giangiorgio, married first 
Paolo Borghese, prince of Sulmona; after 
whose death she married Camillo Pamfili, 
nephew of Innocent X. The bulk of the 



ALDOBBANDINL 



ALDONZA. 



Aldobrandini property paased into the Bor* 
ghese family, in whidi the second son bears 
the title of prince Aldobrandini The Villa 
AJdobrandini on the Qnirinal Monnt at 
Rome contained the celebrated ancient fresco 
punting called " Nozze Aldobrandine,** which 
was found in the thermie of Titus, and which 
is now in the museum of the Vatican. There 
is anodier Villa Aldobrandini at Frascati, 
which is a splendid country seat, though now 
neglected ; it belongs to the Borghese. (Biagio 
Adimari, Memorie Istoriche di diverse Famiglie 
nobiU; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori <f Italia; Me- 
catd, Storia Genealogica deUa NohiUd e 
Cittadmanza di Firenze; Giovanni Stringa, 
Vita di Clemente VIIL in the Continuation 
of the Vite dei P(m^fici of Platina and Pan- 
Yinia) A. V. 

AIJ>ONZA, queen-consort of Ramiro 11., 
king of Leon, who reigned from a. d. 981 till 
951. Of this queen a siuffular story is told 
by two chroniclers, one of them the author 
of the ** Livro velho das Linhagens de Por- 
tugal,** a work of the thirteenth century ; the 
other Don Pedro, count of Braoelos, son of 
Don Dinix, king of Portugal, who reigned 
fKfOL 1279 to 1323. It is to this effect: Ra- 
miro fbU in love with the sister of Alboazar 
Albucadam, or Abencadam, a Moorish king 
whose dominions extended at that time from 
Gaya to Santarem. He demanded her in 
marriage of her brother, who inquired how 
he coidd marry her when he had a wife yet 
living. Ramiro replied that Aldonza was 
withm the prohibited degrees of consan- 
guinity, and the church, if applied to, would 
part him frtnn her ; but Alboazar was not 
content with this answer, and siud moreover 
that he had promised his sister to the King 
of Bfarocco. Ramiro, indignant at his dis- 
appointment, carried off the Moorish lady by 
force, and Alboazar, beix^ defeated in the at* 
tempt to rescue her, repaid the iigury in kind 
by seizing the Queen Aldonza at Minhor and 
carrying her off to the oistle of Gaya. The 
king of Leon was as int^gnant as if he had 
eiyen no provocation. "& sent fbr his son 
Don OrdoDO and his bravest knights, and set 
out in his galleys for Gaya. He reached it 
at night, left his galleys in the Douro, covered 
with ^rreen cloth, so that they could not be dis- 
tinguished fW>m the trees which then lined 
bo& banks of the river, and went alone, in 
the dress of a beggar, to spy out the best 
means of attack, after char^^ Ordono and 
his companions to remain qmet m the galleys 
till they should hear him sound his horn, and 
then to rush to his aid. Alboazar was gone 
out for the chase, but in the morning Al- 
donza sent out a Christian damsel named 
Perona (according to the Count de Bracelos, 
but the other chronicler says it was a Moorish 
damsel named Ortiga) to fetch water firom 
the spring to wadi her hands. The damsel 
found an old beggar by the side of the spring, 
who asked her for water to drink, and m the 
785 



act of drinking dropped f^m his mouth into 
liie pitcher, unknown to her, a ring. When 
the queen went to wash her hands the ring 
dropped out, and she recognized the token of 
King Ramiro. She sent for the beggar, and 
when she had him in private she asked, ** Ra^ 
miro, what brings you here?** to which he 
replied, " The love of thee." ** You have no 
love for me,** answered the queen, ^ since yon 
carried away Alboazar's sister, whom you 
must love more *, but go into this chamber,** 
which she pointed out, ** and I will get rid of 
these ladies who are about me and come to 
you soon.'* Ramiro waited in the chamber 
till he heard Alboazar return frtmi the chase, 
when the queen accosted him with the ques- 
tion, " If you had Ramiro here, what would 
you do with him ?** The Moor replied,' 
" What he would do to me : I would put him 
to death.** ** Then you have him raie,'* said 
Aldonza,** in that cliamber.** Ramiro, hearing 
this, called out to the Moor that since he had 
carried off his sister he had been stung with 
remorse, and that he had come to put himself 
in his hands with the view of doing penance 
for his crime, which he would do, if allowed, 
b^ sounding his horn till the breadi was out of 
his body. Alboazar was not unwilling to let 
him go free ; but the queen addressed him in 
language almost as energetic in the original 
as in the powerful lines m which it has been 
rendered by Southey — 

** O AlboRsar," then quoth she, 
•' 'Weak of heart u weak can be. 
Fall of rerenge and wiles li he. 
Look at those eyes beneath that brow,— 
I know Ramiro better than thoa : 
Kill him, for tliou hast him now : 
He must die, be sure, or thou." 

Alboazar bemg thus prevailed upon took 
his captive out to the court-yard to let him 
die in the manner he solicited, by sounding his 
horn till the breath was out of his bodv. At 
the blast of Ramiro, Ordono and all his com- 
panions rushed up fWnn the gidleys, a general 
slaughter of Alboazar and aU the Moors took 
place, and Aldonza was taken captive. Or- 
dono wept at hearing the tale of her trea- 
cherv, and said, " It does not become me to 
speak, for she is my mother.** Aldonza her- 
self wept, and when Ramiro asked her for 
what, she replied, ** Because thou hast killed 
a man who was better than thou art** Ot» 
dono at this called out to his &ther, ** This 
is a devil — what will you do with her, for 

I perhaps she may escape ? " Ramiro then 
ordered a millstone to be tied round her neck, 
and she was thrown into the sea. It was be« 
lieved by the people that it was fbr these 
words spoken against his mother that Ordono, 
sumamed the Bad, was afterwards deprived 

I by Providence of the crown of Leon. 

Such is the story told by the Count of 

I Braoelos ; that of the other chronicler differs 
fhmi it in some particulars, principally in 
making no mention of any quarrel between 
Ramiro and Alboazar previous to the ab* 



ALDONZA. 



ALORED. 



dQctioa of Aldonaa, and thus MMgning no 
luiieient motive for the treachery of the 
queeot and m stating that a certain Oraga with 
whom Ramiro lired after Aldonn's death 
waa the Moorish damsel whom she had sent 
ont to draw water on that erentftd morning, 
and whom Ramiro first saw on that occasion. 
Florea treats the whole story as a romance, 
but admits that in adonation cited by Brito in 
his ** Mooarquia Lnsitana" (Brito was how- 
erer a great forger <xf docoments) a certain 
"Artiiapa'' is mentioned as the mother of 
two children by King Ramiro. The stor^, 
eren if merely considered as a tradition, is 
not without its valne. It has been made the 
snbject of a spirited poem by Southey. 
(Conde de Braoelos, yobiUario, quoted by 
Southey, Poetical Works, tl 12S&— 187. ; Ztoro 
Vdko das JMmqens de Porhioalj given in 
Sonsa, iVpwis da Historia deneahgiea da 
Casa real Pbrtugueza, I 212—214. $ Florez, 
JlesiorMW ds tas Rmas CathoUoas, L 106, 
&c) T. W. 

ALDRED, conmionly called the Glossator, 
or the Presbyter, is the author of an Ang^o- 
Saxon ^oss or interpretation, interlined on 
the eelebnited copy of the Four Latin Gos- 
pels known by the name of the Durham 
Boc^ or St. Cuthbert's Book, in the Got- 
tonian library (MS. Nero D xv> This a]^ 
pears ftom an Anglo-Saxon inscription in his 
own handwriting on the last leaf of the ma- 
nuscript, which informs us that the original 
Latin text was wiitien by Ealdfrid, bishop of 
Lindisflttne (wbo occupied the see from a.d. 
688 to 721) ; that the illuminations (which 
are yenr elaborate and beantifbl) were the 
work of his successor Ethilwald; that the yo- 
lume was bound and adorned with precious 
stones by Bilfrid the anchoret; and that, 
lastly, Aldred ^hDSsed or translated the Latin 
into English. The expressions in which Al- 
dred describes himself are in Latin, and are, 
in the body of the statement, " Aldred Prea- 
b^r, indignus et miserrimus;" and in a mar- 
ginal note, ** Alfred! natus, Aldredus yocor ; 
BoBie mulieris filius eximius loquor." This 
venerable volume, still in perfect preservation 
in so &r as regards the writing, every line of 
which is as distinct as if it had been newly 
flniahed, that of the Latin text in particular 
being remarkably brilliant, remainei till the 
Refoimation in the cathedral church of 
Durham, of which it was accounted one of 
the chief treasures, and where it had always 
been regarded with the deepest veneration by 
the people, as various notices in the old 
chroniclers testtf^. Aldredus gloss, the writ- 
ing of which, in a current Saxon hand, is 
very neat and beantifnl, is interesting and , 
important in a phildopcal point of view as ! 
the most ample existing q>ecimen of the ! 
Northumbrian Anglo-Saxon, or of what is 
sometimes called the Danish dialect of the 
l a n g u age, that is, the dialect produced by an 
admixture of Danish forms. From this cir- 
786 



cumstanee, among others, it is supposed that 
the Aldred of the Durham Gospels is the same 
person who appears to have glossed another 
Durham volume, the contents of whic& have 
been lately printed by the Surtees Society 
under the tide of ** Rituale Eoelesig Don- 
ebnensis," 8vo. Lon. 1840. On one of 
the leaves of this manuscript is what the 
editor, Mr. Stevenson, calls ** an apparently 
autograph memorandum" in Saxon, record- 
ing that four collects which precede it were 
written by Aldred the Provost (se profost) 
near South Wood^^ate, at Acley (Adea) m 
Wessex, for Ael&ig the bishop, in his tent. 
This is supposed to have been Aelfrig, or 
Alfrig, the last bishop of Ghester-le-Street, 
the period of whose episcopacy is ftx>m ▲. d. 
968 to 990, although there was also an Alfrig 
who was bishop (Mf ¥^chester from 951 to 
958. It is desoring of notice, however, that 
the four collects, of which alone Aldred here 
claims the writing, are in Latin ; and also 
that, although the other contents of the book, 
which are very miscellaneous, have an Aar 
glo-Saxon interlineaty gloss, this memoran- 
dum is stated by-Mr. Stevenson to be in a 
later hand than that gloss, and moreover to 
be, with the four Latin collects, ** written on 
a leaf fitxn whidi the earlier writing has 
been erased." The gloss of the ritual is 
in the same northern dialect with that of the 
Durham GospeLs. ** We are here presented," 
says Mr. Stevenson in his pre&ee, ** with by 
for the most copious, as well as the earliest, 
and consequently the purest, specimen of the 
ancient language of Nortfaumbria which has 
^et been given to the public. Not only does 
It supply words unknown to our lexicogra- 
phers^ Somner and Lye, neither of whom had 
the opportunity of inspecting it ; bat, what is 
perhaps still more valuable, it illostrates soaae 
points in the structure and history -of the 
Saxon language, which, without its aid, might 
perhaps have remained for ever in obscurity.'* 
Some foets coafimiatory of this statement are 
mentioned by Mr. Kemble in his Essay on 
the History of Anglo-Saxon Runes, in the 
28th volume of the Ai^eheologia, 4to., Lon- 
don, 1840, p. 358. Although tradition calls the 
manuseriptprinted by the Surtees Society the 
ritual of King Alfred, or Aldfrid, of Nor* 
thumbria, who came to the throne in 685, 
Mr. Stevenson conceives that no port of the 
writing is older than the commencement of 
the ninth century. Mr. Thorpe, in the prefoee 
to his " Analecta Anglo-Saxonica," (8va Lon. 
1884,) p. iv., states that the Durham Book was 
then "about to appear in a quarto volume, 
through the munificence of the uosvernty of 
Cam^idge f ' but it has not yet been published. 
On the su^eet of that m an usc ri pt, and espe- 
cially of Aldred's ^oss, the reader may con^ 
suit Sdden's prefoee to the Hiatona An" 
gUeana Seripiores X, (foL Lon. 1652) p.xxv. 
xxvi., and H. Wanley's Libronm VetL 
SqtteniriatuUam Cotahgus^ (forming the se- 



ALDRED. 



ALDRED. 



cond volume of Hickes'sTbesanrus, IbL Ozon. 
1705,) pp. 250—253. G. L. C. 

ALDRED, also called Ealredos, Alredns, 
Alfredos, Aldredna, was archbishop of York 
m the elerenth century. He was originally 
a monk of Winchester, and afterwards abbot 
of Tavistock. In 1046 he was made bishop 
of Worcester bv Edward the Confessor. In 
1050 he took a journey to Jerusalem throned 
Huneary, the first ever attempted by an 
English bishop. Upon his return he was 
sent by Edward the Confessor to the Emperor 
Henry IL respecting the return to England 
of his nephew and his nephew's bod. Edgar, 
then at the court of the King of Hungary. 
He stayed a year in German;^, where he 
learned that ecclesiastical discipline of which 
he afterwards introduced the practice into 
England. He administered the see of Wilton 
for three years during the absence of Bishop 
Herman, and the see of Hereford for four 
years ftom 1056. In the ^ear 1060 Aldred 
was promoted to the archbishopric of York, 
but he retained, with the king's consent, the 
see of Worcester in commendam, Stubbs 
says that four of his predecessors had done 
the same, but William of Mahnsbixry afiSrms 
that this commendam was simoniacally ol^- 
tained and not warranted by precedents. In 
the following year, accompanied by Tostin, 
earl of Northumberland, and the newlv- 
made bishops of Hereford and Wells, he 
went to Heme for his pallium, which how- 
ever Pope Nicholas IL refused, and deprived 
him also of his former dignities on the alleged 
ground of simony. Thus disappointed, he 
left Rome with his companions, but in passing 
the Alps, according to the story of William 
of Malmsbury, the party, being laundered, 
was obliged to return to Rome. On this 
occasion the earl's remonstrances procured 
not only redress for the party, but the pallium 
for Aldred, who was confirmed in his arch- 
bishopric on condition of resigning the see of 
Worcester. By the king^s consent Aldred 
retained twelve towns or manors belonging 
to the see of Worcester, but through the care 
of the bishop (Wulstan) whom Aldred pro- 
cured to be named his successor, this was the 
lunit of the misi^plication of these revenues. 
William of Malmsbury asserts that Aldred 
chose Wulstan as his successor because he 
thought he was a man of feeble character, 
and that his own acts of macity would escape 
notice under cover of Wulstan's simplicity 
and character for sanctity. But the arch- 
bishop was deceived in his estimate ot the 
new bishop. Aldred*s acts ot ecclesiastical 
munificence and discipline include the re- 
building of St Peter^s, Gloucester, in 1058 ; 
the building refectories for the canons at 
York and at Southwell ; the finialiinp of the 
one at Beverley, and the introduction of a 
uniform habit for the clergy of his province. 

Aldred had great influence with Edward 
the Confessor. Harold, his successor, who 
787 



had put the crown on his own head, was 
waiting ftor Aldred's recovery tnta illness in 
orderto be consecrated by him ; but in themean 
time he lost his crown and life at the battle 
of Hastings. After assembling in London, 
and coming to no definite resolution, Aldred 
with the other English nobles and Edgar 
Atheling made their submission to William 
the Norman at Berkhamsted. William, like 
Harold, refbsed to be crowned by the Arch' 
bi^op of Canterbury, whom both of them 
thought likdy to be deprived for simony: 
he was accordingly crowned b^ Aldred, and 
the king and the archbishop hved on good 
terms. On one occasion, when the arch- 
Inshop expostulated with him, William is 
said to have knelt at his feet till he was ap- 
peased. After a year, however, Aldred fled 
into Scotland with Edgar, and thus broke his 
allegiance to William. He died on the 10th 
of September, 1069, and was buried in York 
Cathedral. Disgust at the cruel ezactions of 
the Conqueror is said by Malmsbury to have 
been the cause of his death { and he publicly 
pronounced a curse on the king, and died 
before William could excuse himselfl Stubbs, 
however, ascribes his sickness to grief at the 
invasion of the Danes under Sueno, who had 
landed in the Humber, and the consequent 
troubles at York. 

Dempster {HiMtoria Ecclesiattica GenUs 
Scotonan) savs that he was the author of a 
treatise entitled "Pro Edgaro Rege contra 
Tvrannidem Normanorum," in which tibe 
whole matter of the EngHsh succession is 
cleared up. (WiUielmus Malmbnriensis, De 
WiUidmo Frimo^ lib. ill, and De Geatis Pott- 
i^fieum Anglonan, lib. iii. ; Stubbs, Acta Eb(^ 
raeensmm Epiacfmrvm^ ooL 1701, et seq. ; 
Wharton, An^ia Socra ; Leland's CoUectaneaj 
Sir John Haywood, Lives of the three Nor^ 
mean Km^ London, 1618 ; Godwin, De Pret- 
wUbmsi Cbronietm Awakm^ per Johannem 
Abbatem Burgi S. Petri.) A. T. P. 

ALDRIC, or ALDRI'CUS, ST., was bom 
in the district of Maine in France, H is com- 
monly supposed about the year 800, although 
some ascertained dates in lus subsequent his- 
tory seem to require that the event should be 
placed a few years easlier. According to his 
legendary biography, the earlier portion of 
which is without diUes, his fodier was 8y- 
onius, a Gaul ; his motiber Gerilda, a German, 
or Frank ; both of ancient and noble descent 
But another life of hbn^ entitled «*Gesta 
Domni Aldrici, a DiscipuUs suis," printed by 
Baluze in his" Miscellanea," makes his fiOher, 
whom it calls Sion, to have been also a Frank 
or Saxon ; and it is probable that he was at 
least of a Prankish amily, though he may 
hav« been a Gaul by birth. Aldrie was 
trained up from childhood under the eye of 
Franco, the first of that name, bishop of Le 
Mans \ he was then taken 1^ his ftttwr at 
the age of twelve to the court of ike Emperor 
Charlemagne ; and after Charlemagne's deatk 



ALDRIC. 



ALDBIC. 



(in 814) lie remained in the service of his 
son and soccessor Louis the Pious (other- 
vise designated the Feehle, and the Debon- 
naire). It is affirmed that he was suddenly 
inspired with the purpose of becoming an 
ecclesiastic while praymg in the church of 
St Aiary at Aix-la-Chapelle. It was with 
difficulty that the emperor was prevailed 
upon to part with him ; but, having taken 
holy orders, he was admitted first a canon, 
and, after a year, deacon, of the cathedral of 
Metz. When he had been about three years 
here, it is stated that his firiend and patron 
Gondulphus, the bishop of the see, died ; an 
event which is known to have happened in 
823. Gondulphus was succeeded by Drogo 
(a natural son of Charlemagne), who, holding 
Aldric in the same regard as his predecessor, 
appointed him precentor of his cathedral^ 
after he had been consecrated a priest As 
precentor, or senior cantor, he taught singing 
to great numbers of pupils ; it is mentioned 
that he was considered particularly skilled in 
the Roman mode of singing the church ser- 
vice (Romanus cantus), as also in grammar. 
These and his other acquirements led to his 
bein^, after a time, appointed to the dimity 
of primicerius, an office which, it is explamed, 
gave him the superintendence of all the clergy 
and monasteries of the diocese. The em- 
peror then recalled him to court, and made 
him his confessor. About fbur months after, 
on the death of a second Franco, bishop 
of Le Msms, Aldric was elected to fill the 
vacant see, in the year 832, according to both 
the ancient biographies. He is reckoned the 
twenty-third, or by another account the 
twenty-second, bishop of Le Mans. The 
next year he was driven fnm his see by the 
rebel sons of the emperor ; but he was re- 
stored on appealing to the pope, Gre^ry IV., 
although, according to some authorities, not 
till Charles the BaM had overcome his half- 
brother Lothaire at the bloody battle of Fon- 
tenay, in 841. But it appears that he was 
present at the council or synod of Worms 
in 835, and at that of Ajx-la-Chapelle in 
836, triym which he was deputed to convey 
ihe determinations of the council to Pepin, 
king of Aquitaine. He was also present 
at the council of Paris in 846, and at that of 
Tours in 849. (Baluzius, Capittdaria Bepum 
Francontmy il 764.). Aldnc has received 
the highest character for the wisdom with 
which he governed his diocese, and his 
public-spirited exertions in the building of 
churches and other pious works, among 
which is mentioned his constructing an 
aqueduct for supplying the town of Le 
Mans with water, as well as for his sanctity, 
humility, and other Christian virtues. He 
is stated to have been often sent for to court 
to g^ve his advice about secular affairs, to 
his great annoyance. Several miracles are 
also attributed to him, which need not be 
detailed. The latest authentic notice of 
788 



him is in an act of the council of Soissons 
in 853, from which it appears that hia 
attendance at the council had been pre- 
vented by a stroke of paralysis, under which 
he was then suffering (paralysi dissolutus). 
It is in the Capitulajia published by Ba- 
luze, iL 5 1. He probablv died soon after th^ 
although the legend of his life makes him to 
have lived to the year 856, and (hen to have 
been carried off by a slow fever. None of 
his writings remain, with the exception of a 
few rules of discipline and other short frag- 
ments, which have been printed by Baluxe 
and Mabillon in his *' Vetera Analecta : ** 
a collection of canons, or capituhuies, as they 
were called, which he is said to have drawn 
up for the use of his clergy, has perished. 
The dav assigned to him in the Roman calen- 
dar is the 7th of January, which is said to be 
that on which he died. The life of St Aldric» 
printed in the " Acta Sanctorum" of Bollan- 
dus and his associates, is a Latin translation 
made b;^ Bollandus from a French life, pub- 
lished (it is not stated in what year) by Pe- 
trus Viellus, which Viellus professed to have 
turned into French from a Latin life com- 
piled fh)m ancient MSS. by Joannes Moreau. 
Of Moreau's work, though it is said to 
have been published, Bollandus had been 
unable to obtun a copy, and it appears to 
have been also unknown to the authors of 
the ** Histoire Litt^raire de la France ;" but 
we suppose it is a portion of the work which 
the latter speak of (voL v. p. 149.) as the 
*' Nomenclature ou Legende Doree des 
Eveques du Mans,** said to have been pub- 
lished, tft Latin, in 1572, by Jean Morean, 
D.D. and canon of Le Mans, and to the MS, 
of which Bollandus and his associates or suc- 
cessors occasionally refer. (Bollandus, Acta 
Sanctor. Januarii, L 387 — 389. ; Baluzius, 
MisceOanea, digesta per Ja Dominic. Man- 
sum, 4 torn. foL Luces, 1761-4, torn. L 
p. 79 — 83. ; Baluzius, CapituUtria Begum 
Franconan, 2 tom. fol. Par. 1667, tom. iL 
p. 51. 764. 1445. ; Histoire Litiraire de la 
France, voL v. 1740, p. 141—144.) G. L. C. 
ALDRICH, HENRY, eminent as a scho- 
lar, a divine, and a musician, the son of a 
gentleman of the same name in Westminster, 
was bom there in 1647, and educated in the 
collegiate school of that city under Dr. Busby. 
He was admitted a student of Christ Church, 
Oxford, in 1662, and having been elected on 
the foundation, took his master of arts degree 
in 1669. He soon afterwards took holy 
orders, and obtained the living of Wem in 
Shropshire, but he continued to reside in his 
college, of which he became one of the most 
eminent tutors and distinguished ornaments. 
On the 15th of February, 1681, he was in- 
stalled a canon of Christ Church, and in the 
following May took the degrees of bachelor 
and doctor in divinity. During the reign of 
James IL he was a consistent and able 
champion of Protestantism, both by preach- 



ALDRICH. 



ALDBICH. 



log and writing ; Bishop Burnet ranks him 
among those who " examined all the points 
of popery with a solidity of judgment, a 
clearness of arguing, a depth of learning, and 
a vivacity of writing, far beyond an^hing 
tiiat had before that time appeared m our 
language:" and when, on the accession of 
King William, Massey, the Roman Catholic 
dean of Christ Church, fled his country. Dr. 
Aldrich was appointed his successor, and was 
installed June 17. 1689. He was one of the 
ecclesiastical commissioners appointed by 
King William III. on the 13th of September, 
1689, for introducing an alteration in some 
parts of the church service, in order to re- 
concile religious differences among English 
Protestants, but he took little or no part in 
the proceedings. In coig unction with Dr. 
Peter Mew, bishop of Winchester, Thomas 
Sprat, bishop of Rochester, and Dr. William 
Jane, regius professor of divinity in the 
university of Oxford, he excepted to the 
manner of preparing matters by a special 
commission as bmiting the Convocation, and 
opposed all alterations whatever. He con- 
tinued to discharge the duties of his station 
in the university with dignity, urbanity, and 
assiduity; he was zealous to improve and 
adorn his college, to increase its useftxiness, 
to extend its resources, and to perpetuate its 
reputation. In 1702 he was chosen pro- 
locutor of the convocation, and closed his 
laborious and exemplary career at Christ 
Church on the 14th of December, 1710. 

Himself a sound and accomplished scholar, 
he endeavoured by every means in his power 
to foster the love of classical learning among 
the students of his colle^ and presented 
them annually with an edition of some Greek 
classic which he printed for this special pur- 

rB. He also published a system of logic 
their use, and at his death bequeathed 
to his college his valuable classical library. 
Dr. Aldrich was a proficient in more than 
one of the arts : three sides of what is called 
Peckwater quadrangle, in Christ Church 
College, and the church and campanile of 
All Saints in the High Street, Oxford, were 
desired by him ; and he is also said to have 
furnished ike plan, or at least to have had a 
share in the design, of the chapel of Trinity 
College, Oxford. 

Dr. Aldrich, among other sciences, cul- 
tivated music with ardour and success. As 
dean of a college and a cathedral he regarded 
it as a duty, as it undoubtedly was in his 
case a pleasure, to advance the study and 
progress of church music His choir was 
well appointed, and every vicar, clerical as 
well as lay, gave his daily and efficient aid in 
it He contributed also largely to its stock 
of sacred music ; and some of his services 
and anthems, being preserved in the collec- 
tions of Boyce and Arnold, are known and 
sung in every cathedral in the kingdom. 
His musical taste was founded on the hfisi 
789 



and purest models of church writing — thoM 
especially which Palestrina and Carissimi 
have bequeathed to the world; and, in ad- 
dition to his own compositions, he adapted 
words firom the English version of the Scrip- 
tures to many movements from their masses 
and motets, a task which he executed with 
consummate skill. Of these it is to be re- 
gretted that a few only' are in print or in 
use. Nor did Dr. Aldrich disdain to employ 
his musical talents in the production of fes- 
tive and social harmony. Catch singing was 
much in fiishion in his time ; and in his well- 
known catch, " Hark, the bonny Christ Church 
bells," he has made himself and his college 
the subject of merriment He afterwaids 
wrote and used to sing a Greek version of 
this catch. He was an inveterate smoker, 
and another of his catches in praise of 
smoking is so constructed as to allow every 
singer time fbr his puff. He was at once the 
instructor, the head, and the friend of hia 
choir. Dr. Hayes, whose career at Oxford 
began after that of Dr. Aldrich had ter- 
minated, and who reaped the advantage of 
the dean*s labours, bears ample testimony to 
the excellence of his choral discipline, in his 
*' Bemarks on Avison's Essay. He had 
weekly concerts and rehearsals in his own 
room, and established a music school in hi* 
college, where he fostered talent and re- 
warded diligence. Thus the service at Christ 
Church was then a finished exhibition of 
the finest sacred music. Every piece was 
carefblly selected, and as carefiilly per- 
formed. 

Nor did his intention to aid the cultivation 
of the art, and of church music in particular, 
end with his life. He had with great judg- 
ment and assiduity procured from Italy a 
large and valuable collection of the com- 
positions of its early masters, those especially 
of the writers already mentioned. These he 
bequeathed to his college, where they still 
remain ; but there is no catalogue of them, 
and they are difficult of access. The Aldrich 
library contains the papers which its founder 
prepared fbr a ^Treatise on Music;" and 
among them an essay on the music of the 
Greeks, and the uses to which music was 
applied by the ancients ; subjects which few 
men possessed all the requisite knowledge to 
investigate in a Uke decree. These remain 
apparently in their original portfolios. We 
may guess, fh>m the dean's classical taste, 
his ample means, and his unwearied industry, 
what a store of musical wealth is here locked 
up; but we can do no more than guess. The 
timely care of Dr. Tudway and &.e liberality 
of the celebrated Earl of Oxford have pro- 
cured and preserved a lar^ number of Dr. 
Aldrich's compositions, which, with the rest 
of the Harleian collection, are in the British 
Museum. The following extracts from Dr. 
Tudway*s autograph letters will show the 
zeal and success with which he executed big 



ALDRICH. 



ALDRICH. 



6omnu8aion to colleet ibe best anthems and 
serrices of the English chsrch, whkh at 
that time existed only is MSw and in the 
libraries of the sereral cathedrals and col- 
leges for which thej were written. The 
letters, which are addressed to the learned 
Humfre J Wanley, the earFs librarian, extend 
from the years 1715 to 1720. 

** I flatter myself very nraeh I shall answer 
the tmst my Lord and yon have confided to 
me in makmg this collection, which I know 
assuredly there is no such thing in the 
world.'* . . . ** I inclose a catalog^ of sneh 
pieces as I have been able to proemre of Dr. 
AldricVs ; and if my Lord will please to send 
it to Dr. Stratford at Christ Chorch, they will 
see what is wanting to complete his works, 
and send them in score as desired." 

It seems, however, from a subsequent 
.«tter, that Tudwa/s other correspondents 
were more anxious than Dr. Aldrich*s suc- 
cessor to complete the required list, fi>r he says 
that he has '* received from a ootrespondeni or 
two at York and Ely the whole works of Dr. 
Aldrich, so that Dr. Stratford need not give 
himself any fiurther trouble.** 

It appears by the following extract thait 
Tadway was especially enjoined bv his noble 
employer to include aU Dr. Aldrieh's compo- 
sitions in his collection ; but in consequence 
of his being also restricted to four volumes, 
he was compelled to omit many services and 
anthems that he had obtained. This is deeplv 
to be regretted, for the reprehensible indif- 
ference to the preservation of their musical 
libraries which has been generally manifested 
by the deans and chapters ef our cathedrals 
has occasioned the total loss of no small por- 
tion of their valuable contents. 

" Since my last I have received tfom Exeter, 
Winchester, Ely, Oxford, and Westminster, 
many excellent pieces, with expectation of 
more, so that I am puasled to know which to 
omit I have now by me so many produc- 
tions of two hundred years, that they cannot 
anything near be comprised in four volumes. 
Dr. Aldnch's works alone, whioh I am com- 
manded, yon know, to have complete, take 
up above two hundred pages. I have been 
more obliged to honest James Sbwkins [of 
Ely] alone than to all the cathedrals in Eng- 
land and Ireland.** 

The other works of Dr. Aldrich, not enu- 
merated above, are as follow: — I. ** A Reply 
to Two Discourses lately printed at Oxford, 
concerning the Adoration of our blessed Sa- 
viour in tike Holy Eucharist** 4to. Oxf<»d, 
1687. This was an answer to two discourses 
by Obadiah Walker. 2. ** A Defence of the 
Oxford Reply to Two Discourses lately 
printed at Oxford, &c.** Oxford, 1688, 4ta 
This second tract was an answer to O. Wal- 
ker and Abraham Woodgate. He e^Bted, 
with a Latin version, in 8vo., 3. "Xeno- 
phontis Memorabilia.** Oxford, 1690. 4.*^Xe- 
nophontis Sermo de Agesilao.** Oxford, 1 69 1 . 
790 



5. *< Aristess Historia LXXIL InterptetDBL" 
Oxford, 1698. 6. ** Xenophontis de re 
EquestrL** Oxford, 1693. 7. ^^Epictetiis ek 
Theophrastus." Oxford, 1707. 8. **Ignstis 
Sancti Martyris Epistola.** Oxford, 1708. 
9. **Platonis, Xenophontis, PlutarchifLuciani 
Symposia.** Oxford, 1711, 8vo., but only 
with the Greek text 10. "Artis Logiess 
Compendium.** Oxford, 1691, 8vo., which is 
still used as a text-book upon logic in the 
university of Oxford. 11. '^ElemenU of 
Geometry :** this was written for the use of 
his pupils, but never printed. 12. Of his 
poetry there are two Latin pieces in the 
" MussB Anglicanse j** one on the aocession of 
William IIL, the other on the death of the 
Duke of Gloucester ; and he has the credit 
of several fogitive pieces in Latin. IS. **£!»- 
mentomm Architecture pars prioML An 
edition of this work, with a traaslatiott by the 
Rev. Philip Smythe, under the title ** Ele- 
ments of Civil Architecture, aecofding t» 
Vitruvias and other Andents, and the most 
approved practice of modem Authof% espe* 
cially PaUadio,** was published at Oxford in 
1789, in 4to. 14. Dsan Aldridi was con- 
cerned in the publication of Gregory's Greek 
Testament, printed in firiio at Oj&rd in 170S. 
15. To htm and Bishop Sprat was intrusted 
the publication of Clarendon's History, and 
they were charged by Oldmixon with having 
altered and interpohUed that work ; but the 
charge was reftited by Atterbury, in a pam- 
phlet entitled *' The late Bishop of Rochester's 
Vindication of Dr. Aldrich from the Re- 
flexions of Oldmixon.*' 1731, foL 16. Aldrich 
wrote some notes for Havevcamp's editioB 
of Josephufc. 

The following list of Dr. Aldridi's ecmpo- 
sitions is the only one that has yet i^peared 
in print 

In Boyce's Cathedral Music :*-l. Morn- 
ing and Evening Service in G. 2. An- 
them, ** Out of the deep.** 3. Anliiem,**Oh give 



In Arnold's Cathedral Music : — 4. Mom- 
ingand Evening Service in A. 5. Antfaera^ 
•* We have heard with our ears " (from Pa- 
lestrina). 6. Anthem, ** I am wdl pleased" 
(from Carissimi). 7. Anthem, ^Oh praise 
the Lord." 

In Page's Harmonia Sacra : — 8. Antben, 
"* God is our hope." 9. Anthem, '« O Lord 
God of our salvation." 

In the library of Gresham College : — 

10. " Thy beauty, O Israel," compowd on 
the death of Michael Wise. 

In the Tudw^y Collection, Vol. IL : — 

11. Anthem, «*Why art thou so vexed?" 

12. Anthem, " My heart is fixed." 13. An- 
them, ** The eye of the Lord." 14. Anthem, 
•* O God, the King of Gloir." 15. Anthem, 
**Hold not thy tongue" (from Palestrina). 
16. ** Gi^ ear, O Lord." 17. Anthem, 
** Behold now praise the Lord." 18. An- 
di»n, ** I look for the Lord." 19* Anthem, 



ALDRICH. 



ALDRICH. 



** O Lord, retmke me not** 20. Anthem, 
*'Oh]iow«muible.'' 21. Anthem, ** Haste thee, 
O Lord" (from CariBsimi). 22. Anthem, 
" For Sion*9 sake " (from Carissimi). 

In VoL nL: — 23. Anthem, •'OLord, grant 
the king along life." 24. Evening Service in 
F. 25. Anthem, ** Comfort ye my petmle." 
26. Anthem, *' Who is this that oometh from 
Edom?" 27. Anthem, " O Lord onr go- 
▼emor." 28. Anthem, ** O Ood, thon art 
my Ood." 29. Anthem, ** Have mercy upon 
me." 

In Vol. lY. :— SO. Anthem, I will lore 
thee, O Lord." 31. Anthem, ** The Lord is 
king." 32. Anthem, ** Give the king thy 
judgments." S3. Anthem, ** If the Lord him- 
self:" 34. Anthem, *" O Lord, I have heard 
thy voice." 

{Biographia BritantucOy Kippis's edit.; 
Hawkins, Higtory of Music; Hartaan MSS, ; 
Hayes, Dr., Remarks on Avison,) E. T. 

ALDRICH, ROBERT, otherwise called 
Aldridge, and, by his Latinized name, Al- 
drisios, and Aldrigos, was bom at Bnmham 
in Bnckinghamshire. He was educated at 
Eton and King's College, Cambridge, of 
which society he became a fellow, and after- 
wards provost of Eton. In 1531 he was 
made archdeacon of Colchester ; in 1534, 
canon of Windsor and registrar of the order of 
the Garter ; in 1537, chaplain and almoner of 
Queen Jane Seymour and bishop of Carlisle, 
the temporalities of which see were restored 
to him in August 1537. He died at Horn- 
castle in Lincolnshire, March 5th, 1555. 

In his youth he acquired some reputation 
by assistmg Erasmus in the collation of 
manuscripts, and there are several letters to 
him from Erasmus, who commends his elo- 
quence 

His first writings were chiefly against 
Robert Whittington, a grammarian of the 
time : — 1. ** Epistola ad Gulielmum Horman- 
num," in Latm verse, inserted in Antibos- 
sioon, a book of this Herman, who was vice 
provost of Eton. 2. **• Epigrammata varia," 
among which there is a letter agamst Whit- 
tington. 

As registrar of the order of the Garter he 
translate into Latin and abridged the ** Re- 
gistrom Chartaceum," which his predecessors 
had written in French, added an account of 
the institution of the order, and continued 
the register at least till he was made bishop. 
These three pieces are printed in ti^e ** Re- 
gister of the most noble Order of the Garter, 
called the Black Book, London, 1724," which 
contains also the opinions of Bishop Wren, 
Mr. Vincent, and Mr. Ashmole, who praise 
the Latinity at the expense of the fidelity 
of his abridgment 

As bishop of Carlisle, his replies to " Qae- 
ries put concerning some Abuses of the Mass " 
are printed in Burnet's ** History of the 
Refbrmation," partiL book.1., Collection of 
Records, No. 25. Wood, m his ** Athena 
791 



Oxcmienses," mentions also ipolutions con- 
cerning the sacraments, and concerning 
bishops, priests, and other matters relating 
to the Reformation, by Aldrich. Leland has 
pronounced the panegyric of his friend in the 
**Illustrium Virorum Encomia." (Wood, 
AtheiuB Oxtmimses ; Tanner, BibUotheca Bri' 
tamnico-JBibemica ; Bale, Scriptores Briton- 
nut Mqforis.) A. T. P. 

ALDRIDGE, REV. WILLIAM, was 
minister of the congregation of Calvinistic 
Methodists in Jewry Street, London, from 
1776 to 1797. He was bom at Warminster in 
Wiltshire, in the year 1 737, and his first strong 
impressions of religion were received when 
he was in his twenty-fburth year. Wishing to 
become a minister, he entered the Countess 
of Huntmgdon's College at Trevecca, in 
South Wales (since removed to Cheshunt in 
Hertfordshire). During his residence at the 
college he preached at various places in 
England. 

£i September, 1771, Lady Huntingdon re- 
ceived an anonymous letter, urging her to 
send a minister to Margate, in the Isle of 
Thanet She sent Mr. Aldridge, who took 
with him the Rev. Joseph Cook, a student in 
the college, who afterwards died a missionary 
in South Carolina. They began to preach in 
the streets ; and, meeting with considerable 
success, they preached in several other phices 
in the Isle of Thanet After a short time 
they were invited to Dover, where Mr. Ald- 
ridge, who was a fearless roan, and anxious 
to attract attention, preached his fint sermon 
on Sunday afternoon in the market place» 
where a crowd collected and pelted the 
preacher, who then broke off his sermon by 
inviting the people to attend at the pres- 
byterian meetmg-house in the evening, where 
he preached to a large congregation with 
considerable effect 

Mr. Aldridge and Mr. Cook now preached 
at Dover and Margate ahematelv ; but the 
ftyrmer was soon summoned by the countess 
to the Mulberry-garden chapel in Wapping, 
where he gave me people so much satis- 
ftiction, that they requested Lady Hnnting- 
don to allow hun to continue with them. 
Upon the reflxsal of this request, Mr. Aldridge 
left the countess's connection, and accepfied 
the pastorate of the church m Jewry Street 
in 1776, where he remained the rest of his 
life. He died on Tuesday morning, the 
28th of February, 1797, in the sixtieth year 
of his age, and was buried in Bunhill Fields 
on the 7th of March. 

As a preacher he was skilftil, energetic, 
and successftU. One proof of his success is 
the fguct that he introduced into the Christian 
ministry sixteen or seventeen young men 
frmn his own congregation. 

He published a work entitled, ** The Doc- 
trine of the Trinity stated, proved, and 
defended ; " and " A Funeral Semion on the 
Death of the Countess of Huntingdon." 



ALDRIDGE. 



ALDRINOER. 



(Wilson's DUsentina Churches, I 129. ; Life 
iff the Countess of Otntingdon, u. ISO — 137.) 

P. S. 
ALDRIGHETTI was bora at Padua in 
1 573. After acquiring his preliminary educa- 
tion in that place, he went to Bologna, and 
passed several years there in the study of medi- 
cine. On his return to Padua he became a pupil 
of Hieronymus Fabricius. He subsequently 
went into France as medical attendant to an 
embassy of Venetian senators, and accom- 
panyinjs one of them into Germany, was 
called in to attend the Emperor Rudolph II. 
Again returning to his native plac«, he 
obtained in 1590 the second chair of medi- 
cine ; the office thus devolving upon him 
was principally to give lectures on the 
third book of Avicenna. In 1613 he was 
appointed to the second chair of medicine 
extraordinary, which he held till the end of 
his life. He died of the plague at Padua in 
1 63 1. His writings are— -1. " Herculis Saxonis 
Tractatus perfectissimus de Morbo Gallico, 
sen Lue venerea, Franco£ 1600," 8vo. Her- 
cules Saxonia was public professor of medi- 
cine at Padua, and the above work consists 
of his lectures and opinions on the venereal 
disease, collected and published by Aldri- 

fhettL 2. ** Oratio qua IlL ac Rev. Petro 
''alerlo, Patavium accedenti, gratulabatur.*' 
Patav. 1663, 4to. This was published by 
his son. Several treatises left in manu- 
script are mentioned by Mazzuchelli, and 
also in the ^^ Bibliotheca Patavinss'* of To- 
masini ; amongst them an incomplete trea- 
tise on the venereal disease, with numerous 
lectures, including those which he delivered 
on the third book of Avicenna as well as on 
the aphorisms of Hippocrates and the **Ar8 
Parva ** of Galen. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori 
(f Italia.) G. M. H. 

ALDRINGER, ALTRINGER, or AL- 
DRINGEN, JOHANN, a field-marshal in 
the thirty years' war, was born in the duchpr 
of Luxemburg, of obscure parentage. He is 
said to have accompanied some barons who 
were going to France as a servant, and while 
with &em, to have become as great a profi- 
cient in languages and other knowledge as 
his masters. On passing afterwards into 
Italy, he obtained employment, first as secre- 
tary with the Count Madrucci, and after- 
wards in the chancery of Madrucci, bishop of 
Trent, but was treated with such indignity by 
his fellow secretaries, that m despair he aban- 
doned his situation, and while walking on the 
road towards Innspruck, uncertain what course 
he should take, determined to adopt the trade 
of the first passenger he should meet, who 
happened to be a Milanese soldier returning 
home from the wars of Germany. From a 
common soldier in the imperial army, Al- 
dringer soon rose, by his talents as a clerk, 
to the posts of sergeant, sergeant-nugor, and 
lieutenant, and by his bravery as lieutenant 
to the rank of captain and colonel, under 
792 



which last title, but in reality^ with the 
power of a general, he was sent m command 
of the expedition against Mantua in 1630, 
when he took and plundered the city. He 
returaed to Germany in 1631, and received 
at Erfurt the news of the defeat of his com> 
mander Tilly, by Gustavus Adolphus, at 
Leipzig. After Tilly's death he was raised 
to the rank of field-marshal, united his forces 
with those of Wallenstein, and was strongly 
suspected of entering into the schemes of that 
commander against the Emperor Ferdinand. 
To this cause was ascribed the inactivity of 
Aldringer when his forces were united with, 
the Spanish army under the Duke of Feriain. 

1633, and both armies melted away without 
advantage to the imperial partv in inaction 
and disease. Before the deatiiof Wallenstein^ 
however, his relation to Aldringer had 
changed, and the latter, when summoned to 
the presence of his conunander, thought it 
safest to disobey. In the letters patent of the 
Emperor Ferdinand against Wallenstein and 
his adherents, dated February the 18th, 1634, 
Aldringer is mentioned along with Gallaa, 
Piccolomini, and other officers, whose orders 
the troops are directed to follow. In June, 

1634, shortly after the death of Wallenstein^ 
Aldringer was killed on the bridge of Lands- 
hut, wmle defending the passage of the river 
Iser against the Swedes, and it was strongly 
suspected that he fell by the hand of one of 
the citizens of Landshut, or of his own sol- 
diers, by whom he was more feared than, 
loved, on account of his avarice and cruelty. 
He had become rich by the plunder of 
Mantna, and, among other acquisitions, had 
laid his hands on the Mantuan library^ 
which contained some valuable manuscripts, 
which he left to his brother, John Mark^ 
bishop of Seckau. Another of his brothers, 
Paul, was bishop of Tripoli, and suffragan of 
Strassburg. The circumstance that two of 
them had risen so high in the church seems 
to prove that both must have possessed un- 
common abilities, or that the fiunily of Al- 
dringer was not so obscure as has been sup- 
posed. (Gualdo Priorato, ^wtorte die2Ze Guerre 
di Ferdinando IL, edit of 1643, p. 289.; 
VoUstandwe Universal Lexicon^ i. 1103. ; F» 
Forster, WaUenstein aU Feldherr tmd Landes- 
furst, 269, &c.) T. W. 

ALDROVANDI'NL The name of a Bo- 
lognese family of artists of the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries, originally of Rovigo, dis- 
tinguished as architectural and decorative 
painters in fresco and in distemper. 

Giuseppe Aldrovandini, the scholar of 
Gio. Andrea Sirani, is better known as the 
fiuher of Tommaso and Domenico Aldrovan- 
dini than for his own works ; he was a de- 
corative and scene painter. Heineken men- 
tions an engraving after one of his works — 
•• Veduta del Fuoco artificiale, nel Campi- 
doglio, 1727. Giuseppe Aldrovandini inv. 
et deL Andrea Roosi sc." 



ALDROVANDINL 



ALDROVANDINL 



Maubo Aldboyandini, the brother of 
Oiuseppe, boro in 1649, died in 1680, ac- 
quired a great reputation as an architec- 
tural and a aoene painter, and although he 
died in his thirtj-second year, he executed 
many excellent works in various cities of 
Italy. He worked in company with Carlo 
Cignani, in the decoration of the town-hall 
of ForlL BCauro left an injGmt son, Pompeo 
Agoetino, by whom he was eventaally sor- 



Tomma'so Aldboyandini, the son of 
Qiuaepfe, was bom in Bologna in 1653 He 
was instructed in the first principles of his 
art by his uncle Mauro, and became a very 
celebrated painter in the same department 
He execut^ works in many cities in Italy ; 
in 1704 he painted, in company with Marc- 
antonio Franceschini, the great council 
chamber at Genoa. He died in Bologna in 
1736, in his eighty-third year. His younger 
brother Domenico, also the scholar of Mauro, 
was likewise a good painter of perspective ; 
he executed several excellent works m fresoo 
at Parma. 

PoMPEo AoomNO ALDBOYAiTDiiri, the 
son of Mauro, was bom in Bologna in 1677 ; 
he was the scholar of his cousin Tommaso 
Aldrovandini, whom he excelled in execu- 
tion, and he became in his department the 
most celebrated painter of his period in Italy. 
But his reputation was not limited to his own 
country ; he was much employed in Dresden, 
in Prague, and in Vienna; in which cities, 
in the churches, the palaces, and the theatres, 
he executed many excellent works. Heine- 
ken states that he worked together with his 
father in Dresden, for Augustus II. ; but this 
is impossible, for, according to his contempo- 
rary Orlandi, his father died in 1630, while 
Pompeo was still an inihnt. 

Pompeo painted in oil, in fresco, and in 
distemper (a secco) : his drawing was cor- 
rect, and his chiaroscuro very effeetive, and 
he was in execution elaborate. He died in 
Rome in 1739. There are three folio plates 
of triumphal aiches from the designs of Pom- 
peo Aldrovandini : one in honour of Pope 
Clement XIL, one in honour of Innocent 
XIIL, both engraved by J. Massi ; and the 
third in honour of Benedict XIIL, engraved 
by Westerhout. Gioseffo Orsoni and Stefimo 
Orlandi, eminent decorative painters, were 
the scholars of Pompeo AldrovandinL (Za- 
BOtti, Storia ddP Academia CZementma di 
Bologna ; Orlandi, Abecedario PiUorico ; Hei- 
neken, Dictionnaire det Artistes dont nous 
avons des Estawpes.) R. N. W. 

ALDROVANDI'NI, GIUSEPPE AN- 
TONIO VINCENZO, Maestro di CapeUa 
to the Duke of Mantua, and " Principe di 
Filannonici," as he s^les himself was bom 
at Bologna, and flourished about the beffin- 
ning of the eighteenth century. He pnblisned 
there two sets of motets. He also composed 
several operas for the theatres of Bologna 

▼OL. I. 



and Venice. (Walther, Musikdlisches Lexi- 
* cow.) E. T. 

ALDROVANDUS* ULYSSES, (Aldro- 
vandi,) a great naturalist, was bora of a noble 
fbmily at Bologna, on the 11th of September, 
1522. He lost his father at the age of six 
years, and his mother placed him out as page 
in the fiunily of a bishop. He occupied this 
situation only a short time, and when twelve 
years old was placed with a merchant at 
Bresse. Here he was distinguished for 
his expertness at business and his talent for 
arithmetical calculations. He was however 
soon tired of a mercantile life ; and having 
met with a Sicilian who was making a pil- 
grimage to Santiago de Compostella, he de- 
termined to accompany him. He travelled 
through Galicia wi& the pilgrim ; and after 
several months* absence returned to Bo- 
logna, where his mother had long giveu him 
up as dead. After this adventure he com- 
menced the study of the law in his native 
place, and firom thence removed to Padua for 
the purpose of there prosecuting his studies. 
At this university he attended the courses of 
lectures on medicine. He returned to Bo- 
logna in 1549. He did not remain long here, 
for, being suspected of Lutheranism, he was 
arrosted, thrown into prison, and carried be- 
fore the inquisition at Rome, where he was 
eventually acquitted. He again returned to 
Bologna, and cultivated botany very zealously 
under Luca Ghino, who then filled the chair 
of botany at Bologna. He visited Padua 
again, and studied under Fallopins. He 
made a botanical excursion to Ancona, and 
passing through the Roman states, returned 
once moro to Bok^a, laden with bota- 
nical treasures. It is probable that during 
this tour he visited Home, and collected 
the materials for a work which was published 
by Lucio Mauro at Venice in 1556, on the 
antiquities of Rome, under the title *'Le 
Antichitk de la Citt4 di Roma," 12mo., in 
which the antique statues are described by 
Aldrovandus. Other editions of this work 
appeared at Venice in 1558 and 1562, and a 
Latin translation at Rome in 1741. It ap- 
pears to have been his earliest published 
work. In 1553 he graduated in medicine, 
and in 1560 he was appointed lecturer on 
natural history in the chair that had been 
occupied by Luca Ghino. He is also said to 
have occupied the chair of logic He was 
also elected a feUow of the College of Medi- 
cine at Bologna. In 1568 he succeeded in 
inducing the senate of Bok>gna to establish 
a botamc garden. He was placed at its head 
as curator, and connected with this office was 
that of the duty of inspecting the drugs in 
the shops of the ^tothecaries, a step that had 
been rendered necessary by the ignorance 
and avarice of these men. This, however, 
was an unhappy circumstance ft>r Aldro- 
vandus, and involved him in perpetual quar- 
rels with the apothecaries. On. the occasion 
Sf 



ALDROVANDUa 



ALDBOVAND08. 



of hiB gappljing drugs from the botanic gar- 
den to the monks for the purpose of enabling 
them to prepare the celebrated theriacoj the 
i^thecaries became enraged at what they 
deemed the invasion of their rights, and 
haying made friends with the 0>llege ot 
Medicine, they procured his expulsion fttnn 
his inspectorship. He applied to the pope, 
Gregory XIIL, who returned him a letter 
beannff date 1576, commending his conduct, 
and reinstating him in his office of inspector 
of drugs. It was in this edacity that he 
wrote the ** Antidotarii Bononiensis Epitome," 
8to., which was published at Bologna in 1574. 
This book is interesting as being one of the 
earliest models on which the Pharmacopceias 
were subsequently constructed. It consists of 
a list of drugs used in medicine, with direc- 
tions for preparing the Tsrious compounds 
into which they enter, with short remarks on 
the diseases m which they may be em- 
ployed. 

Whilst Aldroyandus was thus publicly 
engaged, in private he was pursuing natural 
history with an ardour that has been seldom 
equalled, perhaps never surpassed. The 
great ol^ect of his life was to obtain a know- 
ledge of the external world, and to this 
object he devoted his time, his talents, and' 
his fortune. He travelled much himself in 
search of objects of natural history, and em- 
ployed others to collect for him. In this way 
he formed an extensive museum, which to 
this day remains at Bologna, a monument of 
his industry and perseverance. His dried 
plants alone occupied sixty lar^ volumes. 
For thirty years he paid a pamter in his 
employ two hundred crowns a year. He 
spared no expense in obtaining the first 
artists of the day; and Lorenio Bennino 
of Florence and Cornelius Swintus of Frank- 
ftirt were both engaged to assist him. Chris- 
topher Coriolanus and his nephew of Niim- 
berg were employed as his engravers. 
By these means he was prepared for the 
eigantic task of becoming ^e historian and 
illustrator of all external nature. The first 
work that he published on natural history 
was devoted to birds. The first volume ap- 
peared at Bologna m 1599, entitled ** Omi- 
thologise, sivede Avibus Historis, Libri XIL," 
folio. Two other volumes appeared in 1600 
and 1608. Other editions of this work ap- 
peared at Frankfrirt in 1610 and 1630, and 
at Bologna in 1646, 1653, and 1681. His next 
work was on insects: "De Animalibus in- 
sectis Libri VII., cum singulorum Iconibus ad 
vivum expressis," folia It was published 
first at Bologna in 1608, afterwards in 1620 
and 1688, and at Fnmkfhrt in 1623. A third 
work came out in 1606, on the lower animals, 
under the title ** De reUqnis Animalibus ex- 
anguibus, Libri IV., Bononiie," folio. Editions 
of this work appeared at Bologna in 1 637, 1 642, 
and 1654, and at Frankibrt in 1623. This 
was the hist work that was poUished during 
794 • 



hb lifetime. He however left abondaoce 
of materials for fVirther works, and the senate 
of Bologna, who had liberally assisted Aldro- 
vandus when alive, appointed penoos to edit 
his works. The subsequent volumes all ap* 
pear in his name, with Ihe addition of that of 
the editor: the only difference consists m 
styling Aldrovandus patrician in the post- 
humous volumes, whereas he is called pro- 
fioBsor in those published in his lifetime. 

The first work published after his death 
was on fishes and whales : " De Piseibus 
Libri v., et de Cetis Liber I., a Job. Com. 
Uterverio collect! et editi, opera Hier. Tarn- 
burinL Bononise, 1613,** folio. Subsequent 
editions appeared at Bologna in 1688 and 166 1 , 
and at Frankfhrt in 1623, 1629, and 1640. 
The next was on the wbole-fboted quadrupeds, 
or the solidungulous order of Mammalia : 
"De Quadrupedis solipedibus Volumen in- 
tegrum. Joh. Com. Uterverius oollegit et 
recensuit, Hier. Tamburinus m Ineem edidit. 
Bononis, 1616,** folio. Subsequent editions 
appeared at Bologna in 1689 and 1648, at 
Frankfhrt in 1623. Clement also mentions 
Venice editions of this and the former work. 
The quadrupeds with parted hoofr come next : 
** Qnadrapedum omnium bisulcorum His- 
toria, Job. Com. Uterverius coUigere incepit, 
Thom. Dempetems absolvit, et Marc Ant. 
Bemia et Hier. Tamburinus in lucem edide> 
runt. Bononi», 1613," folio. Other editions 
appeared at the same place in 162 1, 1 642, 1653, 
and at Frankfurt in 1 647. The next work, od 
the digitate quadrupeds, had a diffierent 
editor : ** De Qiudrupedis digitatis riviparis 
Libri IIL, et de Quadrupedis digitatis ovi- 
paris Libri IL BartholomnnnsAmbrosins col- 
lect. BononifiB, 1637 f also 1645 and 1665, 
folio. This was followed by the reptiles : 
** Serpentum et Draoonum Historise Libri II. 
Bart Ambrosinus summo labore opus oonci- 
cinnavit et edidit Bononise, 1640,** folio. 
This is the most scarce of the works of Al- 
drovandus, as only this edition appears to 
have been published. The history of monsters 
followed : *' Monstrorum Historia cum Pa- 
ralipomenis Historiss omnium Animalium. 
Bart Ambrosinus composoit. Marc Ant. 
Bemia in lucem edidit Bononiae, 1642 et 
1646." A mineralogical work on metals ap« 
peared next : ** Mussum Metallicum in 
Libros IV. distributum. B. Ambrosinus com- 
posuit Bononite, 1648," folio. An epitome 
of this volume was published at Leipzig 
by David Kellner in 1701, with the title 
** Synopsis MussBi Metallici Viri inoompa- 
rabilis Ulissis Aldrovandi." 12mo. The 
last of this series of books was a history of 
trees : ** Dendrologise natnralis, scilicet Ar- 
borum Historiso, Libri IL Ovid Montalba> 
nus coUegit Bononis, 1648," folic It 
appeared again at Bologna m 1665 and 1668, 
and at Frankfhrt in 1671. These ponderous 
volumes contain only a part of the labours 
of this extraofdinaryman. His manuscripts. 



ALDROVANDUa 



ALDROVANDUa 



which are still presenred with his miueum 
at Bologna, would occupy as many volumes 
if the^ were published. Fantuxxi, in his 
memoirs of Aldrovandus, gives a list of them ; 
they amount to between two and three hundred 
in number, and are mostly on subjects of 
natural histoiy. 

The great merit of the writings of Aldro- 
Tandas is their completeness; their great 
ftnlt is the credulity of the author. Tet his 
credulity cannot be considered as a reproach, 
as it is almost a necessary part of the complete- 
ness of his works. It we would know com- 
pletely a thing in nature, we must know not 
only the relation in which it has stood to 
the understanding of man, but also to his 
imagination and affections. Cuvier says the 
works oC AldroTsndus might be reduced 
to one tenth without iigury, and Bufibn 
ridicules his comprehensive mode of treating 
his subjects in the fbllowing language: 
— ** In writing the history of the ooiek 
and the bull,^ says Buffon, ** Aldrovand 
tells you sU that has ever been said of 
cocks and bolls ; all that the ancients have 
thought or imagined with regard to thenr vir- 
tues, character, and courage; all the things 
for which they have been employed; all 
the tales that old women tell of them ; all 
the miracles that have been wrought upon 
or by them in different religions; all the 
superstitions regarding them; all the com- 
parisons that poets have made with them; 
all the attributes that certain nations have 
accorded them ; all the representations that 
have been made of them bv hieroglyphics or 
in heraldry; in a word, all the histories and 
all the fables with which we are acquainted 
<m the subject of cocks and buHs." This is 
hardly an overdrawn picture of the manner 
in which Aldrovandus treats each animal, 
plant, and mineral in his ponderous vohmies. 
But these works must not be criticised as if 
they were something which they are not 
Thev are not manuals, outlines, or intro- 
ductions to natural history : they profess to 
be histories of the subjects on which they 
treat, and as such they are the most precious 
storehouse of ftcts, references, and observa- 
tions in natural history extant Nor are 
diese works mere compilations. They are 
illustrated with many hundreds of original 
drawings ; references are made to objects in 
the museum of Aldrovandus, and he has 
given the result of numerous dissections made 
with his own hand. It would be impossible 
here to give a paitiealar critieism of such at* 
tensive labours. 

Aldrovandus regarded olgects in nature 
more as individuals than in their relatioiia 
to each other, and hence he made no pro- 
gress in systematic arrangement ; and in this 
respect hw works are not superior to those 
of Aristotle or Gessner. He has however 
supplied fiurts, and whatever may be the 
conflinon m which they are afraag^ on ac- 
795 



oount of the period at which they are re- 
corded, they still claim the attentian of every 
naturalist 

Aldrovandus died on the 10th ■ of No- 
vember, 1607, in his eighty-fifth year. 
Nearly all his biographers state that thu 
event occurred in the hospital at Bologna, 
where he was compelled to spend his lart 
days on account of die frewt ezpoise he had 
been at in collecting his museum and pub- 
lishing hia works. But this is hardly pro- 
bable, and cannot be cited as an instance of 
public ingratitude. The secret archives of 
, the senate of Bologna, as quoted by Fan- 
tusci, prove that they assisted Aldrovandus 
in the most liberal manner. They doubled 
his salary soon after his appointment to the 
chair of natural history, and when he was no 
longer able to lecture, they appointed a suc- 
cessor but continued his salary. At various 
j times they granted him no less than 40,000 
' crowns to carry on his reseurches and pub- 
lish his works. He was buried with great 
pomp, at the public expense, in the church of 
St Stephen in Bolpg^ ; and all the works 
that appeared after his death were published 
under the direction and at the expense of 
the senate. From iheae circumstances we 
are inclined to think that if Aldrovandus did 
die in an hospital, it may have arisen from 
something peouliai^ in his case, and not from 
any want of public sympathy or gratitude. 
He numbered amongst his friends Fallopius, 
Lnca Ohino, Pinelli, Campeggio, Matthiolus, 
and other eminent men ; and amongst his 
patrons in his works, Gregory XIIL, Sixtos 
v.. Cardinal Montalto, and Ferdinand L A 
volume of his correspondeQce was published 
at Venice in 1636. 

After his death a medal was struck in 
honour of him, having on one side his head, 
with the inscription **Ulisses Aldrovandus 
Bononiensis Philosophna,'* and on the re- 
verse a cock with a ring in its beak and a 
branch of laurel in its claw, with the inscrip- 
tion ** Sensibus hcec imis res est, non parva 
repoxut** Monti has named a genus of plants 
in the natural order Droseraceas after him 
Aldrooanda, (Faatusii, Memorie deUa Vita 
Ulian Aldrovandi ; Jochef's AUgem. GthhrteH- 
Lexicon and Adelung's Stipp. ; Gwrrftre, Bib^ 
Uothiqw de la M^decinef Bayle, Hiatorieal 
J[>ict;B»i\%r,BibliothecaBotaniea.) E.L. 
ALDUIN (Alduinua, Audovinus, Audwin, 
Audoin, Autoin), first king of the second 
dynasty of the Lombards, and fhther of Al- 
boin L, who established the Lombard power 
in Ital^r. The period of Alduin's sway is 
uncertain both m Regard to its commence- 
ment and teraunation, some making it begin 
about 537, while others do not place it 
much earlier than 548; some making it 
close about 553, while others extend it to 
567. The authors of all these conflietmg 
statements however agree that he reigned 
about the middle of the sixth century. 
Spa 



ALDUIN. 

Aidoin seuMd the soTereign power in his 
tribe on the death of Walther the last king 
of the first dynaBty, to the exclosion of 
TldigiHal, nephew of the deceased prince, 
who was obliged to seek safetj in flight 
The Emperor Justinian formed an alliance 
with Alduin, to whom he conceded Pannonia, 
in return for which the Lombard prince sent 
5000 mercenaries to fight against the Os- 
trogoths in Italy, and declar^ war against 
the Gepids, a Gothic clan which )iad settled 
in Lower Pannonia against the emperor's 
will. This fend lasted with occasional in- 
tervals of peace from 548 till the death of 
Alduin, and the hostilities between the two 
tribes, by keeping both occupied, probablj 
served Justinian's purpose better than if his 
ally had conquered. At the commencement 
of the war a mutual panic seised the armies: 
Alduin and Thorisinn (king of the Gepidm) 
were deserted by all but their respective 
body-guards. The Lombard prince sent 
messengers to treat for pcwce with his anta- 
gonists, who were astonished to find the leader 
of the Gepidn as feebly guarded as their 
own. Bofli parties interpreted this event into 
a declaration of the gods against war between 
tribes so nearly allied, and a truce was con- 
cluded for two years. The intrigues of Jus- 
tinian, who sent Amalafried, brother-in-law 
of Alduin, wiUi troops to the assistance of the 
latter, prevented the truce ripening into a 
peace. In a battle which ensued, Alduin's 
son Alboin slew the son of Thorisinn, and the 
Gepidse fled in confiision. Alduin refhsed his 
son's claim to sit at the royal table on account 
of this deed of arms, on the ground that he 
was unable to produce the arms of the foe 
he had killed. Alboin rode to the court of 
Thorisinn, demanded the arms of the Prince 
of the GepidsB whom he had slain, and out 
of respect to the rights of hospitality received 
them, and was allowed to return in safety. 
This transaction led to fresh overtures for 
peace. Alduin demanded that Ddigisal, who 
had taken reftige with the GkpidiB, should be 
delivered up to him. Thonsinn, who was 
also in danger from the claims of a pretender 
to the crown of the Gepidis, who had found 
protection among the Lombards, demanded 
that he should be surrendered to him in re- 
turn. The Geplda and Lombards reflised to 
sanction such violations of the laws of hos- 
pitalitv, but their kings evaded this opposition 
to their wishes by each having the rival of 
the other murdered. Alduin at least derived 
no benefit from this crime : he died almost 
immediately afterwards, leaving by his wife, 
a descendant of Theodoric, king of the 
Ostrogoths, Alboin L, and another son, 
whose name is not mentioned by historians. 
(Paulus Diaconus, De Ori^ine et Gestia Re- 
gum Longobardonm, lib. i. c. 15. Parisiis, 
1514, fol. ; Proeopius, De BeBo Chthico, lib. 
iii. c. 27. Parisiis, 1661-3.) W.W. 

ALDUFNUS. [Alduin.] 
796 



ALEL 

ALDUS MANUnU& [MANornrs.] 

AL^', EGI'DIUS, a painter of Liege who 
studied in Rome towards the end of the seven- 
teenth century, and distinguished himself for 
his purity of s^le, acoordmg to the principles 
of the Roman school, both in oil and in franco. 
He was employed, together with Morandi, 
Bonatti, and Romanelli, to paint the sacristy 
of the church of Santa Maria dell' Anima in 
Rome, for which he executed an altar-piece 
in oil, and painted the ceilings of the chapels 
in fresco, illustrating the life of the Virgin. 
He died, according to Zani, in 1689. (Titi, 
Descrizione deUe Pitture^ ^. in Eoma; Lemzi, 
Storia PiUorica, ^c.) R. N. W. 

ALE'A, LE'ONARD, a French writer 
who contributed to the revival of religious 
sentiments among his countrymen after the 
Revolntion. He was bom at Paris, of a 
family connected with the finances, and died 
in the same city, about the year 1812. His 
principal work is ** L' Antidote de 1' Atheisme 
on Examen critique da Dictionnaire des 
Athees." Paris, 1801, 8vo. This "Anti- 
dote to Atheism," published anonymously, was 
intended to counteract another anonymous 
work entitled the '* Dictionary of Atheists," 
published in 1801 by S^lvun Marechal and 
DeLalande. Mar^chial himself acknowledged 
the moderation of his antagonist, and the 
work was held in the highest esteem by Por- 
talis and the Cardinal Gerdil, though we are 
told in the ** Dictionnaire des Dates" that 
the author was himself a deist A second 
edition of the work in two volumes, consider- 
ably augmented, appeared in 1802 with the 
name <» the author, and with the new title 
of " La Religion triomphant des Attentats de 
rimpiete." AI6a published another work. 
Reflections against Divorce, " Reflexions oon- 
tre le Divorce," Paris, 1802, 8vo., and is 
said to have left behind him several manu-- 
scripts relating to the French Revolution. 
(^Biographie Universelle^ Ivi. 155. ; Harmon- 
ville, DictUmnaire des Dates, L 101.) T. W. 

ALEA'NDRO, GIROXAMO, cardinal, 
was bom at Motta, near Friuli, on the thir- 
teenth of Febmary, 1480. At the age of 
thirteen he applied himself to the study of 
belles lettres at Venice under Benedetto 
Bmgnolo and PetroniUo Arunini. (hi his 
return to Motta in 1497 he ofiered a public 
challenge to Domenico Plorio, the professor 
of the place, in which contest he was vic- 
torious, and succeeded to the post of his 
adversary. He then studied astronomy, me- 
dicine, and the Hebrew language, and in the 
year 1500 gave public lectures at Venice on 
the Tusculan questions of Cicero with great 
success. His reputation gained him the 
notice of Aldus Manudus the elder. From 
Venice he proceeded to Padua, and while 
there received an invitation to Rome frtmi 
Pope Alexander VL, who was desirous of 
appointing him secretary to his son, Ctosar 
Borgia j but wishing, in the first place, to 



ALEANDRO. 



ALEANDRO. 



put his abilities for pablic affiun to the 
test, directed him to repair to Hungary as 
his envoy. Aleandro accordingly set oat 
upon his joomey, bat falling side on the 
road was obliged to retam to Venice, and 
the pope's death, which occarred before his 
recovery, pat an end at once to his mission 
and appointment as secretary. He continued 
his studies at Venice, and no greater ^roof of 
his extraordinary ability and repatation can 
be adduced than the tact that Aldus in 1504 
dedicated to him his Greek edition of Homer, 
and the honourable and affectionate mention 
made of him in the prefiice to that work, in 
which Aldus states that he was a perfect 
master of the Greek and Hebrew, and well 
acquainted with the Chaldee and Arabic lan- 
guages, mathematics, and music, and able to 
write Latin, in verse and prose, with great 
elegance. During his residence at Venice he 
formed a great intunacy with Erasmus, whom 
he assist^ in the preparation of a new edition 
of his *' Adagia,'* which was printed at the 
Aldine press : the two friends resided at the 
house of Andrea Asolano, the &ther-in-law 
of Aldus. In the year 1508 the professor- 
ship of belles lettres and the Greek language 
in the university of Paris was offered to 
him by Louis XlL, which he accepted, ^d 
ultimately became rector of that university, 
in violation of its statutes, he being a 
foreigner, but he obtained the privilege of 
naturalisation. After a residence at Paris of 
several years he quitted it on the appear- 
ance of the plague, and gave lectures on the 
Greek language in Orleans, Blois, and other 
places. In 1518 he became secretary to the 
Archbishop of Paris, and in the year fol- 
lowing entered into the service of Everard 
de la March, the bishop of Liege, who made 
him his chancellor, a canon of his cathedral, 
and provost of 8. Pietro. During two years 
that he resided in Liege he employed himself 
in teaching the Greek language. The bishop, 
being desirous of obtaining the dignity of car- 
dinal, against which Francis L of France had 
raised many obstacles, sent Aleandro to Rome 
for the purpose of urging his pretensions 
before the pope, Leo X.: Aleandro suc- 
ceeded in his mission, and so well conciliated 
the good opinion of the pontiff that he de- 
tained him at court He was first made 
secretary to tiie cardinal Giulio de' Medici 
(■afteTwvixdB Clement VII. \ and in 1519 suc- 
ceeded Zanobio Accii^uoh as librarian of the 
Vatican. The doctrines of Lather at this 
time made great progress in Germany, and 
Aleandro was sent to that country at the 
conmiencement of the year 1520 for the 
purpose of opposing them. On his way to 
the diet at Worms he was sulijected to the 
greatest mortifications in those places where 
the Lutheran tenets had been adopted : neither 
members of colleges nor nobles nor priests, 
even among those who were supposed to be 
favourable to the pope's cause, would venture 
797 



to receive him ; and the nuncio, when he had 
occasion to halt for reftvshment, was obliged 
to seek shelter in the meanest inns. He re- 
paid these affronts with the bitterest enmity 
against the reformers. He repeatedly urged 
the condemnation of Luther with the utmost 
impetuosity, and in one of his speeches to the 
diet was so fax transported by his sealous 
rage as to exclaim, ** If ye seek to shake off 
yoor allegiance to Rome, ye Germans, we 
will so act, thal» the sword of extermination 
beinff drawn against each other, ye may 
perish in your own blood." He designated 
the Lutherans as ** a motley rabble of inso- 
lent grammarians, licentious priests, disorderly 
monks, ignorant advocates, degraded nobles, 
misled and perverted plebeisns." He also 
drew up the edict, which was finally adopted 
by the emperor and the diet, condemning 
Luther and his doctrines as heretical, and 
ordering his writings to be publicly burnt 
His violent conduct greatlv incensed Erasmus, 
and completely severed ue friendship which 
had hitherto existed between them. On the 
accession of Adrian VI. to the pontifical 
throne in 1521, Aleandro accompanied him 
into Spain, and thence to Italy, and was 
made by his successor, Clement VIL, in 
1528, archbishop of Brindisi and of Oria, 
and despatched as nuncio to Francis I. He 
was present with the French king at the 
battle of Pavia in 1525, and was made prisoner 
with him. He obtained his release by the 
payment of a considerable sum of money, and 
in 1526 returned to Rome, where he nar- 
rowly escaped fh>m the Colonna fiiction, who 
sacked and destroyed his palace, and en- 
deavoured to seiae him as an adherent of the 
pope. In consequence of this attack he 
retired to his bishopric of Brindisi in 1527, 
and remained there until 1531, when the 
pope recalled him to Rome, and sent him 
again to Germany to the diet of Spires, which 
subsequently met at Ratisbon in the spring 
of the following year. Here Aleandro's 
strenuous exertions to prevent the emperor 
concluding a truce with tiie Protestant princes 
of Germany proved abortive, and he went as 
nuncio to Venice, where he remained until 
1535, when the then pope, Paul III., desirous 
of rewarding his devotion to the church, re- 
called him to Rome for the purpose of cre- 
ating him cardinal ; but afterwards, fearing 
the displeasure of Ferdinand, kin^ of the Ro- 
mans, and the other Roman Catholic princes of 
Germany, whom Aleandro had irritated by the 
asperity with which he had attacked Luther, 
and apprehensive that his promotion at that 
period might prevent the conclusion of the 
desired peace, withheld the dignity until the 
year 1538, when it was conferred upon him. 
He now resigned the office of librarian of the 
Vatican, and was deputed with the cardinals 
Campeggio and Simonetta to preside over the 
council intended to be held at Vicenza ; but 
this design being abandoned, he was in 1538 
3f 3 



ALEANDHO. 



ALEANDBO. 



ient for the third time legate to Germany, 
whence he returned to Rome in 1539 without 
effecting any object, on the council being 
prorogued to an indefinite period. While 
engaged in the composition of a work en- 
titled **I>e Concilia habendo," he was at* 
tacked by a slow fever, and expired on the 
thirty-first of January, 1542. He was buried 
in the church of 8. Qrisogooo, but his body 
was afterwards removed to bis native ptooe 
and lodged in the cathednd of S. If ieoold. 

Aleandro was a man of great abilitv, whioh 
even his enemies did not deny ; but his fiery 
seal against the RefiMrmed religion oti/Ok M 
him bisyond the bounds of prwteme, and 
injured the cause which be supported, hor 
ther indulged in the bitterest invecdves 
against him, assertingtlnt he was a Jew, and 
did not believe in the resurrection, and 
charging him with covetousness, lust, arro- 
gance, pride, and vanity ; and Uhric Hutten 
went so far as to threaten that he would kill 
him if he ever had a fiiir opportunity. It is 
certain that he was fond of luxury aikd public 
show : his character was impetuous and de- 
cided, and he was indefiatigable in the accom- 
plishment oibiB oljgeots. His principal works 
m print are — 1. *' Lexicon Gneco-Latinum,*' 
Paris, 1512, fo|. This work is said to have 
been compiled by six of his scholars, and that 
he only revised it and added a few notes. 
2. ** Tabuhe sane utiles GrsDcarum Musarum 
Adyta Compendio ingredi volentibqs." This 
is a compendium of the Gre^ Grammar of 
Chrysoloras published at Paris about 1518 in 
foL, and is also comprised in the ** Elementale 
Tntrodttctorinm in Nominum Declinationes 
Grscas,** published tA Straasburg in 1515 in 
4to. HeeditedtheGreekGrammar of Chry- 
soloras printed at Paris in 1511, and several 
works of Greek authors. Lorenzo Crasso 
has placed him among the Greek poets 
(Istoria di Poeti Greet, p. 277.) ; hjs tiUe 
to this diBtinction rests upon four Greek dis- 
tichs prefixed to the first edition of the Mo- 
ralia of Plutarch, printed at Venice, in folio, 
by Aldus, in 1509 ; and the two verses with 
which he concluded his own XaJan. epitaph : — 

KArdayop otfK &^Ka»y, tSri waOtrofuu 6p hrt^- 

Some of his poetical pieces existed in manu- 
script in the library of Cardinal Sirleto, others 
were preserved at Venice with the canons 
of S. Giorgio in Alga. His most important 
letters reifying to his legations against the 
heresies of Luther are deposited in the library 
of the Vatican : from these Pallavicino de- 
rived materials for tiie early part of his his- 
tory of the council of Trent ; and the work 
•* De Concilio habendo,'* of which Aleandro 
had written foQr books at the time of his 
death, is said to have been of much use in 
regulating the proceeding cf that council. I 
He left behind him a diary in manuscript, ' 
798 *^ 1 



of which Mazzuchelli availed himself in 
drawing up his account of his life. (Mazza- 
ehelli, Scrittari ^Italia ; Liruti, NotizU ddie 
Vite ed Opere ScrUte da* Letterati ddFriMU^ 
L 456^-506. ; Merle d'Aubign^, HUtoire de 
la Be/ormatum, il 193, 194. 224—228. 239 — 
246.; ^ortin, lA/e ofErasmmj L 244.) 

J. W. J. 
ALEA'NDBO, GIROXAMO, coumionly 
called the younger, in order to distingubh him 
from his grand-uncle the cardinal, was the son 
of Scipio Aleandro and Amaltea Amahei, the 
daughter of the celebrated poet Girolamo 
Amaltei, and was bom at Motta in Friuli, on 
tiie twenty-ninth of July, 1574. Like the 
cai^nal, he displayed great precocity of in- 
tellect, and at the age of sixteen he composed 
seven beautiful odes in the form of para- 
phrases on the seven penitential psalms, 
which were afterwards printed at Rome 
under the title of ** Le Lagnme di Penitenza :** 
he had previously written a paraphrase of 
the same psalms in Latin el^iac verse. The 
epigram upon the death <xf Camillo Paleotto, 
printed among his Latin poems,'is stated to 
have been composed in his sleep. Being 
designed for the church, he was sent at the 
tig^ at twenty to the university of Padua, 
where he applied himself with great ardour 
to the study of beUes lettres, jurisprudence, 
philosophy and theology. At the age of 
twenty-six he publish^l his Commentaiy 
upon the Institutes of Caius (Gaius), which 
was well received, and the public pix^essor- 
ship of jurisprudence was offered to him by 
several universities. These invitations he de- 
clined, and went to Rome on the suggestion 
of his uncle, Attilio Amalteo, who speedily 
obtained for him the office of preposito of 
Saint Philip and Saint James of Brescia. 
He joined l^e Academy degli Umoristi, just 
then instituted at Rome, and embracing all 
the most learned men in that city, and be- 
came one of its most active members ; his 
academical name was Aggirato. He bad not 
long resided at Ronie when Cardinal Ottavio 
Bandini appointed him his secretary, in which 
post he continued twenty years, notwith- 
standing the numerous solicitations from other 
cardinals who were anxious to obtain his 
services. During this long period he devoted 
all his leisure to the pursuit of literature and 
antiquities. Li 1624 Pope Urban VHI. suc- 
ceeded in drawing him fh>m Cardinal Ban- 
dini, and made him his own secretary : he 
also acted as secretary for his nephew Car- 
dinal Barberini, and accompanied him in 
this capacity and as councillor upon his being 
sent, m 1625, as legate a latere to France 
for the purpose of negotiating a peace be- 
tween France, Spain and Genoa. Up to this 
period Aleandro, whose coustitution was na- 
turally delicate, had accustomed himself to 
great regularity and simplicity of life; but in 
France the necessity to which he was sub- 
jected pf living more frpely, threw him into 



ALEANPBO. 

an ill state of health, whieh eompeUed him, 
instead of accompanying the canlinal, irho 
proceeded into Spain, to return to Rome, 
where he died on the ninth of March, 1629. 
Hie loss was deeply felt by Cardinal Bar- 
herini, who waa greatly attached to him, and, 
as a mark of respect, ordered him a splendid 
fimeraL His fnneral oration was pronounced 
by Gamr de Simeonibna. Baillet, on ac- 
count m his early prooft of genius, hai placed 
him among his ** Enfiois o^i^res par lenrs 
E'tndee." He was one of the most learned 
men of his time, and his atyle is commended 
by De Rossi as purs and elegant 

His works are : — 1. " Psalmi pcenitentiales 
Versibus elegiacis ezpressl Tarvisli, 1593,*' 
4to. 2. " Cigi Tetens Juriaoonsulti Institu- 
tionum Fragmenta cum Commentaria Ve- 
netiis, 1600," 4ta 8. ** Sopra Tlmpresa degli 
Accademici Umoristi Discorsa R(»na,1611,'* 
4to. 4. ** AntiqosB TabuliB Marmores Solis 
EflUgie Symbolisque ezscuhrte Explicatio, &c. 
Rom®, 1616," 4ta 5.** Effigies IKstriiEgyptii 
quod servatur in Musoo Francisci Goaldi, 
explicata." 6. ** In Nuptiis M. A. Bnrghesii 
Carmen. Roncilioni, 1619," 4to. 7. •* ReAi- 
fatio Coigecturs anonymi Scriptoria [J. 
Gothofiredi] de snburbioariia Re^ioDibus ac 
PioBcesi Episcopi RomanL Parisiis, 1619," 
4to. 8. *'InObitamCatellfeAldin»Lachryme 
poetics. Parisiis, 1622," 8vo. 9.**LeLagnme 
di Penitenza ad Imitazione de* selte Salmi 
penitenzialL Roma, 1623," 8ya 10. '^ De 
duplici Statu Religionis in Scotia. Roma, 
1623," 8yo. 1 1. ** Navis Ecclesiam referentis 
Symbolum, in yeteri Gemma annnlari in- 
aculptum, Explicatione illustratum. Romse, 
1626," 8va 12. ♦* Difeaa dell* Adone, Poema 
del Cavalier Marini, per Risposta all* Oochiale 
del Caraiiere StiglianL Venetia, 1629-80," 
1 2mo. 13. ** Assertionum Catholicamm libri 
IIL RomiB, 1628," foL 14. " Additiones ad 
Ciacconium de Vitis Pontificum.** Urban VIIL 
haying determined that a new edition of Ciae- 
conio*8 work should be published, deputed 
Aleandro and Andrea Vittorelli to the task of 
editors: Aleandro died before the completion 
of the work, but his additions, comprising 
▼oL iL were printed at Rome in 1680. 15. 
** Additamentum ad Explanationem antique 
Inscriptionis Scipionis Barbati," published in 
tom. iy. p. 597. of the works of J. Sirmond. 1 6. 
The greater part of his Latin poems were pub- 
lished with those of Girolamo, Giambattista, 
and Comelio Amalteo, his maternal grand- 
ftther and uncles, at Venice, in the year 1627. 
He also left in manuscript, "• Commentarius 
in Legem de Seryitutibus," yarions treatises 
on antiquarian sulijects, poems in Latin and 
Italian, &c, a particular account of which is 
given by MasauchellL (Liruti, NoHzie ddk 
VUe ed Opere acriUe da* LeUerati del Fritdi, p. 
506 — 536. ; Eiythrsus, Pinacotheca Ifnagintan 
iBugtrium Viromm, p. 46. $ Massuchelli, Scrit- 
tori d^ Italia i Fontanini, A m imta di Tomo 
di/uo, p. 136. 169. 292.) J. W. J. 

799 



ALEAUME. 

ALR4S. r Velasco, Dieoo db.] 
ALFAUME, LOUIS, a French writer ot 
IrfUin poetry in the sixteenth century. He 
was born of a good fimiily at Vemenil in 
1525, and studied the law. ** He would have 
made a great advocate," says Loisel, in his 
dialogue on the advocates or the Parliament 
of Paris, ** if he had tied himself to the bar, 
as he showed in a cause where I" (it is Pas- 
qoier, the great lawyer, who is represented 
speaking) ** was counsel against him ; but he 
was a man for books and liberty, contented 
with what property he had of his own, and 
with the i&oe of substitute for the king's 
counseL Me was provided too with the post 
of lieutenant general of Orleans, which he 
filled with 'much honour and satisfaction, 
giving himself up to polite letters, and in par- 
ticular to Latin poetry, in which he was an 
excellent hand, as is shown by a book that 
his son, Gilles Aleaume, has had printed 
since his decease, and especially by an enigma 
about a capdle, which may be compared to 
the best Latin poems of this age." Aleaume 
died in 1596, at the age of more than seventy, 
«' but still," says Saint Marthe, ''by an un- 
timely death, because it was only a few 
monttis before the pence concluded between 
the king and the conspirators." He was mar- 
ried to Margaret Brulart, sister of the first 
lord of Genlis, by whom he left a son, Gilles, 
who inherited his office and preserved his 
memory by the publication (^ his works. 
The poems of Aleaume occupy fifty-three 
pages in the coUeetion published by Gruter 
under the assumed name of Ranutius Gherus, 
an anagram of Janus Gruterus. The enigma 
on a candle, or rather a lantern, ** Obseura 
Claritas," is a sufficient proof that Saint 
Marthe, to whom some of Aleanme*s verses 
are addressed, was correct in saying that he 
possessed a peculiar feculty of extracting 
amusement ftom a barren subject Some 
lines on the death of Philip Picard, a preacher 
of Orleans, might also be cited for peculiar 
merit, and the verses are in general distin- 
guished for spirit and vivacity. (Loisel, 
I^cuquier ou Dialogue de» AdoocaU, in Camus, 
LeUrea aw la Pivfeuion ttAvocat, edit of 
1818, i 304.; Sammarthanus, Elogia doctontm 
m Gallia Viromm, edit of Jena, 1696, p. 9.5, 
&C. ; Gherus, DeUeim Poetarum Galtorumy 
1 1 — 53. ; Article by Lamoureux in Biographie 
UniveraeUe, Ivi 156.) T. W. 

ALEFELD, GEORG LUDWIG, was 
the son of Jolumn Ludwig Alefeld, professor 
of philosophy in the university of Giessen, 
and was bom at Giessen m 1 732. He studied 
there and at Strassburg, and received his 
doctor*8 diploma in 1756. In 1758 he was 
appointed extraordinary professor of me- 
dicine at Giessen, and soon afterwards ordi- 
nary professor of medicine and physics. He 
died in 1774, having published the following 
dissertations: — 1. ''De Aere Sanguine per- 
misto," 1756. 2. **I>e Dissectione Foetus in 
3F 4 



AL£F£Lt>. 



AL£CAMBC. 



Utero," 1757. 3. In Causam cur .Foennm 
madidiim Ignem ooocipiat," 1761. 4. ** De 
Aneurynnate Arteriae cninlis in CartUa- 
ginem et Os mutato,'* 1763. 5. ** De inaigni 
Usu Sulphnris aoraiti Antimonii/' 1765. «. 
** De Sphacelo a Causa interna oriundo salnti- 
fero oque ac nociTO," 1766. 7. "De Epi- 
lepsia Febrium intermittentium," 1765. 8. 
" De Fluore albo ex Ne^leetu Diets," 1766. 
9. "De Sanguinis Miaiione InfiuitibnB neo- 
natia debilibos," 1766. 10. " De Hssmor- 
rhagiia," 1767. 11. "De Pathematibus hy- 
ftericis,'* 1767. 12. " An Contrafissura in 
Cranio Infimtis seque ac Adulti generari 
qneat,'' 1769. 13. " De D<rforibu8 in Partu 
silentibus," 1770. All of these were pub- 
lished in 4to. at Oiessen. (Jocher, GMtrtm- 
Lexicon, fortsetsnng Ton Adelung ; Commen- 
tarii Lmmauet, t xx.) J. P. 

ALEGAMBE, PHILIP, was bom at 
Brussels in 1 598. At an early age he became 
secretary to the Duke of Ossuna, with whom 
he trarelled m Spain and Italy, and he en- 
tered the order of the Jesuits at Palermo 
in 1613. For some thne he taught philosophy 
at the college of the Jesuits at Grata in Ger- 
many, where the prince of Eg^emberg, an 
Austrian nobleman, appointed hmi his son's 
tutor. He travelled with the young prince 
during five years in Germany, France, Ital^, 
and ^ain, and after his return taught agam 
philosophy at Gr&ts. Alegambe subsequently 
went to Home, where he died in 1652, as 
superior of the house of the Jesuits, and 
secretary to the general of the order. 

He contmued and considerably au^ented 
the " Bibliotheca Scriptormn Societatis Jesu,** 
published by Ribadeneira, 1602, in 8to. This 
excellent work of Alegambe, the first edition 
of which was printed at Antwerp, 1643, in 
folio, was again augmented after the death of 
the author by FaSier Nathaniel Southwell, 
and published under the title of " Bibliotheca 
Scriptorum Societatis Jesu, Opus inchoatnm 
a R. P. Petro Ribadeneira, continuatum a 
R. P. Philippe Alegambe usque ad Annum 
1 642, etc" Rome, 1 67 5, in fbl. It is the best 
work on the general biography and biblio- 
graphy of the earlier Jesuit writers ; but it 
would have been more convenient for use if 
the author, instead of* arranging the articles in 
alphabetical order, according to the Christian 
names of the writers, had arranged them in 
the usual order of their fbmily names. The 
list of works of the different authon is 
not always complete. The Abbe Feller, 
in the work cited below, speaks of another 
similar work written in the last century 
by Father Oudin, a French Jesuit, which 
he affirms to be &r superior to that of 
AJegambe. But it may be doubted whether 
the Abb6 Feller ever saw this work of Oudin, 
which has never been printed: the manuscript 
was carried off iVt>m Paris during the re- 
volution. A learned Jesuit has lately traced 
this manuscript into Italy, bat he lost all 
800 



vestiges of it before he reached Rome'. 
Alegambe is also the author of — 1. " Mortes 
illustres et Gesta eorum qui in Odium Fidei 
ab Haereticis vel aliis occisi sunt," Rome, 

1657, in fblio, which contams the biogra- 
phies of the Jesuits who died as martyn for 
the Roman Catholic fkith. 2. "Heroes et 
Yictinue Charitatis Societatis Jesu," Rome, 

1658, in 4ta, contains the biographies of 
those memben ci the order who sacrificed 
themselves by attending the sick during the 
plague and similar maladies. It comes down 
to tifee year 1647, and was continued to 1657 
by the editor, John NadasL Bendes these 
works, Alegambe wrote several smaller trea- 
tises on the vanity of honour and the pleasures 
of the world, which contain sound morslitj 
expressed in elegant language. (Alegambe, 
BMiodL Script, Soc, Jeau, Rome, 1676, in 
folio, sub voc " Philippus Alegambe ; " W. 
Smets, WoM that der JetmHtmvdoi fir die 
Wie$enachaftf sub voc "Alegambe;** Fd- 
ler, Dictiomuure Histonqme, sub voc. " Ale- 
gambe;" M^moires pour servir a VHistoire 
Uttiraire dee Pcqfe-Bae (by Fsquot), sub voc 
" Alegambe.") W. P. 

ALE'GRE, D', a novelist and dramatist 
who lived in the reign of Louis XV. Of 
this writer neither the Christian name nor 
the time nor place of his birth is known : 
it is even disputed whether he was the author 
of the works which are ascribed to him. 
The <mij undisputed fact respecting him is, 
that he died in Paris in 1736. The comedies 
attributed to D* Alegre are " L'Homme ii bonnes 
Fortunes," and " I^ Coquette." He was also 
the author of two romances, " Gulistan, oa 
TEmpire des Roses; traite des Mcran des 
Rois," and " L*Histoire de Moncado," Ac 
(Biog. Univ. Sitppl.) H. G. 

ALE'GRE, ANGELIQUE IV, a French 
Capuchin in the latter half of the seventeeniiki 
century. He was the author of " Le Chretien 
parfidt, ou le Portrait des Perfections divines 
tiroes en THomme sur son Origmal," printed 
m 4to. at Paris in 1665. (Adelune's Sypple- 
ment to Jocher's AUgem. CMehrten-LexieoH.) 

A. T. P. 

ALEGRE DE CASANATE, MARC- 
ANTaNIO, a Carmelite and doctor of di- 
vinity, bom at Tarragona in Catalonia, pre- 
ferred the retirement of a cell to succeeding 
his uncle in the office of secretary of King 
Philip III. He died in 1658, at the age of 
sixty-ei^ht His principal work is called 
" Paradisus Carmelitici decoris," Lyon, 1639, 
foL According to Baillet this work is an 
account of au&on and othen among the 
Carmelites, which has been deservedly cen- 
sured, both for its strong prejudice in fiivour 
of that order, and for its being swelled by 
names of individuals who were not Carmel- 
ites. (Baillet, Jugemene dee Savons, tom. iL 
Srt i. ; Jocher, AUgem. GeUhrten-Lexicon ; 
oreri, Dictumnaire Historique, ed. 1759.) 

A. T. P. 



ALKGRE. 



ALEHi 



ALE^RB, TVES» baron d\ vas a 
distingnifllied captain in the Italian wars of 
Charles VIIL and Louis XII. He served 
under Charles when he invaded Naples in 
. 1495» and under Louis when that prince con- 
quered the MUanese, and expelled Ludovico 
SfoTsa from Lombard^ in 1499. Louis, prior 
to his Italian expedition, had engaged to aid 
Cesar Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VL, in 
aoquiring an Italian principality ; and as 
soon as he had established the French domi- 
nion in Milan, the French king, instigated by 
his minister the Cardinal of Amboise, who was 
in the papal interest, des^tched Alegre, with 
300 lances and 4000 Swiss, to the assistance 
of Borgia, who was then preparing to subdue 
the papal feudatories in Romagna. This 
timely aid enabled Csesar to begin his enter- 
prise with ^reat spirit and success, Alegre 
and the auxiliaries took the field in Romagna 
with CsBsar in November, 1499, and in a 
short space reduced Lnola, Forli, and Cesena. 
Alegre was about to lay siege to Pesaro 
when Trirulcio, whom Louis had left in 
command at Milan, was suddenly attacked 
by Sforza at the head of 8000 Swiss ; and he 
was compelled to recall Alegre finom Ro- 
magna. His return to Lombardy suspended 
the enteq>rises of Cssar and the extensive 
projects of Pope Alexander VI. Alegre co- 
operated with Trivulcio in baffling the at- 
tempt of Sforza to recover the Milanese 
(1500^; and he was instrumental in re- 
establishing the French power in the north of 
Italy. He commanded a body of reserve at 
the battle of Ravenna (1512) under Gaston 
de Foix and Bayard ; he contributed to that 
decisive victory by directing his jrouthful 
captain in the use of his artillerjr against the 
Spanish horse; and he was killed at the 
head of his body of reserve in the latter part 
of the action. He was reputed the best 
tactician and disciplinarian at that time in 
the French armies. (Guicciardini, Istoria 
<r Italia,) H. G. 

ALEGRE, TYES, marquis d', of the 
same family, was a distinguished captain 
in the time of Louis XIV. He was at the 
battle of Fleurus, which Marshal Luxem- 
bourg gained over the Prince of Waldeck 
(1690). In the war of the Grand Alliance 
he served under Bouflers and Villeroy, and 
in 1703 signaUsed himself by defending Bonn 
against the confederate army commanded by 
Marlborough. He was unable to save the 
town, but obtained fisivourable terms. In a 
subsequent campaign in Flanders he was 
taken prisoner by the English. In 1712 
Alegre served under Villars at the sieges of 
Douay and Bouchain ; and was at the attack 
on the German camp at Fribourg in 1713, 
immediately before the peace of Rastadt He 
was marshal of France m 1724, and was ap- 
pointed military commandant in Brittany. 
He died in 1733, aged eighty. (Hcnault, 
Abr^. Chron,; Mercure Hist 1703.) H. G. 
801 



AXEHI, (not Dahy, as Chabert calls him,) 
a Turkish writer, who lived in the fifkeendi 
century, and made himself a name in the 
literature of his nation by his mystic poems 
and works on morals. He was bom in Ana- 
tolia, but the year of his birth is uncertain. 
He entered the religions order of the Naksh- 
bendi at Bokhara, where he received the 
^ mystic ordination,** and lived a long time 
with the £unous sheikh Jami. He died in 
A.H. 896 (A.Db 1491), at Yenije Warda, and 
his tomb is regarded as a holy place, and 
visited by pious pilgrims. His pnncipal works 
are, **.Sad-ul-mashtakin'' (** Provision for 
longing SouU ") ; " N^at-ul-erwah " (•* De- 
livery of the Soul") ; " Meslik-ul-tulibin wel 
wisUln " (" The Way of those who seek and 
find.**) (Latifi, Biographiscke NachrichUn 
von Tvrkischem DiclUern iibersetzt von Cha- 
bert, p. 46.) W. P. 

ALEKSiEEV (or ALEXEJEVX PHEO- 
DOR YAKOVLEVITCH, an artist who 
has been called the Russian Canaletto, was 
bom in 1755. After studying at the Aca- 
demy of Fine Arts, St. Petersburg, where 
he had greatly distinguished himself, and 
obtained several prise medals, he was sent 
abroad for further improvement Durmg 
his stay in Italy he fixed himself for the 
greater part of the time at Venice, whose 
picturesque structures were congenial to 
his taste for architectural subjects; and 
while there he made a great many views 
of the principal edifices, profiting at the 
same time by the works of Canaletto and 
the instruction of MorieschL On his return 
to St Petersburg in 1779 he became scene- 
painter at the bnperial Theatre, where he 
continued till 1787, from which period he 
devoted himself entirely to architectural sub- 
jects in oil on a smaller scale. In 1794 he 
was made a member of the Academy of Fine 
Arts ; and in 1801 was sent by his patron, 
the Emperor Paul, to take views of buildings 
at Moscow and in other cities dT the empire. 
He returned with a lar^e collection of 
sketches and finished drawmgs, from which 
he afterwards produced a series of paintings 
now deposited in the' gallery of the Her- 
mitage, and which, independently of their 
interest as works of art, possess an additional 
one as recording that capital and its chief 
buildings before the connagration in 1812. 
In 1803 he was appointed professor of per- 
spective at the academy, in the duties of 
which office and his labours with his own 
pencil he continued ftilly engaged up to the 
time of his death, November ^ 1821. His 
latter works however were not equal to those 
which he had produced between the years 
1787 and 1810. 

In accuracy of perspective and architectu- 
ral drawing, in judicious selection of the 
point of view for his buildings, in his manage- 
ment of light and shade, and in freedom of 
handling, Alekseev disf^yed great ability ; 



ALEKSMEV, 



ALEMAN. 



bat in his fignreB he was not always equally 
happy, neither was he so in aeriid perspec- 
tive, more especially in his later works ; yet 
eome have ascribed to him particular merit 
on acooont of his aerial efifeots. Among his 
nomeroos pupils, Vorobiev has most dis- 
tinguished himself in architectural painting. 
(Grigorieyitch, in the EntziMhp, Leksihon 
Severnie TzwttL) W. H. L. 

ALEMAGNA, GIU8TO DI, or JUSTUS 
DE ALEMANIA, an eminent painter of 
the fifteenth century. He painted in the year 
1451, in the convent of S. Maria di Castello 
8t (}enoa, a very cureMly executed picture 
in fresco of the Annonciation ; upon which 
he wrote the following inscription, " Justus 
de Alemania pinzit mcoccu.*' This is 
the oldest fresco painting in Genoa, and the 
colours are still quite firesh and very brilliant. 
Justus was evidently a German. (Soprani, 
ViUd^Pittori^ Scultori, e Architetti GenovesL) 

ALEMAN, LOUIS, archbishop of Aries, 
one of the most distinguished churchmen of 
the fifteenth century, was bom at Bugey in 
1390. He was successively bishop of Mague- 
lone, a see afterwards transferred to Mont- 
pellier, and archbishop of Aries. In 1426 
he was made a cardinal by Pope Martin V., 
who sent him to the council o( Siena. 
When that pontiff assembled the council of 
Basle in 1431, he appointed Aleman one of 
the presidents; and he acted a memorable 
part in that celebrated assembly. Euge- . 
nius TV., who succeeded Martin in 14^1, 
bent all his efforts to recover the papal su- 
premacy, which had been wrested from Rome 
by the act of the council of Constance de- 
claring the authority of councils superior; 
and he sought to acquire the command of the 
council of Basle by transferring it to Bo- 
logna, where his Italian influence was irre- 
sistible. The bull which for this purpose 
Eugenius issued, produced a rupture between 
him and the council, and revived the ques- 
tion on the nature and limits of the papal 
supremacy. Aleman and Cardinal Julian, Uie 
two presidents, zealously espoused the side of 
the council, offering a determined opposition 
to the pope; and the vigorous resolutions 
which the French party then passed, seconded 
in tibis instance by the Emperor Sigismund 
and the cardinals of the imperial faction, 
have ever since formed the grand distinction 
between the doctrines of moderate Catholicism 
and the ultramontane principles which exalt 
the papal authority over all temporal power. 
It was at the instance of Aleman that the 
council threatened Eugenius with suspension 
from his spiritual office if he did not recall 
the bull, and he was mainly instrumental in 
procuring that famous act of the council by 
which the pope was declared to have no 
power of dLBSolving, proroguing, or trans- 
ferring councils. Eugenius, a man of a lofty 
and enterprising character, persisted in his 
802 



exorbitant pretensions ; and he was encou- 
raged in his resolution to maintain them by 
the defection of Cardinal Julian, who after 
supporting Aleman with all his learning and 
eloquence, deserted the cause of the councUy 
and went over to the papal side. The steady 
mind of Aleman still pursued its purpose. 
He arrayed the temporal princes, especially 
the Emperor Sigismund and the Duke of 
Milan, against Eugenius ; he rallied the 
northern prelates, who were inclined to li- 
beral senUments, round his own partisans of 
the French faction, and in fiivour of their 
ecclesiastical liberties; and he finally sob- 
ceeded in obtaining a sentence of deposition 
against the pope (1440), and placing the tiara 
on the head of Amadeus VIIL, duke of Savoy, 
who took the name of Felix V. ^neas Syl- 
vius, who was secretary to the council, says 
that throughout this struggle the prudence 
and firmness of Aleman were very remark- 
able, as well as his art and address ; that he 
was the Hector of the council; and thai 
without him neither the temporal power or 
the council could have withstood the see of 
Rome. Eugenius, who still braved the coun- 
cil, issued a bull by which he deprived Ale- 
man of all his ecclesiastical dignities. There 
were now two pontiffs in the field ; and the 
church was again exposed to the scandal and 
danger which it had incurred from the former 
schism in the papacy and the contest between 
Rome and Avignon. Aleman, who had 
raised Felix to tiie tiara, became apprehen- 
sive of the consequences of pushing matters 
to fhrther extremities ; and he prevailed <m 
Felix to heal the disorders in the church by 
his abdication. Nicholas V., who succeeded 
Eugenius in 1447, restored Aleman to all his 
dignities, and sent him to Lower Germany as 
legate in 1451. He died in 1452. (iEneas 
Sylvius, De Cone. Basil; L'Enfant, Histoire 
du Concile de Basle.) H. G. 

AXEMAN, MATEO, a Spanish writer of 
the reign of Philip II., who acquired a Euro- 
pean reputation by the production of a novel, 
** Guzman de Alfarache;'* for although he 
wrote other books, the knowledge of them is 
confined to his own country. He was, as we ' 
learn from himself, in the royal exchequer 
office, ** Contador de resultas de la Conta- 
duria mayor,'* and had access to the palace, 
which gave him opportunities of obsen'ing 
the manners and profiting by the conver- 
sation of those about the court His book, 
like ** Don Quixote," was published in two 
parts, and to the second is prefixed a eulogium 
by Lys de Valdes, wherein he observes 
" that never soldier had a poorer purse and a 
richer intellect, nor a life of greater disquiet 
and trouble ; and for this reason alone, that 
he accounted it more honourable to be 
esteemed a poor philosopher than a rich flat- 
terer. It is wen known that he left, of his 
own accord, the king's palace, where he had 
served twenty years, the very flower of his 



ALEMAN. 



ALEMAN. 



a«, in the emploYxnent of Kin^ Philip, in the 
office of hU exchequer, and in many other 
weighty affairs, hesides visitations and sur- 
xejs which were intrusted to him ; in all of 
which he conducted himself well and gave 
great satis&ction. His integrity was shown 
by his poverty; for ultimately, not being 
able by reason of his necessities to continue 
his services, he withdrew from office to ob- 
scurity." With these brief notices to aid us, 
as we read his book, one of the most singular 
that Spain has produced, we are enabled to 
form an estimate of him, not only as an 
observer and a man of genius and judgment, 
a graphic describer, and a witty writer who 
has a moral ol^eet in view, but of his personal 
worth and the sterling character of his mind. 
Mayans calls him " mgeniosisimo y discre- 
tisimo escritor.** He seems in his retire- 
ment to have recurred to past scenes, and to 
have set down the vices, die follies, and the 
hypocrisies of the more elevated classes, 
which he had witnessed, while at the same 
time he details with extraordinary minute- 
ness the tricks and adventures of roffues of 
inferior degree. Guzman is a worthy fol- 
lower of Lazarillo de Tormes, and a pre- 
cui^per of Gil Bias. The hero is of doubtful 
descent, with the prsnomen of one of the 
proudest fiunilies of Spain ; tenderly reared, 
he throws himseli^ a boy, upon the world; 
becomes successively stable-boy, beggar, por- 
ter, thief^ man of fashion, soldier m Italy, 
valet to a cardinal, and pander to a French 
ambassador ; is subsequently a merchant and 
becomes bankrupt, then a student at the uni- 
versity of Alcala, marries, is deserted by his 
wife, commits a robbery, is sent to the gal- 
levs, is liberated, and then writes an account 
of his life. The narrative is interwoven with 
shrewd maxims and acute observations. The 
author is classed by Mayans among the prose 
writers best adapted for the formation of a 
good Castilian style, and is named by him, 
which is no small merit, with Fray Luis de 
Leon, Hurtado de Mendoza, Cervantes, Mari- 
ana, and Herrera, the great masters of this 
rich, harmonious, and noble language. The 
book was first printed in 1599, went through 
five-and-twenty editions in Spain, and was 
translated into all the languages of Europe ; 
it appeared in London, in 1623, as from an 
anonymous translator, for the Spanish name 
affixed, Don Diego Puede-ter {May-be-w) 
is evidently assumed; probably by the in- 
defatigable Howell, who was at Madrid im- 
mediatelv prior to the date of its publica- 
tion. Aleman wrote also a life of Saint 
Antho^ of Padua, a treatise on orthography, 
and ** llie Beacon (Atalaya) of Life.*^ 

W.CW. 
ALEMAN, RODRI'GO, a sculptor, says 
Bennudez, of much celebrity in his time, 
about the beginning of the sixteenth centnry : 
he was pro&bly a German. Rodrigo exe- 
cQted the figures and arabesque ornaments of 
808 



the stalls of the choir of the cathedral of 
Plasenqia; an extraordinary woik, rich in 
every kind of grotesque device. He exe- 
cuted likewise &e ornamental work of the 
stalls of the church of Ciudad Rodrigo, in 
vhich, however, he introduced serious sub- 
jects : he was paid for each stall 10,000 ma>- 
ruvedis, or about &L Ida, sterling. ('Bermudez, 
Ihocwnario Historico ds loe mat uustrea JRro- 
fetorea de las Bdku Artea in Espana.) 

R. N "W 

ALEMAND, LOUIS AUGUSTIN, a 
French writer of considerable merit, was 
bom at Grenoble in 1653, and brought up in 
the Protestant religion, which he abjured in 
1676. He became an advocate of the parlia- 
ment of Grenoble, and was distinguished fbr 
his talents at the bar, but nevertheless in 
1693 he took the degree of doctor of medi- 
cine at Aix, in the hope of obtaining an 
appointment on board the fleet, in whidi he 
was disappointed. It may be conjectured 
from some expressions in his writings that, 
in spite of his talents and the zeal he mani- 
fested for his new religion, the proselyte was 
not looked upon wiSi fiivour. For some 
time he appears to have lived at Paris ac- 
tively engaged in literary pursuits, but being 
thwarted in various ways, to have returned 
to Grenoble, and followed up his legal career 
tiU his death in 1728. These few &cts of 
his life are gathered from different sources 
and obscure statements, which do not always 
agree. The Biographie Universelle mentions 
1643 as the date <k his birth, and contains 
no allusion to his being an advocate. 

The works of Aiemand are remarkable for 
vivacity, and they are b^ no means deficient 
in judgment or in erudition. The first is a 
collection of critical remarks on the history 
of individual words, ** Nouvelles Observa- 
tions on ffuerre civile des Fran9ais sur la 
Langue." Paris, 1688, 12mo. Goujet speaks 
of it in the highest terms, as both useful and 
entertaining, and expresses his regret that 
the anonymous author, who promised six 
more volumes, had not kept his word. He 
adds the information that in a copy he had 
seen the work was ascribed to Aiemand ; on 
which Artigny remarks, that Goii^et had 
probablv forgotten that this might be done 
on Go^jet's own authority, in another work, 
his edition of Moreri. Artigny might have 
added that in that work it is also stated that 
the appearance of the continuation was pre- 
vented by the interference of the French 
Academy. 

The next work by Aiemand was an edition 
of some unpublished remarks of Vaugelas, 
ef a similar character to his own, ** Nouvelles 
Remarques de M. de Vaugelas, sur la Langue 
Fran9oise, Ouvrage posti^ume, avec des Ob- 
servations, de M • • • • •, Avocat au Par- 
leaaent" Fbris, 1690, l2mo. This work had 
been placed in his hands for publication by 
th« Ahb^ de la Chambre, the friend of him- 



AXEMAND. 



ALEMAKU. 



self and of Father Bouhoan. Bouhoun, in- 
censed that another person should hare been 
chosen for a task he would willingly haye 
undertaken himself, assailed Alemand with 
equal rudeness and injustice in his next 
publication ; but the remarks both of Vaugelas 
. and of his commentator are mentioned with 
commendation by the best French critics. 
The next work of Alemand appeared with 
his name, " Histoire Monastique d7rlande." 
Paris, 1690, 12mo. This work is dedicated 
to James IL, his wife and son, and was written 
to gnxjfy the curiosity the affairs of Ireland 
at that time excited. The author protests, 
in his introduction, that if the booksellers of 
Paris had been as fond of folios as the book- 
sellers of London, he might have swelled 
his materials to that size, and he calls atten- 
tion to a monastic history composed by an 
ex-Protestant, as a proof that it is wrong 
to regard with indifference " all sorts of 
new Catholics.*' He announces his intention 
of publishing an abridgment of Dugdale's 
" Monasticon Anglicanum '* and " English 
Baronage," but the project appears neyer 
to haye been carried into effect This history 
of Irish monasteries, thus written to serve a 
temporary purpose, is a better book than 
might have been expected: it is the basis of 
the ** Monasticon Hibemicum," published at 
London in 1722, which the anonymous edi- 
tor, known to be Captain Stevens, states in 
the prefiice to be '* neither a translation nor 
his own compiling,'* but due to Alemand, 
" as having laid Sie foundation and found 
most of the materials.** Alemand also at the 
suggestion of Pelisson and de la Chambre 
undertook a" Journal Hi8tori(|ue,** or Annual 
Register, one volume of which, containing 
the ^ear 1694, was published at Paris wi£ 
the imprint of Strasburg, and is spoken of 
by D* Artigny as a work of great merit He 
was obliged to drop the continuation, though 
he had another volume ready for the press, 
by the efforts of the proprietors of other pe- 
riodicals, who succeeded in preventing lum 
from obtaining the necessary privilege. A 
French translation of the *' Medicina Statica '* 
of Sanctorius appears to have been the only 
other work that Alemand published. (Moren, 
iHctUmnaire Historique, edit of 1759, L 824.; 
Article by Beuchot in Biogrcmhie UniverseUe, 
L 481.; GovLjeUBibliotheque Fran^iae, i. 174.; 
D' Artigny, Nouveaux Mimovres, L 277, &c. ; 
Alemand*s Histoire MoneLsHque^ &e. ; and 
Stevens's Monasticon Hibemicuni) T. W. 
ALEMA'NIA, JOANNES DE, called also 
Giovanni Tedesco, a German painter who 
lived at Venice in the earlier half of the fif- 
teenth century. His name is inscribed upon 
some pictures in Venice and in Padua, in 
company with that of Antonio Vivarini of 
Murano, with whom he must have worked 
in partnership. In the church of San Giorgio 
Maggiore is a picture of Saints Stephen and 
Sebastian, with the date 1445, and inscribed 
804 



** Joannes de Alemania et Antonius de Ma- 
riano P. ;** and in the church of San Panta- 
leone is a picture of the Virgin upon a gold 
ground, with the inscription, ** Zuane, e An- 
tonio da Muran pense, 1444 ;*' where Zuane 
refers to the same painter according to Lanxi ; 
but Ridofi and Zanetti suppose a Giovanni 
Vivarini and a brother of Antonio to be 
meant In Padua also there is a picture in- 
scribed ** Antonio de Muran e Zohan Ala- 
manus pinxit** After 1447, says Lanzi, this 
painter is not mentioned. (Zanetti, Ddla 
Pittura Veneziana, jfc.;^LanjEi, Storia PU- 
torica deUa ItaUcu) R. N.W. 

ALEMANNI, ANTO'NIO, a Florentine 
poet, lived at the hitter end of the fifteenth 
and commencement of the sixteenth centuries. 
His verses are cited in the ** Vocabolario della 
Crusca,** on account of the purity of their 
lan^puage. He was a great admirer and also 
an imitator of the burlesque style of Burchi- 
ello, and several of his pieces were printed 
at Florence in 1552, in 8vo., with those of 
Burchiello, under the title '* Sonetti del 
Burchiello e di Antonio Alamanni alia Bur- 
chielesca.** Many are likewise inserted In 
different collections : in the **Scelta diLaudi 
spiritual],'* published by the Giunti, there is 
one by Alemanni ; in the collection entitled 
*' Trionfi, Carri e Canti camacialeschi," 
Florence, 1559, 8vo., there are three canti 
by him, and his '* Etimologia del Becafico,** 
which is a composition consisting of a single 
stanza, has been printed in several works, 
among others in vol. iiL p. 176. of the 
" Opere burlesche del Berni,** Florence, 1723, 
8va One sonnet is inserted in Rubbi's 
" Pamaso Italiano,'* vol. vi. p. 332., and an- 
other in Crescimbeni, voL iiL p. 194. He also 
wrote *' Comedia composta di nuovo dal ple- 
charissimo Antonio di Jacopo Alamanni, 
ciptadino Fiorentino, cognominato Lala- 
manno, recitata nell' inclita Cipta di Firense 
neUa Compagnia di S. Marcho, la quale tratta 
della Conversione di Sancta Maria Magdalena. 
Firenze,** 1521, 8vo. (Negri, Istoria deyii 
Scrittori Fiorentini ; Crescimbeni, Comentarj 
intomo aJia sua Istoria deUa vciqar Poesia, 
xL 171. edit 1702. ; Mazzuchelb, Scrittori 
d'ltaUa,) J. W. J. 

ALEMANNI, ARAMIN'INO, a cele- 
brated jurisconsult of the fourteenth century, 
was bom at Milan, and in the year 1351 was 
chosen, with ten others, to collect and digest 
the laws of his country. This work is preserved 
in manuscript in the Ambrosian library, un- 
der the title ** Statuta Patrioe corrects, com- 
piUta, et in Ordinem digesta.** (ArgeUati, 
Bibiiotkeca Scriptorum M&iiohnensiumJ) 

J. W. J. 

ALEMANNI, ARCA'NGELA, a Do- 
minican nun of the monastery of S. Niccolo 
di Prato, was bom of a noble family in Flo- 
rence, and lived in the latter half of the six- 
teenth century. She was the companion of 
the celebrated Lorenza SUozzi, after whose 



ALEMANNI. 



ALEMANNI. 



death in 1591 she wrote Beveral letters oon- 
cerning her life, which are known under the 
title " Epistoln ad Zachariam Montium de 
piiB Morihos et felici Morte ejus Materterse 
dictee Sororis StroEis,et alisB ad aUos." (Qac- 
tif et E'chard, Scriptoreg Ordinis P^eedicctto^ 
rum, ii. 848.) J. W. J. 

ALEMANNI, BASI'LIO, a Jeanit, waa 
bom at Milan, towards the middle of the 
sixteenth century. He has been called the 
Ovid of his age, on account of the excellence 
of his Latin verses. He wrote several tra- 
gedies and pastorals, which were recited in 
the college of Brera ; abio many elegies and 
epignuDos and other pieces, the whole of 
which are preserved in manuscript in the 
libraries of the Jesuits of Brera and S. Fe- 
dele. (Argellati, Biblioikeea Scriptorum Me' 
di^anensium; Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d^ItaUa.') 

J. W.X 

ALEMANNI, BATTISTA, or GIO- 
VANNI BATTISTA, was the son of the 
celebrated poet Luigi Alemanni, and was 
bom at Florence on the SOth of October, 
1519. His &ther having been banished froA 
the Florentine territory, Battista accom- 
panied him into France, where he became 
almoner to Queen Catherine de* Medici. He 
was afterwards made privy counsellor to the 
king, Francis I., who in 1545 conferred 
upon him the abbey of Belleville. In 1555 
he obtained the bishopric of Baaas, which 
he resigned in 1558 for that of Mascon. His 
death took place on the 13th of August, 
1581. His writings consist of three letters 
addressed to Benedetto Varchi, and inserted 
in the second voL of the " Prose Florentine ; ** 
also three sonnets addressed likewise to Var- 
chi, and published with those of the latter in 
the edition printed at Florence in 1557 in 8vo. 
He also edited his fhther^s poem ** La Avar- 
chide," printed at Florence in 1570. (Negri, 
Utoria degii Scrittori Fioreniim; Maxzu- 
chelli, Scrittori ^Italia,) J. W. J. 

ALEMA'NNI, CO'SIMO, was bom at 
Milan about the year 1559, and at the age of 
sixteen entered the society of the Jesuits, of 
which four of his brothers also became mem- 
bers. He taught beUes lettres for three years, 
philosophy for five, theology for eight, and 
during nine years he filled Uie office of pre- 
fect of studies. He made the profession of 
the four vows in 1595. His veneration for 
saints is said to have been unusually great ; 
Saint Luigi Gonaaga, it is said, relieved him, 
by the aid of a miracle, from a profinind me- 
kmcholy by which he was oppressed. He 
possessed great learning, and in his lessons 
of theology and philosophy followed strictly 
the doctrines of Thomas Aquinas. His death 
occurred on the 24th of Ma^, 1684. He wrote 
**Snnnaa totius Philosophin e Divi ThomsB 
Aquinatis, Doctoris Angelioi, Doctrina. 5 torn. 
Papiie, 1618-28,** 4to. An enlarged edition of 
the Moral Philosophy, and the greater part of 
the Metaphysics, edited by O. Fronteau, was 
805 



published at Paris in 1639 and 1640, ra fol. 
He also left behind him ready for the press 
a theological work entitled, '* Correctiones in 
Fonsecam,** which is deposited in manuscript 
in the library of S. Fedele at Milan. ( Argellati, 
Biblioikeea Scriptorum Mediolanensittm ; Ale- • 
gambe, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu ; 
Mazzuchelli, Scrittori it Italia.) J. W. J. 

ALEMA'NNI, GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE, 
the brother of Cosimo and Basilio, was bom 
at Milan about the year 1556, and became a 
member of the society of Jesus, at the age of 
sixteen. His course appears to have been 
very similar to diat of his brother Cosimo. 
He died in 1630. His works are — 1 " Ora- 
zione recitata nella Chiesa cattedrale perl* In- 
coronazione del serenissimo David Vacci 
Prencipe della R. P. di Geneva, li 15 Die. 
1587.*' 2. ** Historia miraculosffi Imaglnis B. 
M. Virginis Montis Regalis vulgo Mondovi.'* 
3. " De Christiana Sapientia ad Principes Gen- 
tiles.** 4. ** Oratio de Inscitia Animai Peste, 
ejusque Medicina.'* 5. " De veris Divitiis Ora- 
tio.*' 6. Tractatus de Elocutione." None o 
these appear to have been printed with the 
exception of the first, which was published 
with another oration by Ampegio ChiavarL 
(Argellati, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Mediola- 
nensium; Alegambe, BibUodieca Scriptorum 
Societatis Jesu.) J. W. J." 

ALEMA'NNI LUIGI, bora at Florence 
in 1495, of a noble fimiily, studied in his 
native country, and became a good scholar 
and a poet Having entered into a con- 
spiracy against the cardinal Giulio de* Medici, 
who governed Florence for Leo X., he was 
discovered, and obliged to save his life by 
fiight He repaired to Venice, where he was 
well received in the house of the senator Cap- 
pello ; but when Cardinal de' Medici became 
pope, under the name of Clement VIL, Ale- 
manni, thinking himself no longer safe in 
Venice, repaired to Provence, and afterwards to 
Genoa, where he became intimate with Andrea 
Doria. When the Florentines revolted against 
the Medici in 1527, Alemanni, with other 
emigrants, returned home, and took part in 
the councils of his countrpnen. He was now 
sobered down by experience ; he thought 
that Florence was no longer in a condition 
to return to its former tumultuous democracy, 
exposed as it was to the attacks of the power- 
ftil party of the Medici, and he advised his 
countrymen to place themselves under the- 
protection of Charles V., the most powerftil 
sovereign of the time, who could protect them 
from the Medici, with whom Charles was not 
then on good terms. He also suggested that 
previous conditions for the security of their 
municipal liberties should be made by means 
of his friend Andrea Doria, who had great 
influence with the emperor. But the hot- 
headed republicans rejected his advice, and 
even reviled him for servility. Alemanni 
thought it better to leave Florence a second 
time. The Medici soon made peace with 



ALEMANNI. 



ALEMANNI. 



Charles, and, as Alemanni had anticipated, 
they obtained his consent to their project of 
reducing Florence by force. 

Alemanni, having repaired to France, 
foond a patron in Francis L, who was fond 
of letters, and who employed hhn in several 
missions, and bestowed upon him the order 
of St Michael In 1532 Alemanni published 
at Lyon an edition of his minor Italian 
poems in two volumes, which he dedicated 
to King Francis his bene&ctor, " Opere 
Toscane." In the following year, on the 
occasion of the marriage of the Dauphin with 
Catherine de' Medici, he dedicated to her 
his new poem on agriculture, entitled " La 
Coltivasione," puUished at Paris 1546. Ca- 
therine gave him the office of steward in her 
household. In 1537 Alemanni paid a visit 
to Italy, but not to Florence ; he resided some 
time at Rome and Nwles, and in 1540 he 
returned to France. He made his adieu to 
Italy in a sonnet which has been much ad- 
mired, and in which he deplores the condition 
of his native country, which debarred him 
from residing in it About 1544 he was sent 
by Francis on an embassy to Charles V. Being 
introduced to the emperor, he recited, as cua- 
tomarv, a laudatory address to the emperor, 
in which he happened to mention the Aus- 
trian eagle. Chu-les quickly added, ** Si, 
I'Aquila gri&gnil che per piii divorar, due 
becchi portJL," a passage in one of Alemanni*s 
poems, in which, alluding to the fionily 
eaentcheon of Charles, he had spoken of the 
double-headed ea^le, whose two beaka seemed 
to have been given to it in order that it 
ought devour the more. Alemanni did not 
lose his presence of mind, but replied that he 
had written that line as a poet, and as a 
young party-man, bat now he spoke as an 
ambassador, and as a man free from passion. 
Charles was pleased with the promptitude of 
the reply, and told Alemanni kindly that he 
ought not to complain of his banishment, 
since it had procured him such a liberal 
patron as Francis L, and that to the nprigfat 
man all the world is his country. 

After the death of King Francis, his sue- 
cesser, Henri II., continued to patrcmise Ale- 
manni, who dedicated to him his new poem 
'* Oirone il Cortese,** the subject of which is 
taken from the romantic legend of the 
Knights of the Round Table. He was em- 
ployed by Henri on a mission to Genoa in 
1551. 

Alemanni died at Amboise, where the 
French court then was, in 1556. His son 
became bishop of Mascon. Of all his poems, 
the didactic one ** La Coltivazione " is con- 
sidered the best, and has been compared to 
Virgil's Oeorgics. He also wrote satires 
and epigrams in Italian, and a tragedy en- 
titled ** Antigone," which is nearl]^ a transla- 
tion of that of Sophocles. (Comiani, SecoU 
Mia Letterahura AaUana ; Tiraboechi, Storia 
detta Lmetaibira JtaHamai Pignotd, Slona 
806 



Sdkk Totcanas Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d^ tta^- 
lia.) A. V. 

ALEMANNI, LUIGI or LODOVI'CO, 
was the grand nephew of Luigi Alemanni, the 
celebrated poet, and was bom at Florenoe in 
the year 1558. He studied Greek under Vet- 
tori, and was also a good Latin, French, and 
Hebrew scholar. He applied himself by tarns 
and with success, to theology, phildsophj, 
mathematics, and astronomy, and his profile 
of the Inferno of Dante, presented by him to 
the Academy of the Alterati, is adduced as 
an evidence of his skill in cosmogn^hy. He 
died in the year 1603. His woiks are — I. 
" DeUe Lodi di Filippo Sassetti Onxione,'' m- 
serted in part i. of torn. 4. of the ** Prose Fio- 
rentine." 2. Numerous Latin poems, mostly 
eclogues, preserved amongst the Stroszi ma- 
nuscripts at Florence, codex 716. Three of 
these ech>gaes were published in the collec- 
tion printed at Florence in 1719, under tiie 
title ** Carmina illnstrinm Poetarum Italo- 
ram.'* S. He translated the Pastorals of Lon- 
and fbmished the manoseript of the 
!k text from which Rafli^Uo Colombasio 
edited the first edition, in 4to., Florence, 1598. 
4. According to Soldani, he also wrote two very 
learned discourses and varknis minor pieces, 
and contemplated publishing an improved edi- 
tion of Homer and other works,when death pat 
an end to these projects. Some of his verses 
are inserted in the ** Concerto delle mose ordi- 
natodaPierGirolamoGentile.'' Venice, 1608, 
12ma (Soldani, Oraxione deUe Lodi di Luigi 
Akmanttif mserted in parti voL 4. of ** Prose 
Fiorentine," 113^126. ; Sal^ini, FobH Gm- 
solan deir Aceademia FiormHna, 325. 361.; 
Mazxuchelli, Serittori d^ Italia.) J. W. J. 

ALEMANNI or AXABfANNI, NIC- 
COLO, an ecdeaiastic and librarian of the 
Vatican. He is said to have been bom on 
the 12th of January, 1583, bat whether of 
Grecian or Italiaa origin cannot be aaoer^ 
tajned with certainty. Manttodielli and 
others Mate positively that he was a Greek, 
while Sibems suggests that he may bsife been 
a native of Venice or of one of its depen- 
dencies, and have acquired the reputation of 
being a Greek from the eirearastance of 
havinff studied in the Greek college at Rome. 
The fbUowix^, however, appears to be the 
best authenticated account : that he was 
placed in the Greek coUege, and having made 
sufficient p r og r e s s in Greek and Latin learn- 
ing, embraced the ecelesiasticsi profession ; 
that, intending to return into Greece, he was 
desirous of being ordained to a subdeaeoa- 
ship by a Greek bishop, but having snbse- 
quently determined to remain in Italy, that 
he took tiie remaining degrees there. He 
became professor of rhetoric and the Greek 
language in the Greek college, and had 
amongst his pupils Francesco Areudi and 
Scipione Cobelhiti, afterwards secretary to 
Pope Paul V. By the interest of Cobdloti, 
Alemanni obtained the post of seoetary to 



ALEMANNI. 



ALEMANS. 



Cardinal Sctpione Borghese, and on die 
death of Baldasaare Axisidei, keeper of the 
library of the Vatican in 1614, he was se- 
lected as best fitted to fill that important 
situation. His death occurred from a singu- 
lar circumstance. It having become neces- 
sary to make excavations in the basilica 
of St Peter in order to place a canopy 
over the great altar upon a bronie column, 
Alemanni was charged with the superin- 
tendence of the work, for the purpose of .< 
preserving the sacred relics of the dead firom 
pro&nation. This duty he discharged with 
such unremitting care, and exposed himself 
so constantly to the unwholesome exhalations 
proceeding from the excavated ground, that 
he was seised with a sickness which termi- 
nated fttally on the 24th of July, 1626. The 
following is a list of his works : •— 1. " Pro- 
copii Ciesariensis *Ar^8ora, arcana Historia, 
qui est Liber ix. Historiarum, ex Bibliotheca 
Vaticana N. Alemannus protolit, Latine red- 
didit, Notis illustrovit. Lugduni, 1623,*' folio. 
This, which was his most celebrated work^ 
exposed him to much critical animadversiont 
particularly ftom Trivorius, Riving and Ei- 
chelius: the last attacked him with pecu- 
liar bitterness, and went so* fkr as to charge 
him with forging the whole work. 2. " De 
Lateranensibos rarietinis ab Illustrissimo 
Francisco Cardinali Barberino restitutis 
Dissertatio historica. RomsB, 1625," 4to. 
Greevius considered this dissertation of suffi- 
cient importance to be reprinted in his ** The- 
saurus Antiquitatom Italiss," tom. viii. pars 4. 
3. '*Rogerii Comitis Calabris Donatio Ee- 
clesise Militensi, e GrsBoo Latine reddita a N. 
Alemanno ; " inserted by UgheUi in hia 
'* Italia Sttcra,** 1644, torn. i. p. 1022. 4. ''Gar- 
mina in Colunmam PauH V. e Templo Paeis 
in Exquilinum translatam.** 5. ** De Princi- 
pis Apostolorum Sepnlduro." 6. ** Dissertatio 
de dextne IssvsBqne Manna Prserogaliva ex 
antiquis PoDtifieum Nummis Panlum Petro 
Apostolo anteponentibus." (Erythnsua, Peaa- 
eciheca Imamwm iZhtfCrtsm, 125. } Moreri^ 
Le Grand DwUonmure hiatoriqut; Mazm* 
chelli, SeriOori <f ItaHa ; Muidoeius, Bih' 
Uoiheca Bomtma, ii. 195. ; ffibems, De Uhu^ 
tribua Aiemmmu, 188.) J. W. J. 

ALEM ANS, a celebrated mimature painter, 
who lived at Brussels in the early part of the 
eighteenth century. He first studied oil 
pamting in Florenoe; he afterwards visited 
Rome, where he made the acquaintance of a 
miniature painter, who indoeed him to follow 
the same kne. Alemans painted some time for 
the court of the ELeclor of Bavaria at Brussels, 
when that prince held the oflkse of governor 
of the Austrian NetherUmds, and he executed 
many fine portraits. He was however so 
slow in his execution, that his sitters fre- 
quently lost their patience, and the portrait 
was Idft unfinished. Upon one occasion he 
demanded for a portrait, upon which he had 
bestowed the labour of nearly half a year, a 
807 



hundred doubloons, upwards of three hundred 
guineas, and upon the party reflising to pay 
more than one tenth part of the demand, 
Alemans left Bruss^ in disgust, and re- 
turned to Rome, where he remained until his 
death. (y^eyeTman^ De ZevenM-Bexhryvingen 
der Nederlandache KonstgckilderSf ffn,) 

R N W^ 

ALEMBERT, JEAN LE BOND D\ 
The fother of D' Alembert was M. Destouches, 
to whose name was commonly added Canon 
(he was a commissary of artillery), to dis- 
tin^ish him from P. N. Destouches, the 
writer of comedies. His mother was Madame 
de Tencin, a lady of a remarkable life, which 
will appeal* in its proper place : here it is 
enough to say, that having obtained permission 
to leave the convent in which she had taken 
the vows, she was leading a life of pleasure 
and ambition at Paris, which continued until 
she was confined<m suspicion of murder, owing 
to a suicide which was committed in her 
apartments. After her release, she changed 
her mode of life, and became the friend 
and associate of men of letters, and, strangely 
enough for an uncloistered nun, the corre- 
spondent of two popes in succession. 

The illegitimate son of the couple above 
mentioned, the subject of this article, was 
exposed by his parents (but with some one, 
apparently, to watch what should become of 
him) near the church of St Jean-le-Rond (now 
destroyed) at Paris. The exposure took place 
November 16. 1717, or the day after, and one 
of these is probably the date of the birth. The 
^parent weakliness of the child induced the 
commissary of police who found him (and 
who, perhaps, had his instructions) to place 
him with the wife of a glaaier, whose name 
was probably* Alembert His parents f, pri- 
vately, witfam a few days of his being found, 
settled a yearly allowance of 1200 francs 
upon him, which amply sufficed for his early 
wants and education. It is said that as soon 
as his extraordinary talents became known 
his BkDther sent for him and discovered her- 
self ; and that his repl^ was, ** Je ne connais 
qu'une m^re, o'est la vitri^re." There is an- 
other version of the words used; we have 
taken the one in the account of Madame de 
Tencin prefixed to her works. 

D' Alembert has left an account of himself, 
in the third person, which we shall follow, 
adding from Condoroet and others in brackets. 
At four years of age he was plaeed at school, 
where he remained eight years, during the 
last two of which his master professed himself 
unable to teach him ftirther. In 1 730 he was 
removed to the C!oll6ge Masarin, then under 
Jansenist direction. Here he records that he 

• It la very odd that thera ibould be no certainly on 
this point. , 

f Ooodoroet, in his Bloge, would seem to imply that 
tile ezpoaure waa the act of the mother, and that the 
tetber» aa soon aa he waa taifbnned of it came torwaond 
in the manner described. Certain it is that D* Alem- 
bert who would not own his mother, waa always on 
the most- friendly terms with his ftttber'a family. 



ALBMBERT. 



ALEMBERT. 



was told that poetry dried up the heart, and 
was recommended to read no poem but that 
of St. Prosper on Grace. [A commentary on 
St Paul's Epistle to the Romans gave his 
instructors such an idea of his talents, that 
they advised his application to mathematics, 
thinking they might produce another Pascal.] 
His taste for mathematics grew while he was 
studying, or professing to study, the law, 
which he followed to the extent of becoming 
an advocate in 1738. He was accustomed to 
read rapidly at the public libraries, and to 
work out the demonstrations of what he read 
by himself. His old masters, the Jansenists, 
would have had him not proceed so &r in 
such studies, and his friends were anxious 
that he should take up a more lucratiye pur- 
suit To please both, he reflolved to study 
medicine, and, to remove temptation, sent aU 
bis mathematical books to a friend ; but 
almost without his knowing how (he says) 
they found their wa^ back again ; and after 
trymg his new pursuit for a year, he resoWed 
to follow his own taste. For several years, 
accordingly, he attended to nothing but the 
exact sciences ; he did not even resume his 
literary studies, to which he had formerly 
been much attached, until about the time 
when he began his labours on the Encydo- 
piedia. [These years were the happiest of his 
life, and his description of them to Ck>ndorcet 
was singular : he woke, he said, with a fieel- 
ing of satisfibction at what he had to do in the 
morning, and in the intervals of his work, he 
was gratified by the thought of the pleasure 
he should receive at the theatre in the even- 
ing ; while between the acts of the play, he 
looked forward to the still greater pleasure 
which awaited him the next morning. His 
foster-mother's remonstrances against his mode 
of life were, according to the above descrip- 
tion, not a little misplaced : — " Vous ne seres 
jamais qu'un philosophe, et qu'est-ce qu*un phi- 
losophe — c'est un fou qui se tourmente pen- 
dant sa vie, pour qu*on parle de hii lorsquil n'y 
sera plus." The single drawback on hu com- 
fort seems to have been the constant finding 
in preceding writers of things which he had 
imagined to be his own discoveries: this per- 
suaded him for a long time, as he told Con- 
dorcet, that he had no natural genius for the 
sttlgect] 

He was elected to the Academy of Sciences 
in 1741, before he was twenty-four years old, 
in consequence of some memoirs which he 
had presented, particularly on refraction, and 
on the mtegral calculus, [and some corrections 
which he made in the **.Ajialyse demontr6e ** of 
Reynau, then a classical work of instruction 
in France.] From this time his public life 
begins, and it will be convenient to separate 
biographical and literary details. 

In 1752 the acquaintance of D'Alembert with 

Frederic of Prussia commenced hj an attempt 

on the part of that king to induce him to settle 

at Berhn as successor to Maupertuis. The offers 

808 



I made were most liberal, and were repeatedly 
' urged ; a pension of 12,000 francs, apartments 
at the court, the patronage of the Berlin 
Academy, &c. D'Alembert's refusal was as 
positive as it could respectfully be ; and one 
of his reasons was, that he found his life so 
agreeable that he would not risk the comfort 
of it by a change. In 1754 Frederic offered 
him an unconditional pension of 1200 fruncs, 
which he accepted, and went to Wesel in 
the following year to thank the donor in 
person. From this period a constant epis- 
tolary correspondence was kept up between 
the lung and D'Alembert, which terminated 
only with the life of the latter, and (from 
1760 downwards) is preserved, and forms the 
two last volumes of Bastien's edition, presently 
mentioned. When, at the peace of 1763, he 
went to pass some months with the King of 
Prussia, tiie latter renewed his solicitations ; 
and repeated them in 1765, when a pension 
from the Academy, which had fallen in, and 
which should have been D'Alembert's, was 
delayed by the French government, which 
was offended by his book on the suppression 
of the Jesuits. D'Alembert was inexorable, 
but without giving any offence to Frederic, 
who continued his constant friend, and when, 
at the end of his life, he thought of travelling 
in Italy for his health, Frederic fomished him 
with ample means, and reftised to receive them 
again, when the voyage was interrupted. 

D'Alembert was elected to the Academy 
in 1754, and in 1756 obtained another pen- 
sion of 1200 francs from Louis XV. ; bendes 
which, he was made a supernumerary pen- 
sioner of the Academy of Sciences in the same 
year; so that his means were firom thence- 
forward ample for a person with his views. 
Had he loved money, he might easily have 
gratified this taste. In 1762 the Empress of 
Russia (Catherine IL) offieied him the edu- 
cation of her son, with a hundred thousand 
francs of salary ; and on his reftisal pressed 
the office upon him by letter, appealing 
to his love of humanity not to let an op- 
portunity pass of doing so much good, and 
offering to receive him wt'M cdl hia Jriendt, 
Catherme, however, had no better success 
than Frederic ; but D'Alembert, though he 
did not choose to quit France, and tibough 
perhaps he knew that it is difficult for an in- 
dependent man to live on terms of intimacy 
with any * king or queen whatsoever, was 
sensibly flattered by the compliments thus 
paid him by heads with crowns upon them. 
The account of them occupies a most undue 

r)ortion of his short autobiography ; and 
adds one instance to the proof of the 

• The Ring of Fruuia, in one of bb letters to 
D'Alembert, lays he hu been talking to • gentlenun 
who peued twenty Tears in Siberia, and hints that 
D'Alembert was wise In not going nearer to that mefgk- 
bowkood. ** I hate lived In a country where men who 
speak are hanged," said Buler to the Queen Dows«er 
or Prussia, when, after his leering St. Petersburg and 
settling at Berlin, that lady one di^ asked htm why he 
was so silent. 



ALEMBERlT. 



ALEMBERT, 



general law, that no intellectual snperiority 
whatsoerer enables men to rate the notice 
of exalted rank at what they profess in 
theory to call its true value. Perhaps 
such a remark would not he altogether ap- 
plicable with respect to the more than kingly 
emmence both of Catherine and Frederic ; 
but personages whose names a biographer of 
D*Alembert would hardly trouble himself to 
write, are minutely recorded in this self-gratu- 
lating list ; while all those celebrated works 
on which the fame of the author now mainly 
rests, are disposed of in the following sen- 
tence : — ** Outre les ouvrages de philosophie 
et de litterature publics par D'Alembert, il a 
donne quinze volumes in 4to. sur les mathema- 
tiques." D*Alembert ^ve six words more to 
the announcement of his having been honour- 
ably received by a Duke of Brunswick- Wolf- 
enbilttel than to all his writings. But it 
must be said that this weakness did not go 
far; he received a vast deal more flattery 
than he gave, and, as &r as his own country- 
men were concerned, he courted no one, 
king or minister, and was in frequent dis- 
grace with the latter for his freedom of 
speech. In 1760 he addressed a written ac- 
count of his own character to a lady, which, 
making some allowance, is tolerably accurate, 
and very striking : he says it is his maxim 
to be very carefid what he writes, tolerably 
careful what he does, and moderately carefbl 
what he says ; accordingly he avers that he 
says many stupid things, writes hardly any, 
and does none. Had he said that he wrote 
none, and did very few, he might have come 
nearer the truth, and would have made the 
results of his practice agree better with 
the theory; but this account was written 
before he could rightly estimate the wisdom of 
his proceedings with regard to Mademoiselle 
de TEspinasse. This young lady, who was 
also a natural child, became known to 
D*Alembert and others of the same note, m 
the capacity of companion to Madame du 
Defant If we tear dBT the veil of sentiment 
which the French writers have placed upon 
her story, it seems to be as follows :— Having 
been dismissed by her protectress, who was 
jealous of her influence with the distinguished 
men who frequented the house (and whom, it 
appears, she used to receive in her own 
apartment without the knowledffe of Madame 
du Defiuit), she was, by the influence of per- 
sons about the court, provided with a pen- 
sion, apartments, and all that was necessary to 
set up on her own account as the goddess of 
a literary circle. This establishment she 
seems to have owed to great talent and power 
of conversation, united with knowledge of 
men's foibles and power of managing them. 
Marmontel says she did what she liked with 
Condilhic and Turgot, and that as to D* Alem- 
bert, he was in her hands a mere child. 
When D'Alembert was obliged by a severe 
illness to quit the house in which he had 

VOL.L 



always lived with his foster-mother, and to 
seek for purer air, he removed to the Boule- 
vard du Temple, and Mademoiselle de TEs- 
pinasse established herself with him as his 
nurse. They continued together after his 
recovery, not, according to his historians, 
otherwise than as brother and sister ; a story 
which is not wholly incredible, for two rea- 
sons : flrst, because another connection would 
at that time have given so little scandal 
as to be hardly worth the denying ; and 
secondly, because, according to the accounts, 
the young lady was looking out for an ad- 
vantageous marriage among the men of rank 
or of letters with whom she was brought into 
contact Their connection, however, was 
marked with strong attachment on the part 
of D'Alembert, and with gradually declining 
admiration and growing indifference on that 
of his partner, who came at hist to treat him 
with every sign even of contempt ; for in- 
stance, among a large quantity of letters 
which she one da^ gave him to bum, he 
found every one which he had ever written to 
herself. A few hours before her death she 
acknowledged her faults towards him and 
entreated his forgiveness; her health was 
naturally feeble, and gave way on hearing of 
the death of a young Spanish nobleman whom 
she had captivated, and whose return to France 
was procured by her from his relatives upon 
a certificate obtained by herself (through 
D'Alembert I) from a physician at Paris, to 
the effect that his health required the air of 
France. This is an odd story : the young 
man had been recalled to Spain by his friends, 
when they heard of his devotion to Made- 
moiselle de TEspinasse, and a more suitable 
wife had been found for him, to whom he 
was to have been married on his recovery 
firom an illness with which he had been seized 
on his arrival : he was allowed to return to 
France on this certificate, and died on the 
way. Whether this account (which is ex- 
tracted from Marmontel's memoirs by the 
editor of D'Alembert) be credible or not, 
it is asserted that the health and spirits 
of D*Alembert never recovered the shock 
they received from the death of the mistress 
or friend with whom he had lived twelve 
years (she died in 1776). At the end of the 
same year he lost another friend, Madame 
Geoffrin, under circumstances which were 
little calculated to alleviate depression of 
mind : her daughter took upon herself from 
the moment the mother was taken ill, to 
exclude all the philosophers^ on religious 
grounds ; and this, it is asserted, in oppo- 
sition to the wishes of the patient herself. 
Two years afterwards D'Alembert lost his 
friend Voltaire, after an intimate correspond- 
ence of more than thirty years. From this 
time till his death, which was caused by the 
stone, October 29. 1783, there is nothing to 
record. 
The writmgs of D'Alembert show some- 
Sg 



ALEMBKRT. 



ALEMfiERT. 



thing of the sort of character which he at- 
tributed to himself in the autography abore 
cited, particularly the correspondence. There 
is abundance of pleasantry, much satire, and 
little or no affectation. Brought up as he 
was in comparative retirement, and not in- 
troduced into the gay society of the capital 
till his mind and manners were tolerably 
well fixed, he did not acquire either the ease 
or the leyity of the &8hionable world. In 
this, and in every other point, the only per- 
son with whom it is curious to compare 
D*Alembert is his colleague and friend Vol- 
taire : and the more so, because both go 
together in the minds of Englishmen of the 
la^ and present generation in the undiscrimi- 
nating abuse which is lavished upon their 
common irreligion ; while Diderot, infinitely 
below either in mind and attainments, makes 
a third. We cannot even allow the circum- 
stance just named to be reason enough for 
entering upon the character of Diderot in 
this pU^e ; but Voltaire and D*Alembert are 
inseparable. The latter was thinking while 
the former was reading and writing, and con- 
sequently was as superior in justness and 
cl^uness as in depth. Even the sentiments 
of the two on the sul^ect of Christianity 
were as different as could be : D*Alembert 
was a serious sceptic, Voltaire a laughing 
dogmatist The satire of both, widi two very 
different kinds of power, was showered upon 
the numerous instances of stupid fanaticism 
which came in their way, and their indigna- 
tion upon the no less firequent displajrs of 
legal atrocity: but D*Alembert apparently 
felt no interest in carrying these arms fur- 
ther, while Voltaire found himself as much 
impelled to extract ridicule fix>m the first 
chapter of Grenesis as from the judgment of 
a provincial court, or the remonstrance of an 
injudicious abb6. If D'Alembert had set 
himself to write against revelation, he would 
have made most of his converts in Enghmd : 
Voltaire was the best imaginable apostle for 
the Frenchman of the old monarchy. Neither 
is, we imagine, ever called learned ; but 
D'Alembert was as feur fh>m having gone 
through the extensive miscellaneous reading 
of Voltaire, as fh>m possessing his brilliant 
but superficial range of thought IVAlem- 
bert had little or no depth of reading, even 
in mathematics : he could do anything, and 
had no great need of a guide. He re- 
invented Taylor's dxeorem, but never, as fer 
as appears, to the day of his death, was 
aware that another had been before him. 
He did not even take any pains to know the 
various new discoveries which were made 
around him in the physical sciences. But he 
is, beyond all comparison, the most pbilo- 
sophicial of the French mathematicians, and 
the quantity of thought on the first princi- 
ples of the exact sciences which is found in 
his writings is very large *, insomuch that, in 
like manner as when the author of a formula 
810 



is doubtful, the querist first ascertains whether 
or no it is Euier's, so when a good idea 
on the foundation of any part of ana- 
lysis is to be traced to its source, it will 
be a saving of time to settle the claims of 
D'Alembert, before inquiring into those of 
any one else. As to other pomts of charac- 
ter, his pecuniary liberality, particularly to 
his foster-mother, always cost him a lai^ 
part of his income ; and his spirit towards 
other men of science was, we believe, in 
every instance, good. He and Clairaut were 
rivals, and no work of either appeared with- 
out finding a severe critic in the other ; but 
D'Alembert, the more cautious and pro- 
found of the two, was generally on the right 
side of the question : we may add that their 
disputes never degenerated into squabble. 
Lagrange and Laplace both owed their first 
advantageous settlements in life to D'Alem- 
bert ; the former at the Prussian court, the 
latter in a professorship at Paris. We shall 
now mention his writings in order. 

The first work of any great note is the 
"Traite de Dynamique," 1743 (reprinted 
1758, 1796). This work contains the cele- 
brated principle which will always be known 
by D'Alembert's name. To the unmathe- 
matical reader it will seem strange that a 
maxim so apparently self-evident was not 
the foundation of dynamics from the lame 
when it became a science ; for it amounts but 
to this, that every force which is applied to a 
system must proiuce its whole effect some- 
where ; if not at its immediate point of ap- 
plication, then elsewhere. But it was not 
till the time of D*Alembert that the mathe- 
matical part of the subject was ready for the 
general application of this principle ; and it 
is in rendering the principle operative by a 
true mathematical statement of it, accom- 
panied bv exemplification of its use, that the 
merit of D'Alembert consists. In 1744 he 
showed its application in the '*Trait6 de 
TEquilibre et du Mouvement des Fluides" 
(reprinted in 1770). To these must be 
added, " Reflexions sur la Cause generale 
des Vents," 1747 ; "Recherches sur la Pre- 
cession des Equinoxes, &c," 1749; ^ Essai 
d' une nouvelle Th^orie sur la Resistance des 
Fluides," 1752 ; ** Recherches sur difi^erents 
Points importants du Systlme du Monde,** 
8 vols. 1754-56 ; " Opuscules Mathe- 
matiques,** 8 vols, 1761-^0. Of all these 
writings, which, with the articles in the 
Encydopsedia, constitute the mathematical 
writings of D^Alembert, there is but one 
thing to say in a short biography, namely, 
that they abound in new uses and extensions 
of the great calculus which Newton and 
Leibnitz had given half a century before ; 
and that, in reference to the theory of gravi- 
tation, D'Alembert and Clairaut were the 
first who found or made their weapon sharp 
enough to attack anything which Newton 
had left to be conquered. His explanation 



ALEMB£;^T. 



ALEMBBRT. 



t 



of the nutation was the first addition made 
a Frenchman to the Newtonian theory. 

e may here mention the *'£lemens de 
Mnsique sniyant les Principes de M. Ra- 
mean/' 1752. 

The literary and philosophical works have 
heen collected into eighteen volnmes, by J. 
B. Bastien, with the title '' (Euvres Philo- 
sophiques, Historiques, et Literaires, de 
D'Alembert" Paris, 1805. It wiU be con- 
venient to notice them in the order in which 
they occvr, so as to facilitate reference to the 
volumes in which they are sererally con- 
tained. 

VoL L contains all the biographical matter 
and eloges, with D'Alembert's reflections on 
the loss of MUe. de TEspinasse ; the " Re- 
flexions sur TElocntion oratoire et sur le Style 
en general," the *' Discours preliminaire de 
rEncydopMie," "Explication detaiU^e da 
Systeme des Connaissances hnmaines" and the 
pre&oe to the third volume of the Encydo- 
psedia. This hist-mentioned work was begun 
in 1750, and D'Alembert fbr a time was joint 
editor with Diderot He withdrew as soon 
as it became a matter of turmoil from the 
interference of the goyemment It will be 
remembered that the articles on matters of 
religion were written by orthodox persons ; 
and D'Alembert, we learn from his corre- 
spondence with Voltaire, was disgusted by the 
necessity of publishing matter contrary to 
his own sentunents: he would have either 
let the subject alone, or said what he thought 
The prefiice to the Encyclopedia has been 
much praised, and the author himself calls it 
the fruit of the thought and reading of twenty 
years. It does indeed contain much thought, 
but no great amount of reading : a smatter- 
ing acquaintance with the most noted authors 
would be enough for a D'Alembert to write 
this prefibce upon, as £ur as its erudition is 
concerned. The same may be said of all his 
writings, particularly of the prefiuses to the 
mathematical works. It was, however, much 
too good for the work it was to precede: 
the celebrated Encyclopaedia itself was but 
flimsy, and little more can be said of its 
better-known successor, the " Encyclop6die 
Methodique,** in matters of scientific re- 
search. 

VoL IL contains the «*Elcmens de Philo- 
sophie,** with the supplements which were 
written at the instance of Frederic of Prussia. 
The parts of this volume which relate to the 
sciences are most admirable, and would of 
themselves bear out what we have said rela- 
tive to D'Alembert as a mathematical meta- 
physician. 

VoL IIL, among miscellaneous matters, 
contains the " Essai sur la Societ5 des Oens de 
Lettres et des Grands," and '* De la Libert^ de 
la Muaique." The fijrst is a cautious remark 
iqwn the consequences of the patrons^ of 
IHeratore by Louis XIV. and his nobility: 
Coadorcet dates fit>m it a great improvement 
811 



in the style of French dedications. The 
second is on a matter which was of im- 
portance, when to be of the Italian parW 
m music might be a serious injury to a man s 
prospects. 

VoL IV. contains the memoirs of Christina 
of Sweden, various miscellanies, and the 
I* Reflexions sur Tlnoculation," an argument 
in favour of the introduction of that practice. 
It has also the celebrated paper on the theory 
of probabilities, which shows that D'Alembert 
did not understand the first principles of that 
science. 

VoL V. contains the treatise on the sup- 
pression of the Jesuits, and the controversy 
on the article ** Geneva" in the Encydopsedia. 
The former work satisfied neither party : he 
tells the Jesuits that he hopes their sup- 
pression will be permanent; and their op- 
ponents, that whereas the disciples of Loyola 
had the punishment of a turbulent nobUity, 
theirs would be that of an insurgent mob. 
It was decidedly D'Alembert's opinion that 
the Jesuits were the strongest support of the 
papal see : and the general of that order is 
said (in a letter to the Kin^ of Prussia) to 
have cited him in a memoruil to the pope, 
as an unsuspected testimony on that point 
The controversy about the article ^ Geneva " 
arose out of the dislike of the clergy of that 
state to be called Unitarians, though they 
were not able to prove themselves orthodox. 

Vol. VI. contains the ^loges of Ix>rd 
Marcchal, John Bernoulli, Montesquieu, and 
others. VoL VII. those of Massillon, Des- 
preaux (Boileaa), Bossuet, and others. 
VoL VIIL those of Fenelon, Fontenelle, and 
others. VoL IX. those of many persons of 
less note. VoL X. those of Fleury and others. 
Vol. XL those of Flechier, St Pierre, and 
others. 

Vols. XII. and XIII. contain the trans- 
lations from Tacitus, Cicero, Addison, and 
Bacon, which have been favourably spoken 
o£ 

VoL XIV. contains the prefaces to his 
mathematical works, and correspondence with 
various friends. Vols. XV. and XVI. contain 
the correspondence with Voltaire ; and XVII. 
and XVIIL that with Frederic of Prussia. 
The prefiices are, among things of their sort 
worthy of a high place. The correspondence 
is very much whieit the French call piquant, 
as might have been expected when a man 
highly sensible of the ridiculous, but rather 
reserved in his published works, wrote to his 
most intimate finends. 

D'Alembert's opinion of Christianity has 
been the subject of much remark, and, from 
those who cannot believe the rejection of it 
to be conscientious, of much blame, we should 
sa^ of unqualified abuse. But, worse than 
this, the political fever which followed the 
French Revolution gave rise to positive mis- 
representation of a most remarkable kind. 
At that period there was haidly any term 
So 2 



ALEMBERT. 



ALEMBERT. 



sliort of atheist by which to represent what 
u now called a liberal, whether in relip^ion or 
politics : the consequences of this spirit upon 
the description of the Encyclopaedists may be 
easily imagined. While we were hesitating 
whether it would be worth while to correct 
the current misrepresentations relative to the 
manner in which D'Alembert bore himself 
towards those of other opinions, we saw a 
repetition of them in a respectable quarterly 
journal, which made us decide upon stating 
truly the case relatiye to the subject of this 
memoir. 

D*Alembert's opinions were sceptical, in 
the real meaning of the word. " I knew 
enough of him," says Laharpe, " to be able to 
say, that he was a sceptic in everything 
except mathematics. He would no more 
have decided positively that there was not a 
revelation than that there was a God : only 
he thought the balance of probabilities in 
finvour of the latter, and against the former/* 

His works, as to our present point, must 
be divided into those which were written for 
publication, and his private letters to his 
friends, published after his death. In the 
former, he treats religion in general with 
respect; in particular, not at all. Of such 
men as Massillon and Fleury he speaks with 
admiration, and (sajs Laharpe) ** almost 
with sentiment, a thmg very remarkable in 
him.*' . . . ** I do not think,** says the same 
writer, "that he ever printed a single sen- 
tence which marks either hatred or contempt 
for religion.*' The testimony of Coctlosquet, 
bishop of Limoges, is still stronger : *' As to 
his works, I read them again and again, 
and I find nothing there but wit, information, 
and good morals." 

In his letters to Voltaire, or rather in those 
of the latter to him, firequently occurs the 
famous phrase ** Ecrasez Vinfame,** destroy 
the infamous (person or thing, according to 
the context). . There is hardly an educated 
person in England who has not seen some 
publication, or heard some statement, to the 
effect that Voltaire and D*Alembert spoke of 
the person and character of Jesus Christ in 
the preceding phrase, which is usually ren- 
dered " Crush the wretch." Few of those 
who have dwelt with such delight upon the 
maniacal absurdity with which they imagined 
themselves able to charge the most celebrated 
of the Encydopsedists have ever examined 
the statement for themselves : we hope so, at 
least Before proceeding to quote passages, 
with the context, in which this phrase occurs, 
we must remind our readers of some of the 
disgusting details of the history of the times: 
— of the Jesuit Malagrida*, burnt alive at 
Lisbon in 1761, for what amounted at most 
to self-delusion, and what his church would 
call heresy, the real ofiience being generally 
believed to be political; — of John Calas, 

• Not that this case appears to have vexed the EB- 
qreiopsMllsU as much as the others. 
812 



broken on the wheel in 1761 on suspicion of 
having murdered his son ; the principal 
ground of suspicion being that the son was 
found dead, the father was a Protestant, and 
the son thought likely to have turned Roman 
Catholic; — of John De Barre, beheaded at 
the age of nineteen (in 1766, after having 
been sentenced to lose his tongue and hand, 
and to be then burnt alive ; a sentence, the 
mitigation of which ten men were found to 
vote against in the parliament of Paris), for 
defacing or injuring a public cross. These 
things, and many other fruits of the spirit 
which they were of, more or less atrocious in 
character, were taking place during the 
period of Voltaire and D'Alembert's cor- 
respondence ; while protestants at Geneva 
were, as far as their means extended, doing 
their best to rival their Catholic neighbours. 
This was the spirit which Voltaire truly 
called Vinfaane : and if the passages we cite 
do not prove that this was what he meant, it 
follows, that any exclamation against murder 
and cruelty, if uttered by an avowed infidel, 
is to be considered as directed at the founder 
of Christianity. 

The first time the phrase is used is in 
Voltaire to D'Alembert, of June 23. 1760. 
We give the original: — "Je voudrais que 
vous ecrasassiez Tinfune; c'est la le grand 
point. II faut la reduire a I'etat ou «& est 
en Angleterre .... Vous pensez bien que je 
ne parle que de la superstition; car pour 
la religion, je Faime et la respecte comme 
vous." 

D'Alembert to Voltaire May 4. 1762; — 
" Ecrasez rinfame me repetez-vous sans 
cesse : eh, mon Dieu ! laissez la se precipiter 
eUe-m^me ; die y court plus vite que vous ne 
pensez.** 

Voltaire to D'Alembert February 13. 1764: 
— " lis (les philosophes) ne d4truiront cer- 
tainement pas la religion chritienne, mais le 
christianisme ne les detruira pas .... la re- 
ligion deviendra moins barbare et la societc 
plus douce. lis empecheront les pretres de 
corrompre la raison et les mceurs. Bs ren- 
dront les fanatiques abominables, et les super- 

stitieux ridicules travaUlez done a la 

vigne, Scrasez tinfdme. 

The unvarying use of the feminine article 
in coi^ unction with the word infdme is by 
itself alone destructive of the peculiarly of- 
fensive meaning wfth which it has been con- 
strued. The first time it occurs, it is with a 
desire to reduce the infame to the state in 
which she was in England : and, be it ob- 
served, the recommendation to crush the in- 
famous — (the reader may put his own sub- 
stantive), occurs in one place in tiie same 
paragraph with a declaration that the phi- 
losophers would certainly not destroy the 
Christian religion. What then is this in- 
fame f The church of France as then consti- 
tuted. Those who know the stake and the 
wheel only as matters of history, and whose 



ALEMBERT. 



ALEN. 



iroTSt ecclesiastical grievance of the legal 
kind is a three-and-sixpenny church rate, 
most adniit that it was rather singular that 
two persons, neither helieying Christianity 
to be from God, both living among such 
atrocities as we have alluded to, and writing 
their most private thoughts to each other, 
should not la^ the blame on the religion 
which they (usbelieved, in so many words. 
That they, thus circumstanced, should draw 
the distinction between fanatiame and Chris- 
tianisme, is a tribute to the latter which ill- 
deserved the interpretation which has called 
forth these remarks. (See the first volume 
of Bastien's edition, containing the auto- 
biography of D'Alembert, the E'loges of Con- 
dorcet uid Marmontel, &c. ; also the BiO' 
graphie Universelle, with Life by Lacroiz.) 

A.DeM. 

ALEN, EDMOND, or ALLEN, a native 
of Norfolk, was elected fellow of Corpus 
Christi College, Cambridge, in 1536. He 
obtained leave from his college to study 
abroad for a limited time, and afterwards he 
got this leave of absence extended two more 
years. He was an exile from England in 
the first year ^ the reign of Queen Mary, 
but on Elizabeth's coming to the throne, she 
appointed him one of her chaplains, gave 
kmi a commission to act under her as an 
ambassador, and nominated him to the vacant 
see of Rochester. He never enjoyed his 
bishopric, but died bishop elect in 1559, and 
was buried in the nave of Sl Thomas's 
Church, London, His funeral sermon was 
preached by Master Huntingdon. 

Str3rpe says that he was a proficient in the 
Greek and Latin languages, "an eminent pro- 
testant divine," and **a learned minister of 
the gospel" {Annalsy L 134., andMemoriaU, 
iL 30.) He wrote — "A Christian Introduc- 
tion for Youth, containing the Principles 
of our Faith and Religion, (hie Book." Ix>n- 
don, 1548, 12mo.; 1550, 8vo.; and 1551. 
This last edition may be the same with a 
work in !2mo., which has the title ** A Cate- 
chism, that is to say, A Christen Instruc- 
cion of the principall Pointes of Christe's 
Religion, (necessary as well for youth, as for 
other that be desirous to be taught how to 
geve a reckenynge of their fidth, to leame,) 
gathered by Edmond Alen, and now newly 
corrected and augmented, 1551. London, 
Edward Whitchurche, 8th May, 1551." In 
this catechism he states that in six articles 
is contained whatever any Christian man or 
wonum ought to believe or to do to the 
pleasure of God. These are the ten com- 
mandments, the twelve articles of belief, the 
Lord's prayer, baptism, the supper of the 
Lord, and Uie ecclesiastical discipline taught 
bv the Lord. Each of these articles is ex- 
plained in the questions and answers of a 
master and his scholar. 

According to Tanner, Alen translated into 
English^ ** Alexander Alesius de auctoritate 
813 



verb! Dei,'* ^ Philippus Melancthonus super 
utraque sacramenti specie et de auctoritate 
episcoporum," and ** Conradus Pelicanus super 
Apocalypsin." The Exposition of the Revela- 
tions, published in the second edition of 
Erasmus's Paraphrase of the New Testament 
is a translation by Allen from the German of 
Leo Jude. (Tanner, Biblioiheca BritanHtco- 
Hib€mica;8tTYP^, Annah, L 134.; Memorials^ 
ii. 30. ; Life of Archbishop Parka-y p. 63. ; 
Master's History of Corpus Christi College^ 
ii. 1.) A. T. P. 

ALEN, or OLEN, JAN VAN, a Dutch 
painter who lived in Amsterdam in the latter 
part of the seventeenth century ; he was bom 
in 1651, and died in Amsterdam in 1698. 
He was remarkable for the fiicility with which 
he could copy the style of any master, which 
he did with such skill as to impose upon even 
good judges. Finding that the bird pieces 
of his contemporary Melchior Hondekoeter 
met with a very ready sale, Alen painted a 
great many pictures in the style of that master, 
and disposed of them as originals ; which, by 
adding greatly to the number of Hondekoeter's, 
diminished their value in proportion, and in- 
jured that painter considerably. It is owing to 
this circumstance that we find so many pic- 
tures attributed to or bearing the name of 
Hondekoeter. 

There were other artists of the name of 
Alen, who lived in the seventeenth century ; 
a Folpert van Alen, a painter and engraver, 
called also, apparently. Van Alten Allen, ac- 
cording to a view of the ci^ of Vienna disiwn 
in 1686, and engraved at Amsterdam on two 
large pliates, by J. Mulder. There is also a 
large view of Prague, dated 1618, with many 
figures, marked Van Alen. There are several 
prints and etchings of little merit, with the 
name of Folpert Van Alen ; an engraver of 
this name also lived at Danzig in 1656. 
(Houbraken, Schouburg der N^ierlandsche 
Konstschilders, ^c, ; Heineken, Dictionnaire 
des Artistes, ^c; Nagler, Neues AUgemeines 
Kunstler-Lexicon,) R. N. W. 

ALEN9ON (counts, afterwards dukes 
of), a line of French nobles of considerable 
importance in the middle ages. The earlier 
counts of Alen9on were subject to the dukes 
of Normandy. The first was Guillaume (or 
William) I., on whom the castle of Alen9on 
and its dependencies were bestowed by 
Richard II., duke of Normandy. He was 
previously lord of Belleme ; but after this 
gift of the duke, he and his successors more 
commonly took the title of counts of Aien9on. 
The counts of Alen9on of this race were 
Guillaume I., who died 1028 ; Robert I., son 
of Guillaume I., killed a. d. 1033 or 1034 ; 
Guillaume IL, sumamed Talvatins, (Talvat, 
or Talvas) ; another son of Guillaume L, ex- 
pelled by his subjects a. d. 1048 ; Amoul, 
son of Guillaume II., murdered 1048 ; Yves, 
another son of Guillaume I., died a. d. 1070 ; 
Roger de Montgommeri, son-in-law of Guil- 
3o 3 



ALEN^ON. 

fatume IL, noticed elsewhere [Montooh- 
XERi, Roger de], died a. d. 1094 ; Robert 
IL, commonly known as Robert de Belleme, 
noticed elsewhere [Bellbme, Robert db], 
imprisoned hj Henry I., a.d. 11 12. During 
the captivity of Robert the county of Alen9on 
was bestowed by Henry L, king of England 
and duke of Normandy, on Thibaut, count of 
Blois, and was by him transferred to his son 
Etienne (Stephen, afterwards kmg of Eng- 
land), but was restored, a. d. 1119, to Ouil- 
laume III., sumamed Talvas, son of Robert 
II. GuiUaume died a. d. 1171 ; his suc- 
cessors were his son Jean I., who died a. i>. 
1191; Jean IL, son of Jean L, died a.d. 
1191 ; Robert III., another son of Jean I., 
died A. D. 1217 ; Robert IV., posthumous son 
of Robert IIL, died a.d. 1219. In him the 
first race of the counts of Alen9on termi- 
nated, and the county was united to the 
crown. 

In A. D. 1268 or 1269, Louis IX. (St Louis) 
conferred the counties of Alen9on and Perche 
on his fifth son, Pierre, on whose death they 
reverted to the crown. In a. d. 1293, Philippe 
IV. (le Bel) gave them to his brother Charles 
de Valois, who died a. d. 1325, and had for 
his successors, Charles IL, noticed else- 
where [A1-EN90N, Charles IL, count of], 
killed A.D. 1346 ; Charles IIL, son of 
Charles IL, became a Dominican monk a. d. 
1361 ; Pierre IL, son of Charles IL, died 
A.D. 1404 } Jean IIL, in whose time the 
county was raised into a duchy, noticed else- 
where [ALEN90N, Jean IIL, count, after- 
wards DUKE of], killed a. d. 1415 ; Jean 
IV., son of Jean IIL, noticed elsewhere 
[ALEN90N, Jean IV., dukb of], died a. d. 
1476 ; Ren6, son of Jean IV., noticed else- 
where [ALEN90N, Renk, du&b of], died 
A. D. 1492 ; and Charles IV., noticed else- 
where [ALBN90N, Charles IV., duke of], 
died A.D. 1525. In him ended the line of 
the counts and dukes of Alen9on of the house 
of Valois. 

The duchy of Alen9on and the county of 
Perche, which had reverted to the crown, 
were bestowed by Charles IX. on his mother, 
Catherine de Medicis. She(A.D. 1566) re- 
turned them to the king, who, the same year, 
bestowed the duchy on his youngest brother, 
Fran9oi8, noticed elsewhere (ALEN90N, Fran- 
9018, DUKE of], on whose death it was again 
united to the crown. It was included in the 
apanage of Graston of Orleans, brother of 
I^uis XIIL, and transmitted by him to his 
second daughter Isabelle, who married Joseph 
of Lorraine, duke of Guise, and died a. d. 
1696 without issue. It was subsequently 
held by difilerent branches of the royal 
family, and last of all by Louis XVIIL, 
while Monsieur. {VArt de Verifier Us 
Dates.) J. C. M. 

ALENCON, CHARLES, IL, count of, 
was the brother of Philip of Valois, king of 
France, and son of Charles of Valois, count 
814 



ALENCON. 

of Alen9on, brother of Philip the Fair. In 
1329, during the minority of Edward IIL of 
England, and while Guienne was subject to 
that prince, his Gascon subjects made an 
irruption into Languedoc. Philip of Valois 
having commanded his brother Alen9on to 
make reprisals, this nobleman attacked the 
town of Saintes and overthrew its fortifica- 
tions. He conunanded under the French 
king at the battle of Crecy in 1346, where he 
fell. He had rushed upon the ^glish lines 
with the King of Bohemia and the Duke of 
Lorraine ; but not being followed into the 
battle by his vassals, he was overpowered and 
lulled. (Froissart, Chronique.) H. G. 

ALEN9ON, CHARLES, IV., duke 
of, was the son of Rene, and was bom in 
1489. At the age of eighteen he fol- 
lowed Louis XIL to the Italian wars. He 
was at the battle of Ghieradadda, (May, 
1 509,) where Louis commanded in person, and 
gained a victory over the Venetians, which 
gave a &tal blow to that republic. He mar- 
ried Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I., 
afterwards queen of Navarre ; and Francis 
superseded the Constable Bourbon in order 
to confer on him the command of the van of 
his armies. He fought with valour at the 
battle of Marignan (a. d. 1515), and two years 
afterwards received in addition to his domain, 
the duchy of Berry. He led the van at the 
battle of Favia (1525), and by his miscon- 
duct contributed to the defeat of the French 
in that fatal encounter. He fled disgrace- 
fhlly from the field of battle soon afterwards, 
and, chagrined by this dishonour, and stung- 
by the reproaches of Louise, the mother of 
IVancis L, died of a broken heart In him 
ended the royal line of Alen9on. (^Hist de la 
Ligtte de Cambray; Guicciardini, Istoria (T 
Italia ; Gaillard, Hist deFrancois /.) H. G. 
ALEN90N, FRANpOIS, duke of, was 
the youngest of the four sons of Henri IL of 
France by his wife Catherine de Medicis. 
He was bom 18th March, 1554, and was at 
first called Hercule, a name which was after- 
wards, at his confirmation, exchanged for that 
of Fran9ois. He had the small pox in his 
childhood, and was much disfigured by it 
He early manifested a strong dislike to his 
brother Henri, duke of Anjou, afterwards 
Henri IIL, and retained it through life. Henri 
appears to have entertained an equal dislike 
to him, howerer policy may have led, on both 
sides, to occasional concealment There was 
little in the character of Francois to attract 
either admiration or affection. He was devoid 
of address in all bodily exercises, and the 
consciousness of his defects made him jealous 
of all who were superior to him in these re- 
sists. Henri IV., who had seen much of 
hmi in early life, said of him, — ** I shall be 
deceived if he ever fulfils the expectations 
formed of him. He has so little courage, and 
such duplicity and malignity of disposition, 
is so awkwardly made, has so little graoeM-^ 



ALENCON. 

jneas in his deportment, and so little skill in 
all kinds of exercises, that I cannot persuade 
myself that he will ever do anything great" 
Sully, who has recorded this character, hears 
witness to its accuracy. He was created duke 
of Alen^on hy his hrother Charles IX., ▲. d. 
1566. 

While Coligni was at Paris previous to the 
massacre of St Bartholomew (a. d. 1572^, 
Alen90Q showed great regard for him. It is 
hard to say whether this resulted from the 
respect which the high character of Coligni 
inspired, or whether it was the early mani- 
festation of that policy which afterwards led 
Alen^on to court the Huguenot party, though 
he hated them in his heart It was about this 
time that the negotiations commenced for the 
marriage of Alen9on with Elizabeth, queen of 
England. The match was proposed through 
the French ambassador in England, La Mothe 
Fenelon, by the queen-mother, Catherine de 
Medicis, who was influenced by the predic- 
tions of astrologers, that all her sons should 
be kings; and though Elizabeth raised ob- 
jections on the ground of disparity of age (she 
being twice as old as her suitor), and also on 
account of the difference of religion, she did 
not decidedly refuse; and the negotiation was 
protracted for many years. The ambition of 
Alen9on was also nattered by the hope of the 
sovereignty of the Netherlands, which the 
Huguenot party held out to him ; and the 
war then carrying on in the Netherlands, as 
well as his marriage with Elizabeth, were 
subjects of conversation between him and 
Coligni 

After the massacre of St Bartholomew, when 
the papers of Coligni were ransacked in the 
hope of discovering something which might ex- 
tenuate the horror of that transaction, a paper 
was found addressed to the king, in which he 
warned him not to be too liberal in assigning 
an apanage to his brothers, and augmenting 
their influence. ** This is your dearly beloved 
firiend,'* said the queen-mother to Alen9on 
sarcastically, as she handed the paper to the 
king. ** Kow fiir he was my friend,** replied 
the duke, ** I know not; but this I know, that 
such advice could not be offered except by 
one fhithful to his king, and most zealous for 
his interests.** This reply, which De Thou 
has recorded, seems to indicate that his regard 
for C<digni was sincere: to which we may 
add, on Uie authority of Marguerite de Valois, 
sister of Alen9on, and wife cf Henri, king of 
Navarre (afterwards Henri IV. of France), 
that die Huguenots induced her brother and 
husband to bind themselves by an engage- 
ment to avenge Coligni*s death. Navarre 
and Alenfon were at this time closely allied. 

The war of the two parties, Roman Catholic 
and Huguenot, was resumed after the mas- 
sacre, and Alen9on was engaged (▲. d. 1573) in 
the siege of La Rochelle, the stronghold of the 
Bugoenots, under the command of his brother, 
tbeDokeof Aqjoo. While thus oocupied, he 
815 



ALEN9ON. 

continued his suit to Elizabeth, and addressed 
several letters to her. The protracted defence 
of the town gave opportunity for the form- 
ation of parties in the besiegers* camp, and 
Alen9on became the chief of the discontented 
party. Various plans were proposed; to seize 
Angouleme and St Jean d'Angcly; or tq 
desert in a body and to take refuge in La 
Rochelle, or on board the fleet which Mont- 
gommeri had raised for its succour, or in 
England ; but the advice of La Noue, who 
was then in the camp, set aside these pur- 
poses ; and the conclusion of peace removed 
the immediate occasion of them. AIen9on 
proposed now to visit England, but Elizabeth 
warned him that the feelings excited by the 
massacre of St Bartholomew would render 
his presence undesirable, until he had given 
some proof of his regard for the Huguenots, 
which his presence at the siege of La Rochelle 
had rendered doubtful. On his return to 
Paris he became suspected by the king, and 
this led him to strengthen his connection with 
the King of Navarre, who was uneasy at his 
own position, and apprehensive of the king, the 
queen-mother, and the family of the Guises. 
Anjou had gone to Poland, where he had 
been elected king. 

The incapacity of Charles IX., enfeebled 
by disease, had thrown the reins of govern- 
ment (a. D. 1574) into the hands of the queen- 
mother and the Guises; and those of the 
Catholics, who were jealous of their influence, 
formed a third party, that of ** Les Politiques," 
at the head of which was the Montmorenci 
family. This party required the nomination 
of Alen^on as lieutenant-general of the king 
dom, but Catherine, jealous of her youngest 
son, suggested to Charles the nomination in 
preference of the Duke of Lorraine, his bro- 
ther-in-law. Alen9on then negotiated with the 
Huguenots, and formed a plan with Navarre 
and the Prince of Conde to withdraw into the 
provinces where the Huguenots pred<«ninated, 
and renew the war. He had previously re- 
newed his proposal to visit England, and 
Queen Elizabeth had consented to his coming 
over, but his engagement with the Huguenots 
delayed his visit, and subseqnents events 
hindered it ; for the execution of his engage- 
ments with the Huguenots having been pre- 
vented by his own indecision, the whole affair 
(which was designated ** La prise d'armes du 
Mardi-gras ") was discovered ; the duke him- 
self and Navarre placed under guard; La 
Mole and Cooonnas, two of Alen9on*s confi- 
dants and advisers, put to death; and the 
Marshals Montmorenci and Cossc, who were 
the* leaders of the Politiques, thrown into 
prison. Conde and some others escaped. 
Alen9on and Navarre were examined ; the 
former weakly confessed everything, but the 
latter behaved with more dignity. Appre- 
hensions were entertained that it was intended 
to put them to death, and Marguerite of Valois, 
wife of Navarre, undertook to procnre the 
80 4 



ALEN^ON. 

escape of one of the two disguised as one of 
her retinue ; but the plan fkiled because thej 
could not agree which it should be. War 
with the Huguenots, of whom Conde now 
declared himself the head, recommenced, and 
continued until after the death of Charles IX., 
30th of May, 1574. 

The crown devolved on Henri III., lately 
duke of Anjou, who was in Poland ; and 
until his return, the queen -mother exercised 
the functions of regent She professed to set 
Alencon (who now took the style of ** Mon- 
sieur ) and Navarre at liberty, but they were 
still watched ; nor was the restraint taken off 
after Henri's arrival (5th September, 1574), 
though he again declared them to be at 
liberty. Elizabeth of England had interceded 
on their behalf ; and the negotiations for 
Alen9on's marriage with her were renewed 
by the queen-mother and Henri 

In September, 1575, Alen9on succeeded in 
escaping from court, and proceeded to Dreux, 
a town within his own domain; from which 
he issued a manifesto, setting forth the mal- 
administration of the government by the evil 
councillors who surrounded the king; de- 
claring that he had escaped from the court 
because he was treated with dishonour and his 
safety endangered, and because men of all 
classes had their eyes fixed on him and were 
imploring his aid ; giving assurance that he 
had no views of private vengeance or aggran- 
dizement, but only to remedy the evils of the 
state by the regular course of a free assembly 
of the states-general ; promising to both Ca- 
tholics and Protestants his protection, and in- 
viting all to join him in execution of his pur- 
poses. He was joined by the ^ Politiques" and 
the Huguenots ; but in the mean time he dis- 
patched a confidential messenger to the pope, 
to assure him that his negotiations with the 
heretics were the result of necessity, and were 
merely for the purpose of employing their 
forces for the pacification of the kingdom, and 
not with the view of joining his interest with 
theirs. It was in vain that the queen-mother 
sought to draw him off from his confederates, 
and at his requirement released Montmorenci 
and Coss6. He remained firm; and having 
assembled a powerful force, and the King of 
Navarre having also escaped, the confederacy 
against the court was so strong, that peace 
was made the 6th May, 1576, at Chitenoy 
near ChiteiXti Landon, on terms highly favour- 
able to the confederates, especially to Alen- 
9on, from whom the peace was designated 
** the Peace of Monsieur." He received, as 
an addition to his apanage, the duchies of 
Atgou, Touraine, and Berry, with the right 
of presentation, previously possessed by the 
king, to all ecclesiastical dignities and bene- 
fices in those provinces ; Hi other rights of 
royalty, and a pension of 100,000 crowns. 
His whole revenue, thus augmented, was esti- 
mated at 400,000 crowns. From this time he 
ynm commonly designated, either «* Monsieur** 
816 



ALEN9ON. 

or ** Duke of Ai^Jou." He retired to Bonrgetf» 
one of the cities included in his apanage, 
and there formed a small court He continued 
his negotiations in England for his marriage 
with Elizabeth ; and sought to obtain the com- 
mand of the fbrces of Uie insurgents in the 
Netherlands, which some parties there had 
before contemplated to procure for him. In 
fact, the council of state of the Netherlands 
invited him in the latter end of the year 1576, 
to undertake to assist them at the head of ao 
army. 

mving obtained his own purposes, Alen- 
9on began to show his dislike to the Hugue- 
not party, and after a short interval, was pre- 
vailed upon to return to court, where he was 
received by his brother Henri III. with great 
apparent cordiality. His repugnance to the 
Reformed now became avowed : he declared 
that to hate them it was only necessary to 
know them, and that there was only one man 
in the party of any worth, namely. La None, 
who was then in Flanders. He even signed 
the Catholic League which had been lately- 
formed ; and of which Henri, jealous of the 
Guises, desired to place himself at the head : 
but it is probable that Alen9on signed radier at 
the instigation of the king, than from bis own 
wish; and that the king^s desire was rather 
to control the League, than fully to carry out 
its objects. When the violence of the states- 
general at Blois had led to a renewal of the 
war (a. ]>. 1577), Alenyon commanded the 
army sent into Berri and Auvergne against 
the Huguenots ; and having taken La Charite 
on the Loire in Le Nivemois and Issoire, 
near the Allier in Auvergne, burned the latter, 
and put the townsmen, with very few excep- 
tions, to the sword. The war was however soon 
brought to an end by the peace of Bergerac, 
to the observance of which Alen9on swore, 
as well as the king and the queen-mother. 

When Alen9on returned to Paris, though 
he engaged in the debauchery which dis- 
graced the court, he lost no opportunity of 
increasing the contempt into which the king 
had fallen. He continued at the same time his 
negotiations and intrigues in the Netherlands, 
where the increasing distress of the states 
made his assistance more important Henri 
was jealous of his brother's purposes ; and 
the quarrels of Bussi d'Amboise, the duke's 
** mignon," or fttvourite, with the ** mignons *■ 
of the king, aggravated the mutual hatred of 
the brothers; so that Alen9on designed to 
quit the court, but was arrested by the king 
in person. An apparent reconciliation was 
effected by the queen-mother ; but Alencon 
being still watched, determined on makmg 
his escape, which he effected, 14th of Feb- 
ruary, 1578, by means of his sister Mar- 
guerite of Valois, who, with her attendants, 
let him down by a rope from her chamber 
window into the ditch of the Louvre. He 
immediately fled to Angers. Henri, alarmed, 
sent th$ queen-mother to know what were 



ALENCON. 

the grievances of which his brother com- 
plained, and -what were his designs ; to which 
Alenfon replied, that he intended nothing 
hostile to the king or the state, bat that 
his views were wholly directed to foreign 
countries. 

In e£RBct he was preparing to march into 
the Netherlands; and for this purpose as- 
sembled an army of 8000 in&ntry and 1000 
horse, with which he marched to die fVontier 
of Hainault He was received early in Au- 
gust, 1578, into Mons ; and by treaty, signed 
at Antwerp, on the I3th August, was declared 
protector of the liberty of Belgium. All the 
conquests which he should make on the ri^ht 
bank of the Meuse were to be ceded to him, 
and as security, the fortresses of Avesnes, 
Landrecies, and Le Quesnoy were placed in his 
hands. In. return, he engaged to maintain an 
army of 10,000 infantry and 2000 horse for 
three months; and after that period, if the war 
should continue, 3000 infimtry and 500 horse 
for the service of the states; and to rephice 
under their dominion all that he should con- 
quer on the left of the Meuse. He was to 
have, when present with the army, the com- 
mand jointly with the chief officer whom the 
states should appoint to act for them ; but 
was to leave the civil government wholly in 
their hands. They engaged, however, that 
in case of their finally breaking off from 
the dominion of their prince (Philip II. of 
Spain), they would choose the duke in pre- 
ference to all others as their prince. 

The duke effected little beyond taking one 
or two unimportant fortresses ; and the jea- 
lousies of the Catholics and Protestants, and 
of the allies of the states, presented any 
important results fit>m the large force which 
had been collected. He therefore disbanded 
his army and returned to France, ftx>in 
whence (early in 1679) he passed over to 
Bngland, to concert with Elizabeth the mea- 
sures to be pursued in the Netherlands, or to 
press the affair of his marriage with her, for 
which negotiations had been renewed. From 
England he returned to Paris, where he was 
received by his brother with seeming cor- 
diality. During his abode at Paris, his 
former ftvourite, Bussi d'Amboise, was killed 
by a person whose wife he had debauched ; 
and there is reason to believe that the in- 
jured husband was instigated by the duke, 
who was weary of Bussi's ferocity and pre- 
sumption. 

He pursued, during the jear 1579, his de- 
signs both of marrying Ehzabeth and of ob- 
taining the sovereignty of the Netherlands. 
In June, 1580, the states, who had signed 
the union of Utrecht, appointed him com- 
mander-in-chief of their forces, and in Au- 
gust they offered him the sovereignty over 
them. He gUidly accepted the offer, and 
having prevailed on his brother to make 
propoMls of peace to the Huguenots, who were 
agam in arms, went into the south of France to 
817 



ALEN5ON. 

negotiate with them. The negotiations lasted 
till nearly the close of the year : but peace 
was at last concluded, and many adventurers, 
both of the Huguenot and Roman Catholic 
armies (among them Bfaximilian de Bethune, 
afterwuds the great Duke of Sully), enlisted 
under Alencon, who in the be^nning of Au- 
gust, 1581, led his forces, consisting of about 
10,000 inftmtry and 4000 cavalry, to the re- 
li^ of Cambrai, then besieged and reduced 
to extremity by the Spaniards under the 
Prince of Parma. His approach caused the 
siege to be raised, and he entered the town in 
triumph on the 1 7th of August The re- 
maining operations of the campaign were un- 
important, except that the duke treacherously 
seised Cambrai, disarming the garrison of 
the states' troops, and occupying the place 
with his own soldiers. When the governor 
exclaimed against the treachery, tiie only 
answer he obtained was an insulting laugh at 
his Picard accent After this Alen9on passed 
over into England (Nov. 1581), where the 
arrangements for his marriage had been so 
far completed by his agent Simler, that 
the marriage articles were agreed to. Eliza- 
beth received him with every mark of honour 
and affection, and went so far as publicly 
to present him with a ring : but the oppo* 
sition of some of her leading councillors 
and the repagnance of the people, who ap- 
prehended danger to the Protestant religion, 
prevented matters from being brought to a 
coiiclusion ; and the duke, after a stay of 
three months, returned (Feb. 1582) into the 
Netherlands. While in England he had sent 
an embassy to Liibeck, to induce the Hanse 
Towns to make up their existing disputes with 
Elizabeth, and to join in alliance with her. 

On his landing at Flushing he was honour- 
ably received by the Prince of Orange, and 
proceeding to Antwerp was installed as Duke 
of Brabant with the greatest solemnity (19th 
February), the Prince of Orange assisting at 
the ceremonial, which De Thou has described 
with great minuteness. The duke, however, 
shortly became jealous of the influence of 
Orange ; so that, on the attempted assassina- 
tion of the latter by Jauregui at Antwerp 
(13th March), the French were suspected of 
having instigated the attempt ; and it was only 
by the papers found on the assassin that tho 
suspicion was removed, and the tumults pre- 
vented which it was on the point of occasion- 
ing. The wound of the Prince of Orange 
delayed for a time the opening of the cam- 
paign ; and when it commenced, the opera- 
tions of the two armies were unimportant 
Both sides however kept the field until the 
winter, when, after suffering severely from 
the weather, and from scarcity and disease, 
they went into winter quarters. Just about 
this time the duke received a considerable 
reinforcement fW)m France under the Duke 
of Montpensier and Marshal Biron. 

He was now induced by the persuasion of 



ALEN^ON. 

aeveral of his officers to attempt the seimre 
of the towns in which his troops were quar- 
tered, in the hope of acquiring thereby an 
unrestricted sovereignty. Antwerp, the most 
important of these towns, he undertook to 
seixe himself. The attempt was made on the 
17th of January, 1583, but was defeated by 
the bravery of the citizens, and the pru- 
dence and skill of the Prince of Orange : 
the duke lost 1200 men in the conflict, and 
was driven out of the town. The attempts 
on Bruges, Alost, Nieuport, and Ostend also 
failed; but Dunkirk, Dixmuiden, Dender- 
monde, Vilvorde, and Berg St Winox were 
seized. The prudence of Orange and the 
intervention of the French king prevented 
the rupture from proceeding further ; and a 
convention was signed for tibe restoration of 
the towns which had been seized and for re- 
newing the agreement by which the duke had 
been elected duke of Brabant So great how- 
ever was the odium excited by his treachery, 
that he deemed it better to withdraw into 
France and wait until time should have abated 
the feeling against him, and made the people 
of the Netherlands again desire his presence. 
He left Dunkirk, to which he had retired, 
and landed the 28th of June, 1583, at Calais, 
from whence he set out for the neighbour- 
hood of Cambrai (of which he appears to 
have retained possession), where he be^ 
to collect an army, in hopes of regaimng 
bis power. He sent messengers to the 
assembly of the states at Middelburg, suggest- 
ing to them that, provided they would 
hold out to the French king the hope that 
the duchy of Brabant should come to him in 
ease of the duke's death without issue, he 
would be induced openly to declare against 
Spain, and so put a speedy end to the war. 
But the states were too &r alienated to recal 
him, and he retained only the title of Duke 
of Brabant 

His health was now declining, and a visit 
which he paid to the court of his brother in 
February, 1584, accelerated his deca^. In the 
mean time the states, pressed by difficulties, 
had come to the intention of recalling him, 
and he received their ambassadors at Chateau 
Thierri, where, except during his short visit 
to court, he had spent the wmter. But his 
heidth was now irrecoveraUy broken; and 
after a lingering illness, he died 10th of June, 
1584, aged thirty. Though he acted a con- 
spicuous part in the troubled period in which 
he lived, he possessed few conmiendable qua- 
lities ; and lus last days were embittered by 
his own regret at his failures, and by the ge- 
neral contempt and hatred into which he had 
faUen. (Simonde de Sismondi, Histoire des 
Franfoia; Thuanus (De Thou), Historia ««' 
Tempons; D'Aubigng, Histoire UniverseUe; 
La Popelini^re, Histoire de la France ; Mar- 
guerite de Valois, Mimoiresf Sully, M^moires; 
1/Art de verifier les Dates; Camden, History 
of Quen EUiabeth.) J. C. M. 

818 



ALEN^ON* 

ALENCOK, JEAN IIL, count, after- 
wards duke o^ was bom a.d. 1385, be- 
came count of Perche before a. d. 1396, 
and count of Alen^on on the death of his 
fiither, Pierre II., ▲. d. 1404. He had 
previously married a daughter of Jean de 
Montfort, duke of Bretagne. He was one 
of the leaders of the Orleans or Armagnac 
faction, in their struggles with the Bur- 
gundians, and took part both in their warfare 
and in their treaty with the King of England, 
Henry IV. In a.d. 1412 the stix>ng places 
of his county of Alencon were taken by the 
royal army (the king being then iu the hands 
of the Burgundians), but were retaken the 
same year by the help of the Engliah 
auxiliaries sent by Henry IV. In a. Du 1414 
he took part in Uie siege of Arras, then oc- 
cupied by the Duke ra Burgundy, who had 
been driven from the court ; and in the same 
year he was raised to the rank of duke of 
Alenyon. He was killed (25th of October, 
1415) at the great battle of Azincour or 
Agincourt, gained by the English under 
Henry V. He was one of the commanders 
of the main bodv of the French, and distin- 
guished himself greatly by his courage. 
" During which battle," says Monstrelet, 
** the above-mentioned Duke of Alencon, 
with the aid of his followers, bravely pene- 
trated a considerable way into the array of 
the aforesaid English, and came pretty near 
the King of England, fighting with great 
strength, so that he wounded and beat down 
the Duke of York ; and then the s^d king, 
seeing this, approached to raise him, and 
stoopied « Uttle, and then the said Duke of 
Alenyon struck him with his battle-axe upon 
the helmet, and knocked off a part of his 
crown. While doing this, the king's body- 
guard closely surrounded him, and he, per- 
ceiving that he could not escape the peril of 
death, lifted up his hand and said to the said 
king, * I am the Duke of Alen9oii, and I 
surrender myself to you.' But though he 
(the king) wished to admit him to surren- 
der, he was immediately killed by the said 
guards." (Monstrelet, Chroniques; Juvenal 
des Ursins, Histoire de Charles VL ; Le La- 
boureur, Histoire de Charles VL ; VArl de 
Virifier les Dates.) J. C. M. 

ALENCON, JEAN, IV., duke of, son of 
the Duke of Alen9on, who fell at Agincourt 
He took an active part in the war against the 
Duke of Bedford, whom Henry V. had left 
regent of France, and being made prisoner 
by the English at the battle of Vemeuil in 
August, 1424, he was confined in the castle 
of Crotoy in Picardy for three years, having 
refused to acknowledge Henry VL of England 
as king of France. He was obliged to pay 
an enormous ransom for his release, and to 
raise it was forced to sell part of his domains. 
These transactions involved him in a brief 
war with the Duke of Bretagne. He -was 
again engaged in the war with the 'Rn^Uaii^ 



ALENCON. 

* 

in which he dittingiushed htmflelf greatly, 
and enjoyed great fKvaai with the king. Sub- 
sequently he fell into disgrace, and when after | 
the expulsion of the English, and the final 
establidunent of Charles VIL on the throne, 
he presented himself at conrt, he did not 
meet with that fSetvoar to which, on account 
Of his services, as well as of his rank as a 
prince of the blood, he thought himself en- 
titled. Disgusted with this treatment, he 
joined the pftrty of the dauphin, afterwards 
Louis XI., who had formed a confederacy 
and was waging war upon his fkther; and | 
being a man of an intri^ng and dangerous | 
character, he entered mto all the projects , 
of the turbulent spirits who surrounded 
Louis. He formed the design of recalling 
the English who had lately been expelled 
iVom France after so great an expense of 
blood and treasure. His plan was to support 
the inyasion of the English by an insurrec- 
tion within the kingdom. Alen9on by his 
personal accomplishments had gained the af- 
fections of the French nation, and possessed 
many adherents among the maleoontent 
nobles who had snrriTed the war. He had 
paTed the way for his desperate enterprise 
by opening a oonespondence with Talbot, 
when that general surprised Bordeaux in 
1452 ; and having thus established a con- 
nection with the English court, he invited 
Richard, duke of York, then protector, to 
undertake the expedition. He promised him 
an easy conquest; represented that Charles, 
being occupied with the intrigues of his fac- 
tious son, was in no condition to resist the 
restoration of the English dominion in 
France ; and he engaged to deliver to the 
English some fortresses which he commanded 
in Normandy. The Duke of York eagerly 
listened to these proposals, which were 
carried to London by Huntingdon, an Eng- 
lishman, whom Alenyon had found at ik 
Fldche in Anjou. The English nation had 
always regretted the loss of Normandy and 
Guienne ; and the protector hoped to 
strengthen the house of York, then (1455) 
on the eve of the civil war, by the recovery 
of these provinces. Margaret of Anjou, not- 
withstanding her connections with the French 
king, who favoured the house of Lancaster, 
seconded an enterprise which was highly 
popular in England. A treaty was quickly 
concluded by which, among other articles, 
the daughter of the Duke of York was af- 
fianced to the son of Aleufon. Though 
rumoun had been diAised of this dan^rous 
conspiracy in the north of France, it had 
eluded the vigilance of Charles, at that tone 
in the Bourbonnois ; and the plot was already 
ripe for execution, when it was discovered to 
the French king by one of Alen^on's crea- 
tures. In addition to Huntingdon, that no- 
bleman had emplored as the agents of his 
correspondence with England two ecclesiaa- 
tica, bn confesBor, a Jacobin of Argentan, and 
819 



ALEN^OK. 

his almoner, whose name was Gillet The' 
latter, from real or feigned apprehension lest 
his f^quent joumies to London should excite 
suspicion, persuaded Alen9on to intrust hia 
next letters to the hands of Peter Fortin, a 
lame mendicant They were inclosed m a 
hollow staff. Fortin, instead of proceeding 
to England, carried them to the French king, 
who was then in the Bourbonnois. 

Charles, who had passed his life in civil 
war, and had only attained tranquillity in hia 
declining ^ears, was much moved l^ thia 
treachery m a prince of the blood. He im- 
mediately commanded Dunoia to proceed to 
Paris and arrest Alen^on, who had arrived 
there to complete his preparations. Dunois 
surrounded his hotel with a formidable force, 
(May, 1456,) and after apprehending him, 
conducted him first to Melun, and afterwarda 
to the castle of Chantelle, where he lay for 
two years. In 1458 the king put him on 
his tnal, and for that purpose summoned the 
parliament to Montargis : but being apprised 
that the English fleet was about to put to sea, 
he removed the sitting to Vendome. No cri- 
minal trial of equal magnitude had oecured 
since that of Bobert, count of Artois, in 
1331 ; and being contained in the register 
of the parliament, it remains a valuable re- 
cord of the ancient mode of procedure against 
peers of France. Gillet and Fortin both 
pive evidence against him ; the projected 
invasion and insurrection were proved by hia 
own letters, and he himself avowed his guilt. 
He was condemned to be beheaded, 10th Get. 
1458. Charles remitted the capital penalty, 
but kept him in prison during the remainder 
of his reign. 

Louis £l.,when he succeeded his father in 
1461, set Alen9on at liberty. This prince, 
from the moment of his accession, was beset 
by the ftction of nobles which he himself 
had stirred up against his fiuher. Alen^on, 
released from captivity, could not remain at 
rest After procuring the assassination of the 
witnesses who had given evidence against 
him, he returned to his former assooiatea, 
resumed his schemes of agitation, and waa 
active in forwarding that combination of the 
French nobles which, under the name of 
** the league for the public good,** menaced 
Louis during the first part of his reign. 
Every rebelhon attempted against that able 
prince tended to increase his power. Alen- 
9on, finding his hopes from domestic insur- 
rection cut off by the suppression c^ thia 
conspiracy, renewed his treaaonable corre- 
spondence with foreign powers. He entered 
Into a negotiation with Edward lY. <Mf Eng- 
land, the son of his former ally the Duke of 
York ; he made a tr^ity with Charlea the 
Bold ; and as these princes were then (1474) 
uniting their arms for the invasion of France, 
he, in concert with the Count St Pol, the 
constable, secretly promised them assistance. 
His practices being detected, he waa azreated 



ALEN^ON. 

by Tristan THennite. He was a second time 
brought to trial before the parliament, and a 
second time condemned to death, 18th July, 
1474. This sentence was again commuted 
by Louis for imprisonment Alen^on was 
thrown into the castle of Loches, from 
whence he was transferred to the tower of 
the Louvre, where he died. He was a man 
of restless ambition, the indefktigable adver- 
sary of two successive kings, Charles VIL 
and Louis XL, and one of the last of that 
turbulent and barbarous aristocracy which, 
after wasting France through all the middle 
ages, and exposing their country to the in- 
cursions of England, fell under the despotic 
power of Louis XL (J. Chartier, Hisioire 
de CharUa VII, ; Anciennes Lois de France, 
Isambert, tom ix. ; Daniel, HisL de France,) 

BL G. 

ALENCJON, RENE', duke o^ son of 
John, duke of Alen9on, was one of the 
victims of Louis XL Reduced to poverty by 
the confiscation of his father's estate, he took 
refuge at the court of the Duke of Brittany. 
Thither he was pursued by the unrelenting 
vengeance of Louis. He was arrested and 
imprisoned for some time in an iron cage at 
Chinon, and afterwards brought to trial be- 
fore the Parliament For what offence he 
was involved in this prosecution, nowhere 
distinctly appears. The subjection of the 
princes of the blood and the depression of the 
aristocracy were the main objects of Louis's 
policy. The parliament, unwilling to con- 
vict Alen9on of treason, but afhdd to acquit 
hun altogether, found him guilty of disobe- 
dience. He remained in prison during the 
rest of this tyrannical reign, but was released 
and restored to his honours by Charles VII L 
He died in 1492. (Biog. Univ.) H. G. 

ALE'NI, GXU'LIO, an Italian Jesuit whose 
name is often written Alenio; but as he was 
bom at Brescia, and is called Aleni by 
Mazzuchelli, who was himself a Brescian, 
that form is probably correct He is stated 
to have entered the society of Jesuits in 1600, 
in the eighteenth year of his age, from which 
it may be inferred that he was bom in 1583. 
He went to the East before he had attained 
priest's orders, impelled by an ardent desire 
of commencing missionary labours. He landed 
at Macao in 1610, and after a short time he 
began to teach mathematics. Obtaining access 
by this means into Chinese families, he 
soon made proselytes, and he continued his 
exertions for thirty-six years with distin- 
guished success. He was the first to preach 
Sie Christian religion in the province of 
Shan-se : he caused the erection of several 
churches in the principal towns of the pro- 
vince of Fuh-keen, and he baptised some 
thousands of converts. He held the office of 
superior in various residences for twenty- 
three years, and of the whole vice-province 
for seven. He died in China in the month of 
August, 1649. 
820 



ALENL • 

The list of his works written in Chinese 
and published in China, as given in the 
" Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu," is 
extremely curious. It is as follows : — 1. A 
Life of Cnrist, in eight volumes ; no doubt in 
eight Chinese volume^ or, as they are called, 
pun, an expression which might perhaps be 
more properly translated " numbers,** as four 
or five of such pun are required to make 
up the thickness of an ordinary European 
volume. 2. On the Incarnation of Clmat. 
3. The Life and Passion of the Lord of 
Heaven, expressed by Images (" Teen choo 
kean^ sang chiih seang king keae"). A copy 
of this work is in the royal library at Ber^ 
lin, and a short description of it is given bj 
Klaproth, fh>m which it appears that the 
name of the author, Giulio, is represented bj 
three Chinese characters, which may be pro- 
nounced Egiih-leaou, and that the publica- 
tion was revised and seen through the press 
by Father Emanuel Diaz. The book is an 
adaptation from a work by Father Jerome 
Nateli, ** Annotationes in Evangelia," and the 
Chinese woodcuts are said by Weiss to be 
copied, but he does not state with what suc- 
cess, from the copper-plates by Wierx, an 
excellent engraver, with which the original is 
ornamented. 4. On the Sacrifice of the Mass, 
in two volumes. 5. On the Sacrament of 
Penance. 6. On the Origin of the World* 
proving the Existence of God. 7. Dialogues, 
in which the principal errors of the Chinese, 
and the doubts they usually propose, are re- 
futed. 8. St Bemard*s Dialogue between 
the Body and Soul, translated into Chinese 
verse. This must have been a peculiarly 
difficult undertaking. The language of 
poetry in China varies considerably from 
that of prose, and abounds with obscure 
expressions, which frequently, even at the 
present day, baffle the best European 
schoUrs. 9. On European Studies and Sci- 
ences. 10. The Theatre of the World, di^ 
vided into five parts, in which the leading 
particulars with regard to Europe and the 
other parts of the world are explained. A 
copy of this interesting work, in two volumes 
foUo, was to be found at the Jesuits' library 
at Rome in 1675. 11. Geometry explained, 
in four books. 12. The Life of Matteo Ricci, 
the Jesuit apostle in China. 13. The Life of 
Dr. Michael Yang, a Chinese conspicuous 
for sanctity. 14. The Life of Shang Michael, 
a young Chinese of distinguished merit from 
the province of Fuh-keen. (Ribadeneira,^t&- 
Uoiheca Scriptonan Societatis Jesu, opus recog- 
nitum a Sotvello, p. 529, &c ; Mazzuchelli, 
Scriitori d^ Italia, L 434. ; Article by Weiss 
in Biographie Universelle* IvL (or vot L of 
Supp.) 157, &c. ; Klaproth, Verzeickniss der 
Chinesiachen BUcher der KOniglichen BibUothek 
zu Berlin, p. 183, &c) T. W. 

ALE'NI, TOMMA'SO, an Italian painter, 
called il Fadino, bora at Cremona in 1500, 
was the scholar of Galeazzo Campi, in whose 



ALENL 



ALEOTTI. 



.manner he painted so exactly that their works 
cannot be distinguished. They painted in 
the old style of the Qoattrocentisti, in a feeble 
manner j they executed some works together 
in the church of San Domenico at Cremona. 
(Orlandi, Abecedario Pitiorico ; Zaist, Notizie 
Utonche di Pittori, ^c, Creffumen,) R. N. W. 

ALEOTTI, GIAMBATTISTA, an Italian 
engineer and architect, of whose life few 
particulars have been recorded, nor had any 
one pretended to fix any date as the year of 
his birth, until Frixzi, the author of the 
** Storia di Ferrara," ascertained it to be 
1546, and that he was the son of Vicenzo 
Aleotti, ** cittadino Ferrarese." He is gene- 
rally stated to have been bom at Argenta, in 
the territory of Ferrara, and to have been in 
such very humble circumstances that he 
worked at first as a common mason, from 
which condition he raised himself chiefly by 
his own diligence and his application to the 
study of geometry and other branches of 
science connected with his future profession. 
According to the authority above mentioned 
(given in a note in Tiraboschi), Aleotti was 
taken into the service of AJfonso IL of 
Ferrara, as his engineer, in 1571 ; and after 
the death of that prince (1597) still continued 
in the employ <^ the state, and built the 
citadel caused to be erected by Pope Clement 
YIII., who had attached Ferrara to the states 
of the church. After this he was employed 
by various princes and nobles in that part of 
Italy, and among others by Ranuccio L of 
Parma, for whom he erected, in 1618, his 
most celebrated architectural work, the great 
theatre in that city, which, notwithstanding 
its magnitude, he completed within about a 
year, it being opened in 1619. Of this struc- 
ture, almost the first of the kind planned 
according to the modem system (but which 
has since undergone several alterations), 
there is a fiill history and description by 
Donati, entitled ** Gran Teatro Famesino di 
Parma," 1817. He was also employed on 
various other buildings, not only at Parma, 
but at Mantua Modena, and different places. 
He wrote several treatises on subjects of 
hydraulic engineering, and translated from 
the Greek Heron's treatise on .Pneumatics. 
He also founded the Academy Degli Intre- 
pidi, at Ferrara, in 1600. In most biogra- 
phical publicadons he is said to have died in 
1630, but Frizzi fixes the date of his death in 
1636, in the seventieth year of his age. (Ti- 
rabofichi, Stona deOa Letteratura; BiblioU 
Italy W. a L. 

ALEOTTI, VITTORIA, daughter of 
Giambattista Aleotti, an architect of some ce- 
lebrity, was bom at Argenta about the bitter 
part of the sixteenth century. Her indications 
of musical talent were early and strong, and 
she was placed first under Pasquino, and after- 
wards in the convent of St. Yiti at Ferrara, 
then fiunous for its music school, where she 
passed the remainder of her life. A set of 
821 



her madrigals, written to the poetry of Gaa- 
rini, was published at Venice in 1593, under 
the title" Ghirlandade*Madrigall" (Gerber, 
Lexicon der Tonkunsder.) £. T. 

ALEPRANDL [Aliprandi.] 
ALER, PAUL, a Jesuit, was bora at St. 
Vite, in the duchy of Luxemburg, on the 
9th of November, 1656. He was educated 
at the college of the Three Crowns at Co- 
logne, entered the order of Jesuits in 1676, 
took the four vows on the 2d of February, 1 69 1 , 
and spent the remainder of his life in great 
repute as a teacher at Cologne, Aix-Ja-Cha- 
pelle, Treves, and Juliers, till his death at 
Dueren on the 2d of May 1727. Hartzheim, in 
his account of him, speaks vaguely of a legal 
contest which he had to sustain with some 
envious enemies before the Roman rota, and 
the courts of the palatinate, which ended in 
the complete triumph of Aler, who remitted 
to his adversaries a thousand florins which 
they were condemned to pay him. 

The works of Aler are numerous. He 
was remarkably fond of theatrical entertain- 
ments, and Hartzheim speaks with enthusiasm 
of the representations which were given under 
his direction by the scholars of the college of 
the Three Crowns at Cologne, for the amuse- 
ment of electors, cardinals, and magistrates, 
in which the scenes were changed in the 
twinkling of an eye, and not only individuals 
but whole choruses were, by ingenious ma- 
chinery, made to appear in the sky. For 
these representations Aler wrote three trage- 
dies on the adventures of Joseph, two on 
those of Tobias, one entitled " Bertulf and 
Ansberta,** another " Genevieve," and another 
in the German language, all the others being 
in Latin, on the subject of the Maccabees. 
He was also the author of four musical dra- 
mas, in Latin ; the first, ** Mary the Queen 
of Grace," the second, ** Mary the Queen of 
Peace," the third, ** Julius Maximinus," and 
the fourth, " Urania." All of these were 
printed at Cologne between 1696 and 1710. 
Hartzheim also enumerates among the works 
of Aler the ** Gradns ad Pamassum," seventh 
edition, with corrections and emendations. 
Cologne, 1724,8vo. From this information, 
which does not necessarily imply that Aler 
did more than superintend that edition, has 
apparently arisen the statement that he was 
the original compiler of the Gradus, which 
is made in most biographical dictionaries, 
and is repeated by Guizot in the Biographic 
Universelle. But Barbier has shown that 
the work now so called originally appeared 
anonymously at Paris in 1652, four years 
before Aler's birth, under the title of ** Epi- 
thetorum et Synonymorum Thesaurus," and 
is ascribed in a manuscript note of Father 
Baiz6 to Father Chatillon, a French Jesuit 
It met with great success, ran through several 
editions, and first assumed its present title of 
** Gradus ad Pamassum" in 1667. Barbier 
remarks that a Latin advertisement which is 



ALER. 

given in Aler's edition is merely a trans- 
lation of that in French which appears in 
the original, and that Aler gives a " short 
appendix of some Latin words which are 
wanting in this book," a convincing proof 
that he was not its author. The ** Oradus,** 
a large collection of epithets and expletives, 
intended to fiicilitate the composition of Latin 
verse, has been repeatedly reprinted in our 
own and other countries, though the first 
effect of the old Oradus, as we are told in the 
pre&ce to an improved edition published in 
1819, was to ** obscure both unity of thought 
and clearness of expression," and to present 
the learner ** with such an assemblage of 
diffeient styles and sentiments that his judg- 
ment was confused and often impeded." A 
minute list of the remainder of Alerts works 
is given in Hartsheim, Paquot, and Adelnnf^. 
The most important are, ** Philosophia Tri- 
partita,'' a treatise on Philosophy in three 
parts, the first embracing logic, the second 
physics, and the third metaphvsics. (Colore, 
1710>1724,4ta) ** Dictionanum Qermanico- 
Latinum." (Cologne, 1724, 8va) " Poesis 
varia," a collection of his poems on different 
occasions, (Cologne, 1702, 8vo.) and a theo- 
logical treatise on human actions ; ** De Ac- 
tibus humanis," the title of which has often 
been erroneously given as " De Artibns hu- 
manis." (Cologne, 1717, 4to.) (Hartzheim, 
BtbUotheca CoUmiensis, p. 263---265. ; Pa- 
quot, MifMirea pow tervir a VHiMoire LitU- 
raire <Ut Pays Bag, iii. 132. 140.; Adelung, 
Fortaetzung zu Jocher's Gelekrten-Lexico, 
i. 550, &c ; Barbier, Examen Critique dea 
Dictionnairea HiaMriquea, I 25, &c. ; Barbier 
Dictionnaire dea Ouvragea Anonymea, No. 
20,362.) T. W. 

ALES, ALEXANDER (or Aless, Alesse, 
Alane, Alesius), a divine who ultimately 
embraced the Augsburg confession of faith. 
He was bom at Edinburgh on the 23d of 
April, 1500, wac educated at the university 
of St Andrew's, and obtained a canonry 
in the collegiate church there. At an early 
age he entered into the controversy on the 
subject of Luther. He also took part against 
Patrick Hamilton and the principles which 
Hamilton had imbibed at Miurburg. So con- 
vincing, however, seemed the discourses and 
firmness of Hamilton, that Ales*s endeavours 
to bring him back to the Roman Catholic 
religion nearly ended in his own conversion. 
Ales preached before the synod of St 
Andrew's a^nst the corrupt lives of the 
clergy, and m return was accused of heresy. 
The chapter being summoned to meet, he 
was three times imprisoned, but as often libe- 
rated by his brother canons, and the last time 
he made his escape to London (1534), and 
thence to Germany. In August, 1535, Me- 
lancthon sent, through Ales, to King Henry 
Vin. his Commentary on the Epistle to the 
Romans, and a like present to Cranmer, to 
whom he commended the bearer, with a Idgfa 
822 



ALfiA. 

character for learning, probity, and diligenoe. 
Cranmer kept Ales with him at Lambeth, 
and greatly esteemed him. Cromwell broag:ht 
Ales with him into the convocation in th« 
year 1536; and Ales, at his request, dis- 
coursed of two sacraments only b^g admi- 
nistered by Christ It is said that he also 
Sew into such fiivour with the king that 
enry used to call Ales ** his scholar." After 
the fUl of Cromwell he again fled into Ger- 
many. There is a letter from him in Germany 
to Bucer in Cambridge referring to the very 
pleasant society he had formerly enjoyed in 
King's College, Cambridge (among tlie MS8. 
of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge). The 
stor^ of his leaving his country is told in the 
begmning of his defence against Cochls^is. 
Ales is mentioned, with Bucer, as having a 
meeting with Gardiner, bishop of Win- 
chester, when Gardiner went to Germany as 
King Henry's ambassador : the conversatioti 
related to some common principles whereby 
every man might be convinced of the con- 
troverted points of religion. In 1540 Ales 
was appointed by the Elector of Brandenbnii^ 
professor of theology at Firankfort upon the 
Oder, and sent with two others to die con- 
ference at Worms. The next year, at Frank- 
fort, he maintained in a pubUc dispute that 
the civil magistrate could and ought to punish 
fornication, and in this he was supported by 
Melancthon, which so incensed the court of 
Brandenburg that aj^cation was made tso 
the university of Wittenbeig to give them a 
public reproof. Upon this Ales left Frank- 
fort for Leipzig (in 1543). After refusing a 
professor's chair which Albert the first duke 
of Prussia intended to erect at Konigsberg, 
he was chosen professor of divinity at Leip- 
zig, and held this place till his death. 

Ales was among the theologians sum- 
moned to attend the conference at Naumburg 
in the month of March, 1554, for consoli- 
dating a union between the houses of Saxony, 
Brandenburg, and Hesse. In 1555 he as- 
sisted in appeasing the disciples of Osiander 
at Numberg. On the 29th of November, 
1560, he maintained the necessity and merit 
of good works in a public disputation held in 
the university of Leipzig. While at Leipzig 
he translated for Bucer*s use the first liturgy 
of Edward VI. into Latin, and both trans- 
lated and wrote a pre&ce to Bncer^s work, 
which is among his ** Scripta Anglica " Ba- 
sil, 1577, fol., and called ** Ordinadonce An- 
glorum Eoclesiffi per Bucemm, Lib. !.** 
Ales died at Leipzig on the 17th of Much, 
1565. 

The following are his commentaries on 
the Bible : — 1. ** In aliquot Psahnoe Liber 
I.; or, Expositio Libri Psalmorum Davidis 
juxta HebrsBorum et D. Hieronymi Supputa- 
tiones.*' Leipzig, 1650, 1596, foL 2.*<DeUtili. 
tate Psalmorum Liber L;" in &e Leipzig 
edition of 1542, in 8va, " De Antore et Usu 
Psalmorum." 8. **In Swngelium Joaanis 



ALES. 



ALES. 



Liber V* BaaO, 1553, 8vo. 4. **In omne? 
EpiBtolas Pauli Libri XIV." 5. ** Disputa- 
tiones in Panhim ad Romanoe Liber L 
Leipzig, 1553, Svo. 6. ** Expoattio L Epis- 
tolse ad Timotheun et Epistobe ad Tttum." 
Leipzig, 1550, Syo. 7. ** Poaterioris ad Ti- 
motheum." Leipzig, 1551, 8ya 

The following woriu are in fitTonr of 
reading the scriptures in the vemacolar 
tongae, and against the bishops and others 
who opposed it : — 8. ** De Scriptoris le- 
gendis in Lingoa matema Liber L" Leipzig, 
1533, 8TO. 9. ** Ad Scotomm Regem contra 
Episoopos." Argentoratum (l e. Strassbnrg), 
1542, 12ma and 8va The former work was 
answered by CochlsBus, and defended bj 
Ales. 10. ''Contra Calnmnias Cochlsi 
Liber L,'' otherwise entitled **Dtspntatio 
inter Alexandmm Alesiom et Joannem 
Cochltenm an expedit Laicis legere Novmn 
Testamentom." Leipzig, 1551, Svo. 11. 
** Responsio ad Jacobom V. Regem," 12ma ; 
and Leipzig, 1554, 8yo. 

Against the Roman Catholics he published 
^12. ''Liber de Schismate; scO porgans 
Reformatos ab isto Crimine." For this he 
was fiunished with both matter and argu- 
ment by Melanchthon. (Strype, Memorial of 
CroHmtr, p. 403.) 13. " Of the Anctorite 
of the Word of God against the Bishop of 
London concerning the Number of the Sa* 
craments:" also a Strassbnrg edition, 1542, 
in 12ma 14. " De Missa et Ccena Domini 
Liber L" 1 5. " Responsio adversus Ricardnm 
Tapperum de Missa et Coma Domini Liber 
L" Leipzig, 1565, 8vo. 16. "Contra Lova- 
niensium Articulos Liber I.," with this title 
in the Leipzig edition in Svo. of 1559, " Re- 
sponsio ad XXXIL Lovaniensium Articulos." 
17. " Pro Scotorum Concordia Liber L" 
The "Cohortatio Alex. Alesii ad Conoordiam 
Pietatis in Patriam missa" was edited at 
Leipzig in 1544, in 8to. 18. " Cohortatio 
ad Pietatis Concordiam ineundam," Leipzig, 
1559, 8vo. He wrote also, 19. " De Josti- 
ficatione contra Osiandrum Liber L," called 
in Ihe Leipzig edition, 8vo.of 1554, "Tres 
Disputadones de Mediatore et Justificatore 
Homxnia," and in those of Wittenberg, 1552, 
8to., and Leipzig, 1553, 8vo., "Refiitatio 
Osiandri de unico Mediatore." 20. "De 
utriusque Natnra Offidis in Christo Liber 
L" 21. " De distincta ejus Hypostasi Liber 
L" 22. " Contra Michaelem Servetum cgus- 
qne Blasphemias Disputationes tres Liber 
L" Leipzig, 1554, 8yo. 23. " Assertio Doc- 
trinae Catholics de Trinitate adversus Va- 
lent Gentilem," Leipzig, 1569, 8yo., and 
Genera, 1567, fol. 24. " Disputatio de per- 
petno Consensu Ecclesis." Leipzig, 1553,8yo. 
25. " Oratio de Gratitudine Liber L" Leipzig, 
1541, 8vo. 26. "De restituendis Schohs 
Liber L" Leipzig, 1541, Svo. 27. "Cate- 
chismns Christianus Liber L" 28. " Prse&do 
super Obedientiam Gardineri Liber L" 29. 
« De Baki Yocatione Liber L" 80. " Epis- 
823 



tols tam ad me (Baleum) quam alios Liber 
I." And all the disputations he had then 
composed were republished together in 8vo. 
and in 4to. at Leipzig in 1553. (Tanner, 
Bibliotheca Britannico^ibemica ; Mackenzie, 
Lwea of Scotch Writera^ vol. ii. ; J. A. Fa- 
bricius, Bib. Lat Med, et Inf. jEt ; Strype, 
Memorials of Cranmer, p. 402, 403, 404^ 

A. T. P. 
ALE S, PIERRE ALEXANDRE D*, Vi- 
comte de Corbet, commonly called the Vi- 
comte d'Al^s, was of an ancient fionily of 
Touraine, and was bom the 18th of April, 
1715. The &mily » nid to have been of 
Irish extraction. The vicomte's father, called 
Pierre d'Alds, Comte de Corbet, carried on a 
controversy, about the middle of the last cen- 
tury, with d'Hozier the genealogist regard- 
ing the account of his fiunily given in that 
writer's great work, the " Armorial g^#ral 
de la Fnuice :" he had, after the death of his 
wife, taken holy orders, and got himself made 
a canon of the cathedral of Blois. A daughter 
of the comte*s, Genevieve, who afterwarcto be- 
came Madame du Lude, published at Orleans 
m 1760 a little work entitled " Abr^g^ de la 
Vie de M. Lepelletier, mort il Oricans en 
odeur de saintet^ en 1756." The vicomte 
and this daughter were two of only three 
children who survived their fether out of 
a femily of eleven. All that is related of the 
vicomte's history is, that at eighteen he 
entered the army as an officer of musketeers, 
and the following year, 1783, was present at 
the siege of Kehl, when that town was taken 
by the forces of Louis XV. ; that he then 
went into a regiment of marines, in which he 
served till the state of his health obliged him 
to retire in 1741 ; and that, with the excep- 
tion of what duties he might have to perform 
as their lieutenant, and judge of the point of 
honour for the districts of Le Blaisois, Ia 
Sologne, and Le Dunois, to which office he 
was elected by the marshals of France, the 
rest of his life was spent in literary labours 
and the cultivation of his estate, his agricul- 
tural tastes being stimulated by a warm ad- 
miration of the doctrines of the economistes. 
His most important work is a metaphysical 
treatise, in 2 vols. 12mo., published at P&ris 
in 1758, entitled " De rOrigine du Mai, ou 
Examen des principales difficult^s de Bayle 
sur cette matidre." This is a defence of the 
doctrine of the freedom of the will against 
the objections of Bayle ; and, although it is 
admitted to be somewhat cloudy in parts, it is 
asserted by a friendly critic in the " Bio- 
graphic Universelle" to have much merit 
both as a piece of reasoning, and as a history 
of opinion on the subject it treats of. It ap- 
pears to have made some noise when first 
published, but is now forgotten. Another 
publication of Aids de Corbet's is entitled 
" Reeherches Historiques sar Tancienne Gen- 
darmerie Fran^aise," 12mo., Avignon, 1759 : 
it eontizts of aevend mem<»rs read by the 



ALES. 



ALESSANDRL 



aathor before the Academy of Angers, and is 
said to be, although slight, not without value 
as a contribution to the history of the French 
army. The following works are also attri- 
buted to the Vicomte d'Alds: — " Dissertation 
sur les Antiquites d^lvlande," 12mo., 1749, 
published under the name of Fitz-patrick ; a 
pamphlet on the controversy between the 
Chatelet and the Chambre Royale, 12mo., 
1753 ; " Nouvelles Observations sur les deux 
Systemes de la Noblesse, Commerfante ou 
Militaire,** 12mo., Amsterdam (but really 
printed at Paris), 1758 ; and ** Origine de la 
Noblesse Fran5aise,*' 12mo., Paris, 1 766. How 
long d*Alds lived after this last date is not 
known. {Bioffrapkie Univ. Supplem.^ 

G. L. C. 
ALESIO, or ALESSI, MATTEO PE- 
REZ DE, the Spanish name of Matteo da 
Lecce. [Lecce.] R. N. W. 

ALESSANDRI, ALESSANDRO, was 
bom at Naples about the year 1461. Maz- 
zuchelli says his family was noble, but this 
appears problematicaL Carlo Pinti wrote 
some verses to compliment him upon having 
the same name as Alexander the Great ; and 
Balzac in prose sneered at him as ^ doubly 
Alexander, having Alexander for his name 
and Alexander instead of a territorial desig- 
nation." The circumstance of Alessandri's 
uncle having obtained distinction as a prac- 
tising lawyer was probably the occasion of 
his being educated for the legal profession. 
As preparatory to his professional studies 
considerable attention appears to have been 
paid to his classical education. At Naples 
he is said to have studied under Junianus 
Maius, who was however more famous in his 
* day as an interpreter of dreams than either as 
a teacher or lexicographer, and the pupil 
seems to have been not altogether unworthy 
of his teacher. 

At Rome Alessandri heard Filelfo explain 
the Tusculan questions of Cicero, and an 
expression he uses in his **Dies Geniales" 
would seem to imply that he was a student in 
that city when Perotto and Calderino were 
professors of belles lettres there. Calderino 
died in 1477 ; and Filelfo, who was called to 
Rome in 1475 by Sixtus IV., died in 1481 ; 
we are thus enabled to fix the time of Ales- 
sandri's Roman studies as between 1475 and 
1481. 

Alessandri, after completing his studies, 
practised at the bar both in Naples and Rome. 
Panciroli states that he held the office of royal 
protonotary at Naples in 1490. He subse- 
quently withdrew into private life, disgusted, 
if we may believe his own account, with the 
iniquity of the bench. The latter years of his 
life were spent at Rome, where some sinecure 
appointments bestowed upon him by the pope 
enabled him to live in a style of economical 
gentility. According to an entry in one of 
the MSS. of the Vatican library quoted by 
Mazzuchelli, Alessandri died at Rome» on the 
824 



2d of October, 1523, in the sixty-second year 
of his age. 

He published, in what year is uncertain, 
four dissertations on dreams, spectres, &c. in 
which he tells some stories of spectral illu- 
sions which he himself had experienced. The 
book is a quarto, and has the imprint Rome, 
but neither the year nor the name of the 
printer is mentioned. The substance of these 
dissertations is embodied in four chapters of 
the author's " Dies Geniales." The folio, 
which appears to be the first edition of this 
work, has on the title-page " Alexandri ab 
Alexandro Dies Geniales. Nequis opus ex- 
cudat, denuo infra septenninm sub diris im- 
precationibus, apostolica authoritate, interdic- 
tum est:" and at the end of the volume, 
** Romse in eedibus Jacobi Mazochii Ro. 
AcademisB bibliopolsB Anno Virginei Partus, 
1522: kalend. Apri. Paul S.D.N. de cujus 
nomine podtificali adhuc non constat Anno 
primo." Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht, tutor to 
: Charles V., who had been elected pope in 
January, 1522, was still in Spain, and the 
' pontifical name he had assumed was unknown 
at Rome in the month of ApriL 

Alessandri*s work consists of six books, 
I and each book of from twenty-six to thirty- 
I two chapters : but in reality each chapter is 
a separate essay, totally unconnected with 
I what goes before or foUows it. The name 
j "genial days" appears to have been sug- 
i gested by several of the essays having as- 
sumed the form of conversations held at 
houses of his friends on birthdays and other 
festal occasions. The style is easy, the 
matter sometimes interesting, occasionally 
frivolous. Great part of the book is occu- 
pied with desultory discussions on Roman 
antiquities ; occasional legal difficulties are 
started, but even in discussing them the 
philologist preponderates; they read like 
extracts from the note-book of one who had 
opportunities of hearing the conversation of 
good scholars. 

Alessandri's stories of prophetic dreams, 
terrible spectres, mermaids, &c would imply 
great credulity, were there not good reason 
to question his veracity. Andrea Alciati, 
writing to a friend about the time Ales- 
sandri's book was published, says, ** If you 
have any acquaintance with him, request 
him to lend me the ancient MS. of Alphenos, 
and the commentaries on the senatuscon- 
sulta, which, he says, he saw and purchased 
at Rome; he mentions them in the fourth 
and seventh chapters of his first book ; for I 
suspect him of imitating Parrhastus, who, 
yon know, was wont to quote authors he 
never saw." The truth is, that the passages 
which Alessandri says he saw in ** a book of 
wonderful antiquilj, the letters of which 
were almost illegible firom age," and in 
'* some commentaries on the senatuscon- 
sulta, which a sailor saved from shipwreck 
and brought to Rome," are both in the 



ALESSANORL 



ALESSANDRL 



PluidecU of Justinian. Some writers have 
expressed uncalled-for astonishment that an 
author who mentions so many of the eminent 
scholars of his age should have been noticed 
by none of them. A passage in one of 
Erasmus's letters explains the reason why: 
— ** Who may this Alexander ab Alexandro 
be? He knows all the celebrated men of 
Italy; Filelfns, Pomponius Laetua, Her- 
molaiis, and who not He is fiuniliarly ac- 
quainted with everybody, and yet nobody 
knows him." The **Dies Geniales" have 
been frequently reprinted: the best edition 
is that in octavo, printed at Leyden, in 1673, 
with the annotations of Dionysius Gothofredus 
and others. (Alexandri ab Alexandro, Dies 
Gemiaiea. Lugduui Batavorum, 1673 — 8. ; 
Mazznchelll, Scrittori d* Italia ; Bayle's and 
Moreri*s Dictionariu.) W. W. 

ALESSANDRI, FELFCE, an Italian com- 
poser of second-rate talent, who sought and 
acquired some reputation in other countries. 
He was bom at Rome in 1742, and visited 
London with his wife, Signora Guadagni, in 
1768, where he produced two comic operas. 
Here he had to contend with composers of 
higher pretensions than his own, and after a 
stay of two years he returned to Italy. But, 
unable to obtain any permanent appointment 
in his own country, he again wandered to a 
distance, and resided some time at St Peters- 
burg, occupying himself as a singing master. 
In 1789 he went to Berlin, where, by some 
lucky chance, he obtained the situation of 
second kapellmeister to the king for three 
years. In 1790 his opera *' II Ritomo 
d*Ulysse" was performed there with great 
success, and was followed by several other 
serious and comic operas. Mis pretensions 
were now scrutinised with unsparing severity 
by the Berlin critics, and his jpopularity 
began to decline : the king dismissed him 
from his service even before his engagement 
had expired, and his public career from that 
period terminated. His published operas 
amount to nineteen, of which some were 
printed in London, others at Padua, Naples, 
Leghorn, Palermo, and Berlin. (Gerber, 
Lexicon der Tonkmutier,) E. T. 

ALESSANDRI, INNOCENTE, a mo- 
dem Venetian engraver, and the scholar of 
the celebrated BartolozzL Huber and Rost, 
and recentlv Dr. Nagler, have given 1760 as 
the date of his birth *, but as many of his 
works were published before 1^68, when the 
first volume of Heineken's Dictionary of 
Artists appeared, and as some of them are 
mentioned by Gandellini, who died in 1769, 
and, farther, as he was the scholar of Barto- 
loKzi, who left Venice in 1764, it is evident 
that he must have been bom at least fifteen, 
or perhaps twenty vears earlier, about 1742. 
He opened a print shop in Venice in partner- 
ship with Pietro Scata^ia, and they engraved 
many plates together. ThefbllowingareAles- 
sandris principal works: — fbor folio pbUes 

VOL. I. 



after Domenico M^jotti, of half-length figures 
representing the four liberal arts of Astronomy, 
Music, Geometry, and Painting; two Ma- 
donnas after paintings by Piazzetta and Sebas- 
tian Ricci ; an Annunciation and a Flight into 
Egypt after Lemoine ; and two landscapes after 
Jkuurco Ricci, which he engraved alone. In 
company with Scataglia he executed two sets 
of twelve hmdscapes each, after Marco Ricci ; 
and two collections of quadrapeds, in two 
hundred coloured plates each, with descrip- 
tions by Ludovico LeschL (Huber und Rost, 
Hatu&uch flr KuMstiiebhaber und Sammler^ 
*c.) R. N. W. 

ALESSANDRPNL [Albxandrini.] 
ALESSANDRI'NO. [Magnasco.] 
ALESSANDRO, abbot of the Benedictine 
monastery of S. Salvatore di Tolosa, in the 
kingdom of Naples, appears to have lived a 
little before the middle of the twelfth cen- 
tury. He compiled, in four books, an ac- 
count of the actions of Ruggiero, king of 
Sicily, which begins with the events of the 
year 1127, in which Guglielmo, duke of 
Puglia, died, and breaks off with the events of 
the year 1135, in which Ruggiero invested his 
BOB Anfuso with the principality of Capua. 
Alessandro mentions that he composed the 
work at the re<|uest of the Countess Matilda, 
sister of Ruggiero, in the year 1135. The 
work is confiised and ill arranged, but not 
without a certain value as the narrative of a 
contemporary. It has been frequently printed. 
Zurita published an edition of it in folio at 
Saragossa, in 1578 ; it was included in the 
third volume of the "Hispania Dlustrata,** 
published by Scoto at Frankf^irt, in 1606; 
the Abate Caruso inserted it in the first vo- 
lume of his ** Bibliotheca Historica Regni 
Sici^ie,'' published at Palermo in 1723 ; it is 
contained m the fifth volume of the ** Thesau- 
rus Anti^uitatum Sicilie," published at Ley- 
den also m 1723 ; and in the fifth volume of 
Muratori's great collection. (Mazzuchelli, 
Scrittori d* Italia.^ W. W. 

ALESSANDRO and JULIO, two Italian 
fresco painters of whom little is known, but 
they are always spoken of together. They 
are said to have been the scholars of Raphael 
or of Giovanni da Cdine ; and the only ac- 
count we have of them is, that they visited 
Spain at the invitation of the Emperor Charles 
v., and decorated the Alhambra with paint- 
ings and arabesques in the style of the Loggie 
of Raphael in Uie Vatican. They executed 
also, according to Pacheco, the paintings in 
the house of Cobos, the emperoi^s secretary, 
in the city of Ubeda (probably the hospital of 
Santiago spoken of by Cumberland), through 
which works the taste for grotesque or ara- 
besque decorations is said to have been much 
spread in Si>ain. Velasco states that they 
executed similar works in the house of the 
Duke of Alba at Madrid, and in the palace of 
Alba de Tonnes, and that they painted also 
the aqueducts of Merida; after which they 
8H 



ALESSANDRO. 



ALESSI. 



retained to Italy, where they died aboat 
1530. 

Bermiidez, however, disputes the ac- 
curacy of this account, and says that the 
arabesques of the palace of Alba de Tormes 
were painted by the brothers Fabriccio Cas- 
tello and NicoUs Granelo ; which is the case 
with other works that have been attributed to 
these ItaKans. (Bermudez, Diccionano His- 
torico, ^.) R. N. W. 

ALESSANDRO, ANDREA DI, a 
sculptor of Brescia; he executed the richly 
ornamented bronze candelabrum in the 
church of Santa Maria deUa Salute at Venice, 
as we learn from the mscription it bears: 
this sculptor is otherwise unknown. There is 
an engraving of the candelabrum in Cicognara. 
(Cicognara, Storia ddla Scultura.) R. N. W. 

ALESSANDRO DE CARPINETO 
wrote, during the pontificate of Celestino 
IIL, who was elected pope in 1191 and 
died in 1197, a chronicle of the monastery 
to which he belonged. It was published 
by Ughelli in his "Italia Sacra," and will 
be found in vol. vL coL 12S1. of the Roman 
edition of that work ; vol. x. leaf 350v of 
the Venetian edition. Ughelli found the 
chronicle in a parchment MS. belonging to 
the Cistercian monastery of Santa Maria di 
Casanuova in the Abruzzo, to which the 
monastery to which Alessandro had belonged 
was unit^ in the time of Pope Alexander IV. 
He mentions in the chronicle his name, the fact 
of his belonging to the convent, and the period 
at which he wrote. Nothing more is known 
concerning him. (Mazzuchelli, Scrittori 
fT Italia.^ W. W. 

ALESSI, GALEAZZO. Although his 
fame is as much identified with Genoa as 
that of Palladio his contemporary with 
Vicenza, this eminent architect was a native 
of Perugia, where he was bom, in the year 
1500, of a respectable fiunily. After having 
studied mathematics and architectural draw- 
ing under Cesare Caporali, he visited Rome, 
and there became not only acquainted with 
Michael An^elo, but on terms of intimate 
friendship with that great artist Though 
he resided at Rome for several years, he 
does not appear to have executed anything 
in that city, at least not anything of suffi- 
cient importance to be recorded ; but that he 
had given evidence of his talent may be pre- 
sumed from his being chosen by Cardinal 
Parisani to accompany him when he was 
sent as legate to Perugia; and to complete 
the works of the citadel whidi had been 
commenced by Sangallo. It was at this 
period that Alessi adorned his native city 
with many palazzi, either erected or designed 
by him ; considerable as it was in itself the 
reputation he thus acquired would have been 
comparatively insignificant if it had not led 
to an invitation from the republic of Genoa 
to improve and embellish &eir capital; a 
aplendid opportunity, in which other able 
826 



artists participlited with him, but in which 
he distinguished himself beyond all his rivals 
or associates. The Carignano Church is a 
structure that alone would have perpetoated 
his fame; not that it is perfectly unexoep- 
tionable in point of taste, for there are many 
blemishes in the design, which even the moat 
indulgent criticism can hardly excuse ; yet, 
taken as a whole, it is one of the finest archi- 
tectural monuments of its class and period. 
The Porta del Molo Vecchio, &r more pic- 
turesque and fdll of character than anything 
of the same kind designed by Sanmicheli ; 
the Public Granaries ; the Loggia de' Ban- 
chieri; and other works, for either public 
utility or ornament, were also his designs, 
as well as many of the general plans sug- 
gested fbr improving and embellishing differ- 
ent quarters of the city. The most important 
of these was the opening of a new street 
which retains the name of Strada Nuova, 
and which consists almost entirely of an 
assemblage of palaces and stately mansions, 
imposing and picturesque, if not always 
faultless; and if not always satisfiictory in 
their detail, dignified and impressive in 
their ensemble. To the palace architec- 
ture of Genoa, which has a peculiar charac- 
ter, distinct from that of Venice or Flo- 
rence or Rome, no individual artist has 
contributed more than AlessL His works of 
this class, both in the Strada Nuova and 
other parts of the city, would of themselves 
furnish an interesting series of studies ; and 
among them may be here mentioned the 
Palazzi -Grimaldi, Carrega, Lercari (one of 
his best works), and Cambiano, all in the 
Strada Nuova ; the Palazzo Brignole minore, 
in the Strada Nuovissima ; the Palazzo 
Giustiniani (one of the most interesting in 
Genoa) ; the Palazzo Pallavicini; the Palazzo 
Saoli i. Porta Romana, another of the same 
name at S. Pier d' Arena ; the Villa Imperiale 
at the same place (a fine facade, in which 
richness is happily mingled with simplicity); 
the Villa Giustiniani k Albaro (erected 
1537) ; and tiie Villa d'Agnolo ; besides many 
others either within the city or situated in 
its vicinity. With this mere enumeration of 
his principal works at Genoa, we refer to 
Gauthier's ** Plus beaux Edifices de U Ville 
de Genes, et de ses Environs," for further 
information relative to the buildings them- 
selves, and for very tastefully executed deli- 
neations of them, both geometrical and per- 
spective. 

Although Genoa contains Alessi's prin- 
cipal works, and a greater number of build- 
ings by him than any odier city, it is by no 
means the only place where he was employed. 
Blilan alone possesses several fine pieces of 
architecture by him ; and among others, the 
splendid, and though somewhat rantastic, yet 
eminently picturesque fk^ade (constructed en- 
tirely of white -marble) of the church of Santa 
Mana presso San Celso; the rich architec- 



ALES8L 



ALESSia 



tand mass of what was originally a ptface 
built for Tommaao Marini, duke of Torre 
Noova, bat now converted into public offices ; 
and the church of St Victor. Near Perugia, 
he built a very extensive and magnificent 
palace for the Duke Delia Corgna ; also one 
for the cardinal, that nobleman's brother. 
So f^rcat, indeed, was his reputation, that 
applications were made to him for designs, 
not only from Naples, Sicily, and other parts 
of Italy, but from other countries; and he 
was consulted relative to different projects 
for the Eseurial in Spain. Though his mind 
was still vigorous, the increasing infirmities 
of a^ rendered this sort of general homage 
to his talent and deference to his opinion 
fatiguing. He died at Perugia on the last 
day of the ^ear 1.572 ; and was honoured by 
his fellow-citizens with a splendid fimeral in 
the church of San Fiorenzo, where he was 
buried in the vault of his ancestors. (Miliaia, 
Fife; Quatrem^re de Quincy, Hisioire de§ 
plus CiWfret Arckiteetet; Gauthier, Edifice* 
de Gettee.) W. H. h. 

ALE'l^IO PIEMONTFSE, or Alexis 
Pedemontanus. Nothing is known of the 
life of this writer except that which he tells 
of himself in his preface to a work entitled 
** De' Secreti del Reverend© Donno Alessio 
Piemontese," which was first published at 
Venice in 1555. From this it appears that 
he was bom of noble blood, and that being 
possessed of independent property and having 
a great love of learning, he travelled for 
fifty-seven years through various parts of 
Europe and of Asia, that he might see the 
learned men of all naUons. From them, as 
well as from poor women, artisans, and others 
of all classes, he collected a vast store of recipes 
for medicines and other purposes, which he 
earefiilly kept secret, that he might be deemed 
the wisest of his day. When 1^ was eighty- 
two years old, however, being by accident at 
MiUm, a surgeon came to beg of him a secret 
for a poor man who was suffering dangerously 
from the stone. He offered to cure the man, 
but refosed to give up his secret ; and the 
surgeon, fearing that he might lose his credit, 
delayed for two days, and the patient died. 
Alessio's remorse that the man should have 
perished through his ambition to be the sole 
possessor of secrets was so great that he re- 
tired from the world ; and, with a burdened 
conscience, determined to publish all he knew. 

The chief interest of Alessio's work is the 
evidence which it afibrds of the labour and 
learning which in his time were necessary for 
the compilation of an ordinary receipt-book. 
He was certainly a man of considerable learn- 
ing and research ; yet his knowledge of the 



sulijects which are treated of in his " Secreti" 
is not at all better than that of many old 
women in our country villages. His secrets 
are (^ the most various kinds : medicines, 
colours, dyes, varnishes, cosmetics, soaps, 
perflimes, &c., are all described with the 
827 



uiiMtest detul,and he deckres that he but 
published none but those whose admirable 
virtues had been repeatedly tested and proved. 
The first among them, however, had it been 
so eilcacious as he represents, would have 
rendered most of them unnecessary ; for it is 
a secret **for preserving youthfolness and 
keeping back old age, and maintaining the 
body as healthy and as vigorous as in the 
flower of life ;" and he asserts that itrestorad 
a bald old man of seventy, hiden with all 
kinds of infirmities, to the strength of six and 
thirty. Its chief ingredients are the early 
morning dew from rosemary and other herbs, 
and a vast number of spices ; materials which 
are still regarded as sovereign preservatives 
of health in many parts of England. 

The value of the book must have been 
de«ned very great at the thne of its publica- 
tion, for it was speedily translated into several 
languages, passed through numerous editions 
in each, and, in an abridged form, was sold 
in great numbers at the fiurs throughout 
Europe. The first English translation is 
entiUed **The Secretes of Maister Alexis of 
Piemount, . . . translated out of Frenche into 
Eng^ by Wyllyam Warde." London, 1558, 
8va in black letter. 

Some have stated that Alessio was an 
assumed name, and that the author of the 
'* Secreti ** was Jeronimo Rusoelli, or Rossello ; 
but there is no indication of this in Alessio's 
prefibce, and in the ** Secreti nuovi," which 
Ruscelli himself published at Venice in 1567, 
Alessio is mentioned as having, a few years 
previously, published a book on the same sub- 
ject (Bonino, Bto^rq/Sa Medica Piemonteee,) 
For a list of the editions of Alessio's work, 
see Atkinson (Medical BMiographf\ and 
Watt (Bibliotheea Brittamica) ; bat both are 
wrong in assigning 1566 as the date of an 
edition at Basle ; it should be 1563. The 
first edition was printed in 1555 at Venice, 
and is very rare; it is in Latiiu Alessio in 
his second editioi^ which was printed in 
Italian at Venice in 1557, says that it con- 
tains numerous errors. J. P. 

ALESSIO, PIERANTO'NIO, an Italian 
painter of the sixteenth century, of San Vito 
m Friuli, contemporary witli Pomponio 
Amaltea He is praised by Gesarim and 
Altan. There was also a Francesco de Alesiis, 
who painted, in 1494, a St Jerome oyer the 
door of a school of the saint at Udine. (Re- 
naldis, DeUa PiUura Friukma ; Lanzi, Storia 
Pittorica, frc.) R. N. W. 

ALETH;ENUS THECPHILUS. [Ly- 
seb johann.] 

A'LEVAS, an ancient Greek statuary of 
uncertain period, who is enumerated by Pliny 
among those who excelled in making statues 
or other representations in bronze of philo- 
sophers, iHisL Nat, xxxiv. 19.) R. N. W. 

♦ALEWr, ABU' 'ALF BEN ABF KOR- 
RAH. an Arabic astronomer of Basrah, who 
lived in the ninth cenlnry of the Chriatiao 
3h 2 



ALEWI. 



ALEXANDER. 



kBTtu He wrote a work in explanatioo of the 
edipees of the sun and moon, and dedicated 
it to.the SSialif Mowaffik, who reigned from 
JuK. 258 to 278 (A.D. 871 to 891). It 
may be the same work of which there is a 
Latin translation of the twelfth oentory in 
the royal library at Paris (MS. Lat N 7316), 
or the book mentioned by Albertns Magnns 
in his •* Specnlnm," ii. 10. (Opp. ToL vX 
nnder the name of Oeber. (Kifd, Tdrikh 
Al'hokemd, MS. of Mr. Bland.) A. & 

'ALEWr, »ALI BEN AL-HASAN ( AL- 
HOSAtN) ABU'-L-KA'SIM, known nnder 
the name of IBN AL-'ALAM (the son of 
the most learned), stood in high honoor at 
the court of *Adhed-ad-daulah, who never 
neglected to ask his advice in matters of im- 
portance. ' Alewi was a good astronomer, and 
in many instances he gave weight to his advice 
b^ astrolo^cal predictions. 'Alewi fell into 
disgrace with Samsam-ad-daulah, the son and 
successor of 'Adhed-ad-daulah. In a. h. 374 
(A.D. 984), he performed the pilgrimage to 
Mecca, and died on his way back at a place 
called Al-'osailah. He is the author of as- 
tronomical tables, which were valued for their 
correctness, and were used up to the seventh 
century of the H^ra. (KiftUTdrMAl-hokemd; 
Ab(i-l-ftng, Hiatoria Dynatt, p. 325. ; Casiri, 
BihL Him, Arab. L 412.) A. & 

'ALEWr, AL-KA'SIM BEN MOHAM- 
MED BEN HA'SHIM, of Madiyin (Ctesi- 
phon), published, in A.R. 308 (a.d. 920^21), 
the fpneat astronomical tables entitled ** Nazm 
Al-'ikd** (the stringing of the necklace), which 
had been begun bv his master, Ibn Ademi, 
Mohammed Ben Al-hosain Ben Hamid, who 
left them unfinished at his death. This was 
considered the most complete and accurate 
work on the Sindhind or Siddhanta system of 
astronomy. This system was introduced 
among the Arabs by an Indian who lived at 
tiie court of Al-mo'tassem, in a. h. 156 (a.d. 
772—73.) The Naam Al-'ikd contains the 
general principles of astronomv, as well as the 
calculation of the motions of the stars and 
the irregularities in their course. *' Former 
astronomers had contented themselves," says 
Kifti, **with calculating the mean motion of 
the planets ; in this work the precession and 
retardation of the heavenly bodies were ex- 

51iuned and reduced to certain laws.** (Kifti, 
""drikh Al-hokemd; Caairi, BibL Arab, Hisp, 
vol. L p. 430. ; El-Mas'udTs Historical Ency- 
chpctdia^ translated fh>m the Arabic by A. 
Sprenger, London, 1841, cap. 7.) A. 8. 

ALEXA'MENUS QAK^aiup6s\ a native 
of Teos, was, according to Aristotle, quoted 
by AthensBus, the first Greek who^ wrote dia- 
logues in the Socratic s^le previous to the 
time of Plato. What sulgects wero discussed 
in these dialogues is unknown: not even a 
fragment of them is now extant ( Athensus, 
xi 505. ; Diogenes Laertius, iiL 48.) L. S. 
ALEXANDER, a painter of Athens. 
AABBANAPOa AOHNAIoa EFPA^EN is in- 
828 



scribed upon one of the Ibur marble taUeti 
which were found in 1746 at Heroulaneum, 
and are now in the museom at Naples, 
These paintings, which are monoehroms in 
red and red, though now much defiiced, 
evince considerable merit in several respects; 
they are probably all by the same punter, 
and from their style are apparently of a late 
date. Thero are engravings fhim them in 
the "• Antiquities of Herculaneum." {LeAn^ 
tichiid (TErecoloMO, L plates 1—4.) R. N. W. 

ALEXANDER, a physician, saint, and 
martyr, who was a native of Phrygia, and was 
put to death during the persecution of the 
churohesof Lyon and Vienne under the Em- 
peror Marous AureUus, a. d. 1 77. He was 
condemned, together with another Christian 
to be exposed to wild beasts in the amphi- 
theatre, and died ** neither uttering a groan 
nor a syllable, but convernng in his heart 
with God.** {Ejpist Ecclea. Lugdun, et Viam. 
in Eusebius, Hut Ecdea, lib. v. ci^. 1. p. 163. 
ed. Paris, 1659.) Hia memory is celebrated 
by the Romish churoh, together with the 
other martyrs of Lyon and Vienne, on the 
second of June. (Bxovius, NomauAaJtoF 
Sanctantm Profesgione Medicorum; Mar-^ 
tyroL Roman. ^ Baron. ; Acta Sanctorum^ 
June 2.) W.A.G. 

ALEXANDER of MOM C^4^ap9pos 
AfyoZos), a peripatetic philosopher, and a pre* 
ceptor of the Emperor Nero, was born a. d. 
37. Suidas reports a saying of Alexander, 
that Nero was a mass of clay kneaded in 
blood ; but Suetonius attributes this saying 
to Theodore of Gadara, and makes the Em- 
peror Tiberius the subject of it If this 
Alexander is the author of the commentary 
on the four books of the Meteorologica <n 
Aristotle, he was the pupil of Sosigenes, whose 
services the Dictator C«sar employed in hia 
reformation of the Roman calendar. The 
author of this commentary says that he was a 
pupil of Sosigenes, and as this Alexander 
was living in the time of Nero, it is possible 
that he may be the author of it [Axexam- 
DEB Aphrodisiemsis.] (Suidas, *A\4^ap9pof 
Aiyaios ; Suetonius, 7\BerivM, 57. ; Fabricius, 
Biblioth, Grax, iii. 460.) G. L. 

ALEXANDER (*AA^ai^Ot son of As- 
Bopus of Lyncestis, was a brother of Hera- 
menes and Arrhabseus, and had been com- 
promised in the murder of Philip of Macedonia. 
On that occasion Alexander the Great par- 
doned him because he was among the firstwho 
paid homage to him after Philip's death. Sub- 
sequently Alexander the Great raised him to 
high honours, made him commander of the 
troops in Thrace, and afterwards of the Thes- 
salian horse. Notwithstanding these favours 
Alexander formed a plot against the life of 
his benefiustor while Ring Alexander was in 
Lycia. The Ljmcestian probably wished to 
set himself on the throne of Macedonia, 
which provious to the reign of Amyntas IL 
had fbr some time been in his fiunily. 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



^pAtTBAKiAa] With this view he entered 
into a ooirespondence with Darius, king of 
Persia, who promised to secore to him the 
kingdom of Macedonia, and also to gire him 
a thousand talents. The envoy whom Darins 
despatched with letters to Alexander the 
Lyncestian fell into the hands of Pannenio, 
and was sent by him to King Alexander. 
The Lyncestian was son-in-law to Antipater, 
and it was chiefly owing to this circumstance 
that Alexander for the present spared his 
life, though he was convinced of his criminal 
designs. Alexander, however, ordered him 
to be secretly arrested and to be kept in ens- 
tody, B.C. 834. Afker he had been impri- 
soned above three years, and when Philotas 
was sentenced to death for a similar crime, 
the Macedonians also demanded the trial of 
Alexander the Lyncestian, and as he was 
unable to defend himself^ he was sentenced 
to death and executed in B.C. 330, at 
Prophthasia in ihe country of the DrangsB. 
( Arrian, Anabcuis, L 25, 26. ; Diodorus, xvii. 
32. 80. ; Curtius, vii. 1. viiL 8.) Lu S. 

ALEXANDER JETOXUS CA\4ia09pos 
AfrwAof ), a Greek poet who derived his sur- 
name of ^tolus fh>m the circumstance of 
being a native of Pleuron in ^tolia. He is 
mentioned with Aratus and Antagoras as a 
friend of Antigonus Gronatas. He lived at 
Alexandria in tiie reign of Ptolemseus Phila- 
delphuB, and was reckoned one of the Pleias 
of tragic poets. But he i^pears to have dis- 
tinguished himself more as an epic and elegiac 
poet than as a dramatist The titles of several 
of his poems and some fragments of them are 
preserved in Athenseus and other writers. 
He also wrote epigrams, of which some are 
still extant Osann supposes that he also 
wrote comedies; which, however, can scarcely 
be proved. 

The fragments of Alexander JEtolus have 
been collected by A. Capellmann in a little 
work called **• Alexandri .^oli Fragmenta," 
Bonn, 1829, 8vo. (Fabricius, BibUoth, Grac, 
ii. 283. 406. iv. 460. ; Osann, BeitrSge zur 
Griech, und Blfmuch. Literatur Geschichte, 
i. 298.; Diintzer, Die FragmaUe der epiachen 
PoesU der CfriecheHj u. 7, &c) L. S. 

ALEXANDER ALENSIS. [Hales, 

AlAXAlTDBR.] 

ALEXANDER QA/J^nfipof), patriarch of 
AuEXANDRiA firom A. D. 312 to 325, is cele- 
brated in the historr of the Christian church 
as the person who first began the Arian con- 
trover^. [Abius.] He wrote more than 
seventy epistles upon the sulgects involved 
in that controversy ; but only two of them 
are extant, the one preserved by Theodoret 
(Hist EccUt, L 4.), and the other by Socrates 
iHiet Eccles, L 6.) (Cave, Hisioria LitU- 
raria,) P. S. 

ALEXANDER AB ALEXANDRO. 
[Ai.E8SAin>Bi Alessandbo.] 

ALE X AN DER APHRODISIENSIS 
(*AX4^ar8pof *Afpo9iffte6s) was a native of 
829 



Aphrodisias in Caria. He was a Peripatetic^ 
and he dedicated his first work, his Treittise 
on Fate, to Septimios Severus and his son 
Antoninus Caracalla. He addresses them as 
Imperatores, a circumstance which fixes the 
date of the dedication between a.d. 199, in 
which year Caracalla was associated with his 
fiither in the empire, and a. d. 211, the year 
in which Severus died. He states that he 
had been wpointed by the emperors profies- 
sor of the Aristotelian philosophy. It does 
not appear where he delivered his lectures. 
It is collected from a passage at the begin- 
ning of the book on Fate in whidi he ex- 
presses a wish that he could personally thank 
his imperial patrons, that he was not settled 
at Rome; but the inference is inconclusive, 
for we do not know at what time between 
A.D. 199 and 211 this treatise was written, 
and Severus and his son during their joint 
reign were not always at Rome. It seems 
however probable fhnn a passage in his Me- 
taphysics that he delivered his lectures at 
Athens. His own teachers were Herminus 
and Aristocles Messenius, also Peripatetics. 
Alexander was a voluminous writer, and he 
was considered by those who came after him 
as the best expounder of Aristotle. Ac- 
cordingly he is often called ** the expositor " 
(6 iiimirfity. He seems to have had a great 
reputation also among the Arabians. Many 
of his works have been translated into 
Arabic His life, and a list of his works 
are given by Casiri, "Bibl. Arabico Hisp. 
Escur." voL L p. 243, taken fW>m the ** Arab. 
Philoe. BibL" See also Abulfang, "Hist 
Dynast" p. 78. The fbllowinjgr is a list of his 
works which have been edited in modem 
times: — 1. n«^ tlfuipfiiinis wol rov i<p>* 4ifuy^ 
*' On Fate and what is in our Power,** a work 
which is directed against the Stoical doctrines 
of necessity. A long passage from this work 
is cited by Eusebius ( A-c^por. Evangd. vi. 9.), 
in which the doctrine of necessity is attacked, 
and Eusebius speaks of the author as a dis- 
tinguished philosopher. This work was first 
edited by V. Trincavelli, with Themistius, 
Venice, 1534, 1536, foL The last edition is 
by J.C. Orelli, Zurich, 1824, 8vo. 2. "A 
Commentary ('Tr^fiyq/ia) on the First Book 
of the Prior Analytics of Aristotle," which was 
first edited by Andreas Asulanus, Venice, 
foL 1520. 3. '< A Commentary on the Eight 
Books of the Topics of Aristotle," edited by 
Marcus Musurus, Venice, 1513, 1526, fol. 
The best complete Latin version is by J. B. 
Rasarius, Venice, 1563, 1573, foL It has 
been observed that in this as well as in his 
other commentaries, Alexander occasionally 
corrects errors of transcription which occur 
in the MSS. of Aristotle, and among the 
various readings of a passage he detemunes 
which is best 4. ** Notes Qhiroajiijuu^^is) on 
the Elenchi Sophistici of Aristotle," edited 
hv Hercules Gyrlandus, Venice, 1520, foL 
This was also translated into Latin by Ra* 
Sh 3 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



saritis, Venice, 1557, foL ; and by Oa^nrdus 
BlaroeUus, Venice, 1546, 1559, foL 5. ^'A 
Commentiiry on TwelTc Books of the Me- 
taphpica of Ariatode." The Greek text was 
published by Chr. A Brandis in his ** Scholia 
in Aristotelem," Berlin, 1836, vol. i. p. 513. foL 
Bat Brandis has onl^ printed the first five 
books, and he maintains that thereat does not 
belong to this Alexander. The Latin version 
of the learned ^wiiaid, J. G. Sepalreda, was 
printed at Rome, 1527, fol., and has been fte- 
qnentiy reprinted. 6. 'Tir6f»tffi/JM th rh ir«^ 
9la0^€»sKat edo^tfrWf **A Commentary on 
the work of Aristotle on Sensation and the 
Objects of Sensation," which was edited by 
Franciscas Asnlanus, with the Commentary 
of Simplicios on the book of Aristotle on the 
Soul, Venice, 1527, toL It was translated 
into Latin by LuciUus Philaltheus, together 
with the Scholia of Michael Ephesius on the 
Parva Naturalia of Aristotle, Venice, 1544, 
1549, 1559, and 1573, fol. 7. 'Yinlytnr/ia fit 
T& Merc«poAo7iird, ** A Commentary on the 
Four Books of Aristotle on Meteors,'* which 
was edited by F. Asulanos, Venice, 1527, fol., 
together with the Commentary of Philopo- 
nus on the work of Aristotle on Generation. 
There is a La^ yersion of it by Alexander 
Piccolomini, Venice, 1540, &c foL, and one 
by J. Camotios, Venice, 1556, foL In a pas- 
sage in the commentary on the third book 
Alexander speaks of Sosigenes as his master. 
If this was the Sosigenes who was contem- 
porary with Jolius Cffisar, it is evident that 
this passage at least was not written by Alex- 
ander, and the extant commentary may not 
be his. Accordingly we must either assume 
the existence of another Sosigenes nearer the 
time of this Alexander, or we must assign 
the work to another Alexander. [ Alexander 
of iEojB.] The mistake in assigning this 
work to Alexander of Aphrodisias, if it be a 
mistake, is as old as Philoponus, who in a 
passage of his commentary on the first book 
of the Prior Analytica, speaks of Alexander 
the expositor, and quotes him as saying that 
he was the pupil of Sosigenes. 8. Hepi 
ui^tms, ** On Mixture," a treatise against the 
Stoical doctrine of the penetrability of bodies 
and God the soul of the universe. It was 
printed with the Commentary on the Me- 
teora. There are several Latin versions, 
the most recent of which is by J. Schegk, 
Tiibingen, 1540, 8vo. 9. UtpX ^wx^?*, " On the 
Soul," two books, not parts of one treatise, 
but two separate works on the same subject 
The second contains also a variety of other 
matters, such as discussions on the nature 
of the four elements, on seeing, on light, what 
it is according to Aristotle that man seeks as 
his chief happiness, on the inseparable union 
of the virtues, and the like. The two books on 
the Soul were printed in Trincavelli^s editicm 
of the treatise on Fate, 1534. The first book on 
the Soul was translated into Latin by Hiero- 
nymus Donatus, a patrician of Venice, Venice, 
830 



1502, &c. ibL Angelus Caninins transiatod 
the second book, whioh was puUisfaed with 
Donati*8 versioD of the first book, and aLatm 
version of the Physical QBeationa, also by 
Omiiuns, Venice, 1555, &e. foL 10. «v- 
irMcfir o-xoMmy iaroptSi^ iral >dKnȴ fiiUkuOi S', 
^Fonr books of Physical Questions in the 
form of Difileulties and their Solutions." The 
Greek text was first edited by V. Trinca- 
velli, Venice, 1536» foL, with the book on 
Fate. There are several Latin versions: 
that by Hieronymus Bagolinus and his son 
J. Baptista, Venice, 1541, &c fiDL,is the most 
usefiil ; the Greek text is very incorrectly 
printed, and the MSSw were collated for the 
purpose of the Latin version. 

The two medical treatises attributed to 
this Alexander are probably not his. [ Albz- 

ANDER TbAUJANUS.] 

The merits of Alexander as an expositor 
of Aristotle cannot be rated high. For the 
purpose of understanding the text of Ari* 
stotie, his commentaries mav be easily dis- 
pensed with. It was his obgeot to maintain 
the superiority of his sect over all others^ 
and yet to make the dootriiies of his master 
harmonise to a certain extent with the more 
religious feeling of his own age. 

In hiB work on Fate he oppoaes the 
Stoical doctrines of the power of Fate which 
predetermines all things; but his argument 
IS mainly founded on the fiict that the com- 
mon language of mankind assumes a certain 
amount S( free agency ; and accordin^y he 
iwiitmff^iniy that the common sense of ma" VW^l 
is not incapable of ascertaining the truth. 
He urges against the Stoical doctrine of ne- 
cessity, that it renders a particular providence 
unnecessary, or rather by implication de- 
stroys it, inasmuch as the gods cannot be 
considered fit objects of worship, even if it 
be aflmitl,ed that they are the b^efiustors of 
man, for, according to the system of ne- 
cessity, they cannot act otherwise than they 
do. Alexander defends the notion of pro- 
vidence on which he strongly insists, but his 
exposition is connected with the absurd and 
unintelligible doctrine of the distinction be:- 
tween the world above and the world below 
the moon. He fiirther attempts to defend 
the philosophy of Aristotle from the charge 
that he denied providence to be an essential 
attribute of the Deity, and only admitted it 
to be an incident Alexander urges, m de- 
fence of Aristotle, that it would be a notion 
derogatory from the nature of the Deity to 
assume a providence with respect to man to 
be an essential part of the Deity, for this 
would be in effect to make the Deity subor- 
dinate to man. Yet Alexander, while he de- 
nied that the providence of the gods with 
respect to man was the essence of their 
activity, could not admit that Uie providence 
of which he maintained the existence was ft 
mere incident, for this would be to deprive 
the gods of consciousness and will with rer 



ALEXANDEIL 



ALEXANDER. 



spect to man. Aooordingly, ke has to aeek 
a medium : he maintaiim that the goda do 
regard man and care for him -with ftill know- 
ledge and will ; but that man is not the sole 
olgect or end of the actiye exertion of their 
powers. Considerable oonfiision from the 
use of terms ill defined or ill understood, a 
want of accurate perception of the attainable 
olgects of human knowledge and the limits 
besrond which it cannot pass, ^ desire to 
maintain the integrity of ancient philoso- 
phical doctrines, and yet to make them har- 
monise with popular noticms, characterise 
this confused essay, which neither for matter, 
method, nor perspicuity deserves high com- 
mendation. 

In his opinions on the Psyche (which is 
inadequately expressed by the word Soul), 
Alexander professes to follow his master : he 
considers the soul (tfwx^) inseparable from 
the body of which it is the soul ; it is not an 
essence (^otMrla) of itself; it is a form (fIBoy) 
of the organic body, a form imprinted on 
matter. Its separate existence being thus de- 
nied, its immortality as a separate existence 
is consistently denied ; but this is alL In his 
work on the Soul he says that the Nous (iwvf ) 
requires no corporeal organ for the percep- 
tion of its objects (yo^/ucra), but is itself aU- 
suflicient for the knowledge of them. The 
Nous is therefore not, like the soul, a form 
imprinted on matter ; and he is not indis- 
posed to allow it to be an emanation ftt>m the 
Deity, and consequently^ imperishable. It 
would perhaps not be difficult to show that 
Alexander, in entering on these profound in- 
vestigations, for which he had no great ca- 
pacity, was not always consistent with himself^ 
which may be partly attributed to his attempt, 
as before stated, to reconcile old philosophy 
with then current notions. His works are 
instructive as a part of the history of philo- 
sophy, and as a sample of fi^tless attempts 
to solve problems which are above human 
capacity. (Fabricius, Biblioth, Grac. v. 650.; 
RiUer, OeackichtederPhiloaophie, iv. 24.) Q. Lu 

ALEXANDER, CAA^{"^')« a son of 
Antonius the triumvir, and of Cleopatra, 
queen of Egypt He was bom in the year 
B.C. 40, together with a twin-sister of the 
name of Cleopatra. In the same way as 
Antonius honoured Queen Cleopatra with 
the title of "queen of kings," he called his 
son Alexander, Helios (the sun), and his 
daughter Cleopatra, Selene (the moon). In 
the year b. c .'M, when Antonius presumed 
to dispose of the eastern parts of the Romau 
empire, he destined Armenia and all the 
countries east of the Euphrates that might 
still be conquered as an independent king- 
dom for his son Alexander. After the 
death of Antonius and Cleopatra in b.c. 29, 
Alexander and his sister were led to Rome 
by Octavianus and adorned his triumph. 
(>ctavia, the wife of Antonius, generously re- 
ceived these and other children of her faithless 
831 



husband into her house and had them eda* 
cated as her own children. After this time 
we hear no more of them. (Dion Cassias, 
xlix. 32. 41. ]. 25. IL 21. ; Plutarch, Am- 
ftmiiM, 36. 54. 67.; Livy, EpOome^ lib. 131, 
132.) L.& 

ALEXANDER QfOii^^a^pos), son of 
Abutobulus IL, and grandson of Alexander 
Janneus, kings of Judaea, was taken pri- 
soner by Pompey the Great, with his fitther 
and his brother Antigonos, after the con- 
quest of Judna (b. c. 63), and destined 
with them to be exhibited in that gene* 
ral's triumph at Rome. Alexander, however, 
escaped ; and reappearing in Judssa in the 
year b. c. 57, he soon collected an army of 
10,000 foot and 1500 horse, seised on several 
strong fortresses, and from, them ravaged Uie 
country. Oabinius, the newly ^>pointed pro- 
consul of Syria, sent a detachment of troops 
into Judsea under Marcus Antonius (after- 
wards the triumvir), who defeated Alexander 
near Jerusalem, and drove him into the for- 
tress of Alexandrium, which was invested by 
Gabinius, who had followed Antonius into 
Judsa. In the year b. c. 56, while Gabinius 
was absent on an expedition into Egypt, 
Alexander again assumed the offensive, and 
having collected a large army, became master 
of Judsa, and put to death all the Romans 
he met with. But on the return of Gabinius 
from Eaypt, Alexander, having rejected 
terms of peace offered to him by the pro- 
consul through Antipater, was completely 
defeated near Mount Tabor. In the next 
year (b.c. 55) Gabinius was recalled from 
the government of Sjrria, and succeeded by 
Crassus, upon whose death (b. c. 53) Alex- 
ander began to raise fi^sh forces; but the 
arrival of Cassius in Judiea with the remains 
of the army of Crassus (b. a 52) compelled 
him to accept terms of peace. When the 
civil war between Caesar and Pompey broke 
out (b. c. 49), the former set fl«e Aristobulus, 
the father of Alexander, and sent him to 
Judtea. He was however poisoned on the 
journey by some adherents <^ Pompey ; and 
Alexander, who was engaged in collecting 
forces to assist his fiither upon his arrival in 
Judisa, was seised and put to death by Q. 
Metellus Scipio, the son-in-law of Pompey. 
(Josephus, Jeu), Antiq. xiv. 5 — 7.; Jewish 
War, i. 8, 9. ; Jahn's History of the Hebrew 
Conmumwealth,) P. & 

ALEXANDER of Ashbv, or Essebz- 
BN8I6. It is uncertain whether he was bom 
in Somersetshire or Staffordshire. He was 
prior of the monastery of Ashby Canons in 
Northamptonshire at least as early as the 
year 1200. Tanner has given in the ** Bib- 
liotheca Britannico-Hibemica " a list of his 
writings which remain in MS. The two 
principal are — 1. ** Historise Britannise Epi- 
tome,*' referred to by Twyne (^AntiquitaHe 
Academue Oxomensis Apologia^ p. 212.) ; 
and, 2. *< De Fastis sen Sacris Diebos." quoted 
3 H 4 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



by Fuller (Church Hwtory, b. iL sect 1. 
pang. 4.), which describes the lives of the 
saints and their fbstiTals throughout the year 
in Latin elegiac verse. A. T. P. 

ALEXANDER L, BALAS CAA«|ai«pof 
Bd\as\ reigned over the Greek kingdom 
of Syria from b. c. 150 to 146. His im- 
mediate predecessor, Demetrius Soter, haying 
provoked the hatred of his sul^eets and 
of the neighbouring princes, a conspiracy 
was formed for the purpose of dethroning 
him. Heradides, who had been the trea- 
surer of Antiochus Epiphanes and the go- 
vernor of Babylon, bat had been banished 
by Demetrius to Rhodes, set up Alexander 
Balas, who is said to have been of low birth, 
as a pretender to the throne, on the ground 
that he was the son of Antiochus Epiphanes. 
In the summer of the year b.c. 153 Hera- 
dides went to Rome, taking with him Alex- 
ander and his sister Laodice, and con- 
trived by some means to create such a 
powerfiil interest in their behalf^ that when 
the young pretender pleaded his cause before 
the senate, and reminded them of the con- 
stant friendship which exbted between his 
father and the republic, though the imposture 
was manifest, they passed a decree granting 
permission to Alexander and Laodice to 
proceed to their hereditary kingdom, and 
promising to help them in taking possession 
of it This was in the beginnmg of 152, 
and Alexander at once proceeded to Syria, 
and took possession of Ptolemais (Acre), his 
enterprise being fk^oured by Ptolemy Phi- 
lometor, king of Egypt, Attains, king of 
Pergamus, and Ariarathes, king of Cappa- 
docia. In the first battle which he fbught 
with Demetrius (b. c. 152) Alexander was 
defeated, but in a second battle (in 150) he 
was completely victorious, and Demetrius 
was killed. Alexander now took possession 
of the kingdom, and married Cleopatra, the 
daughter of Ptolemy Philometor. No sooner 
had he ascended the throne than he gave 
himself up to pleasure, and committed the 
government of his kingdom to his minister 
Ammonius, who endeavoured to secure his 
master's power by the extirpation of the late 
royal family. He put to death Laodice the 
wife of Demetrius, his son Antigonus, and 
several of his fiiends ; but two other sons of 
the late king were out of his reach, having 
been sent by their &ther to Gnidos in Crete 
at the first breaking out of the civil war. 
The elder of these, Demetrius, landed in 
Cilicia at the head of a small band of 
Cretans in 148. His forces rapidly in- 
creased, and ApoUonius, the ^vemor of 
CcBle-Syria, revolted from the king. Apol- 
lonius was defeated by Jonathan the Mac- 
cabee, who had received great favours from 
Alexander, while the king himself marched 
into Cilicia against Demetrius, and called to 
his assistance his flither-in-law, Ptolemy Phi- | 
lometor. Ptolemy marched into Syria ; and 
832 > 



then, accusing Alexander of an Intentioii i0 
murder him, he deserted his cause and took 
Antioch, where he was crowned as king of 
Asia and Egypt ; but fearing that the Romans 
would not permit this usurpation, be with- 
drew his claim to the throne in fSetvour of 
Demetrius. Alexander immediately returned 
fVom Cilicia, and met Ptolemy on the banks 
of the river CBnoparas. In tiie battle which 
followed Ptolemy was killed, but Alexander 
was completely defeated, and fled into Arabia 
(b. c. 147), where he was treacherously mor- 
dered, at the town of Abas, by Zabel, or 
Diodes, the emir with whom he had taken 
refuge (b. c. 146). His reijgn lasted more 
than six years and a half, if we reckon it 
from his occupation of Ptolemais in 152 ; 
or, calculating fl:t>m the death of Demetrius 
Soter in 150, rather more than four yean. 
He was succeeded hj Demetrius II., sur- 
named Nicator (the Victorious), from his, or 
rather Ptolemy's, victory over Alexander. 
Strabo calls him Balas Alexander (B^Uoi 
'AA^^oirSpoO, where the word ''Bahu" has 
been sometimes thought to signify *'king,'' 
like the word "ballan," which was the Phn^- 
gian for " king.'* (Hesychius, sub.voc. BoAA^r.) 
The word Balas is .the Greek form of the 
Aramaean, Ba'hi(M7y3), *«loid;" but it is 
doubtfiil whether it was in this case a titles 
according to the above explanation, or whe- 
ther it was the adventurer's original name, 
according to the authority ol^ Justin. 

Several coins of Alexander Balas are 
extant, on a few of which he is called by his 
&ther's titles of Epiphanes and Nicephoms ; 
on others he has the titles of Euergetes and 
Theopator, the last being in allusion to the 
assumption by his fieither of the name Theoe 
(God). On some of these coins Cleopitra's 
head appears with Alexander's, but m the 
more important position ; an intimation of 
the supremacy of the proud queen over her 
effeminate husband. (Eusebius, Chronkon; 
\ Maccab. x. 11.; Josephus, Jew, Antiq, 
xiil 2. § 4. ; Polybius, xxxiil 14, 16. ; Livy, 
Epit 1. lii. ; Justin, xxxv. ; Appian, Syrieuxk, 
c. 67. ; Clinton's Fasti HeUen. iiL p. 324. ; 
Frohlich, Annalea Syria,) P. SL 

ALEXANDER BENEDYT STA- 
NISLA. [SoBiESKi.] 

ALEXANDER of Bebnat, a French poet 
of the twelfth century, so called fW>m the 
village of Bemay in Normandy, where he 
was bom. Having taken up his residence in 
Paris, he is also fluently mentioned as 
Alexander of Paris. The exact times of his 
birth and death are unknown, but he lived in 
the reigns of Louis VII. and his successor 
Philip Augustus. He was one of the authors 
of a romantic poem on the exploits of Alex- 
ander the Great, which enjoyed so extensive 
a popularity that the kind of verse employed 
in it has ever since borne the name of Alex- 
andrine, either from that of the poet, or more 
probably tnm that of the hero. Of this 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



Vene, howerer, lie was not the inventor, as 
was long supposed ; instances of its use have 
been discovered of a date as fiur back as the 
year 1140. The poem was written in con- 
tinuation of one on the same subject b^r Lam- 
bert 11 Cors (or the Short), according to 
Roquefort, who produces a passage from the 
work itself in proof of the assertion. 
** La Teriti da Thlitolre d com II Roys U flat, 
Un clera de Chait l a u diin, Lambert U oon ratciit. 
Qui du Latin la trait at en Romant la miat. . . 
Alixandre nout dltt que de Bemaf fti nes, 
Bt de Paris reAi sea soumoms appellea. 
Qui ot les siens vert o les Lambert mallea.** 
*• This hlscorr so true, of all that did tlie king, 
A clerk of Chateaudun, Short Lambert did It sing. 
Who from the Latin took,aiMl In Romanoedid bring. . 
So Alexander saith, he fh>m Bemav who came. 
And did in after time from Paris take bis i 



And who bis Terse* mixed with f er se s of this same.*' 
This passage seems however to imply 
that Alexander of Bemay had intermingled 
his own composition witik that of Lambert, 
rather than written a neqvud which could be 
separated from it; and this is the opinion of 
De la Rue, who however remarks that in 
this part of ancient French literary history 
the conihsion is so great that he cannot 
guarantee the exactness of his observations. 
The fullest existing copy of the romance of 
Alexander contains 17,958 verses, and the 
oldest is of the date of 1228. The work has 
considerable merit ; the style is lively, the 
descriptions animated, and the narrative 
natural Though professedly taken from the 
Latin, it is much more probably an original 
work, as it abounds in allusions to incidents 
in the life of Philip Augustus. Alexander, 
for instance, when about to attack King Nicho- 
las (who in this poem stands in the place of 
Darius), confiscates the goods of all the 
usurers in his kingdom, as Philip Augustus 
confiscated the property of the Jews for his 
war with England. R^ history is nowhere 
attended to, and towards the end the marvel- 
lous becomes all-predominant — excursions 
to the bottom of the sea, trees which predict 
the future, flying griffins, fountains of youth, 
and other extravagances, which seem to betray 
an oriental origin, become the staple of the 
story. Such as it is, the work was so popular 
as to give rise to a host of imitations and con- 
tinuations, all of which are for inferior to 
the originaL The ** Alexandrian cycle," as 
it is called, consists altogether of five poems, 
the work of nine poets, the most distinguished 
of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, among 
whom not the least important is a country- 
man of our own, Thomas of Kent Alex- 
ander de Bemay is also the auUior of some' 
other romantic poems, ** Helena, Mother of 
St Martin," •• Brison," and " Atys and Pro- 
philiaa." The two former i^pear to be lost, 
the latter is of distinguished merit A copious 
analpis of the <* Alexandre " and the '* Atys " 
is given in vol xv. of the ** Histoire Litt^- 
raire de la France ;" the former had also 
been analysed by Legrand d'Aussy, but very 
incorrectly. {aitioireLittirairede la France, 
833 ■• 



XV. p. 119— 126. and p. 160— 193., two dif- 
ferent accounts, discrepant in several par- 
ticulars, a singular proof of die difficulties 
connected with the subject ; De la Rue, Esgais 
historiques mir U» Bardet, let Jowleun et 
les TVouviree Normande et Angbh^/ormande, 
ii 348 — 352. ; Article by Roquefort in the 
Biographie Univendle, I 634, 535.) T. W. 

ALEXAND£R of Cantebbubt, a Bene- 
dictine monk of Christ Church, Canterbury. 
From his notes of the discourses of Anselm, 
archbishop of Canterbury [Anselm], he 
composed a book in nineteen chapters, and 
dedicated it to the younger Anselm, the arch- 
bishop's nephew. His work is entitled ** Dicta 
Ansehni Arehiepiseopi, Lib. L" beginning, 
^^Compellis me venerabilis Abba." A M8. 
work with this title and commencement in 
the library of Corpus Christi CoUege, Cam- 
bridge, is ascribed by Matthew Parker to 
Eadmer. (Tanner, Bib. Brit Hib,) A.T.P. 

ALEXANDER of Canterburt, an En- 
glish Benedictine monk, received the bene- 
diction as abbot of St Augustin's, Canter- 
bury, at Rome in 1212. Eling John had sent 
Alexander to Rome in the year 1206 for the 
purpose of settling his differences with the 
pope. In the year 1216 the abbot of St 
Augustin's was commissioned by the pope to 
denounce Prince Lewis as exccmimunicated 
the moment that he set foot in England, which 
he did in spite of Lewis's letter to him repre* 
senting his claims to the throne of England. 
This letter is extant in Thorn's ** History of 
St Augustin's Abbey." Alexander's fidelity 
to King John greatly incensed his enemies 
against him, and after the king's death he 
was excommunicated by Pandulphus the 
pope's legate, and deprived of all his eccle- 
siastical preferment According to Pits his 
writings exhibit ^ the bitterness of his wounded 
spirit,' and he is said to have died in poverty. 
The benediction of Hugo IIL, his successor, 
is dated the year 1220. Alexander wrote — 
1. ** Victoria a Prothco, Lib. L" beginning, 
** In Nomine Dei Altissimi qui est trinus." 2. 
*• Super variis Articulis Fidei Lib. 1." 3. " De 
EcclesisB Potestste, Lib. L" 4. '' De Potestate 
vicaria, lib. L" 5. ** Pe Cessatione Papatua, 
Lib. I." (Tanner, Bibliotheca Brit Hib.; 
Pits, Be Rebua AngUcis; Thomee Sprotti 
Chrimica, ^.. edited by Thomas Heame, 
p. 126.) A. T. P. 

ALEXANDER CAA.4|ai'8^f), a bishop of 
Cappadocia and afterwards bishop of Jeru- 
salem in the earlier |»art of the third century. 
He was famous for his sufferings for the Chris- 
tian foith in the persecutions under the Em- 
peror Septimius Severus, being in the year 205 
** in esteem for the confession of the name of the 
Lord," (Eusebius, ChronicoHy p. 172.) and in 
the year 211 writing frtmi prison. After these 
proofs of his fortitude as bishop of Cappadocia, 
he went (a.d. 212^ for devotional purposes to 
Jerusalem, of which Naroissus, then a verv 
old man« was bishop. Upon this occasion it 



ALEXANDEH. 



ALEXANDER. 



WAS revealed both to Narciasiu and to many 
of his clergy that the next day there should 
come into that choich a bishop who should 
be a supporter of the episcopal chair. Ac- 
cordingly, in an assembly of all the bishops 
of Palestine, with the consent of Narcissus, 
Alexander was translated to the see of Je« 
rusalem. Herein two things may be re- 
marked as early preoedenti : the translation 
of a bishop to another see, and the making 
a coadjutor to a bishop while living. These 
are fiicts shown by what Alexander says 
in the conclusion of a letter to the peqple of 
Antinopolis in Egrpt : — *' Narcissus, who 
before me filled the episcopal seat of this 
place, and now governs it together with me 
by his prayers, being a hundred and sixteen 
years old." in the Chronicon of Eusebius 
Alexander stands as the thirty-fifth bishop 
of Jerusalem. That he was superior to his 
contemporaries in the mildness of his dis- 
position, we have Origen*s authority in the 
beginning of a homily delivered at Jerusa- 
lem. (Origen, In lAbrum, Regum Homilia J.) 
Alexander built a library at Jerusalem, 
and preserved the letters that had passed 
between the learned ecclesiastics of his day, 
which fiimished Eusebius with materials 
for his Ecclesiastical History. Clement of 
Alexandria dedicated a book to him respect- 
^ ing the ecclesiastical rule. In the persecu; 
tion under the Emperor Decius, Alexan- 
der was once more a confessor, being again 
brought before the governor's tribunal at 
CoMsrea for Christ's sake, and again he was 
put into prison, where he died. The year of 
his daath was probably ▲.!>. 251, and if this 
date is true, he had been bishop of Jerusalem 
thirty-nine years. 

Jerome {Dt Viria lUuHribus, cap. 62.) 
gives the conclusion of a letter from Alex- 
ander to the people of Antinopolis, which 
has been already quoted, and says, ^ he wrote 
another letter to the Antiochians. He wrote 
also to Origen and for Origen against Deme- 
trius pleadmg that in respect to the testimony 
given him by Demetrius himself he had or- 
dained Origen presbyter. There are likewise 
extant other letters of .his to divers persons." 
Parts of the letter to Antioch are preserved by 
Eusebius in the eleventh chapter of the sixth 
book of his History. It is written firom prison : 
it eongratulates the church of Antioch on the 
ordination of Asclepiades, who succeeded Se- 
rapion in that see, and it was sent by Clement, 
supposed to be Clement of Alexandria. Of 
the letter to Origen a firagment is quoted 
by Eusebius in the fourteenth chapter of the 
sixth book of his History, wherein Alexander 
calls Clement of Alexandria and Pantmnos 
his ** fiithers and masters," and says that they 
made him acquainted with Origen, whom 
he styles his *' master and brotber." The 
letter to Demetrius, bishop of Alexandria, in 
fiivour of Origen, proves by examples that 
bishops may invite nnordained perscMia whom 
884 



he judges competent, to preach in their pie* 
^ence. It is found in Eusebius {Hiaiona Ee- 
duiasticaj lib. vL c 19.). Of the rest of his 
letters we have remains. (Dupm, Hiatanf tf 
EccUnaaticai TTrtfers, voL L ; Lardner, Credi- 
htUty o/'lAe Goqtd History, part. ii. ch^ 34. 
Eusebius, Hiaiona Eedeiaaiica, lib. vi., and 
CftrofiHWM, p. 172. ; Hieronjrmns, Dt Viria 
UimtrUma, cap. 20. 38, &c.) A . T. P. 

ALEXANDER COHEN (-|*13D3^ 'H 
)n3), a German rabbi, who is also called Rab 
Siislin (|^D*^f ^*))» which is a surname that 
was generally given by the German Jews to 
tiiose who were called Joel or Elieser. He 
was a native of Frankfort on the Main, and 
lived during tiie eariy part of the thirteenth 
century. He is the reputed author of the 
work called " Agwiah" («« The Collection "X 
which is a eort of digest of the Talmud, and 
gives in a compendious form all the insti- 
tutions and ceremonies which are found in 
the whole body of the Talmud, with an index 
at the end. It was printed at Cracow by 
Isaac Ben Aaron Prostitx, the editor being 
Joseph ben Mordecai Gerson, ▲.M. 5331 (a. tk 
1571). On the title the author is called ^t'nri, 
which, by abbreviation, means Ha Rabbi Siislin 
Cohen. David Ganz gives the date at which 
this collection was made as ▲. m. 5089 
(a. d. 1329), but, as well as the author of the 
Shalshelleth Hakkabbala, says it was written 
by the disciples of Rab-Asher, and is a col- 
lection of his instructions. Bartolocci says it 
is a collection of the writings of Rab-Asher ; 
but the Siphte Jeshenim odls the author R. 
Alexander Cohen. ( Wolfius, BUUioth, Hebr, 
I 185. iL 1249. iiL 119. 1170.; fartoloccius, 
JBiblioA. Mag. Rabb. L 57.) C P. H. 

ALEXANDER, emperor of Constanti- 
nople, was the third son of Basilius the 
Macedonian and his second wife Eudocia. 
He was bom about a. d. 870. His fother 
conferred upon him the digni^of Imperator, 
which, after the death of Basuins, he shared 
with his brother Leo the Philosopher. Leo, 
a few days before his death, on the 11th 
of May, 911, declared Alexander his suc- 
cessor. Up to this time Alexander, for fear 
of his broUier, had lived very quietly, but 
now, when all restraints were removed, he 
abandoned himself to licentiousness and de- 
bauchery, and those who ministered to his 
pleasures were raised to the highest honours, 
while the worthiest men were deprived of 
their posts and treated ignominiously. Enty- 
mius, patriarch of Constantinople, was de- 
posed, and Nicolas, who had been deprived 
of this dignity in the reign of Leo for opposm^ 
the fourth marriage of this emperor with 
Zoe, the mother of Constantinas Porphyro- 
genitus, was reinstated. Alexander had been 
appointed by his brother Leo guardian of 
his son Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, and 
in order to secure the throne imd to get rid 
of all claimants, he exiled Zo@, and fomaed 
the plan of mutilating his young ward ia 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



sneh a maime^r as to render bim mifit to 
govern. But his friends persuaded him to . 
give np this design, bj stating that the >'oung | 
prinee was of such a weakly constitution that 
he oould not possibly live long, and would 
naturally be carried off before coming to man- 
hood. Simeon, king of the Bulgarians, pro* 
posed to Alexander to renew the treaties 
which had existed between him and Leo» 
But Alexander, instead of conciliating this 
dangerous nei|;hbour, treated the Bulgarian 
am^sadors with contempt Upon this, Si- 
meon assembled his forces to inTsde the do- 
minions of Alexander ; however, before this 
invasion took place, Alexander died on the 
seventh of June, 912. On that day he had 
drunk an immoderate quantity of wine, and 
immediately after took violent exercise 
on horseback, in consequence of which an 
artery burst and caused his death. (The 
passages firom which the account is drawn are 
given by C. du Fresne, FamSMt Byzantaut^ 
p. 140, &c. ; comp. Gibbon, Histonf of the 
Decline and Fall, c. 48.) L. S. 

ALEXANDER, CORNEXIUS, sumamed 
PoLTHiSTOR, was, aocordiug to some ac* 
counts, a native of Ephesus, and according 
to others, of Cotyssum. He was a contem- 
porary of Sulla, and a disciple of Crates the 
philosopher. The extensive knowledge which 
he possessed procured him the surname of 
Polyhistor. During the war of Sulla in 
Greece he was taken prisoner, and sold as a 
slave to Cornelius Lentulus, who entrusted 
him with the education of his children. 
Afterwards he was manumitted, and obtained 
from his patron the (Gentile name Cornelius. 
During the latter part of his life he seems to 
have hved at Laurentum, where he lost his 
life in a conflagration of his house. His wife 
would not survive him, and hanged herself. 

Alexander wrote several works : — 1. A 
great historical work, consisting of forty-two 
books, each of which ^Fpears to have treated 
on the history and geography of a particular 
country, whence they are sometimes con- 
sidered as so many separate works. The 
titles of those which are known to us are 
collected in Vossins, ** De Historicis Gnecis." 
All of these works appear to have been 
distinguished more as being accurate col- 
lections of &ets than for any critical merit 
Some fragments of this work are still extant 
in Syncellus, p. 147. ed. Dindorf ; Eusebius, 
(^Praparat EvangL ix. 17.)* Stephanns 
Byzantinus, and others. 2. A work on the 
Phrygian musicians (Plutarch, De Musica^ 
5.). 3. On the history of the Greek philo- 
sophers (Diogenes Laertius, 1. 11. 116, &c.). 
4. On the symbols of the Pythagoreans 
(Diogenes Laertius, viiL 1. 24. ; Clemens 
Alexandrinus, StromaiOj L 131.). Suidas 
also mentions a work, in five books, on 
Rome ; but probably it formed a part of his 
great historical woik. (Vossius, De Histoneie 
Gretcie^ p. 197. ed. Westermann, where nearly 
835 



all the passages of ancient writers referring 
to him are collected.) L., S. 

ALEXANDER CRESCENZI ("n^Oa^K 
^V^^VDnp), a converted Jew, a native of 
Rome, who lived during the middle of the 
seventeenth century, and acquired a reputa- 
tion for learning among his contemporaries. 
He translated the *• Tradado de Chocolate " 
(*' Treatise on Chocolate") of Antonio Col- 
mener de Ledesma from the Spanish lui- 
goage into Italian. It was printed at Rome, 
A.i>. 1667, in 12mo., with notes b}r Alexander 
Vitrioli Mandosius, in his Bibliotheca Ro- 
mana, cent vi., p. 65., extols him as a great 
mathematician, and says that in the year 1666 
he published, in Italian, a Diary of the 
eruption of Vesuvius which occurred a.d. 
1660, with observations thereon. (Wolfius, 
BihHoUL Hebr. iii. 119, 120.) C. P. H. 

ALEXANDER L ('AAcC«^/h>s), king of 
EoTFT, was the son of Ptolemy Energetes IL, 
called Ph^rscon, and Cleopatra. Ptolemy 
Physcon died in the year blg. 117, leaving 
his kingdom to his wife Cleopatra and which- 
ever of his two sons their mother might select 
to reign with her. Of these two sons the 
elder was Ptolemy Lathyrus, and the younger 
Alexander, who is also called Ptolemy Alex- 
ander. Alexander was Cleopatra's &vourite 
son, but she was compelled by the voice of 
the people to choose Ptolemv for her col- 
league, and he reigned with the title of 
Ptolemy Soter IL [Ptolemy Soter II.] 
Alexander received from his mother the 
kingdom of Cyprus. After Cleopatra and 
Lathyrus had reigned together fbr ten years, 
Lathyrus was de&roned by ui insurrection 
of the people of Alexandria, which Cleopatra 
was supposed to have excited, and he was 
compelled to retire to Cyprus, over which 
island his mother permitted him to reign. 
At the same time Alexander was recalled to 
Egypt to share the kingdom with Cleopatra 
(B.C. 107.) After they had reigned together 
eighteen years, Cleopatra was murdered by 
Alexander, who wished to reign alone, and 
who also dreaded the fierce temper of his 
mother ; but his reign, after her death, only 
lasted six months, at tiie end of which time 
the people rose up against him, drove him 
out of ^gypt, and recalled his brother, Pto- 
lemy Lathyrus. He retired to Cyprus, and 
soon after perished in a sea-fight with Chae- 
reas. (Porphyry ap, Euseb. p. 117. ; Justin, 
xxxix. 3 — 5. ; Pausanias, L 9. s. 28. ; Clin- 
ton's Faeti HeUen, iiL 390, &c.) P. S. 

ALEXANDER IL CAA^okVos), son of 
Alexander I., king of Eqtpt, and grandson of 
Ptolemy Physcon. Upon the death of Ptolemy 
Lathyrus in b.c81, his daughter Cleopatra 
or Berenice succeeded to the kingd<Hn. In 
the mean time Alexander (the subject of this 
article) had been sent flrom Rome by Sulla, to 
take possession of the kingdom of Egypt, and 
he arrived there when Cleopatra had reigned 
about five months. The claims of the rival 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



tan^dates fbr the throne were comprombed 
by a marriage between them, after which 
howerer they only reigned nineteen days. 
At the end of that time Alexander killed hia 
wife, and was himself immediately seised by 
the people of Alexandria, who took him firom 
the palace to the gymnasium, and there put 
him to death. The whole duration of Cleo- 
patra's rei^ including the nineteen days 
during which Alexander reigned with her, 
was six months. (Porph^rry op. Eusebins, 
p. 119. ; Clinton's Fcuti, iiL 390, &c, where 
the reader should notice Mr. Clinton's re- 
marks on a third Alexander, who is sup- 
posed to have reigned over a part of Egypt 
At the beginning of the reign of Ptolemy 
Auletes). P. 8. 

ALEXANDER L, king of Epnins, the 
son of Neoptolemus. On the death of Arym- 
bas he succeeded to the throne at the age 
of twenty, setting aside ^acides, the rightfU 
heir, by the assistance of Philip IL, king 
of Macedon, who had married his^ sister 
Olympias, and who bestowed upon him the 
hand of lus daughter Cleopatra. This second 
alliance took place b. c. 336, and on the 
occasion of the nuptials the assassination 
of Philip took place. In 332 a c. Alex- 
ander crossed over into Italy at the request 
of the Tarentines, to aid them in their wars 
against the Lucanians and BruttiL After 
defeating the combined Samnite and Lucanian 
forces near Piestum, he made a treaty with 
the Romans, whose allies the Samnites then 
were. He continued to wage war soccess- 
fUly against the Lucanians, and took from 
them Heraclea and Consentia, and Terina and 
Sipontum from the Bruttii, and three hun- 
dred of their fiunilies were sent as hostages 
to Epirus. We learn flrom Strabo that he 
wished to transfer the panegyris or com- 
mon meeting of the Greek states of that part 
of Italy from Heraclea to Thurium in Luca- 
nia. The opposition of the Tarentines to his 
plans led to his overthrow (b.c.331). He 
took up a position on three mounds near 
Pandosia, on the confines of the Bruttii and 
Lucanians, and in this situation he was be- 
trayed by two hundred Lucanian exiles whom 
he had with him, who gave private intelli- 
gence to their countrymen of a favourable 
moment for attack when his fbrces were 
separated by an inundation. Two divisions 
of his army were cut off *by the Lucanians ; 
he attempted to force his way through them 
with the third, but in crossing the river 
Acheros he was killed by a dart fh>m the 
hand of a Lucanian exile ; thus fiilfilling the 
prediction of the oracle of Dodona, which bid 
him beware of Pandosia and the Acheron, 
and which he had falsely interpreted as 
referring to two places of that name in 
Epirus. He left a son, Neoptolemus, and 
a daughter, Cadmea. Coins of this prince 
are extant m gold and silver. (Livy, 
viii. 3. 17. 24. s Justin, viiL 6. 5. ix. 6. 1. 
836 



xii. 2. xvil 3. 14.; Blionnet, 'MidaSOes An- 
tiques.') C. N. 
ALEXANDER IL, king of Episns, the 
son of Pyrrhus and Lanassa, succeeded his 
fsther (b.c. 272), and, to avenge his death, 
ravaged Macedon, and disposseiBsed Antig«>- 
nns of that kingdom. He was in turn de- 
prived of both Macedon and Epirus by De- 
metrius, son of Antigonus, and fied to Acar- 
nania, a portion of which he had gained in 
war. With the assistance of his own sulject^ 
and the Acamanians he regained his king- 
dom. He married his sister Olympias, and 
left two sons, Ptolemy and Pyrrhus, and a 
daughter Pthia. From two passages in 
Polybius, he appears to have been in alliance 
with the iEtolians. His coins in silver and 
copper are extant On the silver coins is a 
youthfhl head covered with the skin of an 
elephant's head, said to be his portrait. 
(Polybius, ii. 45. ix. 34. ; Justin, xvit 1. 
xxvL 2. xxviiL 1.) C. N. 
ALEXANDER FARNE'SK [Fabnese.] 
ALEXANDER the FBANCiacAK, (de 
Franciacis), a converted rabbi, whose Jewish 
name was. Rabbi Elisha the Roman (^3^ 
^DIID yfi^7fi<). He was a native of Rome, 
and celebrated amon^ his Jewish countrymen 
for his ^reat learmng. He was however 
early in life converted to the Catholic faith ; 
and being desirous of devoting himself en- 
tirely to the duties of his new calling, he 
entered the order of the Preaching Frian of 
St Francis, and gave himself up to the 
scholastic divinity of the period, in which he 
made as great progress as he had already 
made in rabbinical learning, and speedily b^ 
came celebrated as the most eloquent preacher 
of his day. At that time the populace of Rome 
was delighted with the eloquence of three 
celebrated preachers, namely, *'the Jew," 
for so Father Alexander the Franciscan was 
generally called by the people ; Father Lupus 
the Capuchin ; and Father Panigarola, of the 
order of the Minorites ; whose peculiar powers 
are thus characteristically recorded in a say- 
ing which was popular in Rome, even in 
Bartolocci's time : " Hebraeus docet. Lupus 
monet, Panicarola delectat;" **The Jew 
teaches. Lupus admonishes, Panicarola de- 
lights." The fiune acquired by Alexander 
as a preacher, added to his great talent for 
business and his blameless life, procured him 
the favour of the court of Rome, and he was 
elevated to the rank of procurator-general at 
the court of Rome, and vicar^general of his 
order. Such was the zeal and success with 
which he performed his duties, that Pope 
Clement VIIL selected him as his chaplain 
and counsellor, and placed such reliance on 
his learning and prudence, that no un^rtant 
business was transacted without his advice and 
concurrence. His hands being thus strength- 
ened by the papal authority, he introduced 
manv reforms amon^ the regular clergy, so 
much to the satisfaction of the pope tSst he 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER, 



fused him to the episcopal dignity by con- 
ferring on him the bishopric of Forli on the 
4th of May, 1594. This dignity however he 
only retained three years, when he resigned 
it of his 0¥ni free will into the hands of the 
same pontiff from whom he had received it, 
and retired to his convent in Rome, where he 
devoted the few remaining years of his life 
to his fiftvoorite studies, and to preaching the 
gospel to his brethren the Jews. He wrote, 
in the Hebrew langnage, ** Haggaoth al Se- 
pher Bereahith Veeleh Shemoth " (" Anno- 
tations on the Books of Genesis and Ezodns"). 
In this work he reconciles with the Hebrew 
original some passages of the Vulgate trans- 
lation which appear to deviate from it 
** This is a useftil and commendable labour," 
says Fa^er Bartolocci, ** and it is much to 
be lamented that it does not extend beyond 
the twentieth chapter of Exodus." The ma- 
nuscript of this work is in the Vatican library, 
on paper, supposed, says Bartolocci, to be 
written by the author's own hand ; but here 
the good father is at variance with himself^ 
as in the short notice of this author which 
he has given in the Rabbinical Hebrew at the 
head of his memoir he makes the date of his 
MS. to be Vinson, which is a.m. 5396 (a.d. 
1636), to which he immediatel]^ adds that the 
author died in the very beginning of the 
"present" (the seventeenth) century, which 
accords with the account of the time of his 
death as given by other authorities, all of 
which agree that he died about the year 1600. 
(Bartoloccius, BibUoth, Mag. Rahb, i. 218, 
219.; Wolfius, BibUotKHebr. 1 184. iiL 118.; 
Ughellus, Italia Sacra, ii 629.; Qnetif et 
Echard, BihUoth. Scriptor, Ord, Prtedicator. 
ii 326.) C. P. H. 

ALEXANDER, FRANCISCUS, Fran- 
ciscus ab Alexandre, or Francesco degli 
Alessandri, was bom at Vercelli in 1529, 
studied medicine at Pavia, and was physician 
to Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy. He 
died at Vercelli in 1587, having published 
two small Latin poems, and two works on 
medicine. The titles of the former are, 
*• Bivium," or " Virtutis Bivium," Pavia, 
1551 ; and ^ Ad Margaritam Valesiam .... 
Epithalamium." The medical works were 
" De Peste, sen Pestis et Pestilentium Febriimi 
Tractatus," Venice, 1565 ; and ** Apollo, om- 
nium compositorum et simplicium Normam 
suo Fulgore ita irradians, ut ejus meridiana 
Luce content! Medici et Pharmacopolse, omni 
Librorum Copia neglecta, omni denique Er- 
roris Nebula fbgata, ad quievis Opera fkcilUme 
86 accingere valeant" Venice, 1 565, folio. The 
former, which was several times published, 
imd which the author himself translated into 
Italian, relates chiefly to the epidemics which 
prevailed in Piedmont and Lombardy in the 
first half of the sixteenth century. The 
latter, which was also several times reprinted, 
is remarkable only for the vanity of its title, 
in which, in addition to the sentence Jnst 
837 



({noted, ihe author promises expresslv to cor- 
rect the " almost infinite errors " of idl pre- 
ceding writers on the materia medica. The 
presumptuous style in which they are writ- 
ten, however, is the only character in which 
the contents answer to the title-page ; not 
one of the twelve ** rays of Apollo" (as 
the author calls the chapters into which die 
book is divided) seems to have thrown any 
effectual light upon the matters treated of. 

A younger brother of Franciseus Alex- 
ander, who was called Alexander ab Alex- 
andro, was also a physician and a poet He 
died of the plague m 1570, having written 
" PrimiUie ad Franciscum Fratrem, ad ejus 
Opus cvjus Titulus, Apollo," Venice, 1565. 
(Bonino, Biogr^fia Medica Piemonteae, i 
261.) J. P. 

ALEXANDER, king of Geosgia in the 
early part of the fifteenth century. He suc- 
ceeded, while yet a minor, his cousin Gon- 
stantine, who fell in battle against the Syrians 
in the year 1414 according to Klaproth, or 
1413 according to Brosset Georgia was at 
that time reduced to a state approaching to 
desolation by the repeated invasions of Ti- 
mur or Tamerlane, and other foreign enemies. 
Dnrinjg the regency of Alexander's mother, 
and his own reign after he had attained his 
minority, the tide of success was turned ; the 
whole of Georgia was reunited under his 
government, and he was enabled to repair 
much of the destruction that Timur had 
caused ; in particular, to rebuild the church 
of Mtzkhaytha, the place of coronation and 
burial for the Georgum kings^ This course 
of prosperity was brought to a sudden end, 
when after a few years' reign Alexander 
resigned his crown, entered a monastery 
under the name of Athanasius, and divided 
his dominions among his three sons, Vakh- 
tang, Demetrius, and George. This event, 
according to Klaproth, took place in 1424; 
but as Alexander, if a minor in 1414, could 
not possibly have sons of an age to govern 
only ten years afterwards, it is probable 
that Brosset is correct when he asserts that 
Alexander was still reigning in 1431. The 
effect of this division of Georgia was to pave 
an easy way for its conquest by the Turks. 
(Julius von Klaproth, Rciie m aem KoMkaaus 
vnd nach Cfeorgien, iL 193, &c ; Chroidqw 
Georgienne traduiie par M. Brosset jeune, 
p. 2. 102.) T.W. 

ALEXANDER DE HALES. [Halbs, 
Alexander.] 

ALEXANDER, son of Herod. [Herod.! 

ALEXANDER of TMOLA, [Tab- 

TAONI.] 

ALEXANDER JAGELLON, grand 
duke of Lithuania and afterwards king of 
Pohmd, was the grandson of the Jagdlon 
who first united those two countries, and the 
fourth son of Casimir IV., king of Poland, and 
Elisabeth, daughter of Albert II., emperor of 
Germany. He was born on the 5th (^ Oc<« 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



tober, 1461. His edueation was sapermfended 
bj Dlvgoss, the ihther of Polish history, and 
the Italian, Philip Buonacoorsi, who had 
taken reftxge in Poland from the perseoutions 
to which his sceptical opinions snfajected him 
in Italy. On the death of Casimir (June 5. 
1492), the Lithuanian nobles, eager to escape 
firom what they considered the thraldom of 
Polish predominance, broke through the 
treaties which united them to the sister 
country, and chose Alexander for great 
duke of Lithuania, at the same time th^ his 
elder brother John Albert was elected king 
of Poland. The division of the countries 
gare an easy opportunity to lyan Vasil'- 
evich IIL, then the great duke of Russia, 
to crush the Lithuanians, and in a war which 
broke out he wrested from them more than 
seventy towns and villages, which thev were 
obliged to cede to him by a treaty of peace 
concluded at Moscow on February 5. 1494. 
The treaty was sealed by the marriage of 
Alexander with Helena, the daughter of the 
Russian prince ; but this did not prevent the 
speedy outbreak of fresh hostilities on various 
grounds, and among others, of the Lithu- 
anians calling the Russian **the great duke" 
only, and evading the title of ** lord of all 
the Russias." The Lithuanians were wise 
enough under these circumstances to renew 
on the 25th of JiUy, 1499, the act of unioB 
with Poland, on the condition that neidier 
country should henceforth choose a sonrereign 
without the previous knowledge and consent 
of the other. Relying on the support of Po- 
land, Alexander then sent a strong army 
against the Russians, which however sus- 
tained a total defeat on the banks of the 
Yedrosha on the 14th of July, 1500. The 
death of John Albert soon after without 
issue occasioned Alexander to appear as a 
candidate for the vacant throne of Poland, 
and the influence of the circumstances and of 
his brother Frederick, cardinal-archbishop of 
Gnesen, procured his election. The li^n- 
anian nobles, formerly so refractory, were 
eager in promoting it, and spoke with warmth 
of the necessity of a ftiture cordial union be- 
tween the nations. Alexander was elected on 
October 4. 1601, and his coronation took 
place on the 12th of December, when he was 
anointed by his brother the cardinal ; but his 
wife Helena was excluded from participation 
in the ceremony on the ground of her not be- 
longing to the Catholic church. His reign was 
one of dishonour and humiliation to Poland. 
Achmet or Ahmed the khan of the Tartars 
beyond the Volga^ who offered his assistance 
to the Poles against the Tartan of the Crimea, 
was soon after defeated by the Khan of the 
Crimea, and on flying for refhge to his all^, 
Alexander, was ungratefully seized by lus 
orders, and afterwards, on attempting to es- 
cape, was condemned by the states of Lithu- 
ania to perpetual imprisonment in Kowno. 
-This act of treachery, which was perpetrated 
838 



to conciliate the Khan of the Crimea^ did not 
prevent him from still carrying fire and 
sword into Podolia. Alexander was also 
obliged to conclude an aimistiee fbr six jreara 
with his frtther-in-law, the Great Duke of 
Russia, and give up in return for it five of 
the towns the Russians had conquered. The 
great master of the Teutonic knights refused 
to take the oath of vassalage to Poland in 
the year 1504. The beginning of 1505 was 
clouded over by the dissensions which broke 
out among the principal Lithuanian &milies, 
stimulated by the intrigues of the king's 
hanghty favourite Glinsky. [Gunskt. j In 
the same year .the Tartars renewed their in- 
roads in Lithnania. The king, struck with 
paralysis, resigned the command of the army 
to Glinsky, who succeeded in gilding the 
close of Alexander's reign by a decisive vic- 
tory over the enemy. The intelligence of 
this event reached the king on his death-bed 
when he was already speechless, but still able 
by signs to express Ate pleasure the news 
afforded him. He died on the 9th of August, 
1506, in the forty-fifth year of his age. 

The chief glory of Alexander's reign was 
the reduction of the laws of Poland to a code 
by the chancellor John Laski, under the 
royal sanction. The c<^lectiou comprises the 
resolutions of the different diets, from 1347 
to 1505, as well as a summary of different 
bodies of foreign law deemed necessary to 
complete the Polish code. This is almost 
the only event in Alexander's career on 
which the historian can dwell with satis- 
&ction. (Bandtkie, Daefe Narodu PMiie^ 
ii 81, &c ; Russian EnigUdopedechtsky Lexi- 
kon, I 483, &c.) T. W. 

ALEXANDER JANN-ffiUS, C^i^^- 
Ifios *laanmos) the third son of John Hyr- 
canos, succeeded his brother Aristobulns as 
king of the Jews m the year b. c. 105. 
Like his predecessors, he took advantage 
of the troubles of the Greek kingdom of 
Syria to extend his power; and in pursu- 
ance of that policy he attacked the town 
of Ptolemais (Acre), and sent detachments 
of his army against Dora and Gaza, towns 
on the coast of Palestine, which, like Pto- 
lemais and some others, had made them- 
selves independent (b.c. 104). These towns 
I4>plied for aid to Ptolemy Lathyrus, who 
then reigned in Cyprus, having been ex- 
pelled from Egypt by his mother Cleopatra 
three years £&fore. Lathyrus landed in 
Palestine with an army of 30,000 men, and 
defeated Jannieus on the banks of the Jordan, 
and then overran the country, and seemed 
likely to conquer it, when Cleopatra sent an 
army to Alexander's assistance, by the help 
of which Lathyrus was driven back to Cy- 

Srus (B.C. 101). Soon after this Alexander 
annsus paid a visit to Cleopatra, who is 
said to have entertained the idea of murder- 
ing him and seizing upon Judsea; but, by 
the advice of Ananias^ a Jew who coin- 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



Bumded her forces, sfae gare up the treachery 
01I8 design, and made an alliance with 
Jannsus at Bethshan (Scythopolis.) 

Alexander now renewed his attacks upon 
the independent cities ; and in a war wUch 
was attended by an immense loss of life, and 
in which he met with some considerable 
revives, he at length succeeded in reducing 
Gasa, Gadara, and other important places. 
In revenge for the part which Gasa had 
taken in tibe inyasion of Lath jms, he burned 
the town and massacred the inhabitants. 

He now returned to Jerosalem, where he 
was detested by the Pharisees, and by the 
people, most of whom were the followers of 
the Pharisees, on account of his having 
joined the party of the Soddncees. The 
hatred of the people broke out into an open 
rebellion in the year b.c. 95, when, as he 
was officiating as high priest at the Feast of 
Tabernacles, the multitude pelted him with 
the citrons which they carried in their hands, 
and assailed him at the same time with the 
bitterest reproaches. Alexander let loose 
the soldiers of his guard upon the people, 
6000 of whom were cut down, and after 
this he never appeared in public without 
a stnmg body-gnard of Libyans and Pi- 



He now tamed his arms against the 
countries east of the Jordan, and reduced the 
Arabs of Gilead and the people of Moab, 
in B.G. 94. In the following year he took 
the fortress of Amathus, in a previous at- 
tempt on which he had suffered a severe 
defeat But in the next year, in a campaign 
against Obodas, the emir of the Arabs of 
Gaulonitis, he fell into an ambush in the 
mountains near Gadara ; his army was cut to 
pieces, and he himself escaped with difficulty. 

This reverse was the signal for a new re- 
bellion on the pert of the Pharisees ; and a 
frightful civil war ensued, in which 60,000 
men are said to have perished on the side of 
the insurgents alone. The hatred of the 
people to Alexander is strongly displayed by 
a circumstance recorded b^ Josephus, that 
when he sent some of his friends to ask what 
he could do to satisfy them, their only answer 
was, *• DiB I " The rebels, who were assisted 
b^ the Arabs and Moabites, and by Deme- 
trius Eucsenis, king of Damaseus, had the 
advantage at first, and compelled the king to 
fij into the mountains, after they had cut off 
his army of Greek mercenaries to a man 
(b. c. 89) ; but a party of 6000 Jews having 
deserted from the insurgents, Jannseus with 
their assistance gained a victory (b.c. 87), 
after which he soon suppressed the insur- 
rection (b.c. 86). Alexander ^tified his 
revenge by an act of atrocity which obtained 
for him the title of ^'the Thracian :'* he 
crucified eight hundred of the principal men 
among the insurgents; who, as they hung 
upon the cross, beheld their wives ^d chil- 
dren Biassocnd at their feet, and the king 
839 



dining with his wives beft>re their eyes. The 
example had however its effect, and Alexander 
was troubled with no more insurrections. 

After a snccessfhl war of three years, in 
which he recovered the fortresses he had lost, 
and extended the boundaries of his kingdom, 
Alexander Jannsus returned to Jenualem 
(B.C. 82), and gave himself up to a life of 
luxury, which brought on a quartan ague, 
under which he languished three years, 
and then died, after a reign of twenty-seven 
yesurs, in the year b.c. 78. His kingdom, 
which he had considerably enlarged, be left 
to his wife Alexandra, advising her to court 
the favour of the Pharisees. 

There are several coins of Janneeus which 
have on the one side, in Greek, " King Alex- 
ander" QAKt^dofSpou fiaai\4»s\ and on the 
other side, in Hebrew, ** Jonathan" (mjinO* 
or " King Jonathan " ( -j^q fn^in^)* *^^™ 
his true Heorew 



which we infer that 
was Jonathan, and that Alexander was a 
name assumed by him, according to a custom 
then very prevalent among the Jews, who 
affected Greek usages in names as in manv 
other points. (Josephus, Jew. Antiq, xiii. 
c. 12 — 15. ; Jahn's History of the Helfrew 
Commonwealth ; Gesenius in Ersch und Gm- 
ber's EncyklmSdie.) P. S. 

ALEXANDER, JOHN, of Berne, is onhy^ 
known by a posthumous work, ** Synopsis 
Algebraica," which appeared in 1693 at 
London. It was translated by Samuel Cobb 
in 1709, and republished for the use of the 
school at Christ's Hospital, with additions by 
Humphrey Ditton. Perhaps it is the last 
book in which quadratic equations are de- 
monstrated no otherwise than geometrically. 

A.DeM. 

ALEXANDER, JOHN, a Scotch painter 
and etcher of the eighteenth century, was the 
son of a clergyman, and, says Walpole, was 
descended from the boasted Jamisone. In the 
early part of the eighteenth century he visited 
Rome, about 1717, but was not established 
there, as Heineken says, and etched some 
plates after Raphael's fkscoes in the Log^e 
of the Vatican. He dedicated a set of six, 
dated 1717 and 1718, to Cosmo III., grand 
duke of Tuscany ; Strutt says that they do 
Alexander no kind of credit, and terms them 
slight, loose, and incorrect etchings. In 1721 
a letter to a firiend was printed at Edinburgh 
describing a staircase painted at Castle Gor- 
don, with the Rape of Proserpine, by Alex- 
ander. (Walpole, Afiecdotee of Painting in 
JSnffland, ifv.; Heineken, Dictionnaire des 
Artittee, Av.) R. N. W. 

ALEXANDER, JOHN, bishop of Dun- 
keld, was bom, it is thought, about the year 
1703. He was placed at first at Alloa in 
charge of a small congregation of the adhe- 
rents of the episcopal dnvroh which had been 
established before the Revolution of 168^ 
where he served till the year 1743, when tiie 
episeopel clergy of the diocese of Donkeld 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



elected him to succeed the late primate, Dr. 
Rattny, bishop of that see. Before the Revo- 
lution the Scottish bishops were elected by 
conge d'eslire, as in England ; but since th^ 
time the clergy of each diocese elect their own 
bishop on a mandate from the primate. 
Alexander was consecrated in Edinburgh on 
the 9th of August, 1743, by Bishops Keith, 
White, Faloonar, and Rait On account of 
the depressed state of that church and the 
poverty of the bishops, which were great 
impediments to their frequently holding 
synodical meetings, these five prelates took 
advantage of their meeting for the purpose of 
Bishop Aiexander*s consecration, to constitute 
themselves a regular synod of the church. 
Their first act was to elect Robert Keith, 
bishop of Fife, to be their primate, or, as that 
dignitary is now styled, "Primus Scotise 
Episcopus ; ** and Alexander was elected clerk 
of the synod. The late primate had left a 
rough draught of some canons which he 
intended to submit to the approbation of a 
general synod, and which the present meet- 
ing took under their consideration ; and as 
they were well adapted to the exi^ncies of 
the church in her then peculiar position, they 
ratified them by a synodical sanction. To 
these they added six other canons, which have 
been the standing regulations of the episco- 
pal church in Scotland since that time. On 
their promulgation the clergy dutiftilly ac- 
quiesced, and looked forward with satisihc- 
tion to tranquillity ; yet their happy prospects 
were suddenly obscured bv the events that 
followed the expedition of Charles Edward 
in 1746. Although the Episcopalians were 
not more engaged in that enterprise than 
the Presbyterians were, yet the whole ven- 
geance of the government fell upon them. 
Previous to the year 1746 that church was 
comparatively in a prosperous state; her 
clergy were numerous and respected, and 
their chapels were well frequented by all 
ranks. But after the defeat of Prince Charles 
at Culloden, the chapels were shut up 
in the towns, and burnt down to the ground 
in the country, by parties of military de- 
tached for that purpose. As Bishop Alex- 
ander's chapel was situated in the beautiful 
and thriving town of Alloa in Clackmannan- 
shire, tt was pulled down, as burning would 
have endangered the houses of the inhabitants. 
With all the other clergy, he was obliged to 
leave his house, which was plundered, and 
skulk amongst his friends ; and their '* hearers 
stood aghast between pity for their minis- 
ters and fear for themselves, being under the 
same suspicions, and equally uncertain what 
might be the issue." 

When the first violence of the persecution 
had in some degree abated. Bishop Alexander 
returned to Alloa, and contrived to rebuild his 
chapel, which had been destroyed, although 
not without many impediments having been 
thrown in his way. SmoUet, who was himself 
840 



j a Presbyterian, representi them as " proceed- 
ing with ungovernable violence to persecute 
the episcopal party, exercising the very same 
tyranny against which they had themselves 
so loudlv exclaimed.** Ever since the Revo- 
lution, the Scottish bishops have been pastors 
of particular con^gations, as well as ^- 
nerally of their dioceses, and in this capacity 
Bishop Alexander was most diligent and 
laborious in his pastoral duties. He taught 
his flock chiefly by a most efficient system of 
catechetical instruction. After a well-spent 
life. Bishop Alexander died about the age of 
seventy-three. His *' reputation still lives in 
the church, and he continues to be spoken 
of by those who knew him as a person of 
apostolical simplicity, piety, and benevolence. 
The small chapel, which u vet to be seen at 
Alloa, was bequeathed by him to his suc- 
cessors in that town, as a proof at once of 
his frugality and of his good wishes. He 
was twenty-three years bi&op of Dunkeld ; 
and at length in the year 1776 he died, as 
he had lived, in the faith and fear of God, 
and in peace with all mankind." (Keith's 
Caiahgue, App. ; Skinner's JEcdesiarticai 
History; Bishop Walker^s Charge, 1833.) 

T. S. 

ALEXANDER, bishop of Limcolm in the 
reigns of Henry L and Stephen* He was 
bom at Blois in France, and was brought up 
under me care of his uncle Roger, bi^op of 
Salisbury. His uncle made him archdeacon of 
Salisbury, and as he had great influence over 
ICing Henry I., he got him made chief justice 
of England, and obtained for him the see of 
Lincoln. Alexander was consecrated by the 
archbishop at Canterbury on the twenty- 
second of July, 1123. 

In 1139, some say 1138, upon a weak pre- 
tence, Stephen seized both the Bishop of 
Lincoln and his uncle in order to compel 
them by menaces to surrender the castles 
which tiiey had erected. The quarrel was 
taken up by the king's brother, the Bishop 
of Winchester, then legate, and a summons 
was sent to the king to appear before the 
syiiod assembled on this occasion at West- 
minster. The king, to justify his violence, 
accused the two prelates of treason and se- 
dition ; but the synod would not entertain 
the charge until the castles were restored to 
them. 

In the year 1142, Alexander visited Rome 
and returned in the capacity of legate frt>iii 
the ix>pe with power to call a syn^ for re- 
gulating the affairs of the English churdu 
This synod published several wholesome and 
necessary canons. Alexander made another 
visit to Rome in 1144, and such was the 
splendour of the style in which he lived on 
these occ4isions, that he was called in the 
court of Rome, Alexander the Magnificent. 
In 1147 he went to France to meet Pope 
Eugenius IIL, where through the excessive 
heat of the weather he fell sick, and witli 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



great dii&ciilty retnTDing home, died soon 
after, on Ash Wednesday of the same year, 
and was buried in his own cathedral of Lin- 
coln. 

This bishop's panegyric is contained in 
Henry of Huntingdon's dedication and verses 
prefixed to his £Qstory ; but the character 
given by the same historian after the bishop's 
death charges him with an exp|endxture for 
which his tenants suffered. His splendour 
was also reproved by St Bernard in a letter 
(Epistle 64.) sent to the bishop the year 
before his death. 

In 1124 Lincoln Cathedral was greatly 
injured by sn accidental fire, Alexander re- 
paired it in 1145, vaulted it with stone, and 
unproved it in many other respects, so that it 
became equal, if not superior, to sn^ church 
at that time in England. He also mcreased 
the number of prebends in his church and 
augmented its revenues with several manors 
and estates. He built three castles, one at 
Banbury, another at Sleaibrd, and a third at 
Newark. He founded monasteries at Ha^ 
verholm for regular canons and nuns to- 
gether ; at Thame, for White Friars ; and at 
Dorchester, for Black Canons. (^Biographia 
Britannica ; Henry of Huntingdon, Hittona 
apud Scrwtoru pott Btdamj lib. 7. and 8. ; 
Godwin, JDt PrcuulUmt Antrim i Arch<Bologuij 
V. 316,317.; Leland.) A. T. P. 

ALEXANDER CAA^{ay8pof), of Ephesus, 
sumamed Ltchmus (A^x>^0> & Greek rhe- 
torican and poet, appears to have lived shortly 
before or about the time of Cicero, who calls 
him sn ignorant and bad, but yet a usefhl 
poet Strabo, who says that he took an active 
pert in political affidrs, ascribes to him a his- 
tory, and several didactic poems in hexameters, 
in which he described the heavens, and the 
three great divisions of the world. Each of 
them was described in a separate poem, which 
accordingly are referred to by the names 
" Asia," " Europe," &c. (Some fhigments of 
these poems are preserved in Stephanus of 
Byzantium (s. v. Aupos, AvPfdxiow, 'EpK{nfu>¥t 
and elsewhere); compare Cicero, AdAttumm, 
il 20. 22. ; Strabo, vi p. 642. ; Scholiast and 
Eustathius, Ad Diaiufs. Perieget 607. ; NsBke, 
Scheda Critica, HaUe, 1812, p. 7.) L. & 

ALEXANDER CAA^ay8pot), of Ltcopo- 
us in Upper Egypt, lived probably about the 
middle of the fourth centiuy, ▲.d. Accord- 
ing to some accounts he was a bishop of Cv- 
ropolis. He wrote a work, which is still 
extant, against the doctrines of the Mani- 
chseans (np6srht MaMxa(»r S^of ). From this 
work it is clear that he was well acquainted 
with the Christian religion, and entertained a 
high opinion both of tts founder and of its 
doctrines. He praises the Christian doctrines 
especially for their simplicity and clearness, 
which render them intelligible to all man- 
kind, and are thus well calculated to promote 
virtue (Cave, De Seriptonbna ecelesia in- 
eerUtJBuaiM^ p. 2.; Lardner's Works, iil384. 

VOL. I. 



viii. 349, &c. ; Fabricius, Bibiioth, Grete, 
iii 56.) L. & 

ALEXANDER CAA^(fl»Vt)» the son of 
Ltsimachub, king of Thrace, by Necris, an 
Odrysian woman. When Agathocles, his 
brother, was put to death by his father 
Lysimachtts, his widow L^sandra fled widi 
Alexander to Seleucus, kinf of Babylon. 
At the instigation of the two nigitives Seleu- 
cus made war upon L^imachus, who was 
defeated by him and killed, B. c. 281. It is 
recorded o£ Alexander that he begged the 
bod^ of his fBtther from the conqueror and 
buned it (Fausanias, L 10. ; Droysen, Ge- 
achkhtB der Nachfidger Akxanden.) C. N. 

ALEXANDER L QKK^wip9s\ king of 
IIacedonia, was the son of Amyntas L, and 
the tenth king of Macedonia. When Mega- 
bazus called upon Macedonia to submit to 
Darius the son of Hystaspes, Amyntas L, 
who was still reigning, gave earth and 
water as the s^pnbols of his submission. 
Amyntas entertained the seven Persian am- 
bassadors at a banquet, and at their re- 
quest he made no scruple about surrender- 
ing the bdies of his court to the lust of 
the barbarians. But his son Alexander, in- 
dignant at the conduct of the Persians, bade 
his fiither leave the hall, and after sending the 
women fhim the room to dress in a more 
foscinating manner, as he pretended, he 
dressed a number of young Macedonians in 
women's attire, and introduced them into the 
room, provided with arms. As soon as the 
Persians attempted to take liberties with them, 
they were all massacred by the Macedonians. 
As none of the Persian envoys returned, 
Megabazus sent Bubares with a small force to 
Macedonia; but Alexander contrived to avert 
the danger which threatened his countij bv 
giving rich presents and the hand of his 
sister Gygsoa to the Persian generaL These 
events happened about the year b.g. 507. 
Amyntas died soon after, probably in b.c. 
506, and Alexander succeeded him. Owing to 
the family connection through the marriage 
of Gy gea with Bubares, Biacedonia appears at 
the time to have been left to itself; but in b.c. 
492 it was reduced to complete submission by 
Mardonius. (Herodot vl44.) During the 
second invasion of the Persians, in b.c. 480, 
Alexander was obliged to join the Persian army 
under Mardonius with his forces. The Per- 
sian general however honoured him with his 
confidence ; and after the battle of Salamis 
(b. c. 480), when he was staying in Thessaly , he 
sent Alexander as his ambassador to Athens 
with a view of drawing her into an alliance 
with Persia. Alexander himself, although 
attached to the cause of Greece, thought such 
a step on the part of Athens ti^e only means 
of saving herself from utter ruin, and he ac- 
cordingly advised the Athenians to accept 
the proposal of the Persians. But the Athe- 
nians were determined to resist to the last, 
and Alexander returned to Maidonius, who, 
SI 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDEB. 



on hearing the answer, immediately set ont 
agiunst Athens. Alexander howeyer eon- 
tinued to assist the Greeks in secret The 
night before the battle of Plat»8B he pre- 
sented himself at the outposts of the Greek 
camp and re(pested to speak to the Greek 
flenerals. He mfbrmed them that Blardonins 
intended to giye battle the next day, and he 
advised them not to more from their position 
even if the battle should not take place, since 
the provisions of the Persians would be ex- 
hausted in a few days. After this friendly 
advice Alexander rode away. 

Thus hr Alexander was connected with 
the affairs of Greece during her contest with 
Persia. He was the first member of the royal 
house of Macedonia who presented himself 
ait the celebration of the Olympic games, and 
made out his claim to participate in them by 
proving his Greek descent Of his adminis- 
tration of his own kingdom we know very 
li^e ; but it appears that he made a wise use 
of the circumstances in which he was placed, 
and he extended his dominions no less through 
the liberality of the Persians than by his own 
wise conduct He was called the rich king, 
and distinguished himself both by his love of 
splendour and by his liberality. The duration 
of his reign is not quite certain; we only 
know from Plutarch (^Cimon, 14.) that he was 
alive in B.C. 463, but he died soon after. He 
left behind him three sons, Perdiocas, Alcetas, 
and Philip; the first of whom became his 
successor as Perdiocas II. (Herodotus, viiL 
139. ; V. 17—22.; viii 136. 140— -143. ; ix. 
44, 45. ; Justin, vii. 2, 3, 4. ; Thucydides, i. 
137. ii. 99.; compare Clinton, Fasti Hd" 
lenicif i. 221, &c) L.S. 

ALEXANDER IL C^^<o^f\ ▼>» the 
sixteenth king of Macedonia., and a son of 
Amyntas IL, whom he succeeded about the 
year b. c. 369. He reigned one year and per- 
haps some mcHiths longer. Soon after his ac- 
cession he was invited by the Aleuadse of 
Thessaly to assist them against the tyrant 
Alexander of Phene. He accordingly 
marched with an armed force into Thessaly, 
took possession of the town of Larissa, and 
laid siege to the citadel He also placed 
garrisons in several other Thessalian towns, 
promising to restore them to freedom^ but 
his object was to establish himself firmly in 
Thessaly, and for this reason he kept pos- 
session of the town while the tyrant with- 
drew to PhersB. [Alexamdbb of Phsiub.] 
While he was thus suocessfhlly engaged in 
Thessaly, Ptolemy of Alorus, whom he had 
^>point^ governor of Macedonia during his 
absence, rebelled. A war broke out between 
him and the king, and the Thebans were called 
upon to mediate. Pelopidss was sent from 
Thebes to restore peace, and he appears to 
have lefi Alexander in the possession of his 
kingdom; but to seenre peace in Macedonia 
he took a number of hostages to Thebes, one 
of whain» according to sone aoooonts, was 
842 



Philip, the fiither of Alexander the Great 
[Ptolbmt AjjovrrEB ; Phzup or Macb- 
DONiA.] Soon after this peace Alexander IL 
was assassinated at a banquet, according to 
some statements by Ptolemy of Alorus or his 
emissaries; according to others he fi^ a 
victim to the intrigues of his mother ^uydioe. 
Demosthenes QDe falsa Legatume, p. 402.) 
mentions Appollophanes as one of the mur- 
derers of Alexander. This occurred in the 
year b.c. 367. (Diodorus, xv.60,6l. 71. 77.; 
JEschines, Ve falsa LegaOone, p. 32. ; Justin, 
vii. 5. ; Plutarch, Pdopid, 26,27.; Athensus, 
xiv. p. 629. ; Diodorus, xvi 2. ; compare Clin- 
ton, FasHHeSenidj L p. 225, &c ; Thirlwall, 
History of Greece, iv. p. 162, &c) L 8. 

ALEXANDER IIL, sumamed the Great, 
king of Macedonia, was the son of Philip 
and Olympias, and bom at Pella in the 
autumn of the year b. c 356. On his fiither^s 
side he was descended fh>m Caranus the 
Heradid, who was the first king of Mace- 
donia; his mother belonged to the royal 
house of Epims, which traced its pedigree 
up to AchiUes, the most celebrated hero of 
the Trojan war. She was the daughter 
of Neoptolemus, prince of the Molosnans, 
and the sister of Alexander of Epirns, who 
lost his life in Italy. The historians of 
Alexander regitfded it as a significant coin- 
cidence that Philip on the same day received 
the intelligence of the birth of his son, of the 
victory of his general Parmenio over the 
niyrians, and of his own victory at the 
Olympic games ; on the same day also the 
magnificent temple of Diana at E^esus was 
burnt down. Occurrences like these were 
afrerwards thought to be indications of the 
f^iture greatness of Alexander, and various 
marvellous stories were fabricated, which 
were believed and ea^rly spread by the 
fiattery or the superstition of the Greeks, 
and rMdily listened to by Alexander himaelf 
in the midst of his wonderful career of 
conquest Many persons were engaged in 
the early education of Alexander, but the 
general conduct of it was intrusted to Leo- 
nidas, a relation of Ol3rmpias, and a man of 
austere character. Lysimachus, an Acar- 
nanian, appears to have insinuated himwelf 
into the favour of the royal fiunily of Ma- 
cedonia and of his pupU by vulgar flattery : 
he is reported to have called Alexander 
always by the name of Achilles, and Philip 
by that of Peleus. About the time when 
Alexander had reached his thirteenth year, 
Philip thought it advisable to procure finr his 
son the best instructor of the age, and his 
choice fell upon Aristotle. A letter which. 
Philip is said to have written to this phi- 
losopher on the occasion is preserved in 
Gellius. Under the instruction of such a 
master the powerful mind of Alexander was 
rapidly developed and enriched with stores 
of practical and nsefVd knowledge. With the 
view of preparing his pupil for his hig^ 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



station^ Aristotle wrote & work on the art 
of gOTemmeiit» wfaioh is no longer extant 
No royal papil ever had the advantage of 
such a matter. His short life was s^nt in 
gigantic undertakings and in the midst of 
war ; hot the resolts of Aristotle's teaching 
are apparent in all Alexander's plans fbr con- 
solid^tmg his empire: his love of know- 
ledge manifested itself to the last months of 
his life and in the midst of all his laboais. 
His physical education also was not neglected. 
In horsemanship he is Mid to hare excelled 
all his contemporaries ; and it is a well-known 
story, that when the celebrated horse Baoe- 
phalos was hrooght to the Macedonian ca- 
pital, no one hot yoong Alexander was able 
to manage him. His alleged descent from 
Achilles, aiid the flattery St those by whom 
he was sorroonded, made however a deep 
and lasting impression njpon his ^outhfbl 
mind ; the Diad became his fitvonnte book, 
and its hero, Achilles, his great model Am- 
bition was his mlinf passion : everything 
which appeared to Imiit the sphere within 
which he hoped to gain distinction seemed 
to him an encroachmoit upon his own rights. 
When inteUigcnee was brought of his &ther*B 
victories, he would lament that nothing would 
be left for him to do : he reftised to contend 
fbr the prise at the (Hympic ^ames because 
he could not have kings for his competitors. 
In the same q>irit he regretted that Aristotle 
published one of his profound works, be- 
cause the wisdom which he wished to possess 
alone was thus communicated to many. He 
would always pardon and honour an enemy 
whose resistance had added to his own glory, 
but a cowardly opponent was the olject of his 
contempt 

When Alexander had reached his six- 
teenth year, Philip was obliged to leave his 
kingdom to carry on a campaign agamst 
Byzantium ; and as his son had alr^idy shown 
extraordinary judgment in public aiEurs, 
Philip intrusted hun with the administration 
of Afacedonia. During the absence of his 
ftther, he is said to have led an army against 
some revolted tribe, and to have made him- 
self master of their town. The first occasion 
on which he specially signalised himself was 
two years later, in the battle of Cheronea(B.c 
338% end the victory on that day is miunly 
ascribed to his courage ; he broke the lines of 
the enemy, and crushed the sacred band of 
the Thebans. Philip was proud of such a 
son, and was even pleased to hear the Haee- 
donians call him their king, while they called 
Philip their general. But the good under- 
standmg between him and his folher was 
disturbed during the last years of Philip's 
life, owing to his fiither repudiating Olympias 
and giving his hand to Cleopatra, the niece 
of Attains. A reconciliation took place, but 
on the very day that it was to be sealed by 
the marriage of Philip's dangkter with a 
brother of Olympias, Philip was 
843 



(b. c. 336), and it was even reported that 
Alexander was compromised in the con- 
spiracy. There is, however, no evideDce to 
prove the truth of this report, though it is 
possible that Alennder at least knew of the 
plot, notwithstanding the severe punishment 
which he inflicted on most of Uie guilty per- 



At the age of twenty Alexander was thus 
suddenly called to the throne of Macedonia. 
But wmle the attachment of the people of 
Macedonia, who had always been accus- 
tomed to look up to him with admiration, 
was secured by a reduction of taxes and odier 
politic measures, dangers were threatening 
on all sides, and he had to secure by wars 
the throne which was his lawful inheritance. 
His fiither had during the last years of his 
life made extensive preparations for invading 
Persia, and Attalus and Parmenio had al- 
ready been sent into Asia with a force. The 
realisation of these plans, in the midst <^ 
which Alexander had grown up to manhood, 
and in which he had taken a most lively 
interest, now devolved upon him ; but before 
he could carry them into effect, it was ne- 
cessary to secure his own dominions. At- 
tains, the uncle of Cleopatra, aimed at 
usurping the crown of Macedonia, under the 
pretext of securing it to Philip's son by 
Cleopatra ; Greece was stirred up by Demo- 
sthenes against Macedonia, and the barba- 
rians in the north and west were ready to 
take up arms for their independence. Every- 
thing depended upon quidc and decisive ac- 
tion. Alexander was well aware of this, and at 
the same time he was determined not to sur- 
render any part of his dominions, as some of 
his timid or cautious friends advised him. 
His first measure was to send his general, 
Hecatttus, with a force to Asia, with instruc- 
tions to bring Attalus back to Macedonia 
either dead or alive. All the professions of 
attachment and fidelity Aat Attalus made 
were of no avail : he was put to death, and 
his army joined that of Parmenio, who had 
remained fidthful. While this took place in 
Asia, Alexander marched with an army into 
Greece. Theasaly submitted without resist^ 
anoe, and transferred to him the supreme 
command in the prqjeeted expedition against 
Persia. After luivinc marched through the 
pass of Thermopyks, he assembled the Del- 
phic Amphictyons, and was received a mem* 
her of their confederacy, and the decree of 
the Thessalians was confirmed 1^ a similar 
one of the Amphictyons^ Advancing into 
BoaoUa, he intched his camp in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Cadmea, the citadel of 
Thebes. His sudden appearance struck ter- 
ror into the Thebans, who had been indulg- 
ing in dreams of recovering tiieir liberty. 
The Athenians also, who, pretending to de- 
spise young AlexMider, had talked much 
a]x>ut war, but as usual had made no prepara- 
tioDS for it, were greatly alarmed when they 
312 



ALEXANDER. ALEXANDER. 

beard of his sudden arrival before the gates report that Alexander had lost his life in his 
of Thebes. They immediately despatched Illyrian campai^, some of the Greek states 
an embassy to beg his pardon for not having resorted to hostile measures. ' The Thebans 
sent ambayssadors to the assembly of the expelled their Macedonian garrison and sent 
Delphic Amphictyons, and for not having envoys to other Greek states to invite them to 
conferred upon him tlie supreme command aid in recovering their independence. Their 
against Persia in ^ their name also. Alex- summons was favourably received by most 
ander received their ambassadors kindly, and of the Greeks, but they were slow in carrying 
only required the Athenians to send deputies their resolutions into effect ; and before a force 
to a general council of the Greeks which was assembled, and even before the intelli- 
was to be held at Corinth. At this meeting gence of Alexander being still alive reached 
all the states of Greece, with the exception of , Thebes, he was with his army at Onchestus in 
Sparta, transferred to the Macedonian king ' Bcsotia. He immediately marched against 
the conunand of all their forces against Per- ^ Thebes, and attempted a peaceful reeoncilia- 
sia, an office which they had before con- tion ; but the Thebans answered him with in- 
ferred upon his &ther. The Greeks over- | suit Perdiccas, one of Alexander's generals, 
whelmed the young king with assurances of availed himself^ without his master's com- 
attachment, marks dT honour, and the meanest ' mand, of a &vourable opportunity for an 
flattenr. The refbsal of the Spartans to ' attack with his own detachment, out of 
join the other Greeks did not make Alex- . which a general engagement arose. Not- 
ander in the least uneasy; he knew that he withstanding the brave resistance of the 
had nothing to fear from them, and that Thebans the city was taken, and this event 
the^ were without the power to give effect to was followed h^ one of the most bloody 
their wishes. | massacres in ancient history. The city, with 

After having thus settled the affiurs of , the exception of the citadel, the temples, and 
Greece, he returned in the spring of ac. 33.5 the seven ancient gates, was rased to the 
to Macedonia to put down an insurrection of ground ; six thousand Thebans, men, women, 
the northern barbarians. He marched Arom and children, were put to the sword ; and 
Amphipolis towards Mount Hsemus (Bal- , thirty thousand others were sold as slaves, 
kan), which he reached in ten days. He | The priests, the friends of the Macedonians, 
forced his way across tiie mountains, pene- and the descendants of Pindar alone retained 
trated into the country of the TribaUians, their liberty. Of Uie private dwellings none 
and pursued their king S^rmus as far as the : was spared except the house of Pindar. 
Danube, where the barbarians took refuge in The other Greek states which had been 
a strongly fortified island in the river. Be- i willing to join Thebes, and more especially 
fore Alexander attacked them there, he ; Athens, sought and obtained pardon from 
wished to subdue the Gets who occupied the ! the conqueror, who afterwards showed on 
north bank of the river. A fleet which had | several occasions in his behaviour towards 
been sent up the Danube firom Byzantium j some of the surviving Thebans that he had 
enabled him to cross the river. The Getse, not destroyed their city out of wanton 
terrified at seeing the enemy thus unex- I cruelty. Convinced that the fearful hie of 
pectedly invading their territory, left their Theb^ was a sufficient warning to the rest 
homes and fied northward. Laden with booty, ' of Greece, Alexander returned to Macedonia 
Alexander and his army returned to the to devote all his energy to preparations for 
south bank of the Danube, where he received j the war against Persia. His friends advised 
embassies firom the tribes which inhabited him, before setting out for Asia, to marry, 
the plains of the Danube, and f^om King , and give an heir to the throne of Macedonia ; 
Syrmus, suing for peace and alliance. After , but he had already been too long prevented 
having secured this frontier of his kingdom, . from carrying his Asiatic expedition into 
he hastened against Clitus and Glaucias, the | effect, and he thirsted for the possession of 
chiefs of the Dlyrians and Taulantians, who , Asia. Before setting out he lavished nearly all 
were threatening an attack upon Macedonia, his private possessions among his friends ; and 
while another tnbe was to engage the army { when Perdiccas asked him what he meant to 
of Alexander on his return fh>m the north. , retain for himself, he answered, ** Hopes.** 
This plan however was thwarted, and Alex- i Antipater was appointed regent of Mace- 
ander compelled the barbarians to recognise donia during his absence, with a force of 
the Macedonian supremacy. | 12,000 foot and 1500 horse. Alexander set 

While he was tiius successfldly engaged j out for Asia in the beginning of the spring; 
with the barbarians to the north and west of B.C. 334, with an army of about 30,000 foot 
Macedonia, new dangers threatened in the and 6000 horse, which mainly consisted of Ma- 
south. The spirit of insurrection stirred up , cedonians and Thessalians, while the in&ntry 
by Demosthenes and other friends of the ' consisted of 7000 allied Greeks, Thracians, 
independence of Greece had revived, espe- | Aprianians, and a number of mercenaries, 
cially at Thebes, which perhi^ suffered ^ His financial means were very small The 
more than any other Greek city fhnn its Ma- | army advanced along the coast of Thrace, 
cedonian garrison; and on the arrival of a and after a march of twenty days reached 
844 1 • 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



Sestos on the Hellespont, where the Mace- 
donian fleet lay at anchor ready to convey 
the army to the coast of Asia. This fleet 
consisted of 160, or according to others, 
of 180 triremes, and a number of trans- 
ports. While the greater part of the army 
landed at Abydos and encamped near 
Arisbe, Alexander, accompanied by his friend 
Hephsstion, paid a visit to the monnd which 
was believed to contain the remains of 
Achilles, whose successor it was his ambition 
to be considered by his soldiers. As soon 
as he had joined his army again be began 
his march against the Persians, who, although 
they had long been acquainted with the plans 
of tiie Macedonians, were not fully prepared, 
and had a force of about 20,000 horse and as 
many Greek mercenaries stationed near 
Zeleia. There was in the Persian army a 
Rhodian Greek, of the name of Memnon, 
whose military talent might have made him 
a formidable opponent to Alexander; but 
his advice to retreat before the Macedonians, 
who were scantily supplied with provisions, 
and to lay waste the country, was rejected 
by the Persians, and they advanced as far 
as the river Granicns, in order to check 
the progress of the invader. Alexander 
found the Persians drawn up in order of 
battle on the east bank of the nver, and with- 
out listening to the advice of his cautious 
friend Parmenio, he boldly forced a passage 
in the flice of the enemy with his cavalry, 
which kept the enemy engaged until the 
infimtry came up. The discipline of the 
Macedonians and the impetuosity of their 
attack broke the line of the Persians, who 
were completely beaten, although the num- 
ber of their dead was not very great : they 
are said to have lost about 1000 horse- 
men. But the mercenaries, who as long 
as the Persians were engaged had by the 
command of the Persians been obliged to 
remain inactive, were for the most part cut 
down, and 2000 of them were made pri- 
soners and sent to Macedonia to be em- 
ployed as public slaves for having engaged 
m the service of the Persians against their 
own countrymen. Alexander lud himself 
been active in the contest, and killed two 
Persians of the highest rank : after the vic- 
tory he visited hu soldiers who had been 
wounded. The parents and children of 
those who had fallen in the battle were 
honoured with privileges and immunities. 
In the first assault twenty of the king's 
horse-guard {Irtufwi) had fkllen, and he 
honoured their valour by ordering Lysippus 
to execute their figures in bronze, which 
were erected in the Macedonian town of 
Dium, whence they were afterwards carried 
to Rome. 

Before advancing into the interior of Asia 

Minor, Alexander wished to make himself 

master of the western and southern coasts of 

the Peninsula. As he proceeded southward 

845 



nearly all the towns on the coast opened 
their gates to him ; and to show that he had 
really come as their liberator, he established 
in all the cities a democratical form of 

Svemment Miletus was taken by storm, 
the mean time, a Persian fleet consisting 
principally of Phoenician ships lay off Mycale. 
The king, contrary to the advice of his 
generals, would not engage in a sea-fight, 
but kept his fleet quiet near the coast of 
Miletus ; he thus prevented the Persians 
ttom landing and taking in water and pro- 
visions, the want of which compelled them 
to retreat to Samos. It was now late in the 
autumn of the year b. c. 334, and Alexander 
wanted to take possession of Caria and the 
capital Halicamasstts. The occupation of the 
country was easy enough : a princess of the 
name of Ada surrendered it to him without 
resistance, for which she was rewarded with 
the title of ^ueen of Caria. But Halicar- 
nassus, the siege of which is the most me- 
morable event of this campaign, held out to 
the last under the command of Memnon, 
but was taken. As the winter was approach- 
ing, and Alexander had no apprehension 
of having to encounter another Persian 
army during this season, he allowed his 
Macedonians who wished it to spend the 
winter with their families in Macedonia, on 
condition of their returning at the beginning 
of spring with the reinforcements which were 
to be levied in Macedonia. A small detach- 
ment of the remainder of the army, which 
had been greatly increased by the Asiatic 
Greeks, was allowed under Parmenio to take 
up their winter quarters in the plains of Lydia. 
Alexander himself marched along the coast 
of Lycia. From Phaselis he chose the road 
along this dangerous coast to Pamphylia, 
took the towns of Perga, Side, and Aspendus, 
and forcing his way through the mountains 
of Pisidia, which were inhabited by bar- 
barous tribes, into Phrygia, he pitched his 
camp near Gordium on the river Sangarius. 
Here he dexterously availed himself of a 
prophecy which in the eyes of the credulous 
made hun appear as the man called by the 
Deity to rule over Asia. The acropolis of 
Gordium contained the Gordian Imot by 
which the yoke and collars of the horses 
were fiutened to the pole of a chariot. The 
sovereignty of Asia was promised to him 
who should be able to untie this complicated 
knot After vainly attempting to untie the 
knot, Alexander relieved himself from his 
difficulty by cutting it, according to one ac- 
count ; but the particulars of the story vary. 
It was considered, however, that he had ful- 
filled the oracle, and the general opinion was 
confirmed by a storm of thunder and light- 
ning. 

In the spring of the year b. c. 333 the 

various detachments assembled at Gordium. 

Together with those who returned £rom their 

visit to their homes there came from Mace« 

Si 3 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



donia and Greece 3000 foot, 300 hone, and 
200 Thcflsalians, and 150 allies from Elis. 
Alexander led his army alcmg the toathem 
fbot of the Paphlagonian moontains to An- 
cyra, reoeived ^ aasorance of the sabmiBsion 
of the Paphlagoniana, and crossing the river 
Hal^ entered Cappadocia. Satisfied with 
mahing himself master of the south-western 
part of this province, he directed his march 
southward to the Cilidan gates, or one of the 
mountain passes which lead over Taurus 
fh>m Cappadocia into Cilicia, and proceeded 
as flEur as Tarsus on the Cydnus. Here his 
life was endangered by a fever which at- 
tacked him either in consequence of his great 
exertions, or, according to other accounts, in 
consequence of having bathed in the cold 
water of the river Cydnus. But the skill of 
his physicisn Philip, an Acamanian, soon 
restored him to health. The possession of 
Cilicia was of the greatest importance to him 
on account of the communication with Asia 
Minor. While, therefore, Parmenio occupied 
the Syrian ^tes or pass in the south-eastern 
comer of Cilicia, Alexander compelled the 
western parts of the country to submission. 
About the time that his conquests in this 
part were completed, he received intelligence 
of King Darius having assembled an im- 
mense n>rce near the Syrian town of Sochi. 
The Persian king had now lost the ablest 
man in his service. Hemnon, who after the 
taking of Halicamassus had fled to Cos, and 
with his powerful fleet had gained possession 
of nearly the whole of the ^gean, died at the 
moment when he was on the point of sailing 
to Eubcsa ; a movement by which Alexander 
would perhi^ have been compelled to give 
up ibr the present all thoughts of Ea^m 
conquests. Darius had levied all the forces 
that his extensive empire could fixmish, 
hoping to crush the invaders by his nume- 
rical snperioritv. Though he possessed no 
military talent, he commanded his own army, 
which IS said to have consisted of 500,000 or 
600,000 men, among whom there were 
about 30,000 Greek mercenaries. Alex- 
ander marched firom Tarsus along the bay 
of Issus to the town of Myriandms in Syria. 
Darius left his &vourable position in the 
wide plain of Sochi, contrary to the advice 
of Amyntas, a Greek deserter, and entered 
the naiTow plain of Issus, east of the little 
river Pinarus. By this movement he was in 
the rear of Alexander's army, who had left 
behind him at Issus those who were unfit for 
fiirther service. Darius had probably been led 
to this unfortunate step by the belief that the 
long stay of Alexander in Cilicia was the result 
of fear. The Macedonians at Issus foil into 
the hands of the Persians, and were treated 
cruelly. Darius now hastened to attack 
Alexander, apprehendinff that he might 
make his escape. But Alexander, without 
waiting for the approach of Darius, returned 
by the same roiid by which he had come. 
846 



The armies met in the narrow and uneven 
plain of the river Pinarus ; a position most 
unfiivourable to the unwieldy masses of the 
Persians. The contest began at daybreak, 
in the autumn of the year b. c. 333. Not- 
withstanding the great resistance of the 
enemy, especially of the 30,000 Greek mer- 
cenaries Alexander towards the end of the 
day gained a complete victory. The number 
of the slain on the part of the Persians was 
prodigious : the loss of the Macedonians is 
stated to have been very small. As soon as 
Darius saw his left wing routed he to(^ to 
flight, and was followed by the whole army. 
The Persian king escaped across the Eu- 
phrates by the foid at Thapsacus. His cha- 
riot, cloak, shield, and bow were afterwards 
found in a narrow defile through which he 
had fled : his mother, Sie^gambis, his wife, 
Statira, and her children, fell into the hands 
of Alexander, who treated them with the 
utmost respect and delicacy. The booty 
which Alexander made after this victory 
was very ^reat, but yet was insignificant 
compared with the treasures which Parmenio 
found at Damascus, whither they had been 
carried by the Persians before uiey left the 
plain of Sochi. 

The Persian army was now dispersed, the 
Greek mercenaries had fled, and Asia was 
thrown open to the invader. For the present 
Alexander did not think it necessary to 
penetrate into the interior : he wished first to 
make himself complete master of the coasts 
of the Mediterranean. He therefore ad- 
vanced into Phoenicia, where all the towns 
opened their gates. Tyre alone, which was 
situated on an island about half a mile from 
the main land, and was strongly fortified by 
lofty walls, for some time checked his pro- 
gress, and it was not till after the lapse of 
seven months (about August of the year b. c. 
332) that he succeeded in taking the city by 
constructing a causeway to connect the idand 
with the continent, and by the use of a fleet 
which had been fiurnished him by other Phoe- 
nician towns and by Cyprus. The causeway 
of Alexander still remains, and Tyre is now 
part of the main land. The obstinacy of the 
Tynans, the immense exertion and expense 
which their resistance rendered necessary, 
and the cruelty with which they had treated 
the Macedonians who fell into their hands, 
were followed by the most fearful revenge : 
eight thousand Tjoians were put to death, and 
all the rest of the population sold into slavery ; 
the highest magistrates alone and some Car- 
thaginian ambamadors were spared, who had 
taken reftige in the temple of Hercxiles. The 
city itself was not destroyed, but received a 
new population consisting of Phcenicians and 
Cyprians ; and Alexander, who knew the im- 
portance of the place, encouraged tiie revival 
of its commerce and prosperity. 

During the siege of Tyre, Darius had sent to 
Alexander with proposals dT peace, but thehii* 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER 



nxiliation of the Persian king only convinced 
Alexander of his weakness. All the pro- 
posals of Darius were rgected with the de- 
claration that the Persian king must petition 
and appear in person if he wished to ask for 
fetYonr. Diuing the siege of Tyre Alex- 
ander had also made excursions with sepa- 
rate detachments of his army against other 
towns of Syria and some Arab tribes about 
the southern foot of Lebanon. In the autumn 
be proceeded with his army southward along 
the coast of Palestine, and, according to 
Josephus, he paid a yisit to Jerusalem, where 
he worshipped and sacrificed in the Temple, 
and was made acquainted with an ancient 
prophecy, that a king of Greece should con- 
quer the king of Persia. But this long 
episode in Joeephus is not supported by any 
other testimony. In the same autumn Alex- 
ander besieged the strong town of Oasa, near 
the southern frontier of Syria. It was yigor- 
onsly defended for two months by the Persian 
commander Batis, and did not surrender 
until nearly all the ptrrison had fidlen. 
Alexander, who had lumself been severely 
wounded durmg the siege, sold the inhabit- 
ants of Gaaa as sUves, and rep|e<^led the 
town with Syrians from the neighbouring 
country. 

The last province of Persia on the coasts 
of the Mediterranean that now remamed was 
E^mvt In seven days Alexander marched 
with his army from Gaza through the desert 
to the gates of Peluaium, on the north-eastern 
frontier of Egypt, where he found the fleet 
at anchor, with which Phcenicia and Cyprus 
had supplied him. The Persian satrap of ^^fypt, 
having no means of defence, surrenderod 
to Alexander without striking a blow. The 
Egyptians themselves, who had always hated 
the oppressive rule of the intolerant Persians, 
were little inclined to take up arms, and 
(gladly surrendered to the invader, who jus- 
tified their confidence in him by the restora- 
tion of several of their civil and religious 
institutions which the Perskms had suppressed. 
The Greeks, of whom great numbers resided 
in Egypt, may also have helped the matter. 
After having paid visits to Heliopolis and 
Memphis, he sailed down the Canopic or most 
western branch of the Nile to the lake of 
Marea, and here he founded, on a strip of 
barren land, the city of Alexandria, which still 
exists as a flourishing place of trade. The 
place was judiciously selected for the purpose 
of the Mediterranean trade on the one side, 
and the communication with the Red Sea 
through the Nile on the other. After 
the foundations of the new city were laid, 
Alexander marched along the ooe«t to Pars- 
tonium, and thence in a southern direction, 
and through the desert to the renowned 
orade of Jupiter Ammon in the Oasis now 
called Siwah. What may have induced him 
to visit this sacred island of the desert is only 
matter of coijectiire ; bul it w not improbible 
847 



that it was the desire to see his wishes re- 
specting the sovereignty of the world sanc- 
tioned by the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, and 
thus to inspire his soldiers with confidence ; or 
it maybe that the visit was connected with the 
foundation of Alexandria, and had a commer- 
cial object, as Ammonium was the centre of 
a considerable inland trade. Whatever his 
wishes mav have been, Alexander was per- 
fectly satisfied with the results of his visit : 
there was areport that the oracle had declared 
him the son of Jupiter Ammon, and promised 
him the sovereignty of the world ; a report 
which must have been of incalculable advan- 
tage to Alexander with his soldiers and the 
inhabitants of Asia. After having richly 
rewarded the temple and its priests, he re- 
turned to Memphis, according to Aristobu- 
lus, by the same road by which he had gone ; 
but according to Ptolemy, he took the 
shortest way across the desert 

In the spring of the year b.c 331, after 
having received fresh reinforcements from 
Macedonia and Greece, Alexander set out 
on his maroh towards the interior of Asia. 
He visited Tyre, from whence he marched 
to the Enphimtes, whieh he crossed at the 
ford of Thapsacus. FVom Thapsacus his 
march was in an eastern direction, across the 
I^ain of Mesopotamia towards the river Ti- 
gris, in the direction of Gaugamela, a dis- 
tance of no less than eight hundred miles 
ttom Memphis. Darius had again assem- 
bled an immense army, the amount of which 
is stated at 1,000,000 infontry, 40,000 horse, 
200 chariots with scythes, and about fifteen 
elephants. He had chosen a fiivourable 
position in the pkiins of Gaugamela, east 
of the Tigris, on the banks of the small river 
Bumadus. After having allowed his soldiers 
four days' rest, Alexander moved in the 
night against the enemy, whom he found 
drawn up in battle array. On a morning of 
the month of October, in the year b.c. 831, 
the battle which put an end to the Persian 
monarchy began. Some parts of the Persian 
army fought courageously, and the Mfteedo- 
nians sustained some loss ; but when Alex- 
ander by an impetuous attack succeeded in 
breaking the centre of the Persian army, 
which was commanded by Duius himself 
the king took to flight, and was followed by 
his army in ntter eonfhsion. Alexander 
pursued the fhgitives as for as Arbela (Erbil), 
about ^y miles east of Gaugamehi, where ? 
he found the treasures of the king, and got 
an immense booty. Darius fled through the 
mountainous country to Ecbatana (Hamadan). 
The loss of the Persians on this day is said 
to have been enormous : that of the Ma- 
cedonians is stated to have been very incon- 
siderable. It now only remained for Alex- 
ander to subdue the Persian satraps whose 
provinces had not yet been conquered, and 
who continued fbithful to their kkg. In 
aeoomplif hing this he was greatly Msisted 
3i 4 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



by the policy that he adi^tted : he promised 
to leave the satraps who would submit in 
possesuoQ of their former power, with the 
exception of the miUtary command, which 
was given to Macedonians. The attachment 
of the people was gained in another way. 
Alexander, elated b^ his success, began to 
surround himself with all the pomp and 
splendour of an eastern king ; he respected 
the religion and customs of his new sul^ects, 
and protected them from the oppression to 
which they had long been subjected. From 
this time a great c£mge is nianifest in the 
character and conduct of Alexander. He 
exercised no control over his passions; he 
committed acts of cruelty and excess such as 
are common with eastern despots. But he 
did not sink into indolence : active occupa- 
tion, both mental and physical, remained 
now as before the only element in which he 
could exist 

From Arbela, Alexander marched south- 
ward to the ancient city of Babylon, which 
<^>ened its gates without resistance ; and he 
gained the ^x>d-will of the people by ordering 
the temple of Belus, which had been damaged 
by the Persians, to be restored, and by sacri- 
ficing to the god according to the rites of the 
Chaldseans. After a short stay there, he set 
out for Susa (Sus) on the Choaspes (Kerah, or 
more properly, Kerkhah), which he reached 
after a march of twenty days, and where he 
found immense treasures, which had been ac- 
cumulated in this ancient capital. The Ma- 
cedonians, following the example of their 
master, plunged into the enjoyment of the 
pleasures of &s wealthy city ; and the more 
readily, as they had hitherto been exposed to 
all kinds of hardship, with scarcely sny in- 
terval of repose. Towards the end of the 
year Alexander left Susa for Persepolis, the 
original seat of the Persian kings, and where 
many of them were buried. The road which 
he took is described thus : He first marched 
towards the river Pasitigris (Slaroon), and 
thence alonpf the valley of Ram-Hormuz, to 
the mountam pass now called Kala-i-Sifid, 
which forms the entrance into Persia Proper. 
After having met with some resistance at 
Uiis spot, he took Persepolis by surprise, so 
that none of the treasures were carried away 
before his arrivaL To avenge the destruc- 
tion of the Greek temples by the Persians, 
Alexander, contrary to the advice of his 
friend Parmenio, set fire to the palace of 
Persepolis, and part of it was burnt down. 
According to another account he was in- 
stigated to this act of madness by Thais, an 
AUienian courtezan, during the revelry of a 
banquet Immense ruins (Tchil-Minar) still 
point out the site of this ancient city ; but its 
complete destruction, which is usually ascribed 
to Alexander, belongs most probably to a 
much later period. After a stay of four 
months, during which he subdued Persis and 
several of the neighbouring mountain tribes, 
848 



he left, as he had done at Babylon and Susa, 
the country under the administration of a 
Persian satrap. Early in the year b. c. 330, 
he began his march on Ecbatana, where 
Darius, on seeing that Alexander after the 
battle of Oaugamela turned to the south, had 
collected a new force with which he hoped 
to maintain himself in Media. But while he 
was expecting reinforcements from the Scy- 
thians and &dusians, he was surprised by 
the tidings of Alexander's arrivid on the 
fh>ntierB oi Media. Unable to maintain his 
ground, Darius fled through Rhag» (Rey, 
near Tehran), and the mountun pass, called 
the Caspian gates (the Elburz mountains), to 
his Bacirian provinces. After a short stay 
at Ecbatana, where he dismissed his Thea- 
salian horse and other allies who had served 
their time, with rich presents, Alexander 
hastened after the fbgitive kiiog; but on 
reaching the Caspian gates he was infonned 
that^Darius had Seen made a prisoner by his 
own satrap, Bessus. The Macedonians coo- 
tinued their pursuit with great rapidity 
through the arid deserts of Parthia, and 
when they were near upon Bessus and hia 
associates, who were unable both to make 
a stand against Alexander and to carry their 
victim any further, the traitors wounded the 
king mortally, left him near a place called 
Hecatompylos, and dispersed in various di- 
rections. Darius died before Alexander came 
up to the spot : moved by the misfortunes of 
the Persian king, Alexander covered the 
body with his own cloak, and sent it to 
Persepolis to be buried in the tomb of his 
ancestors. 

From this moment Alexander was in the 
undisputed possession of the Persian empire : 
all the satraps who had hitherto been fidth- 
ful to their king, now seeing that resistance 
had become hopeless, submitted to Alex- 
ander, who knew how to value their fidelity, 
and he rewarded them fbr it Bessus, who 
had escaped to Bactria, assumed under the 
name of Artaxerxes the title of king, and 
endeavoured to get together an army. Alex- 
ander marched into Hyrcania, where the 
Greeks who had served in the army of 
Darius were assembled. After some ne- 
gotiation Alexander induced them to sur- 
render: he pardoned them for what was 
past, and engaged a great number of them 
m hu service. But some J^Acedaemouiana 
who had been sent as ambassadors to Darius 
by their government were put into chains. 
At Zadracarta, the capital of the Parthians, 
the site of which is unknown, Alexander 
spent fifteen davs, after which he proceeded 
along the northern extremity of the great 
salt desert towards the fh>ntier of Aria which 
submitted to him. He left this province in 
the hands of its former satrap, Satibarzanes, 
and marched further east towards Bactria. 
But he was soon called back by the news 
that Satibarzanes had revolted, had fonned 



ALEXANDER, 



ALEXANDER. 



an alliance with Bessos, and had destroyed 
the Macedonians -who had been left in his 
province. In order to secure his rear, Alex- 
ander hastened back with almost incredible 
speed, and in two days surprised the fiuth- 
less rebel in his capital of Artacoana. The 
satrap took to flight, and Alexander, after 
having appointed a new governor, instead of 
returning on his former road to Bactria, 
thought it more expedient to secure the 
south-eastern part of Aria. After a march 
through an ahnost impassable country — to 
ascertain the precise road is impossible — he 
took possession of the countries of the 
Zarangse, Drangse, Dragogse, and other 
tribes on the banks of the river Etymandrus 
(Helmund), which flows into the lake of 
Aria (Zerrah). During his stay at Pro- 
phthasia, the capital of the Drangse, things 
occurred which showed the altered character 
of Alexander in the light in which we are 
onl^ accustomed to see an oriental despot 
Philotas, the son of Alexander's fHend Par- 
menio, was charged with having formed a 
conspiracy against the life of the king. He 
was accused by Alexander before a court of 
Macedonians : distinct proof was not pro- 
duced, though circumstantial evidence seemed 
to warrant the truth of the charjB^. Philotas 
was tortured, confessed tbe crime, and was 
put to death. So far all mi^ht be just ; but 
Parmenio, who was then with a port of the 
army at Ecbatana to guard the treasures con- 
veyed thither fh)m Persis, was likewise put 
to deaUi by the command of Alexander, ap- 
parently only because Alexander feared lest 
the father might avenge the death of his son. 
Some other Macedonians charged with 
having taken part in the conspiracy of 
Philotas, and Alexander son of Aeropus were 
also put to death. These occurrences also 
show the state of feeling that began to spread 
among the S^u^onians in the army. They 
must have felt grieved at their king aban- 
doning the customs of their native land, and 
their grief was increased by envy and jea- 
lousy as they saw the Persians of rank 
placed by Alexander on the same footing 
with themselves. 

From Prophthasia the army advanced pro- 
bably up the river Etymandrus through the 
country of the Ariaspians into that of the 
Arachoti, whose conquest completed that of 
Aria. The detail of this campaign is un- 
known, but it is evident that Alexander must 
have had to contend with extraordinary dif- 
ficulties. On his march towards the moun- 
tains in the north he fbunded a town, Alex- 
andria, which is supposed to be the modem 
Candahar. He was now separated firom 
Bactria by the immense mountains of the 
Paropamisus, the western ranges of the Hin- 
doo Coosh. Alexander crowed these lofty 
mountains, which were covered with deep 
snow, and did not even supply his army with 
fire-wood. After fourteen days of great ez- 
849 



ertions and sufferings the army reached 
Drapsaca, or Adrapsa, the first Bactrian town 
on the northern side of the Paropamisus. 
Bactria submitted to the conqueror without 
resistance, for as soon as Bessus had heard 
of the approach of Alexander, he had fled 
across the Oxus to Nautaca in Sogdiana. 
Here he was overtaken and made prisoner by 
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and was brought 
by Alexander before a Persian court, which 
condemned him to death as a regicide. 

In the month of May or June, B.c. 329, 
Alexander with his whole army crossed the 
river Oxus, which seems to have been sweUed 
by the melted snow of the mountains, as 
Arrian states that its breadth was about six 
stadia. Boats or rafts could not be constructed 
for want of materials, and the passage was 
effected in the space of flve days by means of 
floats made of the tent-skins of the soldiers, 
filled with light materials. Previous to cross- 
ing this river, Alexander sent home those 
Macedonians and Thessalian horsemen who 
were no longer fit for service. "When he 
reached the northern bank of the Oxus, he 
directed his course to Maracanda, the modem 
Samarcand, then the capital of Sogdiana. 
After several engagements with the warlike 
inhabitants of that province, he advanced as 
far as the river Jaxartes (Sir), which he meant 
to make the frontier of his empire against 
the Scythians. Cyropolis on the Jaxartes 
was taken by storm ; and, to strike terror into 
the Scythians he crossed the river, defeated 
the Scythian cavalry, and pursued the enemy 
until lus own army became exhausted in those 
dry steppes, and began to suffer from thirst 
and the unwholesome water of the country. 
After founding a town, Alexandria on the 
Jaxartes, which was to be a frontier fortress 
against Scythia, he returned to Zariaspa, 
where he spent the winter of 329 and 328. 
During the winter months he received va- 
rious embassies from distant tribes, and re- 
inforcements for his army, which had been 
somewhat diminished by the garrisons wjiich 
he had been obliged to leave in several places. 
During this same winter Alexander gave an- 
other proof of his ungovernable passion, by 
the murder of Clitus. [Clitus.] 

In the spring of b. c. 328 Alexander again 
marched into Sogdiana across the river Oxus, 
near a spot which was marked by a fountain 
of water and a fountain of oil. Sogdiana 
abounded in mountain fortresses, and Alex- 
ander had to take them before he could be 
said to have possession of the country. As 
the winter in those regions is too cold for 
military operations, he took up his winter- 
quarters at Nautaca. In the following spring 
he renewed his attacks upon the moimtain 
fortresses, and in one of them, which was 
situated upon a steep and almost inaccessible 
rock, and was compelled or rather frightened 
into a surrender, Alexander made Oxyartes, 
a Bactrian prince, and his beantifal daughter 



AXEXAKDEB. 



ALEXANDfiB. 



Rouaa, his prUonen. Alexander was eap- 
tivBted by the beaaty of Roxana, and made 
her his -wife, to the f;reat delight of his eastern 
suligects. After having reduced all the strong- 
holds in Sogdiana, he returned through Bac- 
tria and across the Hindoo Coosh to Alexan- 
dria in Aria, which he reached after a march, 
it is said, of ten days. During the ensuing 
winter new symptoms of the diasatisfinction 
of the Macedonians with their king showed 
themselves. While he was making prepar 
rations fbr an expedition to India, the plan of 
which he had been maturing for the last two 
^ears, a conspiracy was formed against him, 
m which even those individuals to& part who 
had before been his most contemptible flat- 
terers, as Callisthenes of Olynthus. Hermo- 
laas was at the head of it, and in coigunction 
with a number of the royal paf^es a plan was 
formed for murdering the kmg. But die 
conspiracy was discovered, and Callisthenes 
and Hermolaus with his young associates 
were put to death. [Caixisthemes, Her- 
molaus.] 

The time fbr his Indian expedition had now 
come, as all the conquered countries continued 
obedient to iheir new master. Late in the 
sprinff of b. c. 327, he set out firom Alexan- 
dria m Aria with an army of about 120,000 
men, of whom about 40,000 Macedonians 
fbrmed the nucleus. Ptolemy and Hephssstion 
were sent a-head with a strong detachment to 
make a bridge of boats across the river Indus. 
Alexander and his army marched to a place 
called Cabura, which was henceforth called 
Nic»a, crossed the rivers Choaspes and 
Oyrseus, and on his road took Aomos, another 
mountain fortress, notwithstanding the obsti- 
nate resistance of the besieged. He then 
crossed the Indus, probably a little north of the 
modem place called Attock, where the river 
is very deep, and about a thousand feet wide. 
It must have been early in the year 326 when 
Alexander entered India, or rather that part 
of it which is now called the Penj- Ab^ that is, 
the Five Rivers. 

His march towards the Indus had not 
been accomplished without various struggles 
irith the mountain tribes ; while on the other 
hand several Indian chief^ such as Taxiles 
of Taxila, welcomed him with rich presents 
and surrendered their cities. In this manner 
Alexander got possession of Taxila, the 
largest place between the Indus and the H j> 
daspes. Alexander proceeded firom Taxila 
to the river Hydaspes (now Behut or Be- 
dusta), whither the boats which had been 
used on the Indus had been conveyed by 
taking them in pieces. On the Hydaspes he 
met a most resolute enemy in the Indian 
king Poms, who possessed the whole country 
between the Hydaspes and Acesines, and was 
hostile to Taxiles, which circumstance seems 
to have induced Taxiles to surrender to 
Alexander and make him his firiend. On 
reaching the Hyda^es, Alexander perceived 
850 



the immense army of Poms drawn up in 
battle array on the opposite bank. The river 
was much swollen, and there seemed to be 
no possibility of crossing it But Alexander 
contrived to cross it unobserved with a de- 
tachment of his troops and with his invin- 
cible cavalry in a place somewhat above 
the part where Poms was posted. Porus 
began the attack with his best troops, 200 
elephants and 300 war chariots. But Alex- 
ander, who was superior in cavalry, drove 
back upon their infimtry the Indian cavalry, 
which, as well as the elephants, had been 
placed in fh>nt of their lines ; and these were 
thrown into utter couAision. After a hard 
struggle Alexander gained a complete vic- 
tory, m which the Indians are said to have 
lost 23,000 men, and among them their best 
generals and two sons of Porus. The war 
chariots were destroyed, and the elephants 
partly killed and partly taken. The loss of 
the Macedonians is estimated by Arrian so 
low that it is scarcely credible, and we are 
probably justified in pref^erring the statement 
of Diodorus, according to whom the Mace- 
donians lost upwards of 1200 foot and 300 
horsemen. Porus was among the last who 
fled tmm the field : he was taken by the sol- 
diers of Alexander, who, fbll of admiration 
at his courage, not only restored to him his 
kingdom, but increased it considerably after- 
wards, in order to make him a fiuthfnl 
vassal. But by this means he excited a 
jealousy between Taxiles and Porus. 

After this victory Alexander stayed thirty 
days on the Hydaspes, where he celebrated 
sacrifices and games, and founded two towns, 
one on each bank of the Hydaspes : that on 
the westem bank was called Buoephala, in 
honour of his famous war-horse, and the 
other NicsBa, to commemorate the victory 
over Poms. Hereupon the army advanced 
towards the third river of the Pei^-Ab, the 
Acesines (Chin-ab), which was crossed in 
boats and on skins. Alexander then tra- 
versed the barren plain between the Ace- 
sines and Hydraotes (Ravee), the latter of 
which rivers he likewise crooed to attack a 
new enemy. But the seCbnd Porus, who 
ruled over the country between these two 
rivers, had fled across the Hydraotes on the 
approach of Alexander, and his dominions 
were given to the first Porus. Alexander 
thus met with no obstacle until he reached 
the eastern bank of the Hydraotes. Here 
the Cathei, the most warlike of the Indian 
tribes, made a most resolute resistance. Their 
army was stationed on an eminence in their 
capital Sangala, which was surrounded by 
walls and a triple line of waggons ; but this 
fortress was taken, and the power of this 
brave tribe, whose descendants some modem 
travellers have supposed that they have dis- 
covered in the modem Ki^tia, was broken, 
and their territory was divided among those 
Indian tribes which had submitted without 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



resistaaoe. Alexander had now preaaed. fbr* 
ward as fiur as the rirer Hyphasis (Garra), 
and the reports of a rich country beyond it 
offered a temptation to cross this rirer also. 
Bat his exhausted army did not feel the 
strength of the temptation. The troops had 
suffered so mnch from the incessant toil and 
marches throngh barren and hostile coon- 
tries, and their hopes and expectations had 
so frequently been disappointed, that they 
were determined to proceed no flirther, and 
neither persoasion nor threats conld indoce 
them to move. Alexander at last, adrised, 
as he said, by the signs of the sacrifices, de- 
termined not to lead his army Airther. 
Twelve gigantic towers were erected on the 
banks of the Hyphasis to mari^ the limits of 
his adTcntores. He retomed across the 
rivers which he had passed before in a west- 
em direction as fiur as the Hydaspes, and 
the whole ooontry between this river and the 
Hyphasis was given to the brave Porns, who 
thns became uie most powerAil prince of 
India. 

On reaching the Hydaspes, the am^ did 
not march furSier west, as Alexander wished 
to conquer the coontry around the Indus and 
to explore the coarse of the river down to 
its mouth. This had been his plan when he 
crossed the Hjjrdaspes for the first time, and 
he had accordingly given orders to build a 
fieet on the Hydaq)es, for which there were 
then, as there are now, abundant materials. 
On his arrival a great number of ships were 
ready for sailing, and after a short time their 
number was increased to eighteen hundred, 
or, according to others, to two thousand. In 
the beginning of November, b.c. 326, the 
army began to move. Alexander himself 
embarked in the fleet with about 8000 men, 
under the admiral Nearchus, who com- 
manded the ship in which the kin^ sailed. 
The remainder of the army was divided be- 
tween Craterus and Hephsstion, the former 
of whom led his forces along the right, and 
the latter on the left bank of the river. 
The tribes through whose territory the army 
passed submitted without resistance, except 
the Malli, whom Alexander hastened to at- 
tack befbre they were ftilly prepared. Their 
greatest and best fortified place — perhaps 
the modem MuHan or Malli-than — was 
taken by an assault in which Alexander him- 
self was severely wounded. This aeeident 
threw the army into the greatest conster- 
nation; but he was soon restored, and the 
rest of the Malli sent envoys with offers to 
recognise his sovereignty. The submission 
of the Indian tribes south of the Malli took 
place without an^ difficulty. When the army 
reached the point where the four united 
rivers join the Indus, he ordered a town, 
Alexandria, and dockyards to be built, 
which were garrisoned by some Thracians 
under the satrap Philip, to keep the covntr^ 
in subjection. After having reiitforoed his 
851 



fleet, he sailed down the Indus and vinted 
Sogdi, where he likewise ordered doekyards 
to be built All the Indian ohieft on both 
sides of the river submitted. Musicanus, one 
of them, was seduced by the brahmins to re- 
volt, but he was taken and put to death. AU 
the important towns that fell into the con- 
queror's hands received garrisons. 

Before Alexander readied the territory of 
the Prince of Pattala, who submitted without 
a blow, about the third part of the army was 
sent, under the command of Craterus, west- 
ward through the country of the Arrachoti 
and Drangtt into Carmania. At Pattala, the 
apex of the Indian delta, Alexander built a 
naval station, and then sailed down the west- 
em branch of the river into the Indian Ocean, 
a voyage which was not without danger on 
account of the rapid changes of the tides. 
He then also explored the eastem brandi of 
the river as well as the delta inclosed by the . 
two arms. The end he had in view was the 
establishment of a commercial oommunica- 
tion by sea between India and the Persian 
Gul£ For this purpose he ordered dock- 
yards to be baih, wells to be dug, and the 
land round Pattala to be cultivated. Pattala 
itself was garrisoned. Nearchus now re- 
ceived orders to sail with the fleet from the 
mouth of the Indus through the unknown 
ocean to the Persian Gulf [Neakchvs], while 
Alexander moved from Pattala, in the au- 
tumn of 825, and took the nearest road to 
Persia throufh the country of the Arabits 
and Orit», whose principal town, Rambacia, 
he extended and fortified. After having ap- 
pointed a governor he proceeded towards Ge- 
drosia (Mekran). As the army advanced, 
the country became more barren and desolate, 
and the roads were almost impassable. The 
march through the arid and sandy desert of 
Gedrosia in the burning heat of the sun, 
while water and provisions were wanting, 
surpassed all the diflkulties and sufferings 
which the army had hitherto experienced. 
Alexander did everything in his power to 
alleviate the sufferings of hm men, but during 
sixty days of exhanstion and disease a con- 
siderable part of the army perished. After 
unspeakable sufferings they at last reached 
Para. Here the soldiers were allowed a short 
rest, and then i^ooeeded without anydiffi- 
cnl^to Oarmana (KirmanX the capital of Car- 
mania, where Alexander was joined by Cra- 
terus with his detachment and the elephants. 
Soon after Nearchus also landed on the 
coast of Carmania near Harmozia (Ormuz), 
The king, delighted with the success of his 
bold enterprises, offered thanks and sacri- 
fices to the gods, and rewarded his men by 
and amu] 



festivities I 

After a short stay Nearchus continued his 
voyage along the coast to the mouth of the 
Tigris and Euphrates ; Hephsstion led the 
greater part of the armv, the beasts of bur- 
den, and the elephants along the sea-coast to 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



iPenis ; and Alexander, with his light in&ntiy 
and his horsegoards, took the nearest road 
across the mountains to Pasargadae, the bu- 
rial-place of the great Cyrus. His tomb had 
been plundered by robbers, and the body 
thrown out of the golden oofl&n. Alexander 
ordered the body to be restored to its place 
of rest, and the damage of the tomb to be 
repaired by skilM artists. Alter baring 
paid this honour to the dead, he went to Per- 
sepolis, where he is said to hare felt bitter 
remorse at seeing the destruction which he 
had caused. As few had expected that Alex- 
ander would return from hu Indian expedi- 
tion, some of the Persian satraps had during 
his absence oppressed their provinces. The 
Persian governor at Persepolis was put to 
death, and the Macedonian, Peucestas, was 
appointed in his stead, who, by adopting the 
manners of the Persians, gave great satisfac- 
tion to the people. From Persepolis Alexander 
marched to Susa on the Choaspes, in b. c. 324. 
Here the army was at length allowed to rest 
and recover from their &tignes, which the 
king made them forget by brilliant festivities. 
All the governors who had misconducted them- 
selves during his absence were severely pu- 
nished, and after this was over, he be^;an the 
great work of consolidating the umon be- 
tween the Western and Eastern world by inter- 
marriages. The king himself set the ex- 
ample, and took a second wife, Barsine, the 
eldest daughter of Darius, and according to 
some authorities, a third, Parysatis, the daugh- 
ter of Ochus. About eighty cl! his generals 
also received each an Asiatic wife, who was 
assigned by the king, and Hephestion, the 
dearest friend of Alexander, received an- 
other daughter of Darius, that their chil- 
dren might be of the same blood. About 
10,000 other Macedonians chose Persian 
women for their wives, with whom th^ re- 
ceived rich dowries from the king. These 
marriages were celebrated with the most 
brilliant festivities and amusements that 
Greek taste and ingenuity could devise. 
Another step was also taken towards esta- 
blishing a union between Europeans and 
Asiatics. The Asiatics, who had hiUierto been 
regarded as an inferior race, and only served 
as auxiliary troops in the army of Alexander, 
were now trained and armed in the European 
fashion : they were organised in separate re- 
giments, and partly incorporated with those 
of the Macedonians, and placed on an equality 
with them. This poli<^ was wise and neces- 
sary ; for, not to mention more obvious rea- 
sons, Macedonia must at that time have been 
nearly exhausted by the frequent reinforce- 
ments sent into Asia. While he was thus 
engaged in Persia, Alexander did not neglect 
his plans for the extension of commerce ; he 
made the rivers Eulsns and Tigris more 
suitable for navigation by removing the 
bunds, or masses of masonry, by which the 
current of the water was impeded, for the 
852 



purpose of irrigation. To carry his plana 
mto effect, and to gain a clear view of the 
matter himself, he sailed down the Euheua 
and returned up the Tigris as fiu* as C>pi& 

The Macedonions were dissatisfied with 
the new arrangements which Alexander had 
made in the army, and also with his conduct: 
he seemed to despise the customs of his fore- 
fiOhers. They only waited for an opportu- 
nity to break out in open rebellion. This 
oppportunity was offered in 324, during a re- 
view of the troops at Opis, when Alexander 
expressed his intention to dismiss the Mace- 
donians who had become unfit for further 
service, which they took as an insult He 
succeeded however in quelling the mutiny, 
partly by severity and partly by prudence, 
and at Isist a solexnn reconciliation took place, 
and 10,000 Macedonian veterans were ho- 
nourably sent home under the command of 
Craterus, who at the same time was to take 
the place of Antipater as governor of Mace- 
donia, while Antipater was to come to Asia 
with fresh reinforcements. Soon after the 
departure of these veterans Alexander paid a 
visit to Ecbatana, and while in the autnmn 
the festival of Dionysus (Bacchus) was cele- 
brated there, his friend Hephsestion died : an 
event whidi caused Alexander the deepest 
grief, and is said to have thrown him into a 
state of melancholy fh)m which he never 
recovered. Hephiesidon's body was conveyed 
to Babylon and buried there in a manner 
worthy of the friend of Alexander. Soon 
after uie king with his army likewise marched 
to Babylon, and on his way thiiher he endea- 
voured to dissipate his grief by warring with 
the Cosssei, a race of mountaineers whom he 
nearly extirpated. Before he reached Ba- 
bylon, there appeared before him ambas- 
sadors frY>m the remotest parts of the world 
to do homage to the conqueror of Asia. 
Among other nations of Western Europe the 
Romans also are said to have honoured him 
with an embassy: and there is indeed nothing 
surprising in tius, for at that time the name 
of Alexander must have been familiar to all 
nations from the shores of the Atlantic to 
the borders of China. 

On the arrival of Alexander at Babylon 
vast plans of conquest, and the establishment 
of useful institutions in his new dominions, 
occupied him, and he seems now more than 
ever to have required active occupation. 
His next object was the conquest of Arabia ; 
and to open the navigation from the Persian 
gulf round the peninsula of Arabia into the 
Red Sea. This conquest, according to some 
accounts, was to be followed by expeditions 
against Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Iberia. 
Babylon, as the centre between the Western 
and Eastern world, was chosen for the capital 
of this gigantic empire, and preparations 
were made to restore the ancient splendour 
of the city. But Alexander's body sank 
under the exertions which were required for 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



the sapermtendence of his great preparations, 
combined with excenes in which he is said 
to have endeavoured to forget his grie£ At 
the end of May b.c. 323, he was attacked by 
a fever which terminated his life in the 
coarse of eleven days. Alexander died at 
the early age of thirty-two years, after a 
reign of twelve vears and eight months, 
daring which he had extended his empire 
ftt>m the coasts of the Mediterranean to the 
eastern tributaries of the Indus. He died 
without having declared his successor, which 
was probably owing to his having lost the 
power of speech during the last days of his 
illness. He gave his seal-ring to Perdiccas; 
but this may have meant no more than that 
Perdiccas should be regent daring the mi- 
nority of the lawful heir : Roxana was preg- 
nant at the time of Alexander's death.^ His 
body was embalmed, and in b.c. 321 it was 
conveyed to Memphis, and thence to AJex- 
andria. A sarcophagus now in the British 
Museum, which was brought over iVom 
Alexandria, has been called the sarcophagus 
of Alexander, but without sufficient evidence. 
Respecting ^e divisions and disturbances 
arising out of the want of a will of Alex- 
ander, as well as respecting various events in 
his life which have been purposely omitted 
in this sketch, the reader is referred to the 
articles Alexander MqvBj Antigonvs, 
Antipater, Aristotle, Cassander, De- 
metrius, ECTHENES, LaOHEDON, LeONNATUS, 

Lysimachus, Menander, Nearchus, Ne- 
optolemus, Parmemio, Perdiccas, Phi- 
lotas, PtTHON, PoLTSPERCHON, PtOLEMT, 
Selectcus, and many others. 

Alexander belongs not to the historv of 
Macedonia only ; fi^m the borders of China 
to the British islands in the West his name 
appears in the historv or the early poetry of 
every country. In Asia he is still the hero 
of ancient times ; and the tales of the great 
exploits of Iskander are even now listened 
to with delight by the people of Asia. As 
a military commander he had great merit 
His movements were rapid and well directed. 
He knew what might be neglected, and 
what must be accomplished, before he 
could safely advance. When the unwieldy 
masses of the army of Darius were once 
broken, conftision must follow; and ac- 
cordingly in his campaigns he made great 
use of his irresistible cavalry, that arm to 
which he mainly owed all his victories. He 
could adapt himself to all circumstances : he 
was never deficient in resources, and always 
ready to avail himself of every opportunity. 
His conc^uests made a lasting impression 
upon Asia and Africa; and although his 
empire was dismembered after his death, the 
Greek colonies he had founded long survived 
him. From the ruins of his empire Greek 
kingdoms were formed as far as India, and 
maintained themselves for centuries. New 
fields were opened to science and discovery; 
853 



and to him it is due that Eastern Asia became 
accessible to European enterprise. 

There is scarcely an ancient wnter after 
the time of Alexander from whom some 
information respecting him may not be col- 
lected. ^ Many of his contemporaries and 
companions wrote of his life and exploits, 
but all these original works are lost The 
biographies of Alexander, as that by Plu- 
tarch, Arrian, Curtius, and what is told of 
him in Diodorus and Justin, are compilations 
derived from earlier sources. The most im- 
portant and most trustworthy work for the life 
of Alexander is the Expedition of Alexander, 
by Arrian, who professes to follow the ac- 
counts of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and of 
Aristobulus of Cassandria, and who is himself 
a careful and judicious writer. (Among the 
numerous modem works on the history of 
Alexander, we refer the readers to St 
Croix, Examen critique dea anciens Hiatoriens 
d Alexandre le Grand, Paris, 1804 ; Flathe, 
Geechichie Macedoniens, voL i. Leipzig, 1832; 
Droysen, Geachichte Alexanders dee Grosser, 
Berlin, 1833 ; Williams, The Life and Ac- 
Hone of Alexander the Great, London, 1829 ; 
Thirlwall, Hietory of Greece, vols. vi. and viL, 
and an excellent sketch of the life of Alex- 
ander in the Pewmf Cyclopadia, voL i. Some 
passages in the eastern campaign of Alex- 
ander are discussed in Wilson's Ariana An^ 
tiqua, London, 1841. We possess several 
coins of Alexander the Great, respectmg 
which see Ekikhel, Doctrina Nummorwan, iL 
96. fol.) L. S. 

ALEXANDER IV. CAX^^oi^pos A^O. 
sumamed iEgus, king of Macedonia, was 
a son of Alexander the Great and Roxana. 
He was bom after his father's death in 
B. c. 323, and saluted as king by the Mace- 
donian army in Babylon. Perdiccas was in- 
trusted with the regency in the name of Philip 
Arrhidseus, a son of Philip, and the infimt 
Alexander. Perdiccas was murdered in b.c. 
321, and the regency, through the influence 
of Ptolemy, was given to Python and to one 
Arrhidseus who had conveyed the body of 
Alexander the Great to Egypt The two 
regents, with the young kin^ and Roxana, 
and Eurydice the wife of Philip Arrhidseus, 
now began their journey from Egypt to Eu- 
rope. The intrigues and ambition A Eurydice 
induced the regents to resign their office be- 
fore they reached Europe, ^tipater, who 
was elected by the Macedonians in their 
place, compelled Eurydice to keep quiet, and 
after having made a new distribution of the 
provinces of the Macedonian empire, he con- 
ducted the members of the ro^ned iamily to 
Macedonia, b. c. 320. Antipater died in b. c. 
319, and was succeeded by Polysperchon. 
Eurydice now began again to place herself 
at Uie head of afiairs, and she compelled 
Roxana with her child to seek reftige in 
Epims, where Olympias the mother of Alex- 
ander the Great had already been staying for 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



'sometime. PolysperchoDfiiieoijiiiictioiiwitli 
iEacides of Epinu, brouglit back Olympias 
and Rozana with Alexander to Maeedonia ; 
and Eorydice and her husband Philip Arrhi- 
deos were put to death, b.c 317. Olym- 
pias and Pdysperchon now undertook the 
administration m the name of Alexander. 
Bat in the year following, Olympias, Roxana, 
and Alexander fell into the hands of Cas^ 
Sander, who had been a faithAil ally of 
Eurydioe. Olympias was irait to death, and 
Roxana with her child was imprisoned in the 
citadel of Amphipolis. InB.c.ai5 Antigonus 
made war upon Cassander, on the pretext 
among others of liberating the young prinee. 
But this qipearance of goodwill produoed no 
results, and although in the peace of B.C. 311 
it was stipulated Siat Alexander should be 
set ft-ee, and his paternal kingdom should be 
given to him as soon as he was of a^ Cas- 
sander still kept the mother and child con- 
fined without any remonstrances being made 
byAntigonus. When at last the Macedonians 
be^ to murmur and to express their dis- 
sati^Gustion at his conduct towards Roxana 
and her son, Cassander ordered Glaneias the 
gaoler to p(Hson them, to conceal their bodies, 
and keep the matter secret This took phwe 
in B.C. 810, when the young king had just 
completed his thirteenth year. QDlodofus, 
xvuL 36. 39. xix. 11. 51, 53. 61. 105. ; Jnstm, 
xiT. 6. XT. 2. ; Pausanias, ix. 7. 2. ; Plutarch, 
PvrrkuM, 3. ; compare Droysen, OtKhkhte der 
Nachfolger AkxandersJ) L. S. 

ALEXANDER QAxdiaa^^pos), son of Cas- 
sander, and, as king of Macedonia, Alex- 
ander V. After the death of his eldest 
brother, Philip lY., in b.c 296, who had 
succeeded his fieither Cassander, but only 
reigned a shcMrt time, his second brother, 
Antipater, succeeded to the throne of Mace- 
donia. Antipater, perceiring that Alexander 
was more fiiroured by his mother Thessalo- 
nice than himself^ and fearing that she might 
form some plot against lum, put her to 
death, and Alexander, who dreaded the same 
fate, fled to Greece to implore the pro- 
tection of Demetrius Poliorcetes. Finding 
Demetrius engaged in a struggle against 
some revolted towns, he went to Epirus, 
where he met with a ready supporter in 
King Pyrrhus, who undertods to place him 
on &e throne of Macedonia, on condition 
that Alexander gave up to him certain parts 
of the kingdom of Macedonia, and also 
Acamania, Amphilochia, and Ambracia, to- 
gether wiUi Tymphffia and Parauaea. After 
Antipater had in Tain end^Toured to get 
assistance from Lysimachns in Thrace, who 
was his feither-in-law, a reconciliation was 
brought about between the two brothers, b^ 
which the kingdom seems to haVe been di- 
Tided between them. Although Alexander's 
danger was thus removed, Demetrins now | 
approached with his army, and Alexander, i 
who had Just reasons for fearing such an 
854 ^ 



ally, went to Dinm on the Thennaic guU; to 
meet him and thank him fbr the readiness 
with which he had oome to support him. 
Though the two pinces assumed Uie i^pear- 
ance of friendship, they were bent on de- 
stroying each other. Alexander intended to 
execute his design at a banquet, but Deme- 
trius, who had recerred intelligence of his 
treachery, came with such a strong guard 
that Alexander could not Tcntare on the at- 
tempt Demetrius now determined upon the 
destruction of his enemy, and gained his 
object by a stratagem. He pretended to re- 
turn to Greece, and lulled Alexander into 
security by his apparent friendliness. Alex- 
ander, on the other hand, ddighted to set rid 
of him, accompanied him with a smau force 
as fiu* as Larissa in Thessaly, when he was 
iuTited by Demetrins to a parting banquet 
and murdered in b.c. 294. (Plutarch, ^- 
rAitf, 6, 7., Z>eme6it(ff, 36. ; Justin, xri. 1. ; 
Diodonis, Edoff, tIL 490.; Pausanias, ix. 
7. 3. ; Droysen, OeBchiehte der Nmck/olger 
Akxanden, p. 577, &c) L. S. 

ALEXANDER DE MEDICL [Medki.] 
ALEXANDER BEN MOSES ETBXf- 

SAN onnorf nxm p ti^ddVk n), a 

German rabbi, a natiTC of Fulda, who was 
liring in the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. He wrote a work in the Uennan- 
Hebrew called "* Beth Israer* (** The House 
of Israel **^ which is a compendium of Jewish 
history in two parts : the first part is chiefly 
taken from the Old Testament, and is di- 
Tided into ten sections, thus: — Sect L Of 
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. IL Of the so- 
journ of the children of Israel in Egypt 
III. Of their joumeyings in the desert and 
occupation of the Holy Land, IV. Of the 
times and acts of the Judges to the time of 
their first king, SauL V. Of the kings of 
Judah and Israel VL Of the Babyk»iah 
captiTity. VIL Of the Worthies of the 
Great Synagogue. VIIL Of the Aamonaam 
race. IX. Of their gOTemment X. Of the 
kings of the flimily of Herod. The second 
part, which is called ** Beth Hahbechirah" 
(** The Chosen House**), treats, in fourteen 
chapters or sections, of the city and temple 
of Jerusalem, and the Tarious Tidssitodes 
which they suffered until their final dcTasta- 
tion. The author in his preface boasts that 
no work of the kind had hitherto a^eared in 
the Temacular tongue. It was printed at 
Offenbach by SeUgmaa Reis, A.M. 5479 (a.i». 
1719) 4ta (Wolfius, BOJwi/u Hebr. iii 
118. iT. 785.) CP.H. 

ALEXANDER MY'NDICS; a Greek 
writer on natural histery whom AthensBos 
and other andent authors frequently refer to 
as their authority. The works of Alexander 
Myndius are — 1. " Kni^wF loropla, or. History 
of Animals,'* of which Atheneus quotes tfate 
second book, and which is perhi^w the same 
work as that which is in other passages called 
** ncp2 (itM^,** 2. ** ncffi T^s r&¥ vT^fW hr^ 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



ofat, or, On the History of Birds," of which 
likewise a second book is mentioned. (Plu- 
tarch, Mariiu, 17. The numerous passa^ 
of Athensus and other writers who mention 
Alexander Myndius are given by Schweig- 
hflBuser in the Index Auctomm to Athe- 
nsns, and by Westermann in note 29. of his 
edition of Voesius, De HiMtancU Grttcis^ 
p. 382.) 

There is a Greek writer of the name of 
Alexon Mpmdius, who, according to Diogenes 
Laertius (l 29.), wrote a work on mythology 
(jAv9tKdL), of wluch the ninth book is quot«L 
Some writers, such as Menage, have ima- 
giiMdthat he was the same as the natural his- 
torian, Alexander Myndius, and have there- 
fore proposed to change Alexon, the common 
reading in Diogenes Laertius, into Alex- 
andros. But as we know nothm^ about the 
life and the time of the natural historian, the 
question cannot be decided. L. S. 

ALEXANDER, NOEL. [Nobl, Albz- 

ANDBB. 

ALEXANDER NEVSKY, or «• of the 
Neva," a Russian prince, saint, and hero, of 
the earlier half of tiie thirteenth century, the 
period of the conquest of Russia by the 
Mongol Tartars. He was bom at Yhidimir 
in 1219, and was the second son of Yaroslav 
VseTolodovich, who was then prince of Not- ; 
gorod, at that time a city of flourishing ' 
trade and a tree constitution. YaroshiT 
in 1238 succeeded to the grand dukedom of 
Vladimir, a di^ty which conferred a sort 
of feudal superiority over the other princes. 
Alexander was then appointed prince of 
Novgorod in his room, and displayed distin- 
guished bravery in combating the Swedes 
and the order of Livonian knights, called 
**the Brothers of the Sword,'* who took ad- 
vantage <^ the miseries into which Russia 
was plunged by the conquests of the Tartars 
to extend their own dominions. Pope Ore- 
gory IX. had |>roclaimed a crusade against 
the heathen Finns, but the views of the 
Swedes who undertook the expedition ex- 
tended to taking possession of Novgorod, 
and they defied Alexander to bottle. Alex- 
ander met the invading army on the 15th of 
July, 1240, at the spot where the river Izhora 
enters the Neva, near the site of the present 
St Petersburg, and the result was the com- 
plete defeat of the enemy, who were driven 
to their ships, with the loss of only twenty 
men on the side of the Novgorodians. Aa 
account of this battle, professing to be written 
by an eye-witness, but in a style of narrative 
much more resembling the poetical than the 
historical, is inserted in several of the an- 
cient Russian chronicles, and has been the 
foundation of much national tradition on 
the sulgect Karamxin has ^ven the inci- 
dents thus recorded a place m his history, 
for which he is severely censured by Polevoy, 
who stigmatises them as evidently fictitious, 
and cooaders the conflict, which is not men- 
855 



tioned in the Swedish annals, as one of small 
importance, which, like the skirmish at Ron- 
cesvalles, has become accidentally immor- 
talised by being made the subject of national 
exaggeration. It was fix>m this battle that 
Alexander received the name of Nevsky. 
Two years afterwards he drove the Livonian 
knights from Pskov, or Pleskov, of which 
they had taken possession, and totally de- 
feated them in a battle which was fought 
on the lake Peypos on the ice, in the month 
of ApriL These victories were however of 
small use to the nation while all Russia ex- 
cept Novgorod was sulgected to the gall- 
ing yoke of the Tartars, who had poured 
through it like a ** river of fire.*' The 
Tartar commander Batu Khan [Batu], after 
ravaging Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Servia, 
Bulj^ffia, Moldavia, and Wallachia, had re- 
tired to the banks of the Volga, where at the 
head of the " golden horde, he received in 
his camp the Russian princes, and confirmed 
or deposed them at his pleasure. Fortunately 
for Novgorod, the Tartars had in their first 
incursion in 1223 stopped short of that city, 
and turned back at the very moment when the 
inhabitants were expecting destruction. It 
thus escaped for many years the payment of 
tribute ; but in 1248 Batu sent Alexander a 
message : — ** Prince of Novgorod, is it not 
known to thee that God has sulgected to me 
a multitude of nations ? Shalt thou alone be 
independent? If thou wishest to reign in 
peace, repair instantly to my tent, and there 
thou shalt see the power and glory of the 
Mongols." It might have been expected 
that, under such circumstances, a prince of 
the tried bravery of Alexander would have 
emulated the resolution of Pehiyo in Spain ; 
but the result of his deliberations was to adopt 
ihe pcdicv of submission. He journeyed 
with his brother Andrew, first to the camp 
of Batu at the mouth of the Volga, then 
to the camp of the Great Khan of the 
Montis in the steppes of Tartary, and 
by his humility so ingratiated himself with 
the conquerors that he was not only con- 
firmed in his dominions of Novgorod, but 
appointed at the same time to &e prince- 
dsm of Kiev, which implied the government 
of Southern Russia. His vounger brother 
Andrew was made prince of Vladimir, which 
was probably considered inferior in dignity 
to the other two united. The victories of 
Alexander had made his name known be- 
yond the boundaries of Russia, and about 
this time the pope wrote him a letter to point 
out the advantages he would gain by joming 
his arms with those of the Catholics, whom 
he had hitherto opposed, and turning them 
against the Tartars. The refosal of^ Alex- 
ander appears to have given much satisfaction 
to the Russian chroniclers, and probably 
went a great way towards procuring his sub- 
sequent canonisation by the Greek church. 
He had soon other opportunities of showing 



ALEXANDER. 

hU adherence to the plan of mdimited sab- 
mission. In 1250 the indignation of Andrew 
at the tyranny of the Tartars broke forth 
into open revolt, and he iras compelled, after 
losing a sanguinary battle, to take refiige in 
Sweden, his prudent brother refusing him an 
asylum in Novgorod. The Tartars in re- 
ward for Alexander's fidelity conferred on 
him the princedom which Andrew had for- 
feited, and he made a triumphal entry into 
Vladimir on the occasion. In 1256 Batu Blhan 
died, and was succeeded by his brother 
Burga, the first of the Tartars who embraced 
Mohammedanism, and who, more avaricious 
than his predecessor, sent a baskak or col- 
lector to each principality throughout Russia 
to estimate the popiUation and assess the tri- 
bute accordingly. It is a singular circum- 
stance in the history of the Tartar power 
that they at the same time adopted the same 
measure in their other conquest of China. 
The Novgorodians, exasperated by this new 
oppression, showed a determination to resist 
the entry of the baskak, and were supported 
by Vasily, Alexander's own son, whom he 
had appointed governor. The indignant 
prince came in person to enforce their sub- 
mission; Vasily fled before him, and the 
principal citizens who had proposed resist- 
ance were punished by having their eyes put 
out or their noses cut o£P. This was not the 
first occasion on which Alexander had quar- 
relled with the Novgorodians, with whom he 
seems to have been as arbitrary as he was 
submissive to the Tartars. The disturbances 
caused by the baskaks were not yet appeased. 
In 1260 a simultaneous rising of the people 
against the hated tribute took place in several 
towns, and the baskaks, among whom were 
some Russian renegades, were mercilessly 
slaughtered. Alexander paid a last visit to 
the ** golden horde" to appease the anger of 
Burga Khan, and died on his way home, 
overcome with anxiety and fatigue, on the 
14th of November, 1263, in the forfr^-fourth 
year of his age. His remains were interred 
m the monastery of the Nativity of the Virgm, 
at Vladimir, where th^ continued till the 
eighteenth century, ffis memory was then 
revived by the foundation of St Petersburg 
near the spot rendered illustrious by his ex- 
ploits, and by the circumstance that the 
greatest victory of Peter the Great was 
gained over Alexander's ancient opponents 
the Swedes. In 1724 his remains were 
transferred to a splendid monastery which 
bears his name in the city of St. Petersburg, 
where they now repose in a silver coffin, and 
a military order of knighthood was instituted 
in his honour. (Article by Ustrialov in En- 
tstkJapedechesky Lexicon, L 465., and by Buhle 
in Ersch and Gruber, AUgemeine JEncyclo- 
padie, iii. 42, &c ; Karamzin, Istorhfa Go- 
sudarstva Rossiyskago, iv. 22, &c ; Polevoy, 
Jstoriya Eusakoffo NarodcL, iv. 123, &c. ; 
Levesque, Hittoire de Butsie, ii. 97—134. $ 
856 



ALEXANDER. 

Leclerc, HUtoire de la Hmm, ii. US— -120. ; 
Hammer-Purgstall, Ge$ckichte der GcldeMen 
Horde in Kiptschak, p. 138. 152, &c.) T. W. 
ALEXANDER NUME'NIUS, a Greek 
rhetorician who lived in the rei^ ®^*^® 
Emperor Hadrian and of the Antonmes. We 
still possess by him a work entitled " n^p* 

K4^t(0S ffXTifidrcfv.'* Abridgments of this work 
were made by two Latin rhetoricians, ^.qni^ 
Romanus and Rufinianus, under the title " De 
Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis." Another 
work called "Hepl ^iJcucrMffiK," that is, on 
Show-Speeches, which is likewise attributed 
by some writers to Alexander Numenius, un- 
questionably belongs to a later rhfetorician 
of the same name. The former of these 
works was edited separately by L. Nonnann, 
Upsal, 1690, 8vo. Both are printed in the 
" Rhetores Graeci " of Aldus Manutius, p. 574, 
&c, and in Walz's « Rhetores Grseci," voL 
viii. (Ruhnken, Ad Aquilam Romanvm, p. 140. ; 
Julius Rufinianus, p. 195. ed. Rulmken ; 
Westermann, GeacMchie der Grieckischen 
BeredtMjnkeit, $ 95. n. 13., and § 104. n. 7.) 

L. 8. 
ALEXANDER CAX^€«^f»0 <>' Aboao- 
teichos, a town in Paphlaig;onia, whence heis 
sometimes called the Paphulgoniak. He 
lived in the reign of the Antonines, about 
the middle of the second century of our 
sra, and is one of the most remarkable 
impostors on record. Lucian, who had seen 
the man, describes his figure as tall and ma- 
jestic ; his eyes were very animated, and lus 
voice sweet and pleasing ; with these external 
recommendations he also possessed most ex- 
traordinary mental powers : his Judgment 
and acuteness as well as his memory were 
unequalled. But of these powers he made 
the worst possible use. He was a master of 
the art of deception : every one who saw 
him or spoke with him thought he was a 
good and simple-hearted man. He was the 
son of poor parents, but as he was a boy of 
great beauty, he attracted the attention of 
several rich men. One of these men was 
a physician, who occupied himself with all 
kinds of magic and sorcery, and, perceiving 
the talent of Alexander, initiated him in 
his secrets and made him his assistant. After 
the death of his master, all whose secrets he 
inherited, he began to practise his arts in 
conjunction with a Byzantian of the name 
of Cocconas, with whom he travelled about 
cheating the credulous, especially w^omen, and 
getting much money fW>m them. To attain 
Sieir objects more speedily, they resolved on 
setting up an oracle; but before the plan was 
executed, Cocconas died. Alexander, how- 
ever, forged certain oracles which dedsired 
him to be a descendant of the demigod Per- 
seus and a great prophet. Findings that his 
claims gained credit, he returned to hi» native 
town, where he often pretended to be seixed 
with a prophetic frensy, during^ wliich his 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



month was ooTered with foam, which he pro- 
duced by chewing a peculiar kind of herb. But 
the great fiirce bj which he prored his super- 
natural powers was this. A temple of iEscu- 
lapius had been commenced. Alexander put 
a small snake in a gooee*«gg, and deposited 
it in the ground on the spot where the temple 
was to 1^ built, and then announced to his 
eountrymen that JEsculapius would be bom 
in their town. Accompanied by a numerous 
multitude he went to the spot, took up the 
«gg> opened it and showed the infimt god to 
the amaxed people. The report of this won- 
derful event spread all oyer Asia Minor, and 
numbers of people flocked to Abonoteichos 
fh)m all the neighbouring countries. In a 
place scantily lighted he exhibited himself 
and the god, who in a few days had grown 
into a huge snake, which was called Glycon, 
and declared to be a descendant of Jove. 
The head of this snake was an artificial one 
which Alexander had constructed with great 
skilL Numerous oracles were now given by 
him, and thousands of people came to consult 
the god, especially in cases of illness. His 
answers were often in the form of salutanr 
advice in regard to diet and the like. £te 
thus accumulated immense wealth, and his 
success emboldened him to carry on his pro- 
ceedings on a larger scale. He kept a great 
number of well-paid assistants, who spread 
his fame far and wide, and who not unfre- 
quently refhted the attacks of sensible men 
upon his impositions by stoning them or by 
other acts of violence. Even Romans of high 
rank, such as Rutilianus, came from Italy to 
consult the impostor and his oracle. Ruti- 
lianus was even duped into marrying (about 
A. D. 170) a daughter of Alexander, whom 
he pretended to have begotten upon Luna 
(the moon). During the pestilence which 
raged in the year ▲.d. 166, Alexander sent 
his emissaries all over the Roman empire 
to proclaim an oracle which was to avert 
the calamity, and this oracle was at the time 
written upon the gates of almost every town. 
Never perhaps has an impostor had such 
success, and he contrived to maintain his 
credit nowithstanding the frequent attacks of 
men who saw through his deceptions, and not- 
withstanding the gross fidlure of many of his 
predictions. Men were happy if Alexander 
would only look at their wives, and when- 
ever he condescended to g^ve them a kiss it 
was thought to be a sigiud Uessing to the 
fiunilv. Many women declared that they 
had children by him, and their husbands bore 
witness to the truth. Respecting himself 
Alexander prophesied that he would Uve to 
the age of one hundred and fifty, but he died 
of a disgusting disease before he had reached 
his seventieth ^ear. There are still extant 
some coins which bear on one side the name 
of the god Olvcon, which were struck about 
that time in Asia Minor. See the commen- 
tators on Lncian's ** Alexander,^ C 5^ 

▼OLiL 



The above account is taken from Lucian'i 
^Alexander,** where some pleasant anecdotes 
are related of an interview which Lucian had 
with the impostor. L. S. 

ALEXANDER PAVLOVICH, emperor 
of Russia during the first quarter of the 
nineteenth century, was, with one exception, 
the most conspicuous prince of that very re- 
markable period. 

Alexander was bom at St Petersburg on 
the 23d of December, 1777 (by the Russian 
or old style the 12th of December). His 
parents were Paul Petrovich, afterwards em- 
peror of Russia [Paul], and Maria Theo- 
dorovna his wife, daughter of Prince Eugene 
of Wirtemberg. His education was tdien 
entirely out of the hands of his fi^er by his 
grandmother Catherine IL, the reigning em- 
press, who herself wrote tales for his amuse- 
ment when a child. His governor was Count 
Nicholas Saltnikov, who received particular 
orders from Catherine that the young prince 
should not be taught either poetry or music, 
on account of the loss of time caused by those 
studies. Professor Kraft instracted him in 
natural philosophy, Pallas for a short time in 
botany, and Colonel Masson in mathematics $ 
but hjs chief preceptor was Laharpe [La- 
harpe], a Genevese of republican prin- 
ciples, which he succeeded in instilling in 
some degree into the mind of his imperial 
pupiL Masson, who sketched the character 
of Alexander at this early epoch, pointed 
out some features which were recognised as 
belonging to it in maturer life. ** He derives 
from CaUierine," he remarked, ** an unalter* 
able equanimity, a correct and penetrating 
Judgment, and a rare discretion, and in ad- 
dition to these, a spirit of circumspection 
which does not belong to his age, and which 
might be called dissimulation were it not 
rather to be ascribed to the influence of Uie 
embarrassing position in which he finds him- 
self placed between his father and his grand- 
mother, than to the promptings of his heart, 
which is naturally open and ingenuous. He 
is of a praiseworthy but passive charac- 
ter. He might be reproached with the same 
faults that Fenelon attributes to his pupil, 
but which, after all, are not so much fiiults 
as the absence of some qualities not yet de« 
veloped, or kept back in his heart by the 
despicable nature of the circle that surrounds 
him. Giving too much way to impulses from 
without, he never abandons himself suffi- 
ciently to those of his own reason and his own 
heart." 

Alexander was married on the 9th of Oc- 
tober, 1793, to the princess Louisa Maria 
Augusta of Baden, who, on the occasion of 
her reception into the Greek Church, received 
the name of Elizabeth Alexaevna. He was 
then in the sixteenth jear of his age, and his 
early marriage is attributed to the anxiety of 
his grandmclther for the preservation of hi» 
morals in a court which her own example 
3& 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



had brought to the last degree of cormptum. 
By this marriage he had two daughters, one 
bom in the year 1799 and the other in 1806, 
both of whom died under two years of age. 
In alter life he was long estranged from Uie 
empress, and engaged in more than one affair 
of gallantry. He had by Madam Namishkin 
a £kQghter, to whom he was much attached, 
and whose death not long before his own 
saddened the close of life. 

It is stated by an English authority (Sir 
John Garr) that the Empress Catherine, whose 
death took place on the 17th of NoTember, 
1796, left in the possession of her last tk- 
Tonrite, Plato Zubov, a will addressed to the 
senate, hy which, pasung over her hated off- 
spring, Paul, she named Alexander her suc- 
cessor, and that Zubov placed the document 
in the hands of Paul, who destroyed it From 
the whole conduct of Catherine this statement 
is extremely probable, and it renders it less 
surprising that during the r&ga of Panl he 
was thought to regaSrd Alexander with an 
unfavourable eye. Alexander, however, en- 
joyed some public honours; he was a member 
of the council and of the senate, and held fbr 
some time the appointment of military go- 
vernor of St Petersburg, a post of import- 
ance. All eyes were turned on him, as the 
absurdity of his fiuher's conduct went on in- 
creasing till it amounted almost to insanity, 
and at last, on the night of the 23d of March, 
1801, his reign was brought to a violent ter- 
mination. 

The precise circumstances of Paul's assas- 
sination are involved in doubt, and Alex- 
ander's share in the conspiracy that led to it 
is the obscurest portion of the affiur. In the 
account of these occurrences given by Sir 
John Carr it is asserted that " the august 
fiunily of Paul were wholly unacquainted with 
the meditated blow;" but in the narrative of 
M.Biffnon it is affirmed, with more probability, 
that Alexander had given his assent to the 
project of enforcing the abdication of his 
Either, a measure which might almost be 
deemed of absolute necessity, while in the 
inexperience of youth he was far ftom ima- 
gining that deposition would be accompanied 
by death. In fhct, in the history of his 
grandfather, Peter III., he had an example 
of the removal of a Russian prince by 
violence fhmi the throne without at the 
moment any other injury to his person than 
the loss of liberty. When Pahlen, then 
governor of St Petersburg, and one of the 
confidants and assassins of Paul, entered 
Alexander's apartment after the murder, the 
first words of Alexander, according to Big- 
non, were to ask after his fkther, and on 
Pahlen's preserving silence the young prince 
broke forth into passionate reproaches against 
the fhlse friends who had so cmelly deceived 
him, and against himself for not having fore- 
seen the possibility of a crime, the shame of 
which would tarnish all his after life. ** His 
858 



grief," says Bignon, ** was deep and sinoere. 
Pahlen appeared to share it, and afterwards 
seizing the appropriate moment to remind the 
young prince that under such circumstanees 
tears were not all that the weal of the state 
demanded, he decorated him with the insignia 
of his various orders of knighthood, with the 
exception of that of Malta." It is said that 
the empress, his mother, on learning the 
assassination of her husband, showed her 
eagerness to seise the supreme power, and 
that it required the strongest representations 
to prevent her team making the attempt. 
Whatever took place in the mterior of &e 
palace, it is certain that on the parade in Ihe 
morning Alexander presented himself to the 
troops on horseback, and was hailed by them 
emperor of all the Russias. It is also eer- 
tain that none of the conspirators was ever 
brought to punishment, that some were still 
retained in fkvour, and that the heaviest 
mark of displeasure shown to any was to 
Pahlen, who was ordered to retire to his 
government of Livonia, and who thought it 
expedient to resign all his employments. 
This misplaced lenity is the chief argument 
of those who, with Napoleon, attribute to 
Alexander the deliberate purpose of parri- 
cide; but his subsequent actions and his 
general character appear to render it pro- 
bable that the narrative of Bignon is sub- 
stantially correct 

Alexander announced his intention trom 
the first of following as fu* as possible the 
administration of Catherine. On his ac- 
cession he was at war with England. Paul 
had in the preceding year, by the convention 
of St Petersburg of the 16th of December, 
1800, joined the coalition of the northern 
powers against England, which led to the 
expedition to the Baltic in which the En- 
glish fleet, nominally under the command of 
Pariier, but really obeying the impulse of 
Nelson, had on the 2d of April attacked 
Copenhagen, and compelled Denmark to de- 
tach itself provisionally from the alliance. 
Alexander, immediately on his accession, 
wrote a pacific letter to George IIL, and 
soon after gave orders to release the captains 
and crews of English ships whom Paul had 
seized. On the 17th of June a maritime 
convention was signed between the two 
countries, in which Russia abandoned the 
most material points in dispute, by admitting^ 
that the fla^ did not cover the merchandise, 
and that ships of war had the right to search 
neutral vessels even when sailing under con- 
voy. ^ Sweden and Denmark, the allies of 
Russn on this occasion, were loud in th^r 
outcries against this convention, by which 
their sacrifices and exertions were rendered 
useless ; but as secondary powers they had no 
other choice than to submit At the same time 
that Alexander thus courted the firiendship 
of England, he did not neglect that of France; 
he dcHMttched a friendly letter to Bonapute, 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDSE. 



and on the 8th of October a treaty waa 
aigned between France and Roaua. 

A period of tranquillity sacceeded, during 
which Alexander was occupied with internal 
improTements, and in uniting to the Rnasian 
empire the kingdom of Georgia, the heir of 
which, David, son of Qeorse XL, [Gfx>BGE] 
was persuaded to yield ue inheritance (2 
his fathers to Alexander, and accept the post 
«f lieutenant-general in his armies. During 
peace, however, the preparations for war 
were not neglected. A new system of re- 
eruiting was adopted, and a ukase issued in 
1803 summoned to the military service one 
man out of every two hundred and fifty, and 
thus raised the strength of the Russian army 
to 500,000 men. Some causes of discontent 
had arisen between France and Russia before 
the abduction and execution of the Duke 
d'Enghien, but it was that event (in March, 
1804) which brought affidrs to a crisis. The 
indignation of Al»ander on this occasion was 
expressed without reserve. His envoy at 
Paris delivered a note to the effect that the 
emperor, ** as a mediator and guarantee of 
the peace of the continent, had notified to the 
states of the Germanic empire that he con- 
sidered this event as putting in danger their 
security and independence, and that he had 
no doubt the first consul would take prompt 
measures to reassure all governments by 
giving satisf^tory explanations.** Bona- 
parte replied, by inquiring in the Moniteur, 
^ What would Alexander have said if the 
first consul had imperiously demanded ex- 
planations of the murder of Paul? " To add 
to causes of quarrel already numerous, Na- 
poleon re(|uired from the pope the surrender 
of a certam Count Vemd^ues, a Frenchman 
by birth, but naturalised m Russia, who was 
accused of intrigues against the first consul 
at Rome. In spite of the exertions of Alex- 
ander's ambassador, Vem^gues was given 
up, on which the ambassador was recalled, 
and at the same time a papal nuncio and 
apostolic auditcnr resident at St Petersburg 
were ordered to quit Russia, where, after 
this period, all the affairs o^ the Roman 
Catholics were re^polated by a metropolitan 
of their own religion, without any appeal to 
the papal court When the first consul be- 
came emperor of the French, Alexander 
declined to recognise his title ; and soon 
after, in an ultimatum, demanded the eva- 
cuation of Naples and the Nprth of Germany 
by the French troopa» which was refiised. 
Austria interposed its mediation, and on 
nieeting with iU success, coalesced with 
Russia and England. Sweden entered with 
cordiality into the same alliance, and the 
Porte was not disincUned to acquiesce in an 
offensive and defensive league proposed by 
Russia; but some pretensions to the recog- 
nised protectorship of the Greek subjects of 
Turkey inserted by Alexander in the treaty 
eanaed the njection of the whole, and the 
859 



negotiations terminated in merely the re-- 
newal for eight years of a truce concluded 
with Paul in 1798. 

The war commenced with the march of 
Napoleon from Boulogne, where he had col- 
lected his army for me threatened invasion 
of Eng^d, to the heart of Germany, where 
the cowardice of Mack surrendered the for- 
tress of Ulm on the same day that Nelson 
annihilated the fleets of France and Spain 
at TrafjEdgar, the 2l8t of October, 1805. 
Alexander at the outset of the campaign 
visited the Eling of Prussia, Frederick Wil- 
liam, at Berlin, and it is said that the two 
princes on that occasion exchanged a ro- 
mantic oath of friendship over the tomb of 
Frederick the Great Alexander afterwards 
joined Francis, the emperor of Germany, at 
Olmiits, where the two divisions of the Rus- 
sian army, one under Kutuzov and the other 
under Buxhovden, formed a junction, and 
united with the Austrians under the Arch- 
duke Charles, Kutuzov assuming the com- 
mand in chiefl The Russians are said to 
have amounted in number to 70,000, and the 
Austrians to 30,000 ; and the prevailing tone 
on the part of the Russians was, according 
to Bourrienne, one of unbounded confidence. 
The young emperor and those around him 
were by no means free fh)m this overweening 
estimate of their own power. In the battle 
of Auaterlits which followed (4th Decem- 
ber, 1805), the allies lost 26,000 men and 50 
cannon. Alexander was allowed by the 
armistice of the day after the battle to retreat 
homewards with his army ; it is doubtful 
whether, from his having, by a false move- 
ment of the French, been placed in a posi- 
tion too dangerous to attack, or from a wish 
to conciliate him on the part of Napoleon. 
If the latter, it fiuled, for when the peace of 
Presburg was concluded, on the 26th of De- 
cember, between France and Austria, Alex- 
ander perseveringly refused to accede to it, 
considering the terms as too humiliating for 
his ally. A treaty was signed in the follow- 
ing Jidy by his own agent, Ubril, at Paris, 
in which tiie integrity of the dominions of 
the Porte was guaranteed, the evacuation of 
Germany by the French troops was promised, 
and Russia engaged to exert its influence to 
bring about a peace between France and 
England. This treaty Alexander refused to 
rat^ on the ground that Ubril had exceeded 
his instructions, and the unlucky negotiator was 
on that account banished to his estates ; but 
it was generally believed that he had followed 
his instructions carefUlly, and that the object 
had been to gain time. The King oi Prussia, 
alarmed at the arbitrary acts and imperious 
tone of Napoleon, and especially at the idea 
of the Rhenish confederation, by which 
many German armies were placed at the 
disposal of France, had now detennined to 
abandon the neutral policy hitherto adopted, 
and he formed an intimate alliance with Russia 
3k 2 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



and Sw^eden to ooonterbalance the confede- 
ration of the Rhine. Napoleon demanded 
the dissolution of the new league, and it 
was soon evident that the question was to 
be decided by arms. The fatal day of Jena 
and Auerstadt, on the 6th of October, 1806, 
crushed at one blow the fortutfes of Prussia. 
Alexander, on receiving the news, issued a 
proclamation to the effect that the fall of 
Prussia, by compromising the safety of his 
own dominions, engaged him anew in a direct 
struggle with France, and ordered an imme- 
diate levy of 400,000 men. The remainder 
of the year was occupied with a dreary cam- 
paign of the French and Russians on the 
m>zen plains of Poland^ in vThich the soldiers 
of Napoleon obtained no decisive success. 
The 7th and 8th of February, 1807, were 
signalised by the battle of Eylau, in which 
the Russian commander, Bennigsen, who had 
been one of the most actiye agents in the 
assassination of Paul, played a drawn game 
with Napoleon. The battle of Friedland on 
the 24th of June was less favourable to the 
Russian arms, and a proposal for an armistice 
on the part of Alexander led to conferences 
on the subject of peace at Tilsit 

The meeting of the emperors of France 
and Russia at Tilsit is an important event 
not only in the life of Alexander, but in die 
history of Europe. It produced a total change 
in the policy of Russia, as well as in the per- 
sonal sentiments of the two emperors, who, 
from deadly enemies, became, to all appear- 
ance» cordial friends. At their first inter* 
view, on the 25th of June, 1807, each left 
the banks of the Niemen in a boat, attended 
by his suite. The boat of Napoleon cleared 
the distance first ; and Napoleon, stepping on 
the raft appointed for the conference, passed 
over, and receiving Alexander on the oppo- 
site side, embraced him in the sight of both 
armies. The first words of Alexander were 
directed to flatter the ruling passion of Na- 
poleon. " I hate the English,'* he exclaimed, 
-**as much as you do: whatever you take 
in hand against them, I will be your 
second.'* " In that case,** replied Napoleon, 
** everything can be easily settled, and peace 
is already made.'* In the first conference 
they remained together two hours ; the next 
day they met again, and Alexander presented 
to Napoleon the King of Prussia, who was 
soon after joined by his queen. During the 
remainder of the conferences, which lasted 
twenty days, the two emperors were daily 
in the habit of meeting and conversing 
on terms of intimacy, while the King H 
Prussia was treated by Napolfion with haugh- 
tiness, and the queen with rudeness, and 
Alexander appeared almost ashamed to 
make any exertion in their fiivour with his 
new friend. He even concluded a separate 
treaty with Napoleon to the bitter mor- 
tification of Frederick William, the treaty 
made witli whom soon after was of a vei^ 
860 . 



different character firom that bvtween tlK^ 
two emperors. Among other humiliations, 
Prussia was stripped of its ill-gained Polish 
provinces^ and one of them, Bialystock, was, 
to the astonishment of all the world, given 
to the Emperor of Russia. This was the 
more surprising, as in November, 1806, Alex- 
ander had written to the king in so many 
words, ** I will do mv utmost to prevent the 
Prussian dominions from losing even a vil- 
lage." The principal articles of the treaty 
between Aleziemder and Napoleon, signed on 
the 7th of June, 1807, were — that Alexander 
recojH^nised Napoleon's three brothers^ Joseph^ 
Louis, and Jerome, as kings of Naples, Hol- 
land, and Westphalia ; that he also recognised 
the confederation of the Rhine, and all the 
arrangements connected with it; that both 
guaranteed the integrity of each other^s do- 
minions, and mutually restored all prisoners ; 
and that Russia undertook to mediate with 
England for a peace with France, and France 
with Turkey for a peace with Russia, each 
power, in case its mediation was reftised, to 
make common cause with the other. A 
secret treaty was concluded at the same time 
of still more importance ; but the articles of 
which, though strongly conjectured from 
various subsequent events, and even partially 
disclosed, were never fully known, till pu1^- 
lished in 1834, in the '* Biographic Univer« 
selle," the high character of which guarantees 
the authenticity of the infbrmation. These 
articles were as follows: — 1. Russia was to 
take possession of European Turkey and ex- 
tend Its conquests in Asia to what extent U 
thought proper* 2. The house of Bourbon in 
Spain and the house of Bragansa in Portugal 
were to cease to reign, and a prince of the 
house of Bonaparte was to succeed to each. 

8. The tempond authority of the pope waa 
to cease, and Rome and its dependencies to 
be united to the kingdom of Italy. 4. Russia 
was to assist France with her navy for the 
conquest of Gibraltar. 5. The Froich were 
to take possession of Algiers^ Tunis, and 
other towns in Africa, and at a general peace 
these conquests were to be given as an in- 
demnity to the kings of Sicily and Sardinia. 
6. Malta was to belong to the French, and no 
peace to be made with England before its 
cession. 7. The French were to occupy 
Egypt 8. The navigation of the Mediter- 
ranean was to be permitted to French, Rus- 
sian, Italian, and Spanish vessels only: all 
other nations were to be rigidly exdnded. 

9. Denmark was to be indemnified in the 
north of Germany with the Hanseatic towns, 
but only on condition of placing its navy in 
the hands of France. 10. Their mi^esties, 
the emperors of Russia and of the French 
were to settle an agreement by whidi no 
power should be allowed to send merehant 
ships to sea unless it possessed a certain 
number of vessels of war. 

For the first few months after the trea^ atf 



ALEXANDBB. 



ALEXANDEft 



Tiliit, Alexander oontinued to profeis tli« 
lame unbounded admiration and friendship 
for Napoleon that he had shown at their 
interviews. When, in cooseqoenoe of the 
ninth article of the secret treaty, which had 
become known to the fSnglish goyemment, 
the English expedition was sent to Copen- 
hagen to demand the surrender of the Danish 
fleet till the conclusion of the war,, and on the 
refbsal of the Danes the bombardment of 
Copenhagen followed^ Alexander expressed 
in public the strongest abhorrence of the 
measiu«, which he characterised as ** a piratical 
expedition." We learn, howcTer, from Walter 
Scott, who, during the composition of his 
Life of Napoleon, had access to important docu- 
ments in the Foreign Office, that at this very 
time "an English officer of literary celebrity" 
(probably Sir Robert Ker Porter) " was em- 
ployed by Alexander, or those who were sup- 
posed to share his most secret councils, to 
convey to the British ministry the emperor's 
expressions of secret satisfieu^tion at the skill 
and dexterity which Britain had displayed in 
anticipating and preventing the purposes of 
France by her attack upon Copenhagen. 
Her ministers were invited to conmiumcate 
freely with the Czar as with a prince who, 
though obliged to give way to circumstances, 
was neyertheless as much attached as ever to 
the cause of European independence." The 
first communications the British ministers 
made, however, were received with such cold- 
ness as to show that either the agent had oyer- 
stepped his instructions, or the emperor had 
changed his mind ; and for some time after 
Alexander appeared a cordial supporter of 
the policy of Napoleon and the " continental 
system." 

One of the methods by which he manifested 
this support tended also in the most direct 
manner to the gratification of Russian am- 
bition. Gustavus IV. of Sweden was sum- 
moned after the settlement of Tilsit to accede 
to the continental system of excluding En- 
glish commerce and manufiictures, which he 
had previously resisted in common with 
Alexander, who was his brother-in-law. He 
resolutely declined compliance, and war was 
thereupon declared against him by Russia. 
Count Bnxhdvden, the Russian general, who 
entered Finhmd at the head of a strong force, 
issued proclamations exhorting the Swedish 
army not to shed its blood in an unjust canse, 
and the inhabitants to submit to the mild 
sceptre of Alexander. The King of Sweden, 
incensed at a war being commenced by an 
inyitation to his subjects to break their al- 
legiance, issued a dechmition in which he 
personally reproached the Russian emperor 
with perfidy and meanness. The charge was 
not the more likely to be forgiyen that it was 
well-founded. Finland, pertly by bribery, 
and pertly by the bravery of the Russian 
troops, was annexed to Alexander's empire ; 
in the following year Oostayus was de- 
861 



thftmed by his own subjects ; and at the sul^ 
sequent general restoration of deposed kings, 
he was the only one left uncompensated and 
nncared for. 

The termination of the war in Finland 
enabled the Russians to act more effectually 
in another quarter. The Turks had, on the 
SOth of December, 1806, declared war against 
Russia, actuated partly by the influence of 
France, partly by resentment at the occupation 
of Moldavia and Wallachia by Russian armies 
under pretext of enforcing the conditions df 
the treaties of Kainar^i and Jassy. On the 
30th of June, 1807, Count Oudovich gained 
a victory over the Turks by land, and on the 
following day Admiral Senyavin a more 
important one b^ sea near Lemnoe. At the 
conference of Tilsit, Napoleon, out of humour 
at receiving the news of the dethronement of 
his ally the Sultan Selim, thoughtlessly aban- 
doned the Turkish empire, which he was 
equally pledged and interested to support, to 
the mercy of the Russian autocrat The war 
was carried on with more various success 
than might have been anticipated^ but Uie 
advantage was in general on the side of Alex- 
ander. The only serious check that Russia 
sustained about this time was the capture by 
the English of ten yessels of war sent to Por- 
tugal under the command of Admiral Sen« 
yavin to induce the Portuguese to adopt the 
continental system. As the Russians sur- 
rendered without firing a shot, on the con- 
dition that the vessels should be restored when 
peace was concluded, it has been conjectured 
by French writers that the capture had been 
previously arranged between the two powers, 
and thus ftimished another instance of the 
dissatisfitction of Alexander at the conditions 
he had entered into at Tilsit, and his readi- 
ness to employ duplicity to eVade them. 

However strong this dissatisfiiction might 
be, Alexander did not neglect to attend the 
conference at Erfurt, in September, 1808, the 
last and most signal display of Napoleon's 
power, when he hardly exaggerated in telling 
Tahna the actor that he should pUy ** before 
a pit of kings." It was on the occasion of one 
of the performances by the French company 
at Erfhrt that Alexander paid a remarkEible 
pnblic compliment to Napoleon. When, in 
the tragedy of (Edipns by Voltsdre, the well- 
known line was ottered hy the representative 
of Philoctetes, — 

*' L'amitl^ d'on gnnd homme Mt un MenfUC dec 

dieuxj" 

<* The friemUhlp of a great man to a benefiKtion of tbe 
go<to," — 

Alexander rose and embraced Napoleon, who 
was seated by his side, while tbe pit burst 
forth into tumults of applause It is said, 
nevertheless, that signs of a coming rupture 
were apparent even at this amicable meeting. 
Some of these were personal Alexander, 
himself of lofty stature, could not alwa3rs re- 
press a certain contempt of the small proper* 
3 K 3 



ALEXANDER 



ALEXANDEa 



tioQS of Napoleon ; snd Napoleon, peroeiving 
thifl feeling, gave way to some satincal sallief 
on the self-complaoency of Alexander. But 
there were more serious sources of dissatis- 
Ikction. Napoleon complained of the con- 
quest of Finland, which had not been agreed 
to at Tilsit, and required, it is said, on that 
account, the cancelling of the secret article 
with regard to the conquest of Turkey ; a 
demand to which the Emperor of Russia 
reluctantly acceded. Napoleon, already re- 
tfolved on divorcing Josephine, was anxious 
to obtain the hand of a sister of Alexander as 
a pledge of the constancy of his ally ; but 
obstacles were raised on the ground of pre- 
engaged affections and difference of religion. 
The most important compact entered into was 
that of Alexander to support Napoleon in the 
war which was foreseen to be approaching 
with Austria, and his sanction of Napoleon's 
unparalleled measures with regard to Spain and 
Portugal, where matters had already begun to 
assume an aspect which rendered Napoleon 
uneasy. In return for these concessions. 
Some modification of the harshness of French 
supremacy was obtained for Prussia. These 
arrangements were not reduced to formal 
treaties, but settled between the emperors by 
freauent personal interviews, and left on the 
fhitn of their mutual promises. After a con- 
ference of seventeen dajrs, varied, among other 
amusements, by a visit to the field of Jena, in 
which Napoleon pointed out to the Emperor 
of Russia the manner in which he had there 
defeated the Prussian army, the party broke 
up, and the emperors departed, aAer writing 
a joint letter to the Kmg of England, in 
which they invited him to conclude a peace, 
on the basis of sacrificing his Spanish allies. 
A few months after, on the lOUi of March, 
1809, Alexander opened in person a Finnish 
diet hi the town of Umea. 

The rupture between France and Austria 
followed, provoked by Austrii^ who flattered 
herself with the hope of gaining advantages 
over Napoleon while he was engaged in the 
contest in Spun. The half-success of Aus- 
tria at Aspem only paved the way to her 
total defeat at Wagram. Buturlin, the aide- 
de-camp to Alexander, shows in his History 
that it was impossible for his master to avoid 
co-operating with Napoleon on this occasion, 
without altogether breaking his recent en- 
gagements. All the assistance, however, that 
he lent, was to send a Russian army of Ax>m 
thirty to forty thousand men into Galicia to 
assist the Poles in conquering the province. 
Alexander received in return a considerable 
portion of the spoil of Austria at the treaty of 
Schonbrunn, — the district of Tamopol, with 
a population of four hundred thonsaiid. 

Alexander, knowing a quarrel with Napo- 
leon was mevitable, availed himself of the 
advantages of his friendship while it lasted, 
to crush the power of Turkey. On the ter- 
mination of me war m Finland, the autocrat 
862 



had, as already stated, resumed the war with 
TuriLcy, which had been carried on with 
varying success. On the 21st of January, 
1810, he issued an imperial ukase, formally 
announcing that Moldavia and Wallachia, 
which for three years had been occupied by 
his troopa, were annexed to the Rusuan 
empire, and that the southern boundary of 
that empire was now the course of the 
Danube firom the frontiers of Austria to the 
Black Sea. The campaigns which followed 
were signalised by the capture of Rudschuk 
and the victory of Battbi in 1810, the drawn 
battle of Rudschuk and the evacuation of 
that town by the Russians in 1811, and the 
surrender of the Turkish army to Kutuxov 
at Giurgevo on Oetober 88tfa in the same 
year. The negotiations which succeeded 
were pressed with eneray by the Rusnana, 
to whom peace with Turkey was at that 
moment essential, as war with France was on 
the point of breaking out The influence of 
England was thrown mto the scale in Russia's 
fiivour ; but the sultan was onl^ finally in- 
duced to consent by his indignation at Napo- 
leon, on being informed both by Russia and 
England that he had agreed to a partition of 
the dominions of Tui^ey at the conforenoes 
of Tilsit A treaty was signed at Bucharest, 
on May 38th, 1812, by which the river Pmth 
was agreed on as the boundaiy ; and such 
fiivourable terms were granted in general U> 
Russia, that a few months later, when the 
sultan became aware of the danger with which 
Russia was threatened and the advantages he 
had held in his hands, he ordered Morooxil, 
a Greek who had taken a leading part in the 
negotiations, to be put to death. 

The dispute between Alexander and Napo- 
leon turned on the continental system, or sys- 
tem of excluding English manufactures and 
commerce frx>m the Oontinent, which Napo- 
leon was as pertinacious to enforce as Alexan- 
der was anxious to evade. The ruinous con- 
sequences of its adoption to Russian pros- 
perity, which had been nourished by the closest 
connection with England as a customer for 
the principal products of the oountiy, had 
made themselves unequivocally felt immedi- 
ately after the conference of Tilsit, and caused 
general dissatisfoetion in Russia. There had 
Qierefore been always in operation a system 
of ooimivance to evade the prohibition, which 
Napoleon did not view with the less dis- 
pleasure that he also had been obliged by the 
necessitjr of the case to admit of something 
similar m his own dominions. In course of 
time Alexander had recourse to still bolder 
measures. On the 3l6t of December, 1810, 
he ventured to issue a decree bv which he 
prohibited the importation of vanons articles 
of French manufoeture, and allowed that of 
colonial produce. In addition to this great 
cause of dispute, there were several minor 
ones, arising out of the overbearing conduct 
of Niq^eon, m partieidar tSiat of his annex- 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



isg to his already overjorown empire the 
domiDions of the Duke of Oldenburg, Alex- 
ander's brother-in-law, and of extending the 
bounds of the grand duchy of Warsaw, a state 
which had been created from the conquest of 
Prussia, and was always looked upon by Rus- 
sia with a jealous eye, as likely to foster the 
nationality of the Poles. Alexander required 
a definite pledge that the kingdom of Poland 
should not be re-establishe£ and that his 
brother-in-law should be indemnified by a 
territory on the frontiers of the duchy of 
Warsaw. Napoleon was indignant at the 
tone of Alexander ; the negotiations were soon 
broken oS, and both parties prepared for war. 
It is from this time that the character of 
Alexander, hitherto equiyocal, now purified 
by danger and calamity, shines out with un- 
expected lustre. On the 2l8t of April, 1812, 
he left 8t Petersburg, and joined the army 
then assembled along his western frontier, ft 
consisted of two hundred and sixty thousand 
men, in two divisions, one under the com- 
mand of Barclay de Tolly, the other of Prince 
Bagration. Napoleon advanced against Rus- 
sia at the head of five hundred and eighty- 
seven thoosand men, of whom seventy-three 
thousand were cavalry, the most formidable 
host that history records. This army was 
composed of the flower of many nations, and 
a large portion consisted of the contingents 
of Prussia and Austria. Prussia had secretly 
o£Pered to Alexander to espouse his canse, 
but had been recused simply out of regard to 
her own safety. The invaders entered the 
Russian territory without opposition, on the 
85th of June. On receiving the intelligence, 
Alexander declared that he would not lay 
down his arms while a single hostile sol- 
dier remained in his dominions. The Rus- 
sians began to retreat, and continued to do 
so, till both divisions joined at Smolensk, 
when the emperor, who had hitherto accom- 
panied the first division, left the army, and 
repaired to Moscow. He was received by 
all classes with a frenzy of enthusiasm; 
and in an assembly of the nobles and mer- 
chants summoned by the governor. Count 
Rostopchin, at the Kremlin, he promised to 
have recourse to the extremest measures ra- 
ther than lay down his arms, as at Tilsit, 
and added the remarkable words, ** The dis- 
asters with which you are threatened should 
be regarded only as the necessary means to 
consummate the ruin of the enemy." From 
Moscow Alexander repaired to St. Peters- 
burg, and thence to Orebro in Sweden, 
where he concluded a treaty of alliance with 
the English, by which the Russian squadron 
captured in the Tagus, in 1808, was restored, 
and large subsidies were granted by England 
for the prosecution of the war. Oiii the 20th 
of Jul^ he also contracted an offensive and 
defensive alliance with the supreme junta or 
Spain. On the 21st of August he met at 
Abo the Crown Prince of Sweden, Beraadotte, 
863 



whom Napoleon by a series of insults at this 
critical time threw into the arms of Russia. 
By an alliance concluded with him, a portion 
of the Russian army, which had necessarily 
been kept on the frontiers of Finland, to guard 
against an outbreak from the Swedes, was set 
at liberty to be used against the French ; and 
the price of this advantage was, in the eyes 
of a politician, almost irothing, for it was 
merelj the stipulation to join Sweden in 
wrestmg Norway from Denmark, and adding 
it to Sweden, as a compensation for the loss 
of Finland. During Alexander's interview 
with Bemadotte the news arrived of Napo- 
leon's entry into Smolensk, which had now 
been abandoned by the Russians. " Should 
St Petersburg itself be taken," exclaimed the 
emperor, ''I will retire into Siberia; I will 
resume our ancient customs, and, like our 
long-bearded ancestors, we will reconquer the 
empire." ** That determination,** replied Ber- 
nadotte, ''will save Europe." 

The evacuation of Smolensk was how- 
ever looked upon by the nation less as an act 
of prudence tlum of pusillanimity ; and Alex- 
ander was compelled by public opinion to allow 
KutuiEov to take the command, and fight on 
the 7th of September the sanguinary battle of 
Borodino ; immediately after which Kutnzov 
recommenced his retreat, and allowed the 
French to prosecute their march. Soon after 
Alexander published a noble proclamation. 
" On the 15th of September the enemy en- 
tered Moscow. Let not the great Russian 
nation be dismayed at this. No ; rather let 
evenr one bum with a fresh spirit of courage, 
of flmmess, and of undoubting hope that 
every evil inflicted on us by the enemy will 
fidl in the end on their own heads, in the 
present wretched condition of mankind, how 
glorious will be that nation which, bearing 
undaunted all the evils of war, shall at length, 
by its patience and courage, achieve a per- 
petual and inviolate tran^idUity, not only 
for itself, but for other nations, and even for 
those who, agunst their wiU, inake war upon 
it" 

The burning of Moscow followed. It must 
however be owned, that high as the feelings 
of the Russian nation were at this period, the 
destruction of the capital cannot be regarded 
as its own act The conflagration was pub- 
licly attributed by the Russian authorities 
to the French, and used as a fr^ ineans 
of exciting hatred against them. After re- 
maining some days amidst the ruins of 
Moscow in the expectation of receiving over- 
tures for peace. Napoleon sent his aide-de- 
camp, Lanriston, to Alexander. Kutuxov 
informed the messenger that he could not be 
allowed access to the emfteror, but might 
transmit the letter with which he had been 
intrusted. The only answer received after 
a delay of some weeks was a reproof to the 
Russian generals for having transgressed 
their duty by entering into any intercourse 
3k 4 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER* 



irith the inyaden, coupled yriih the ezpres* 
sion of a desire that they would be more ob- 
servant of their orders in fiitore* The 
retreat of the French from Moscow was then 
commenced, which the loss of time thus 
occasioned contributed to swell to that mass 
of misery which the annals of the world can- 
not paralleL Alexander joined the army at 
Wilna on the 22d of December, and sig- 
nalised his arrival by a general amnesty to 
all the inhabitants of the Polish provinces 
who had lent assistance to the French. 

Russia was now entirely safe; but the 
views of Alexander, in the prochunation on 
Napoleon's entrance to Moscow, extended to 
the whole of Europe. In a very remarkable 
proclamation, dated at Warsaw on the 22d 
of Februanr, 1813, he developed them at 
length. ** We take advantage of our victo- 
ries," he there declared, ^ to extend the 
hand of succour to the oppressed nations. 
The moment is come — never was a more 
glorious opportunity presented to unfortunate 
Germany — the enemy flies, without courage 
and without hope. He astonishes by his 
terror the nations that were wont to be 
astonished by his pride and his barbarity. 
We speak with the frankness that is suitable 
to strength. Russia, and England her in- 
trepid a^y, who for twenty years has con- 
tinued shaking that colossus of crime which 
threatens the universe, have no thought of 
their own aggrandizement It is our boiefits, 
and not the limits of our empire, that we 
wish to extend to the remotest nations. The 
destinies of Vesuvius and of the Guadiana 
have been determined on the banks of the 
Borysthenes ; it is thence that Spain will 
recover the liberty that she has defended with 
heroism and energy in an age of feebleness 
and baseness." After an animated appeal to 
the Austrians and Prussians, the proclama- 
tion goes on : — ** Saxons, Hollanders, Bel- 
gians, Bavarians ! we address the same words 
to you. Think — and soon your phalanxes 
will be swelled by all, who in the midst of the 
corruption which degrades you, have pre- 
served some tincture of honour and virtue. 
Fear may still restrain your sovereigns, but 
let not a faial obedience check you : they, as 
wretched as yourselves, detest the power 
which they dread, and will applaud your 
generous efforts when crowned with jovir 
happiness and their freedom. Our victorious 
troops are now about to pursue their march 
to the frontiers of the enemy. There, if you 
show yourselves worthy to march by the 
side of the heroes of Russia, if the misfor- 
tunes of your country touch you, if the 
North imitates the example that the proud 
Castilians set, the period of mourning is 
ended for the world, our generous battalions 
wiU enter together that empire whose power 
and whose pride a single victory has crushed. 
If even that de^nerate nation, excited to 
some noble sentiments by events so extra- 
864 



ordixiary, should turn its tearfbl eyes on tli^ 
happiness it once enjoyed under its kingair 
we would extend to it the hand of succour ; 
and Europe, lately on the point of becoming 
a monster's prey, would recover at once ita 
independence and its tranquillity; while of 
that sanguinary colossus which threatened 
the Continent with an eternity of crime, no- 
thing would remain but an eternal remem- 
brance of pity and horror. We address to 
the people by this manifesto what we have 
charged our envoys to convey to kings ; and 
if they, from the remains of pusilbmimityy 
persist in their fetal system c^ submission, 
the voice of their subjects must make itself 
heard, and the princes who would plunge 
their people in degradation and misfortune 
must be dragged by them to vengeance and 
to glory. Let Germany call to mind its ancient 
courage, and its tyrant exists no longer I'* 

Before this proclamation had been issued, 
the Prussian troops under the command of 
General York had already entered into a sepa- 
rate armistice with the Russians, and they 
now joined them. The King of Prussia 
affected to blame the conduct of his general ; 
but he was no sooner free from the imme- 
diate control of the French, than he issued 
a proclamation in which he declared that, in 
accordance with the universal wish of his 
nation, he would make common cause against 
Napoleon. Alexander and Frederick Wil- 
liam met again after a long separation on the 
15th of May, 1813, at Breslau. It is said 
that when they embraced, the King of Prussia 
burst into tears, on which Alexander ex- 
claimed, " Courage, my brother : these are the 
last tears that Napoleon shall make you shed." 
Amidst the preparations for the campaign, 
Kutuzov, the Russian field-marshal, had ex- 
pired (on the 16th of April), and Alexander 
assumed in person the command in chief of 
his army. The campaign commenced un- 
fortunately, and in the battles of Liitxen and 
Bautzen, the personal dangers to which 
Alexander exposed himself did not prevent 
Napoleon from gaining the victory. An 
armistice which was made, it is said, at 
Alexander's request, was more advantageous 
to him than battles. Austria, provoked 
by the undiminished obstinacy and haughti- 
ness of Napoleon, who believed that no- 
thing could detach his father-in-law from 
his alliance, at length was prevailed on to 
join the coalition ; Bavaria and Wirtemberg 
followed ; and when the armistice expired on 
the 17th of August, the forces of the allies 
amounted to more than half a million of men. 
Of this enormous host Alexander was am- 
bitious to be the commander in chief ; but 
finding that Austria was unwilling to consent, 
from distrust of his military talents, he 
gracefblly relinquished his chums in favour 
of the Austrian Prince Schwarzenberg. 
Although not nominally at the head of the 
army, his influence was great, and it is to 



ALEXANDEll. 



ALEXANDfift. 



him that the flmmess and Tigonr manifested 
in the subsequent movements of the allies 
must be attributed. Alexander had counted 
on assistance from General Moreau, the old 
riral of Napoleon, whom he summoned 
from America to take part against France 
in the ^neral war&re oif Europe. Moreau 
had amved on the ere of the expiration of 
the armistice. On the 27th of August, on 
the second of three days in which the French 
and the allies were engaged in a desperate 
struggle for the city of Dresden, he had just 
drawn up his horse while riding along a 
narrow path to allow Alexander to pass him, 
when a ball from a cross battery shattered 
both his legs, and he fell mortally wounded 
by the side of the emperor. The battle of 
Dresden terminated to the disadTantage of 
the allies ; but N^>oleon was soon compelled 
from reverses in other quarters to retreat 
on Leipz^, where the battle of the four 
days, from the 16th to the 19th of October, 
decided the liberation of Germany. The 
King of Saxony, Napoleon's most constant 
ally, sent an officer to Alexander as the 
battle drew near a dose, with proposals to 
allow the French four hours to leave the 
city. Alexander, who received the messenger 
on horseback with the King of Prussia, at 
about five hundred paces from Leipzi^^, re- 
plied that he would not grant them a minute, 
and ordered an immediate attack, the con- 
sequences of which were fearfiil to the 
French. After this signal victory the ad- 
vance of the allies was unchecked. Ger- 
many was freed, and Holland was evacuated 
by Uie French, at the same time that Soult, 
abandoning Spain, was pursued into France 
by Wellington. 

These advantages would not have been 
turned to the best account but for the con- 
tinued firmness of Alexander. He had begun 
the campaign of 1813 single-handed in the east 
of Europe, and he concluded it at the head 
of the most formidable allied army that ever 
existed. But the counsels of allies are pro- 
verbially timid and wavering ; most of his 
associates were disposed to rest satisfied with 
their success, and contended that the object 
of the alliance was gained now that Napoleon 
was driven across the Rhine. *' In rejecting 
peace,'* says his aide-de-camp IdikhaUovsky 
Danilevsky, " Alexander stood alone in the 
camp of the allies, as Napoleon did in 
France." It was however by the support 
of England, as represented by Lord Castle- 
reagh, that he succeeded in carrying his 
point in favour of invasion. On the Slst 
of December, 1813, the united Russian, 
Austrian, and Prussian army crossed the 
Rhine. The battle of Brienne, which Alex- 
ander and Frederick William witnessed from 
the neighbouring heights, was the first en- 
counter on the soil of France; and, des- 
perately as Napoleon fought on the ground 
which had witnessed his first honours as a 
865 



boy at school, it terminated in &vour of the 
allies, and it was followed by other successes 
at Craon, at Laon, and at Soissons. The 
victories of Napoleon at Montmirail and 
Champaubert were perhaps still more un- 
fortunate for him in the end than these de- 
feats were ; they led him to reject the favour- 
able terms which the allies offered him in 
the conferences of Cfaatillon. In conse- 
quence of this rejection, a treaty was signed 
at Chaumont on the 1st of March, between 
the four allied powers, Russia, Austria, 
Prussia, and England, by which it was 
agreed that each should keep an army of a 
hundred and fifty thousand men in the field, 
and England, in addition to maintaining her 
own contingent, should pay the o^er powers 
an annual subsidy of five millions sterling. 
The war was resumed. Napoleon, who had 
often committed military fhults with impunity, 
from the habit his opponents had contracted 
of standing on the defensive, marched tO' 
wards the Rhine with the purpose of draw- 
ing the allies from Paris ; but the Russian 
general, Volkonsky, pointed out to Alex- 
ander, in a council of war, that he had now 
the opportunity of taking Paris. The em- 
peror eagerly seized the suggestion, and on 
the 24th of March met the King of Prussia 
and Schwarzenberg on the road near Vitry, 
and laying before them the plan of opera- 
tions, proposed the decisive measure. It 
was adopted; Napoleon was left to waste 
his strength where his presence waus not 
required, while the allies, pressing onward, 
after a battle gained at La Fdre Champe- 
noise, and another under the walls of Paris, 
saw the capital at their mercy. The allies 
entered Paris on the Slst of March, 1814. 
It was the proudest day in Alexander's life. 
He was welcomed by the inhabitants of 
Paris as a deliverer. " We have been long 
expecting you," cried one of the crowd, 
not very sensible to national honour, that 
thronged the Boulevards. ** We should have 
been here sooner," replied the emperor, 
" but for the bravery of your troops." ** I do 
not come as your enemy," he firequently 
repeated, *• regard me as your friend." He 
was indeed their deliverer from the vengeance 
of his own army. The Russian soldiers, who 
believed that Napoleon had set fire to their 
capital, " Mother Moscow," as they term it» 
said to one another on the morning of their 
entry, " Father Paris must pay for Mother 
Moscow." A word from Alexander would 
have sealed the destruction of Paris ; but all 
his efforts were di^j^ted to preserve it 
After seeing fifty thousand of the allied 
troops defile before him in the Place Louis 
Quinze, he alighted at the house of Talley- 
rand, where the allied princes and ministers 
j with some of the leading men of Paris were 
I assembled to receive him. A conference 
j took place on the course to be adopted in the 
. present state of afiOurs. Alexander requested 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



the opinion of the French part of the com- 
pany, with the declaration that the v.ish of 
the allied powers waa to consult the wishes 
of France and secure the peace of the world. 
The meeting closed with an expressed reso- 
lution on the part of Alexander to treat no 
longer with the Emperor Napoleon, or with 
any of his fieuaxily. The effect of this deter- 
mination, made public immediately after, 
was decisiye. On the next day, the Ist of 
April, the senate met and nominated a pro- 
yisional goTemmeot, still, however, without 
saying a word of the restoration of the 
Bourbons, the measure to which the de- 
claration of Alexander evidently pointed. 
On the day after, by a solemn decree, the 
penate dethroned the Emperor NapoleoB, and 
absolved the army and the people from 
their oaths d allegianoe. After passing this 
decree the senate waited in a body on Alex- 
ander, who received them in the most gra- 
cious manner, protested that he made war 
against Napoleon only, and added, " The 
provisional government has asked me for the 
liberation of the French prisoners of war 
confined in Russia : I ^ive it to the senate 
in return for the resolutions it has this day 
passed." By this act one hundred and fifty 
thousand men recovered their liberty. 

The moderation exhibited by Alexander 
in the hour of triumph was indeed carried to 
almost a culpable excess. On the arrival, a 
few days after, of envoys firom Napoleon to 
plead the cause, not indeed of their fUlen 
master, but of his son and the army, he called 
a council to deliberate on the expediency of 
considering their proposals, aldiough the 
measures already taken had dearly pledged 
the allied kings to the cause of the Bour- 
bons, and to recede would have been to 
sacrii&ce to the vengeance of the Bonapartists 
all who had avowed the Bourbon party on the 
faith of those pledges. The council decided 
against any change of measures; but it was 
owing to the influence of Alexander that such 
fieivourable terms were granted to Napoleon : 
the possession of an independent sovereign^ 
in Elba, and the command of a portion of his 
former guard. Alexander staid for some 
tune at Paris, examining the public establish- 
ment, and conducting himself more as a 
foreign prince on a visit of curiosity to that 
capital than a conqueror who had entered it 
by force after a war in which the dearest 
interests of mankind had been at stake. He 
paid frequent visits to Josephine, the divorced 
wife of Napoleon, whose influence was ex- 
erted with him on behalf of her former hus- 
band; and on her death, soon after, he was 
present at her fhneraL On the 3d of Ma^, 
the day of the entry of Louis XVIIL to his 
restored capital, he witnessed the procession 
from a window, but declined taking any part 
in it, from a feeling of delicacy both to the 
king and his people. The proclamation 
addressed to the French nation by Louis, 
866 



dated flrom St Ouen on the preceding day, 
in which he promised a constitution to his 
subjects, was drawn up under the imme- 
diate influence of Alexander. On the Ist of 
Judo he left Paris for London, and remained 
in England till the 28th — a memorable period 
of national rejoicing, unequalled in the im- 
portance of its causes or the depth of ita 
fiervour. A grand banquet was ^ven at the 
Guildhall to the Emperor of Russia, the King 
of Prussia, and the Prince Regent of Eng- 
land, on the 18th of June, the exact date oa 
which, a year afterwards, the battibs of Wa- 
terloo was won. The allied princes paid 
a visit to Oxford, where they were honoored 
with the degree of doctors' of civil law, — a 
oirenmstanoe which has more excited the 
suiprise than the admiration of foreign his- 
torians. Alexander was also admitted to the 
order of the Garter : but the honour which 
really seemed to afford him mostmtifica- 
tion was that of a medal from the Humane 
So^ety in reward fbr his personal exertions 
some time before in saving the life of a man 
who had been apparently drowned. He was 
present at some military reviews in Hyde 
Park, and at the less flrequent spectacle of 
a grand nayal review at Portsmouth. On 
leaving England he went to Holland, where 
his most memorable day was spent in a visit 
to the cottage which Peter the Great had 
occupied when a ship's carpenter at Ssardam. 
His return to his own dominions was wel- 
comed with boundless enthusiasm; but he 
declined the title of ^ BlagosloYennniy," or 
** Blessed," which the synod and the senate 
had decreed hun, and avoided the ceremony 
of a public entry into St. Putersbuig. To 
a proposal for erecting a monument to com- 
memorate his exploits, he replied, ** I beg the 
public bodies of the empire to abandon all 
such designs. May a monument be erected 
to me in your hearts, as it is to you in mine. 
May my people bless me in their hearts, as in 
mine I bless them. May Russia be happy, 
and may the Divine blessing watch over her 
and over me." He granted an absolute par- 
don to all of his subjects who had taken part 
against him in the late war ; and, in the go- 
yemments which had suffered most from the 
invasion, he dispensed wi^ levying the per- 
sonal tax firom the peasants. 

After concluding a peace with Persia, 
which had rashly ventured on a war by 
which it now lost several important districts, 
be repaired to the congress of Vienna, where 
the moderation which he had so signally 
displayed with regard to the French appears 
to have been replaced by a different spirit, 
whidi gave uneasiness to his allies. He 
wished to punish the King of Saxony by Uie 
cession of his entire dominions to Pru88is^ 
but was persuaded to be satisfied with the 
surrender of a large portion. For himself 
he demanded the grand duchy of Warsaw, 
and with such fized^ss of purpose that it was 



ALEXANBEJEL 



ALEXANDER. 



genenll^ understood he would sapport hit 
claims, if necessary, hy an ^peal to arms. | 
The allies yielded to his wishes. The gnmd ^ 
dachy and the other portions of Poland 
already in Alexander's power were erected 
into a separate kingdom, of which, in January, | 
1815, he was recognised king, and to which 
he soon after granted a constitution as to a j 
state distinct from Russia. When the news 
of Bonaparte's retom from Elha reached | 
theCongress, then jnst on the point of break- | 
ing ttp, Alexander signed wiUiont hesitation | 
the declaration of the allies (dated the 13th ' 
of MarchX that " Napoleon Bonaparte had 
placed hiniself oat of the pale of civil and i 
social relations.** He received at Heidelberg, ! 
on his onward march with his army, the in- 
ftmnation of the battle of Waterloo, and on 
the 11th of July arriyed at Paris, where he 
found himself no longer so popular, and 
showed himself no longer so placable, as in 
the preceding year, the conduct of the French 
and their emperor having tanght him that 
moderation does not always conciliate. It is 
said, however, that he opposed himself to a 
pnject then on fbot for dismembering France, 
m accordance with an opinion he had ex- 
pressed in the preceding year, that **for the 
happiness of Europe it was necessary that 
France diould be great and powerftiL" It 
may be more than doubted whether any such 
project was ever entertained. 

On the 20th of September, before leaving 
. Paris, Alexander signed, in coi\}unction with 
the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, a 
treaty of the most singular nature. In the 
first of the three articles of which it consists 
it declares that ** conformably to the prin- 
ciples of the Holy Scriptures, which command 
til men to look upon one another as brothers, 
the three contracting m<marchs will remain 
united by the bonds of a true and indisso- 
luble brotherhood; that, mutually considering 
themselves as feUow-countrymen, the^ will 
lend each other, on all occasions and in all 
places, assistance, aid, and snooonr ; and that, 
considering themselves in the light of fiithers 
of a fimiily towards their subjects and armies, 
they will direct them in the same spirit of 
brotherhood with which they are animated 
to protect religion, peace, and justice." In 
the second article the same sentimente are 
repeated, but with a more direct and con- 
tinued aUusion to their foundatkm in Chris- 
tianity ; and in the third the contracting 
parties invite all powers who will avow the 
same sacred doctrines to be received into this 
*' Holy Alliance." Alexander was the chief 
promoter of this new and singular league, to 
which he was supposed to have been insti- 
gated W the exhortations of Madame Krii- 
dener [Kbubeneb], a religioas esrthusiast 
of the period. For the rest of his Hfe the 
maintenance of this alliance, which was soon 
acceded to by all the prineiiial powers of 
Europe with the exception of England, was 
867 



the main object of his efforts, and one to 
which he made more than one sacrifice of 
advantages that might have been attained by 
following a more selfish policy. The oh- 
jections to the Holy Alliance were obvious : 
it tended to prevent the advance of liberty 
or political improvement in any single coun- 
try, without the simultaneous consent of all 
or the migority of the princes of Europe. 
But the advantages of the system have not 
been so fblly recognised, though it is no 
doubt to the Holy Alliance and to its legiti- 
mate successor, the conferences of ^e five 
great powers, that the long-continued peace 
since the battle of Waterloo must be ascribed* 
By establishing a sort of general council in 
the affiurs of Europe, it made an advance 
towards a fl^stem of deciding the most mo- 
mentous afnirs of nations without an appeal 
to arms ; a benefit of such extent that it may 
compensate for many disadvantages. Three 
meetings of the Holy Alliance were held 
during Alexander's lifetime ; that of Aix-la- 
ChapeUe in October and November, 1818 ; 
that of Troppau, from October to December, 
1820, afterwards transferred to Laybach; and 
that of Verona, from October to December, 
1822. At Aix-la-Chapelle, Alexander took 
a leading part in procuring the reduction of 
the sums agreed to be paid b^ France in 
indemnification of the requisitions, contri- 
butions, and plunderings exacted and exer- 
cised hj the French armies abroad during 
the war, and which it was now alleged that 
France could not possibly pay without abso- 
lute ruin. The sum to be liquidated was 
reduced, by his mediation, fr'om 700,000,000 
to 320,300,000 francs. At the congress of 
Troppau, the injurious principle of the Holy 
Alliance began to be developed by the order 
that was issued by its members for the sup- 
pressiim of the revolutions of Piedmont and 
Naples by the use of military power foreign 
to those states. While Alexander was suU 
at Lajrbach, the news arrived of the first out- 
break of an insurrection in Greece, the same 
which was finally destined, after so many re- 
verses, to prove successful It was accom- 
panied by a letter tram Ypsilanti [ Ypsilantt], 
who headed the revolt, and who had been an 
o£9cer in the Russian service, soliciting ^e 
aid of Russia. Alexander replied by a pe- 
remptory refhsal and a sharp reproof, and 
preserved the same line of conduct during 
the remainder of his reign, in spite of the in- 
credulity and the insults of Turkey, which 
almost openly accused hhn of hypocrisy, and 
of the surprise and even indignation of his 
snfajects, who believed that the vengeance of 
Heaven would fiJl upon them for not assisting 
the Christians against the Infidels. At this 
period the Count Capodistrias [Capoims- 
TBXAs], the Russian secretary of state for 
foreign affiurs, withdrew firom office and ob- 
tuned permission to travel It is said that he 
and the other seo^ctary, Nessekode, had long 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDCa. 



Mpported opposite opinions in the Russian 
cabinet ; that Capodistrias had advocated the 
cause of liberal opinions in general, and that, 
being himself a Greek, he had encouraged 
Ypsilanti to commence his enterprise, in the 
hopes of persuading Alexander to give as- 
sistance to the independence of Greece. The 
discoyerj of this circumstance stripped Capo- 
distrias of his influence, and his consequent 
retirement from the cabinet was considered a 
triumph of anti-liberal principles, which from 
that period obtained a decided ascendancy 
in the councils of Russia. At the congress of 
Verona, Alexander took occasion to state his 
Tiews on the subject of the Greek insur- 
rection. ** There is nothing," he said to 
Chateaubriand, the French plenipotentiary at 
that congress, ** that could appear more con- 
formable to my interests or to those of my 
country, or to the opinions of my nation, than 
a religious war against the Turks; but I 
thought I perceiyed in the troubles of the 
Peloponnesus a taint of revolution, and from 
that moment I held aloof." " What need 
have I," he continued, *' of increasing my 
empire ? Providence has not placed under 
my orders eight hundred thousand soldiers 
that I might gratify ambition, but that I 
might protect religion, morals, and justice, 
and enforce those principles of order on which 
human society reposes. Alexander, there- 
fore, came to no rupture with Turkey, though 
his ambassador had been forced to leave 
Constantinople ; and in pursuance of the 
same principles he took part with the con- 
gress of Verona in directing the Duke of 
Angouleme*s invasion of Spain. 

The same gradual progress to less liberal 
principles is discernible in Alexander's con- 
duct with regard to Poland. After leaving 
Paris in 1815, he repaired to Warsaw, where 
he established a constitution for that country, 
and placed at its head the general Zaiacsek 
with the title of viceroy. By this consti- 
tution a much greater degree of freedom was 
granted to the roles than the Russians them- 
selves enjoyed. The Roman Catholic form 
of fjuth was recognised as the religion of the 
state, but all dissidents were placed on a perfect 
equality with the Roman Catholics as to civil 
rights ; the liberty of the press was permitted 
to its fhllest extent ; the legislative authority 
was vested in the king and two chambers, 
and judges were to be elected partly by the 
king and partly by the palatinates. In 1818, 
in his speech on opening the chambers, 
Alexander made use of these remarkable 
words : — ^ Prove to your contemporaries 
that liberal institutions, the principles <^ which 
aie confounded b^ some with those disastrous 
doctrines which m our days have threatened 
the social system with a frightfiil catastrophe, 
— ^prove that they are not duigerous delusions ; 
but that, put in practice with good faith, and 
directed by pure intentions towards a useful 
and conservative object, they are perfectly in 
868 



accordance with order, and insure the pros^ 
perity of nations." He declared that he was 
only waiting to try the effect of the good in- 
stitutions he had giyen Poland, to extend 
them to all the regions which Proridence had 
placed under his care. In 1819, dissensions 
had begun to arise, and by an ordinance of 
July 31st in that year the censorship was 
established. It is singular that Alexander 
had abolished the censorship in Russia on his 
accession, and that there also he had resumed 
it, and after a very short intervaL In his 
speech on opening the chambers in 1820, he 
spoke with bitterness of the revolutionary 
doctrines which were then agitating Europe, 
and declared that he would never palter with 
the principles which he had laid down for his 
guidance. The session was very stormy, and 
a measure proposed by government (the only 
way in which a measure could be brought 
forward) was r^ected by 120 votes to 3. 
Alexander abruptly closed the session, and 
no new diet was summoned till 1825. Some 
students of the university of Wilna were 
thrown into prison immediately after the 
dissolution, on suspicion of being concerned 
in a meditated revolt ; and it seems to be an 
admitted fact that these suspicions were bv no 
means unfounded. The Poles, therefore, 
appear to have left their ruler little choice 
but that of governing despotically or not go- 
verning at alL 

These are the principal political events in 
the reign of Alexander after the dose of 
the great drama in 1815. In 1825, on the 
13th of September, he left St Petersburg 
on an excursion to the south of Russia, 
ostensibly to visit the empress, who was then 
residing at Ta^rog for the benefit of the 
air, bemg afflicted with a disease of the 
heart He was observed to look frequently 
back at the capital with a melancholy air, 
and to seem altogether out of spirits. He 
had, in fitbct, received information of an ex- 
tensive conspiracy, the ol^ect of which was 
to effect a thorough change in the govern- 
ment, and the means, to put the imperial 
&milyto death. [Ruilayev.] Soon after 
he arrived at Taganrog, he took an excur- 
sion in the Crimea, in the course of which 
he paused at a picturesque spot, and re- 
marked, that if he retired from the cares 
of ^vemment, it was there he would wiali 
to Uve, seeming to take pleasure in the 
thought of abdication. On his return to 
Taganrog, he was found to have caught a 
slight cold, which was soon succeeded by an 
intermittent fever. He was obstinate in re- 
fVising to take all kinds of medicine, and in 
disregarding the advice of his medical at- 
tendants i perhaps in the state of melancholy 
to which the news of the conspiracy had 
reduced him, he was indifferent to life. 
At one period of his disease he exclaimed, 
** Emperors suffer more than other men ; my 
nervous system is shaken." Then stopping 



ALfiXANDfiR. 



ALEXANDER. 



«kort,1ie threw himself back <m hk piUow, 
and murmured, ** It was a detestable action 
which they committed ; " alluding, perhaps, 
to the assassination of Paul, to which, in all 
probability, his thoughts now often reverted. 
He died on the 31st of November, 1825. 
&is brother Nicolas succeeded him, to the 
exclusion of his nearer brother, Constantine, 
who was the next in the order of succession, 
but whom Alexander had persuaded to re- 
linquish his claims on account of his admitted 
incapacity to govern. 

Alexander was of a tall stature and stately 
presence, and always looked younger than 
he was ; advantages to which he is said to 
have been by no means insensible. He was 
short-sighted, and early afflicted with hard- 
ness of hearing, caused by standing too near 
a strong discharge of artillery ; and this last 
infirmity, which increased much with age, 
contributed to throw a shade of melancholy 
over the latter years of his life. He was 
well acquainted with English, and a perfect 
roaster of the French language, to the litera- 
ture of which he showed a preference over 
that of other nations, which appears singular 
when it is considered that the age of Napo- 
leon is one of the barrenest in its records, 
while at the same period both England and 
Germany gave birth to some of the noblest 
productions of their genius. His manners 
were fSascinating to the last degree, and the 
tones of his voice had something peculiarly 



The reign of Alexander is the most splen* 
did in Russian history, and, after that of 
Peter the Great, the most beneficial. One 
proof of its success may be found in the 
extent of the territorial acquisitions that dis- 
tinguish it The Russian empire comprised 
at Alexander's accession 5,591,552 geogra- 
phical square miles. The acquisition of Fin- 
land, the Aland Isles, and part of Lapland 
added 79,632 square miles ; that of Bessarabia 
and part of Moldavia, 18,064 ; the kingdom of 
Polimd, 36,672 ; the countries ceded by Persia 
38,696 ; and Circassia, 24,848 : so that the em- 
pire at his death comprised 5,789,464 geo- 
graphical square miles ; which gives an in« 
crease of 197,912 square miles. 

The extension of his territory was how- 
ever by no means the main object of Alex- 
ander's care. Not a single branch of the 
internal administration was left by him as he 
found it ; what he did not improve he created. 
The army was reformed almost throughout, 
the artillery and engineering departments in 
particular ; but the most important reform 
was in the character and habits of the Rus- 
sian soldier, whose ancient barbarism was 
subjected to the restraints not only of disci- 
pline but of humanity. In the history of 
Alexander's wars we find none of the savage 
massacres which disgrace the military annids 
of his predecessors. The board of the ways 
of communication, for the imjprovement of 
869 



roads and canals, was established by Alex- 
ander, who also provided for their rafety by 
the introduction of a new system of internal 
police, under the direction of another especial 
board. The finances of the empire, in spite 
of the long and expensive wars in which he 
engaged, and in spite of the enormous losses 
which had been sustained by the obstruction 
of English conunerce subsequent to the treaty 
of Tilsit, he left in a flourishing condition. 
Alexander established the ministry of public 
instruction, founded three universities, those 
of St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kharkov, di- 
vided all Russia into educational districts, 
and planted in each district gymnasia, or high 
schools, deparUnental and provincial schools. 
During his reign also were established the 
Lyceum of Tzarskoselo, the institute of the 
board of wa^s of communication, the colleges 
of engineering, artillery, and ship-building, 
the military oolleges of Tula and Tambov, 
and that for the cadets of the guards, and 
the professional chairs for the Oriental 
languages. Institutions for the instruction of 
the female sex were taken under the protec- 
tion of the empress-mother and the empress^ 
Alexander was liberal in the encouragement 
of expeditions for the extension of know- 
ledge. The first Russian voyage round the 
world was performed in 1803-6, by Kru- 
senstem and Lisiansky, and followed up by 
those of Gk>lovnin, Bellingshausen, Vasilyev, 
and Kotzebue ; the last of which, however, 
was supported by the private munificence of 
the chancellor, Rumiantzov. The literature 
of Russia developed a new energy during 
Alexander's reign in the hands of Karamzin^ 
Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Dmitriev, Kruilov, 
and Batyushkov. Its most eminent produc* 
tion is Karamzin's ** History of Russia," the 
solid value of which formed so striking a 
contrast to the general insignificance of con* 
temporaneous productions in prose, that • 
native critic compared it to a pyramid stand* 
ing alone in a desert of sand. This work hat 
a remarkable dedication to Alexander. ** In 
the ;^ear 1811," says the author, **in tb9 
happiest minutes of my life, — minutes never 
to be forgotten, ~ I read over to yon, Snv^ 
some chapters of this history, of the horrors 
of the invasion of Batu Khan, and ihe exploits 
of the hero Demetrius Donskoy — at that 
period when a heavy cloud of misery hung 
over Europe, and threatened even our beloved 
country. You listened with an attention 
that enraptured me ; you compared the long 
past with the present, and you did not envy 
the glorious dangers of Demetrius, because 
you foresaw others still more glorious for 
yourself. The magnanimous presentiment 
has been fulfilled. The cloud burst over 
Russia ; but we are safe, we are glorious c 
the enemy is destroyed, Europe is free, and 
the head of Alexander shines with the re* 
splendent crown of immortality* Sire, if the 
happiness of your virtuous heart is equal t# 



ALSXANDEB. 



ALEXANDER. 



yoar glory, yoa are the hi^piest of the mma 
of earth." 

In the improyement of the political liberty 
of RuMia Alexander took no decisiye steps. 
At his accession he abolished, indeed, tiie 
''Secret Tribunal," before which political 
offenders were tried, and forced to confession 
by the pangs of hunger and thirst ; and he 
aiso abolished at the same time the censor- 
ship of the press, but this he soon resumed. 
In the latter years of his life, alarmed at the 
revolutions which burst out in 1820, and 
which he had probably imagined the dread- 
fhl experience of the French revolution 
would have prevented coming to maturity, 
he seems to have conceived an unconquerable 
aversion for political change. His earlier 
sentiments were more generous in this re- 
spect ; and with regard to personal slavery 
his sentiments were always generous. ** The 
system of bondage in this country," he wrote 
to Madame de Stael, ** will wound your eye. 
It is not my fimlt I have set an example, 
but I cannot use force. I must respect the 
rights of others, as if there were a constitu- 
tion here, which unhappily there is not" It 
was to thjs expression that Madame de Stael 
made the celebrated reply, **Sire, your 
character is a constitution." In 1819 he re- 
turned his thanks to the Livonion nobility, 
who requested his confirmation of a new 
system of rural management by which ser&ge 
was abolished, and remarked, ''You have 
acted in the spirit of our age, in which liberal 
institutions oiUy can secure the happiness of 
nations." To oppose serfage is in an emperor 
of Russia a noble because a hazardous virtue. 

In the discharge of the duties which in his 
own opinion belonged to him, Alexander was 
constantly and untiringly active. His visits 
to the different portions of his empire were 
so frequent, and necessarily occasioned him 
to take such long journeys, that he is sup- 
posed to have travelled more than any other 
man of his time. Even in the latter years 
of his life, when his popularity had decreased, 
prejudice could not refuse him a burst of 
praise for his personal exertions at the great 
wundations of St Petersburg in 18S4. 

In the general estimate of his character, 
not only as a monarch but a man, very op- 
posite opinions have been, and probably will 
be, entertained. His actions at different 
periods of his life were indeed so contrary to 
each other, that at a first glance it might be 
thought that the Alexander before and the 
Alexander after 1812 were two different 
persons. On the one hand we see the asso- 
ciate in the dethronement of his fkther ; the 
false ally, who, while making common cause 
with Napoleon before the world, corresponds 
in secret with his bitterest enemies ; the relent- 
less oppressor, who allows no opportunity to 
escape^ him of crushing unhappv PoUmd; 
the fiuthless friend, who deserts the Bling of 
Pruwia in his extremity to join with the 
870 



spoiler and receive from him a share in the 
prey ; tiie unprincipled renegade, who tears 
with the most shameless effrontery whole 
provinces from the King of Sweden as a 
punishment for the very line of conduct 
which his own encouragement and example 
had originally countenanced him in adopt- 
ing. On the other hand, we see in his 
reign, commencing from 1812, three years 
of unexampled and dazzling glory; first, 
as a monarch, repelling with unshaken fiim- 
ness from his dominions a storm of in- 
vasion which might have made the bravest 
jGdter; next, as a generous ally, arousing with 
spirit-stirring eloquence the very nations 
which had been lei to the field against him 
to achieve their own independence, and 
proffering his aid ; last, as a conqueror, only 
censurable, if at all, for an absolute excess of 
moderation and magnanimity. The qualitieB 
he displays are so varied, the events that call 
them forth so striking, Uiat the whole tain, 
of incidents seems rather the ingenious fiction 
of a poet, who has contrived his narrative to 
exalt the virtues of a fiivourite hero than the 
authentic history of real acts and persons. 
These contradictions in Alexander's ooune 
of action may perfai^ be explamed by keep- 
ing an eye on the character drawn of him by 
his early preceptor Masson, who painted him 
as amiable in himself, but too mudi disposed 
to act by the advice Ol those who surrounded 
him. It is ftr from unoonomon, in ordinary 
life, to find persons who are led to adopt a 
handier and more selfi^ line of conduct than 
their own feelings would prompt them to» 
from the apprehension of being st^matised 
for weakness, of the " world's dread laugh," 
which is directed against no one oftener 
than the dupe. At his accession to the ^dirone 
Alexander was but twenty-three years of 
age ; at his interviews with Kapoleon at Tilsit 
he was still under tCrty. It is during or 
shortly after this interval, when his character 
was in all probability not Ailly formed, when 
perhaps he frit too Ihtle confidence in himself 
or his own views to disregard the suggestions 
of profligate statesmen who had grown grey- 
in intrigue, that all those acts St his reign 
were performed which bear on them a tinge 
of dishonour, and lead to a suspicion of the 
firmness of his principles. Whatever charges 
may be brought against him in later lifo, — 
of harshness, for instance, towards the Poles; 
of want of sympathy for the Greeks ; of 
general antagonism to liberal doctrines,-— 
thejr are aU of a kind not mcompatible witii 
ahigh estimate of his character ; and, indeed, 
seem to take their origin in a view of his 
duty, which even those may respect as 
sincere who deem it mistaken Adversity 
seems to have exalted and ennobled him; 
the tragic struggle in which he was engaged 
had the effect which Aristotie ascribes to 
dramatic tragedy, of *' purifying the passions. ** 
For salsfle lad apprehensive intellect, for un- 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



wearied and appropriate actiTit^r, fat aealons 
benevolence and lofty magnanimity, the worid 
has probably never seen a greater mler, with 
the exception of Alfred, thanAlexander Pav- 
lovich. (H. £. Llo^d, Akxandtr /.; article 
by Michaud jeune, m Biographie Univer»dlet 
Ivi 160—192. ; by Grech, in Russian Entsi- 
khpedecheahf Lexlkan, I 469—480.; anony- 
mous in QmverMtiona-Lexikon of Brockhaus, 
8th edition, L 171—178. ; in that of Reichen- 
bach, L 245 — S50. ; Esneaux and Chennechot, 
Hutoire Pkaotophiqve de Buuie, v. 287—503. ; 
Glinka, Isionya RuMkaya^ xi. 140, &c. &c.$ 
Bignon, HtMtoire de France depuig le 18 Bru- 
mairty L 430, &c. &c.; Walter Scott, Life of 
Ab/N»&ofiBiiofurparte,vL23,&c.&c.; Alison, 
Hiatary of Europe from the French Revohitian ; 
Mikhailovsky Danilevsky, History of die Cetm- 
paiffK in France in 1814, translated from the 
Russian ; Sir J. Carr, A Northern Summer (for 
an aooonnt of the death of Panl), p. 302 — 
320.; Webster, Thtveb through the Crimea, 
ffc. (fbr an account of Alexander's death), ii 
333—358.) , T. W. 

ALEXANDER, sumamed Peloflaton 
(*AA^(ai^pos nijAorAth-ciy), was a son of Alex- 
ander of Selencia in Cilicia, and distinguished 
like his ihther as a rhetorician. He was a 
man of extraordinary beauty, and inherited 
fVom hb lather a considerable fortune, which 
he is said to have spent in the ei^oyment of 
pleasure, without, however, becoming a licen- 
tious man. When he had attained the age of 
manhood, the city of Seleucia on one occasion 
82nt him as ambassador to the Emperor An- 
tonmus Pius, who is said to have upbraided 
him for his care about his personal appearance. 
The remainder of his life he spent in travel- 
Img; he visited Antioch, Rome, Tarsus, 
Egypt, and even Ethiopia. He also visited 
Athens, where he had a rhetorioal contest 
with Herodes Atticus, and gamed the highest 
admiration, not only of his audience but also 
of his competitor, who, on parting, honoured 
him with the most munificent presents. Only 
one Corinthian, of the name of Soeptea, ex- 
pressed his diappointment \ify saying that he 
had found **the clay" (iniMs) bat no Plato; 
from which saying Alexander received the 
nickname ot Peloplatoo. For some time he 
was Greek secretary to the emperor Bl An- 
toninus, and according to some accounts he 
died while he was still holding this office, 
but according to others ai&er he nad resigned 
it, at the age of sixty, or sixty-eight. 

Alexander Peloplaton was one of the most 
distinguished rhetoricians of his age, and his 
orations are praised ibr their sublimity and 
animation, but his style was concise and 
abrupt Several of the arguments of his 
speeches, together with some of his best say- 
ings, are preserved in Philostratns, who has 
given an account of him in his '* Vitn So- 
phistamm," iL 5. See also Snidas, s. v. 'AA^- 
ai^pot Aiyaios; Eudocia, p. 52, &c L. S. 

ALEXANDER CAA^orSpof), a natural 
871 



son of PKB8BU8,the last king of Macedoniii 
When Macedonia was conquered by the Ro« • 
manins, ii.c. 168, Alexander with his ihther 
and his brother Philip, were led to Rome in 
triumph by ^milius Paulus in b. c. 167, and 
after the triumph was over he was sent with 
his fhther to Alba to be kept in custody there. 
What became of him afterwards is unknown, 
but it seems that he was soon after liberated, 
fbr Plutarch says that he learned the Roman 
language, and subsequently acted as a scribe 
to the Roman magistrates. (Livy, xlii. 52. 
xlv. 42. ; Justin, xxxiil 2. ; Plutarch, jEmiL 
Paul. 37.) L.S. 

ALEXANDER (AX^(aySpot), tyrant of 
Ph£RJI in Thessaly, obtained the sovereignty 
of that country b. c. 369, by the assassination 
of his kinsman Polyphron, who had succeeded 
his two brothers Jason and Polydorus as 
Tagns. He oppressed his Thessalian suligects 
to such a de^e that the Aleuads, a noble 
fimiily of Lanssa, conspired against him, and 
called in to their assistance Alexander IL, 
king of Macedon, who took Larissa and Cran- 
non, and forced Alexander to retire to Phene. 
Macedonian garrisons were placed in ihete 
towns against the will of the Thessalians, 
who, in the dread, not less probably of their 
new ally than of their domestic enemy, 
invited the Thebans under Pelopidas into 
their country. This general took Larissa, 
expelling thence the Macedonians, and at- 
tempted unsuccessfully to negotiate between 
the tyrant of Phera and the Thessalians. 
Shortly afterwards (b. c. 367) Pelopidas 
made a second expedition into Thessalv, and 
having been induced to trust himself m the 
hands of Alexander, was treacherously taken 
prisoner. In the attempt to rescue their 
countrymen the Theban forces were nearly 
cut off by an ambuscade ; but they were 
rescued by the presence of mind of Epami- 
nondas, and Alexander was compelled to give 
up his captive, though supported by the power 
of the Athenians, who on this occasion sent 
him thirty ships and a thousand men under 
the conmiand of Autodes. He continued to 
oppress the Thessalians, and seems to have 
been a formidable enemy to the Thebans, till, 
having been defeated b^ them in the expe- 
dition which terminated m the death of Pelo* 
pidas, B. c. 364, he became their ally, and con- 
cluded a treaty in which he restored to his 
Thessalian countrymen the towns which he 
had taken firom them. In b. c. 362 he seised 
the island of Tenus and enslaved the inha- 
bitants ; and in the following year he made 
piratical expeditions against tiie Cydades, 
besieged Peparethns, and defeated the Athe- 
nians under Leoethenes at Panormus near Su- . 
nium. His wife Thebe, whom he had always 
treated with the utmost suspicion, conspired 
with her brothers Lyoophron, Tisiphonns, 
and Pjrtholaas, and assaiisinated him in the 
close ot the year b. c. 359. All ancient authors 
ascribe to Alexander a most cruel and per- 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



fidiooB diaracter. He took Sootussa in Thes- 
saly under circumstances of sin^ar treach- 
ery. Anecdotes of his domestic hehaviour 
are told by Cicero {Bt Qfficiis, ii. 7.). 
(Xenophon, Hellenica, vL 4.; Diodorus, xv. 
61. 67. 75. 80. ; Polybius, viiL 1. ; Plutarch, 
Pdapidas; Demosthenes, Againat Pofycl p. 
1207. ed. Reiske ; Pausanias, vL 5.) C. N. 

ALEXANDER PHILALE'THES, or (as 
his surname is translated by Octavius Hora- 
tianus, JRer, Medic. lib. iv. p. 102. D. ed. Ar- 
gent 1532,) ** Amator Veri," an ancient Greek 
physician, mentioned by Strabo (Geograph, 
lib. xii. p. 580. edit. Casaub.) as having suc- 
ceeded Zeoxis as head of a celebrated medical 
school in Phrygia. It consisted of the fol- 
lowers of Herophilus, and was established 
between Carura and Laodicea, at the village 
of Men Cams, where there were numerous 
warm springs, and a temple which was an 
otject of great veneration amons the sur- 
rounding people. (Cramer's Asia Minora voL 
ii. p. 43.) We know nothing of his history, 
except that (according to Octavius Hora- 
tianus, loco ett) he was a pupil of Ascle- 
piades ; that he is mentioned by Strabo as 
a contemporary, and therefore must pro- 
bably have been living at the close of the 
first centurv before Christ ; and that he was 
tutor to Anstoxenus and Demosthenes. (GaL 
De Differ, Puis, lib. iv. cap. 4. tom. viiL p. 746. 
ed. Kiihn.) He wrote some medical works, 
none of which are now extant: he is several 
times mentioned by Galen, who has given 
his definition of the pulse; and by Soranus 
(Pe ArU Obstetr. cap. 92. p. 210. ed. Dietz.) 
he is enumerated among those physicians 
who considered that there was nothing pecu- 
liar in the character of the diseases of women 
requiring any peculiar treatment. He is very 
probably the same person as the physician 
quoted by Coslius Aurelianus (^Morb. Acut 
lib. iL cap. 1. p. 74. ed. Amman.) under the 
name " Alexander Laodicensis." W. A. G. 

ALEXANDER POLYHISTOR. [Alex- 
ander Cornelius.] 

ALEXANDER CAX^^oySpos), the son of 
PoLYSPERCHON, IS first mentioned in Greek 
history on his appointment to be one of the 
body-guard of Philip Arrhideus, the brother 
of Alexander the Great, and his nominal suc- 
cessor on the throne of Macedon* This 
honour was conferred on him by Antipater 
on occasion of the partition of the empire of 
Alexander the Great among his generals, 
which took place at Triparadisus in Syria, 
B. o. 321. Antipateron his deathbed (b. c. 319) 
bequeathed the Macedonian regency to his 
friend Polysperchon, one of the oldest generals 
of Alexander : Cassander,the son of Antipater, 
enraged at being passed over on this occasion, 
commenced hostilities against the new regent 
by sending his adherent Nicanor to Athens, 
who took possession first of Muoychia, and 
Afterwards of Piraeus. Alexander was in 
eoi|sequenoe sent by his father into Attica 
872 



with a body of troops to dislodge NicaHoT and 
to restore the ascendancy of the demooratical 
party at Athens, in pursuance of Poly- 
sperchon*s plan of detaching the Greek cities 
from Cassander by a general and entire alter* 
ation of their constitutions. He came to 
I Athens accompanied by many Athenian 
exiles, and remained there occupied in ne- 
gotiations with Nicanor till the arrival of 
Cassander at Athena, who took possession of 
Piraeus. The position of Cassander was too 
strong for Alexander to attack ; he seems to 
have contented himself with watching hi^ 
movements and following him the next year 
(b. c. 317) into Peloponnesus. Here he re- 
mained when Cassander quitted it (b. c. 316) 
on his expedition into Macedonia, and gained 
several strong positions during his a^ence. 
On his return Alexander oppo^d him at die 
Isthmus of Corinth, but was unable to pre- 
vent his passage over to Epidaurus and the 
consequent loss of Argos and Hermione to 
Polysperchon. In the mean time, Antigonns, 
havmg commenced war with his old allies, 
Ptolemy king of Egypt, Lysimachus, and 
Cassander, sought an alliance with Poly- 
sperchon, and sent Aristodemus to Pelopon- 
nesus to treat with him and his son. Alex- 
ander in consequence went to Phoenicia, and 
there concluded a treaty with Antigonns 
(B.C. 315X which promised freedom to the 
Greek states, declared Antigonus regent <^ 
the empire, and assigned to Polysperchon the 
inferior title of general of Peloponnesus, 
which his many late reverses led him to 
accept On his return to Greece the same 
year, Alexander, with the assistance of Ari- 
stodemus, brought over nearlv the whole of 
Peloponnesus to the cause of Antigonus. At 
this juncture Cassander, becoming alarmed 
at the powerftd league formed against him, 
offered Alexander &e command of Pelopon- 
nesus if he would desert his new ally. This 
proposal was accepted by Alexander, as it 
afforded scope for his ambition, then circum- 
scribed by the greater power of his fiither 
and of Aristodemus. He immediately com- 
menced war against Antigonus in the north 
of Peloponnesus, made an alliance with the 
Elei, besieged Cyllene with their assistance, 
and took Dyme. As he was setting cot 
from Sicyon on a further expedition, he was 
treacherously murdered by some of its in* 
habitants (b. c. 314). His wife, Cratesipolis, 
took the command of his troops, who were 
much attached to her, and avenged his death 
bv taking Sicyon. (Arrian, JPftotit BH^Uh- 
theca, p. 72. a. 16., ed. Bekker ; Diodonis, 
xviii cap. 65. to xix. cap. 67. ; Thirlwall*4 
History of Greece, vol. viL ; Droysen, Ge- 
sckicfUe dor Nachfolger AlexanderSf p. 154, 
&c.) C. N. 

ALEXANDER L (Pope), a native of 
Rome, succeeded Euaristus as bishop <yf the 
Christian congregation at Rome, iuD. 108» 
in the reign of the Emperor Tnyaa. We have 



ALEXANDER. 

hdrdly say authentic pBrticolara concerning 
him, except that he filled his office till the 
year 117, the year of Tngan*8 death, when, 
according to some aathorities, he sofEered 
martyrdoHi, but thia ia doubted by others. He 
was succeeded by Sixtus I. He is said to have 
introduced several new forms into the liturgy, 
such as the uae of holy water, and that of 9ie 
unleavened bread in the sacrament (Platina 
e Panyinio, ViU dei Font^ ; Walch, History 
»f the Popes,) A. V. 

ALEXANDER IL (Pope), Ansehno Bada- 
gio or da Baggio, bom of a noble fiunily at 
Milan, in the early part of the eleventh century, 
entered the church and obtained a high repu- 
tation for learning and moral conduct It ap- 
pears that he studied for a time in the convent 
of Bee in Normandy under the celebrated 
Lanfranc Returning to Italy, Anselmo took 
an active and early part in the controversy 
about the married priests of the church of Mi- 
lan, censuring the practice as illegal, and he 
was supported by several priests and deacons 
who aspired to a greater purity of life than 
the rest, and by the lower orders of the people, 
whilst the nobles took the part of the married 
clergy. The city being distracted hj these 
&ctions, Wido, archbishop of Milan, thinking 
it prudent to remove from the scene of strife 
such a person as Anselmo, prevailed upon 
ihe Emperor Henry IIL to make him bishop 
of Lucca with the sanction of Pope Stephen X. 
Anselmo was intimate with the monk Hilde- 
brand, afterwards Gregory VIL, who, being 
appointed by the pope legate to Biilan for the 
purpose of sett^ig the renewed controvem 
about the married priests, took Anselmo with 
him^ A.D. 1058. Hildebrand and Anselmo, 
instead of settling the matters in dispute, 
added fuel to the flame, by condemning the 
Archbishop Wido as guilty of simony, after 
which they left Milan. The city remained a 
prey to anarchy ; but in the ^ear 1059, the 
pope, at the suggestion of Hildebrand, ap- 
pomted two legates, Anselmo and Peter 
Damianus, bishop of Ostia. This time the 
two legates applied themselves mainly to 
investigate the sulject of simony, letting 
alone that of the married priests for the pre- 
sent It appears that an abuse had been^ in- 
troduced of old into the province of Milan, 
that every subdeaeon, deacon, and presbyter 
ordained should pay a fixed fee to the bidiop 
who ordained him. The legates solemnly 
condemned the practice and obliged the arch- 
bishop and his suffragans to sign a censure of 
it They also imposed severe penances on 
those who bad concurred in the abuse, and 
even those who, following an old custom, did 
not know that they were doing wrong, were 
sentenced to fast on bread and water for two 
davs in each week for five years. But another 
object of the legates was to sutject the see of 
Milan to that of Rome in matters of jurisdic- 
tion, to establish the rule that the archbishops 
^f Milan should receive the investiture with the 

▼OL.L 



ALEXANDER. 

ring firom the pope and not from the emperor 
and should pronuse obedience to the pope. The 
legate Peter Damianus also claimed precedence 
of the archbishop in solenm church festivals. 
Soon after the mission of the legates, Pope 
Nicholas IL summoned the archbishop of 
Milan to Rome to attend a council, and 
this was looked upon as another infhiction of 
the rights of the see of Milan, at which the 
contemporary chronicler Amulphus expresses 
great indignation. 

In 1061, Pope Nicholas II. having died, a 
serious misunderstanding broke out at Rome 
about the election of hia successor. One 
party, consisting of most of the cardinals, 
with Hildebrand at their head, proposed that 
the^^ should proceed to the election without 
waiting for the imperial sanction ; the other, 
at the head of which was the Count of 
Tusculum, maintained the rights of the Em- 
peror Henry IV., then a mmor under the 
guardianship of his mother, the Empress 
Agnes. It appears, however, that both par- 
ties sent envoys to the imperial court, but 
that the envoy of the cardinals, having been 
kept seven days without being able to obtain 
an audience, returned to Rome. The vacancy 
had now lasted three months, and the car- 
dinals at length elected and consecrated An- 
selmo, bishop of Lucca, who assumed the 
name of Alexander IL From that time the 
imperial sanction was no longer considered 
necessary for the consecration of a pope. 
The Empress Agnes and her ministers would 
not recognise Alexander IL, and the bishops 
of Lombardy, who disliked the new pope, 
being supported by Cardinal Hugo, sent de- 
puties to Germany proposing the nomination 
of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, a man very 
wealthy but of loose morals, who was accord- 
ingly elected by the name of Honorius II. 
Benzo, bishop o^ Alba and Piedmont, a man 
of some learning, was a strong supporter of 
the antipope. Cadalous, having collected 
troops in Lombard^, marched to lumie, where 
he had many partisans, among others a very 
rich man named Pierleone. But Godfrey, 
duke of Tuscany, came to the assistance of 
Alexander IL, and after some fighting, Ca- 
dalous was obliged to retire. In die mean 
time Anno, archbishop of Cologne, joined by 
other electors, carried off young Henry from 
his mother Agnes, declared himself his tutor, 
and assumed the government of the empire. 
He afterwards came to Italy to put an end to 
the schism, when a council being assembled 
at Mantua, Cadalous was condemned as schis- 
matic. Alexander IL, being now universally 
acknowledged as legitimate pope, visited 
Lucca and other towns of Italy, endeavouring 
to effect reforms in the discipline of the 
clergy, and especially to prevent die practice of 
simony. He also sent a bull to Milan forbid- 
ding any one to hear mass by a married 
priest This revived the old controversy, 
and was the cause of much tumult and even 
8l 



ALEXANDEK. 



ALEXANBEK. 



Uoodfllied in that city. Alexander had alio 
disputes with Richard the Norman, count of 
Aversa, about the posseasion cfi Capna, which 
the pope claimed as a fief of the Roman see, 
Alexander II, died at Rome in April, 107S, 
and was buried in the baailica of the Laleran. 
He was a man of irreproachable morals, and 
had a sincere seal for enforcing morality 
among the d^gy; but in his public life he 
was mainly guided by the advice of Cardinal 
Hildebrand, who succeeded him by the name 
of Orogory VIL Sereral letters and bulls of 
Pope Alexander 11. are found in the Collec- 
tions of Councils and Decretals. (Platina e 
Panvinio, Viie del Pont^fiei; Vend, Staria di 
MUano; Bossi, Storia <f Italia.) A. V. 

ALEXANDER IIL (Pope), caidinal Ro- 
lando di Ranuocio Bandinelli, bom about 
the beginning of the twelfth century, of 
a noble iSunily of Sienna, acquired the re- 
putation of a man of learning long before 
his exaltation to the p^mI chair. He had 
been professor of theology in the uniyersity 
of Bologna, and was made a cardinal by Eu- 
genius III., and chancellor of the Roman 
see by Adrian IV. After the death of Adrian 
in 1159, the cardinals, with the exception of 
three, yoted for the election of Rolando for 
his successor. This was a period of misun- 
derstanding between the Emperor Frederic L 
and the see of Rome. The three dissident 
cardinals elected Octavian, cardinal of St. Cle- 
ment, who assumed the name of Victor IV. 
Victor afterwards gained oyer to his side two 
more cardinals and several bishops, among 
others the Biohop of Tusculum, who con- 
secrated him in the monastery of Farfi^ 
in the Sabinum. Frederic, bemg appealed 
to, ordered a council to assemble at Pavia, 
before which Alexander refused to ap- 
pear, and the council decided in fevour of 
Victor. Alexander was acknowledged by 
Sicily, France, and England, and Victor by 
Germany and Lombardy. Victor asserted 
that he had been elected by the clergy, the 
senate, and the barons of Rome, where he 
had a considerable party. Each of the two 
resorted to excommunication against his an- 
tagonist and his supporters. In 1161, Alex- 
der, who had been staying at Anagni in con- 
tinual alarm at the power of Frederic, 
embarked at Terraeina for Genoa, where he 
was well received by the people. He after- 
wards repured to France, and he assembled 
a council at Tours, in which all ordinations 
made by the antipope were declared sacri- 
legious. The Cathari, or Albigenses, who 
had begun to show themselves in the sonth of 
France, were condemned as heretics in this 
council. The pq[>e afterwards went to Sens, 
where he saw Thomas & Becket, archbishop of 
Canterbury, who had been obliged to fly from 
England in consequence of his disputes with 
King Henry II. The pope commended his firm- 
ness in supporting the privileges of die church. 
In ^ ». 1 164, Victor having died in Italy, the 
874 



Empenir Frederio caused a new pope to be 
elected, Cardinal Gnido of Crema, w ho took the 
name of Paschal HL, and fixed his residence 
atViterba Inll65 the affairs of Italy began 
to look brighter for Pope Alexander. Frede- 
ric, after having destroyed Milan, had his 
hands ftilly occupied by a new insurreedon 
of the Lombard cities. Cardinal Giovanni, 
who acted as papal vicar at Rome, prevailed 
upon the senate and the people to swear 
fidelity to Pope Alexander, and he took pos- 
session of the Vatican. He also brought the 
Sabinum to a like allegiance. Alexander now 
embarked at Narbonne for Messina, where he 
was well received by the officers of William L, 
king of Sicily. From Messina he repaired 
to Sslemo, and lastly landed at Ostia. Hia 
entrance into Rome by the gate of the Late- 
ran was triumphal : lie was attended by the 
senators, the clergy, and many citixena wHh 
olive branches in their hands, and by the 
militia of the regions with their colours. 
Soon after Christian, archbishop of Mainz, 
with some imperial troops, invaded the Cam- 
pagna of Rome, and obliged several towns 
to swear allegiance to the antipope PaschaU 
who was at Viterbo. But the troops of the 
King of Sicily, coming to theaaustance of the 
pope, retook the greater part of the Cam- 
pagna. In the year 1166 Manuel Comnenus, 
emperor of Constantinople, sent an ambassa- 
dor to Rome with rich presents for Pope 
Alexander, and with proposals for effecting 
a union between the Eastern and Western 
churches, and also for restoring the crown of 
Italy to the Bysantine emperors, and aboliah- 
mg the Western Empire, promising that if 
the pope would give him the oountenance of 
his authority, he (the emperor) would send 
troops and money to conquer Italy. The 
pope, acting with circumspection, sent two 
legates to Constantinople to examine on the 
spot the disposition and the resources of the 
Byzantine court The negotiations led to 
no result of any consequence, as the Italians 
were generally averse to the rule of the 
Byzantines. In 1 167 an imprudent incursion 
made by the people of Rome upon the terri- 
tory of their neighbours of Tusculum, oon- 
trary to the advice and exhortations of the 
Pope, again brought the troops of Frederio 
into the Campagna, the Count of Tusculum 
having aj^lied to the emperor for assistance. 
A battle was fought, in which the Roman 
militia, being engaged with the imperial troops 
in ftont, and at the same time assailed b^ those 
of Tusculum in the rear, were routed with the 
loss of several thousand men, a loss which 
the contemporary chroniclers magnified into 
a second ddPeat cf CannsB. The pope having 
applied to the King of Sicilv fin* suocoor, 
troops came from the Neapolitsn territories. 
Upcm this Frederio himself; who was in North 
Italy, came down with a large force, and 
encamped near the Vatican with the ahtl- 
p<^)e. Paschal, m July, 1167. After some 



JLLEXANDEB. 



ALEXANDEB. 



fighting he took pocsession of St Petei't 
church, where Paschal performed high 



and crowned the emperor and his wife Bea- 
trix. Frederic then endeayoored to intrigae 
with the leading men in Rome, oflfering to 
give np all his prisoners without ransom. 
Pope Alexander, seeing disaffection within 
die city, and thinking it prudent to escape, 
went to Gaeta, and fh>m thence to Benerento. 
The Pisan gaJleys, as auxiliary to the em- 
peror, ascended the Tiber, and then the 
Romans came to terms. They promised 
allegiance to the emperor and to respect his 
** justitias," or political and fiscal rights, 
<^withia*the city and outside of the ctt^." 
Frederic on his part confirmed the authoritfr 
of the Roman senate, and the other mum- 
cipal authorities of Rome. It is doubtful 
whether anything was stipulated concerning 
Alexander or Paschal, the treaty appearing 
to have been of a political nature, uid the 
Romans in geueral haying long acknowledged 
the spiritual authority of Pope Alexander. 
Frederic appointed commissioners to receiye 
the oath of allegiance of the Romans. Acerbo 
Morena, the <£-onicler of Lodi, who eiyoyed 
the favour of Frederic, was one of the mipe- 
rial commissioners. But the atmosphere of 
the Campagna, or perhaps some epidemic, 
began to work death in the camp of Frederia 
His soldiers died by hundreds daily, after an 
illness which is said to have lasted only a few 
hours. The Archbishop of Cologne, tiie 
Bishops of Liege, Speyer, Ratisbon, Verden, 
and odiers, the Duke c^ Suabia (cousin of the 
emperor), a Duke Ouelph, and many others 
ef the chief men in Frederic's army, were 
among the dead. The people of Italj attri- 
buted this havoc to God's wrath agamst the 
persecutors of the true pontiff and the cruel- 
ties committed by Frederic in Lombary. The 
chronicler Morena caught the fever and died 
at Siena on his return home. At last Frede- 
ric broke up his camp, and returned to the 
north, fighting his way across the Ligurian 
Apennines, in which he lost most of his 
camp equipage. He arrived at Pavia about 
the middle of September, with his army 
greatly reduced in numbers. The deaths of 
the nobles alone amounted to above two 
thousand. The Lombard cities were in open 
insurrection «^amst him, and in the followmg 
March Frederic left Italy almost alone and 
in disguise. Pope Alexander gave his fbll 
countenance to the Lombard league, in grati- 
tude for which the Lombard cities having 
resolved to build a new town on the borders 
•of the territory of Pavia towards Monferrato, 
called it Alessandria, which name it has re- 
tained to the present day. 

Pope Alexander was still remaining at Be- 
nevento, when in the year 1168 the antipope 
Paschal died. The partisans of the late anti- 
pope elected John, abbot of Struma, who 
assumed the name of Calixtus IIL, and thus 
the schism was continued. In 1170 Frederic | 
875 "^ ' 



•en( from Germany the Bishop of Bambei^ 
to propose some arrangement with Alex- 
ander. The pope went to meet him at Ve- 
roli, but the interview produced no result, as 
the bishop had no authority from the emperor 
to acknowledge Alexander as the true pope. 
The deputies of the Lombard league were in 
the papal retinue, and Alexander acted in 
concert with them. At the beginning of 1 1 7 1 
the pope received the news of the murder 
of Thomas k Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, 
which had occurred in the previous Decem- 
ber, and in March of that year envoys came 
from Henry IL of England to exculpate 
him fivm any participation in that crime. 
The pope sent two cardinals to investigate 
the matter, which terminated in the following 
rear by Henry being absolved by the papal 
legates, whilst the pope canonised Thomas 
ik Becket as a saint and a mar^. In 1 173, 
Alexander, who had been residing some time 
at Tuscnlum, which town he hikd undertaken 
to protect against the repeated attacks of the 
people of Rome, entered into a negotiation 
with the leading men at Rome, by which the 
pope was to reside again in that city, but the 
senate refused to allow him the exercise ai 
any temporal power. A new attack was 
made by the Romans upon Tuscnlum, the 
walls of which were pulled down by the 
Romans, and the pope withdrew to Anagni 
in disgust From thence he sent, in 1173, 
two cardinak to assist at the parliament or 
great council of the Lombard league, which 
was held at Modena in October of that year, 
and in which it was agreed not to make 
peace with Frederic except by the common 
consent of all the members of the league, 
lo the autumn of 1174 Frederic entered 
Italy with a hirge army, took Turin, Susa, 
Asti, and laid siege to Alessandria. He also 
sent the Archbishop of Mains to besiege 
Ancona, which town was a free community 
under the protection of the Eastern emperor, 
who kept a legate there. The Venetians, 
who were then at war with the Byzantine 
court, sent a fleet of forty galleys to assist in 
the reduction of the place. The siege Issted 
more than seven months ; the defence was 
most gallant, in spite of ihmine ; and m the 
end a storm drove away the Venetians ; and 
the militia of Ferrara and other towns having 
marched to the relief of Ancona, the arch- 
bishop of Mainz raised the siege. In 1175 
Frederic himself was obliged to raise the 
siege of Alessandria, and he concluded a truce 
with the^ Lombard cities. He entered also into 
negotiations with the pope, but the pretensions 
of Frederic showed that he merely aimed at 
gaining time : a fresh army came frt>m Ger- 
many in the following year, 1176, and the truce 
with the Lombards was broken. At the end 
of May of that year the battle of Legnano 
was fought, in wliich the emperor. was com- 
pletely defeated by the Lombards, and escaped 
to Pavia with great difficulty. He then sent 
8l 2 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER, 



several bishops to Pope Alexander, who wa« 
at Anagni, to treat aerioosly of peace; agree* 
ing to acknowledge him as sole legitimate 
pontifEl After long negotiations, the pope 
determined to proceed to North Italy, to 
settle the affairs of the J^ombard league. 
Having exacted a safe conduct upon oath 
from the emperor, he embarked on the coast 
of Apulia in March, 1177, and landed at 
Venice, where he was received with great 
honours: from Venice he repaired to Ferrara. 
Difficulties arose about the place for as- 
sembling the congress to treat of the general 
peace; but at last Venice was fixed upon^ 
and the pope returned thither with the de-i 
puties of the league and the envoys of the | 
emperor and of the King of Sicily. After j 
long discussion, a truce was agreed upon fbr 
six years between the emperor and the Lom-i 
bard cities ; and for fifteen years between the 
emperor and King William IL of Sicily. Li 
July, 1177, the emperor himself repaired to 
Venice, and found the pope in his pontifical 
robes, attended by his cardinals and many 
bishops, waiting for him before the church of 
St Mark. Fr^eric knelt down and kissed 
his feet The pope with tears of joy lifted 
him up, gave him the kiss of peace, and they 
walked hand in hand into the church, when 
Frederic received the solemn benediction of 
the pope, and then withdrew to his apart- 
ments m the palace of the Doge. The story 
of the pope havmg put his foot upon the 
emperor*s neck, repeating the words *' Super 
aspidem et basiliscnm ambulabis," is a fhble 
invented a century or two after, and long 
smce universally rejected. Several amicable 
interviews took place afterwards between the 
pope and Frederic ; and on the 1st of August 
the peace with the pope, and the truce with 
the league and William of Sicily, were so- 
lemnly ratified; after which the pope held 
a council in St Mark, in which he excom- 
municated any one who should break the 
treaties. Thus ended the war and the schism 
which had lasted eighteen years. The truce 
with the Lombard league 1^ to the definitive 
peace of Constance in 1183. 

This happy termination of the war was in 
great measure due to the wisdom and mo- 
deration of Pope Alexander ; and also to the 
earnest exertions of the Doge Ziani and the 
senators of Venice, who acted as mediators 
between the two parties. Frederic soon alter 
left Venice for Ravenna, and the pope re- 
turned to Sipontum, on the Apulian coast, 
fh>m whence he arrived at Anagni in De- 
cember. The people of Rome sent him an 
embassy of seven nobles to invite him to 
return to their city. After many debates, it 
was agreed in the followmg year, 1178, that 
the senate should continue in its functions, 
but should swear fidelity and do homage to 
the pope, and give up to him the Vatican 
basihca, and the regalia which they had 
sequestrated. In March the pope entered 
876 



Rome, after an absence of many years, an4 
went to reside in the Lateran palace. In 
Au^;ust of the same year the antipope 
Calixtufl^ forsaken by the emperor and all 
his partisans, came to make his submission 
to Alexander, who received him with great 
kindness, kept him for some time as his 
guest, and at last sent him as rector or 
governor to Benevento. A puppet was set 
up by the remnants of the antipapal ftction 
in the person of a certain Lando, who assumed 
the name of Innocent III. ; but he was soon 
after seized and banished to La Cava. In . 
the year 1179 Pope Alexander assembled a 
general council in the Lateran, which was 
attended by more than three hundred arch- 
bishops or bishops. The affairs of the church, 
in genera], and of many sees in particular, 
which had been thrown into confusion dnrinfc 
the long schism, were regulated, several 
canons were made concerning discipline and 
against simony, and the Albigenses were ex- 
communicated. It was also decreed that in 
every cathedrid at least there should be a 
master for teaching gratuitously poor pupils, 
the master to be rewarded by means of some 
benefice; that the bishop and chapter were 
to appoint the master for teaching grammar, 
and that in metropolitan churches there 
should be also a professor of divinity to in* 
struct the clergy in the study of the scriptures, 
&c. BurgonSo, a jurist of Pisa, and a dis- 
tinguished Greek and Latin scholar, attended 
the council. In 1180 Pope Alexander wrote 
letters to the Kings of France and England, 
and other Christian princes, exhorting them 
to send assistance to the kingdom of Jeru- 
salem against Saladin. He addressed also a 
kind of catechism, entitled ** Instructio Fidei,*' 
to the Turkish sultan of Iconium, in Asia 
Minor, with the hope, probably, of converting 
him. In the following year, 1 181, Pope Alex- 
ander died at Civitii Castellana, in the month 
of August He was succeeded by Lucius IIL 
^ Alexander IIL ranks among the most dis- 
tinguished pontiffs, and his long pontificate 
forms an important period in Ihe history of 
the church and of Europe. Many of his 
epistles are inserted in Labbe's ** Concilia,** 
and other collections. One of his letters, 
addressed by him after his election to the 
university of Bologna, has been published 
by G. Rossi in his ** History of Ravenna.** 
His bulls are found in Cherubini's **Bnlla« 
rium," and in the " Italia Sacra" of Ughelli. 
The cardinal of Aragon wrote, in Latm, the 
Life of Alexander III. (Muratori, Aimah 
d^ Italia; Sigonius, De Regno Italia; Tira- 
boschi, Storia delta Letteratura Italiana ; Bar- 
toli. Vita di Federico Barbarofta ; Maxxu- 
chelli, Scrittori d'ltaUa,) A. V. 

ALEXANDER IV. (Pope). Rinaldo of 
Anagni, Count of Signia, cardinal-bishop of 
Ostia,was elected pope at Naples after the 
death of Innocent IV., in that cit^, in the year 
1254, At that time the popes claimed, and eja« 



ALEXANDER. 

forced aatutpA they could, a soTerei^ autho- 
rity OYer the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, on 
the ground that the emperor and King Frederic 
IL having died under excommunication, his 
dominions of Sicily and Apulia had reverted 
to the Roman see as papal fiefs. Conrad, 
son of Frederic, who had by force asserted 
his hereditary rights over great part of the 
kingdom, di^ suddenly in Apulia, and his 
son Conradin, an infSemt, was with his mother 
in Germany. Manfred, prince of Taranto, 
an illegitimate son of Frederic and a young 
man of great promise, was induced by the 
earnest request of many of the barons to as- 
sume the regency in the name of young Con- 
radin. Pope Innocent, who had an army in 
Campania, and whose claims were acknow- 
ledged by Naples and other towns, first 
negotiated with Manfred, with a view to 
make him acknowledge the papal see as 
sovereign of the kingdom ; but he afterwards 
came to an open rupture with him, and the 
troops of Manfred defeated those of the pope 
on the borders of Apulia. Soon after, Inno- 
cent died at Naples, and his successor Alex- 
ander, following his policy, sent a legate to 
invade Apulia, which had declared itself for 
Manfred. Manfired defeated the legate and 
besieged him within the town of Foggia. 
The legate then proposed peace on the con- 
dition that Manfk^ should remain regent of 
the kingdom in the name of his nephew 
Conradin, with the exception of the province 
of Campania, which should remain in pos- 
session of the see of Rome. The legate and 
his soldiers were then allowed to leave Fog- 
gia and return to Naples. Pope Alexander 
refused to ratify this advantageous treaty, and 
Manfred, after having assembled a parliament 
of the kingdom at Barletta, in which he was 
confirmed as regent, marched into Campania, 
which he soon reduced to obedience, ▲. d. 
1257. The pope had gone to Rome with his 
court. In the following year, 1258, a report 
was spread in Italy that young Conradin had 
died in Germany, upon which the prelates 
and barons of Sicily and Apulia offered the 
crown to MEtnfred, who was crowned in the 
cathedral of Palermo by three archbishops in 
the month of August Messengers however 
arrived soon after from Germany stating that 
Conradin was alive; upon which Manfred 
declared that having saved the kingdom from 
the attacks of the popes, the implacable ene- 
mies of the house of Suabia, and having been 
solemnly crowned with the consent of the 
states, he should now retain the crown during 
his lifetime, after which it should revert to 
Conradin or his heirs. In the mean time 
Pope Alexander had been obliged to leave 
Rome in consec^uence of one a£ those fre- 
quent insurrections to which the Roman 
people were prone, and retired to Viterbo, 
from whence he issued a bull of excommuni- 
cation against Manfred as a rebel, an enemy 
of the Roman churchy and a sacrilegious 
877 



ALEXANDER. 

usurper of its rights and jurisdiction. He also 
laid under an interdict all the towns, castles, 
and other places, as well as ^ose archbishops 
and bishops, and all other persons in office, 
who acknowledged Manfred for their king* 
This bull however |Hroduced no effect against 
Manfred, who remained in peaceful possession 
of the kingdom during the rest of Alex- 
ander's life. He even sent a bod^ of cavalry 
to Tuscany in aid of the Guibelines, which 
contributed to the decisive victory which the 
latter gained at Monteaperto over the Floren- 
tine Guelphs, who were the hereditary allies 
of the papal see. Meantime the pope was 
exerting himself in putting an end to the 
war between the Venetians and the Genoese, 
who were fighting desperately for ^eir re- 
spective factories on the coast of Syria ; and 
he succeeded in indnciog the two republics 
to make a truce. About this time a new 
sect appeared in the Romagna, who were 
called the Flagellants. They used to as- 
semble by thousands of men and women to- 
gether, and march about in procession from 
town to town scourging themselves unto 
blood in expiation of their sins. Old en- 
mities were forgotten ; men and women of 
loose life became penitent ; and some good, 
and also some evil, resulted from this out- 
break of pious enthusiasm, which, however, 
was not countenanced by the pope. Alex- 
ander took an active part in the disputes 
between the university of Paris and the Do- 
minican order. The university wished to 
confine the Dominicans to the possession of 
one of its theological classes, whilst they 
claimed the possession of two. Alexander 
enjoined the university to throw open to the 
Dominicans not two classes only, but as 
many chairs as they might wish to occupy. 
The university resisted, and a warm con- 
troversy took place, in which Guillaume de 
St Amour, a doctor of the Sorbonne, wrote a 
treatise " On the Perils of the Latter Times,'* 
in which he assailed the Mendicant orders, 
reckoning them among the perils to which 
St Paul alludes. Even the authority of the 
pope was disputed. At hist the university 
was obliged to submit 

In May, 1261, Pope Alexander died at 
Viterbo, and was succeeded by Urban IV. 
Many of Alexander's letters and decretals 
are inserted in Labbe's " Concilia," UghelU's 
" Italia Sacra," Achery's ** Spicilegium," and 
other compilations. (Muratori,^fina/t d* Italia ; 
Giannone, Storia civile del Regno di Napoli; 
Panvinio, Viie dei Pontejici ; Waddingtou, 
Histonf of the Churck) A. V. 

ALEXANDER V. (Pope), Cardinal 
Peter Filargo, said to have been a native 
of the island of Candia and archbishop of 
Milan, was elected in June, 1409, by the 
cardinals assembled in the council of Pisa, 
after the deposition by that council of the 
two rival popc« or antipopes, Gregory 
XIL and Benedict XII., during the great 
8l 3 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



fehism of the church. Filargo had entered 
in hiB yonth, and in his natire eonntrjv the 
fWicifloan order, and waa sent hj hia Bope- 
riora to study at the nniversity of P&dua, 
about 1357. From Padua he went to Paris, 
where he took his degrees. He there wrote 
a comment on the BooIl of the Sentences 
of Pietro Lomhardo, a work in great esteem 
in the schools of that t^. Filargo was 
▼ery learned in scholastic divinity and in the 
Greek language. He appears to hare been 
also at Oxford for some time. Having re- 
turned to Italy, he ei^oyed the favour cf 
Gian' Galeaszo Visconti, lord of Milan, was 
made bishop of Fiacenza, was transferred to 
Vicensa, and afterwards to Novara in 1388, 
and lastly he was made archbishop of Milan 
in 1402. He was at the same time employed 
by Gian' Galeazzo in state affairs and diplo- 
matic missions ; among others he was sent 
to the Emperor Wenceslas, to obtain for 
Visconti the title of duke. Gian* Galeazzo 
at his death, in 1402, appointed him tutor to 
his two sons. In 1404 Innocent VII. made 
him a cardinal. He is mentioned in several 
chronicles as one of the first divines of his 
age, a subtle logician, and an eloquent orator. 
He is also said to have translated several 
Greek works into Latin, but his translations 
have not come down to us. 

As soon as Alexander was nominated, he 
took his seat as president of the council of Pisa, 
whose decrees he confirmed in his quality of 
pope. Soon after Louis IL, duke of Anjou, 
who styled himself king of Sicily, came from 
Provence to Pisa to obtain the countenance 
of the new pope fw his intended invasion of 
that kingdom agamst King Ladislaus, who 
was the supporter of Gregoiy XI L, who had 
taken reAige in his dominions. Ladislaus 
had taken military possession of Rome and its 
territory. Pope Alexander, after despatching 
several monitory briefs to Ladislaus enjoin- 
ing him to restore the territories of the 
church, sent against him his legate. Cardinal 
Coesa, with troops, which acted in concert 
with those of Louis of Anjou, and in the 
month of December the papal troops took 
possession of Rome, and Pope Alexander 
was there proclaimed. The council being 
dissolved, and the plague having broken out 
at Pisa, Alexander V. withdrew to Pistqja, 
and thence, at the suggestion of Cardinal 
Cossa, he repaired to Bologna, from whence 
he puMished a bull against the two pre- 
tenders to the papal see, Gregory and 
Benedict, who refused to submit to the sen- 
tence of the council. In April, 1410, Pope 
Alexander fell ill, and he died on the 3d of 
May. Suspicions of poison rested upon 
Cardinal Cossa, who succeeded him as 
John XXIII. During his short pontificate 
Alexander used to say that he had been a 
rich bishop, a poor cardinal, and a mendicant 
pope« Mazzuchelli has given a list of his 
works, few of which have been printed, 
878 *^ 



except his pontifical letters and biiUs, and so 
asoetio treatise on the conception of the Vir- 
gin Marv. Cnruboschi, Staria deBa LeUera- 
iura ItaUana, tcL vi. b. 2. c 1. ; Muratori, 
Annali tT ItaUa,) A. V. 

ALEXANDER VL (Pope), Cardinal Rod- 
rigo Lenzoli Borgia, was elected after thedeath 
of Innocent VIIL in 1492. He was bora 
about 1430, at Valencia in Spain, and was son 
of Godf^y Lensoliy a nam of wealth and of 
noble birth, and of Isabella Boija or Borfpa^ 
sister of Pope Calixtus IIL Yoong Rodngo 
took clerical orders at an earl^ age, and was 
made a cardinal in 1456^ by his nnde Pope 
Calixtus, who adopted him and gave him his 
own fhmily name and the Borgia eoat of arms. 
He was soon after made vice-chancellor of the 
church. Pope Sixtus IV., whose election had 
been strongly promoted by Cardinal Borgia» 
nukde him bishop of Porto, bestowed upon him 
some ridi benefices, and employed him as 
legate in several missions^ particularly in an 
important mission to Spain for the purpose, 
of mediating between Alfonso V., king of 
Portugal, and Ferdinand the Catholic, king 
of AnigoQ and Castile, who were then at war. 
Cardinal Borgia displayed con»derable diplo- 
matic abOity on this occasion. On his return 
to Italy on board a Venetian riiipv he narrowly 
escaped being shipwrecked near the coast of 
I^sa ; another vessel, in which were several 
persons of his retinue, together with his bag- 
gage, was lost At Rome, Cardinal Borgia was 
enabled to live in princely style b^ means of 
his rich church endowments, but his personal 
ccmductwas loose and nnclerical. He had 
four children by a woman of the name of 
Vanaozia, with whom be cohabited. His 
election to the papal chair after die death of 
Innocent VIIL is said to have been brought 
about in ^reat measure through bribCT^. 
Some cardinals who had strongly opposed it, 
among others, Cardinal Julian della Rovere, 
afterwards Julius II., left Rome after the 
election, and did not return till after the death 
of Pope Alexander VL 

Soon after the election of the new pope 
began the intrigues of Ludovico Sforsa, who, 
having usurped the duchy of Milan, which 
belonged to his nephew, in order to m^mfi^ 
himself in it against the power of Ferdinand, 
king of Naples, whose daughter had married 
the young duke, resorted to the dangeroos 
expedient of calling the French into Italy. 
By sowing suspicion and dissension between 
Pope Alexander and King Ferdinand, he in- 
duced the pope to join him in inviting King 
Charles VIII. of France to the conquest of 
Naples, upon which kingdom Charles thought 
that he had chiims as a descendant of the 
Algous. Rome became the centre of nego- 
tiations in that nefhrious business, which was 
the origin of all the wars and calamities 
which afflicted Italy fbr half a century. Fer- 
dinand of Naples having died in 1494, his 
son AJfonso IL endeavowed to conciliate ths 



ALSXANDCR. 



ALEXANDElt 



.Pop^ Ibr which pnrpoM he gave hit dfto^tef 
in nuuriagetoGioffredo, the jonngettof Pope 
Alezander'i •one, with a rich dowry. The 
nuptials were celebrated at Rome with great 
pomp, aoeompanied with licentioiM flceneSi 
Pope Alenmder now endearoared to diesoade 
Chariee VIIL firmn coming to Italy, bat the 
French King hid gone too ftr in his pre^ 
paraticBS to recede, and Cardinal della Ro^ 
Tcre, who was in Fnmce, encouraged him in 
his determinatioB. Chariee crossed the Alps 
in the antomn of 1494, end reached Rome 
in December. The pope, who had discoui- 
tenanced his adTanee, shot himwlf np in the 
Castle St Angelov from whence he negoti- 
ated with the king, who, appearing satisfied 
with the pope's assorances o£ neatrality, set 
off for Naples at the begiaing of 1496. The 
French occupied Naples and part of the 
kingdom without much opposition. Alfonso 
abdicated the crown in fiiyoor of his son 
Ferdinand, and withdrew to Sicily, and Fer- 
dinand took reAige in the island of Ischia. 
Pope Alexander, feeUng alarmed at the pro« 
gros of the French, b^nn to negotiate 
secretly with Ferdinand of Spain, with the 
Emperor Maximilian, the Venetians, and 
with Lndorico Sfbraa himsell^ to form a 
league in North Italy for the purpose of de- 
stroying the French army which had adyanced 
to the nrther end of the Peninsula, — those 
French whom he and Sforaa had been the 
first to call into Italy. King CSiarles, haying 
receiyed information of this league, felt yery 
uneasy at Naples, where his soldiers made 
themselyes disliked, andhe wished himself safe 
back in his French kingdom. Leaying part 
of his troops at Naples, he hurried away 
towards the north. Arriying at Rome, he 
fiMmd that the pope had left it and retired to 
Perugia. The French treated the papal state 
as enemies, and plundered seyeral places, 
among others the town of Toscanella, where 
they killed most of the inhabitants. Chariee 
made his way back to France, after repulsing 
the Italian allied forces, commanded by the 
Duke of Mantua, at the passage of the riyer 
Taro. Soon after Gonsalo of Cordoya, the 
great Spanish general, in the seryice of Fer- 
dinand the Ca£olic, landed in Calabria ftrom 
Sicily, recoyered the kingdom of Nai^es, and 
resDStated King Ferdinand II. The pope on 
his side inyaded the domains of the powerftii 
barons Virginio and Paolo Orsini, who had 
taken the part of the French, but his troops 
were defei2ed by the yassals and adherents 
of the Orsini, near Braociano. He then sent 
his son. Cardinal Cesare, to crown Ferdinand 
as kingofNapleSL Another son, Qioyanni, duke 
ef Oandia, a dissolute youth, was found one 
mommg dead in the Tiber, his body being 
coyeted with wounds. His brother Cesare 
was snspeoted of the murder, but there is no 
eyidence of the charge. Lucresia Borgia, 
daughter of Alexander, waa first married to 
Oioyamii Sfona, lord of Pesaro, from whom 
879 



she was, for reasons unknown, diyorced by 
the authority of the pope, in 1497. In the fol- 
lowing year she married Alfonso of Araffon, 
duke of Bisceglia, a natural son of King 
Alfonso II. of Naples. On this occasion the 
pope gaye to his daughter the duchy of Spo- 
leto for her lift. Before this he had created 
his son Qioyanni duke of Beneyento, and 
count of Terracina and Pontecoryo, on which 
occasion Cardinal Piccolomini in foil con- 
sistory remonstrated with honest fivnkness 
against this misappropriation of the states 
of the church ; but he was not supported by 
any other cardinal 

In 1498, Charles VIIL king of France 
died, and his cousin and successor Louis XIL 
assumed at his coronation the additional titles 
of duke of Milan and king of the Two Si- 
cilies, thereby making known his pretensions 
to Italy. Louis, howerer, wished to be di- 
yorced from his wife, Jeanne, daughter of 
Louis XL, and to marry Anne of Bretagne, 
widow of Charles VlIL He therefore 
courted the friendship of the pope, who could 
release him from his first marriage. Alex- 
ander sent to France his son Cesare with the 
bull of diyoroe, and King Louis in return 
made Cesare duke of Valence in Dauphiny 
with a pension of 80,000 French liyres. Ce- 
sare Borgia is often mentioned by the Italian 
historians as Duke Valentino. Cesare had 
befbre this giyen up his cardinal's hat and 
his deacon's orders, by a dispensation from 
his father the pope, as he had no taste for a 
clerical life. In this same year, 1498, the 
pope excommunicated Father Savonarohi, a 
Dominican friar of Florence, who preached 
openly the necessity of a reform in the 
church. Sayonarola was soon after executed 
by sentence of the magistrate of Florence 
and of the papal commissary. 

In 1499, Cesare Borgia, through the good 
ofllces of Louis XIL, married the daughter of 
Jean d'Albret, king of Nayarre, to the great 
sadsfiustion of the pope, who became now 
wholly deyoted to the French interest, and a 
league was entered into between King Louis, 
the pope, and the Venetians, against Ludorico 
Sforsa, the king engaging to assist Cesare 
Borgia to conquer the duchy of Romagna 
for .himself. That country was diyided 
among numerous feudatories of the Roman 
see, who held their fiefii in yirtue of grants 
by bulls of former popes. The Sforza ruled 
at Pesaro, the Mal^sta at Rimini, Man- 
teedi at Faenza, Varano at Camerino, Riario 
at Imola and Forli, the Montefeltro at Ur- 
bino, fte. Some of these petty princes acted 
as tyrants ; but there were others who go- 
yerned their people with mildness and were 
beloyed by them. The pope, howeyer, was 
bent on dertroying them ^ and fbrming the 
whole of Romagna into a great duchy for his 
son Cesare. 

Louis Xn. conquered the duchy of Milan 
with little or bo resistance, and Cesare Bor* 
8L 4 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDER. 



gia aocompanied him in this ezpedition, nfter 
which the king gmye him a body of French 
troopi, nnder D^Alegre, to met in concert 
Vith Uiose of the pope for the conquest of 
Romagna. Borgia took Imola, Cesena, and 
Forli, and then went to R<Mne in trimni^ in 
Febmary, 1500, to attend the jubilee pro* 
claimed by the pope. Being created gonfii- 
loniere of the church by his fietther, he soon 
after returned to Romagna, took Rimini and 
Pesaro, and laid siege to Faenza, the young 
lord of which, Astorre Manfiredi, being be* 
loTed by the ^ple, was enabled to hold out 
till tiie followmg year, when he was obliged 
to capitulate, and was treated in a most in- 
famous manner by Borgia, and then put to 
death. Meantime Alfonso of Aragon, who 
had married Lucrezia Borgia, was assassi- 
nated at Rome. The pope had now sworn 
the ruin of the Aragonese dynasU at N^>les, 
to make room for Louis XII. of France. The 
French army, commanded by the Duke of . 
Nemours and by D'Aubigny, marched fh>m 
North Italy to the conquest of Naples in 
1501, and Cesare Borgia accompanied it with 
a body of his troops. Ci^>ua made some re- 
sistance, but in July the French stormed the 
town, which was given up to plunder and 
every other attencUint atrocity. A number 
of women were taken to Rome and sold 
there. Cesare Borgia is said to have kept 
forty of them for himself. Naples surren- 
dered, and King Frederic, seeing himself be- 
trayed by Gonsalyo the general of Ferdinand 
of Spain, who was acting in concert with 
Louis XIL for the purpose of dividing the 
kingdom between them, was obliged to sur- 
render to the French, and was sent to France 
with his children. MeanUme Pope Alex- 
ander was taking advantage of the &vour of 
the French king to pursue his plan of aggran- 
dizing his own family at the expense of the 
Roman barons. He seized upon the estates 
of the Colonna, Savelli, and others, and he 
repaired in person to the siege of Sermoneta, 
a town belonging to the feudal house of Gae- 
tani, and it was on this occasion that he is 
said by Burchard, in his ** Diary," to have 
left his daughter Lucrezia in his pontifical 
apartments in the Vatican, with directions to 
open all letters and despatches, and to consult 
thereupon with the council of cardinals ; a 
thing imprecedented in pa^ history. Ce- 
sare Borgia in the mean tmie seized upon 
I'iombino, the lord of which, Jacopo d*Appi- 
ano, retired to France. Cesare then moved 
towards Urbino, whose duke, Guidobaldo, 
had always been a liege feudatory of the pope, 
and partly by force and partly by treachery 
he seized the whole duchy; the duke 
escaped in disguise to Mantua. He then en- 
tered Camerino by a stratagem and strangled 
its lord, Giulio da Varano, witli his two sons. 
He next favoured the revolt of Arezso, Cor- 
tona, and other places against Florence ; but 
the Florentines having complained to King 
880 



Lotfis XIL of Ae ambitian of P<^ Alex- 
ander and his son, the king interfered, and 
showed his displeasure against Cesare Bor- 
gia, who thought it prudent to repair to ^- 
Ian to exculpate himself with Louis. By lua 
smooth tongue and pfamsiUe addnM he reeo- 
yered the nvoor oif the Frendi Vang. BBs 
enemies, among whom were the Orsini, 
Baglione of Pemgia, Vitellosio, Yiteili, Oli- 
Terotto of Fenno, and others, being rednoed 
to despair, ooospiied against him ; but Bop- 
gia contrived to get them togedier within 
&e town of Sinigaglia, seised and strmglsd 
several of them, and the town was plundered. 
A general proscription of the Orsini and 
their partisans took place, and Pope Alex- 
ander seized the Cardinal Orsini at Rome 
with several others of the fiunily, who soon 
died in prison, and their property was confis- 
cated. Soon after, Pope Alexander fell ill 
and died in August, 1503, after a pontificata 
of little more than eleven years, but ever 
memorable in the history of Italy for its 
guilty deeds and calamitous events. The 
story of his death Ytemg^ caused by poison is 
not authenticated ; but it is said that he was 
present at a supper with his son Cesare and 
the Cardinal Adrian da Castello, in whick 
poisoned wine intended for the cardinal was 
drank by mistake by Cesare also, and that 
both Cesare and the cardinal were danger- 
ously ill in consequence. Whether the story 
be true or not, Cesare Borgia was certainly 
very ill at the time of his father's death ; but 
it appears that the pope had caught the ma- 
laria fever prevalent in that season, and that 
he died of it. . 

The internal administration of AlexanderVL 
was marked by an arbitrary severity, which 
had the effect of restraining all expression 
of discontent According to Panvinio, the 
people of Rome never enjoyed less liberty, 
and yet they never indidged in so much 
licentiousness as under his pontificate. The 
city was ftill of informers and armed men, 
and any expression of dissatisfiiction was 
punished by death. In other respects Pope 
Alexander had considerable abilities, great 
presence of mind, fiiciUty of speaking, and 
great powers of persuasion, and he was amaster 
of the art of dissimulation. He encouraged 
learning, and particularly the study of the 
law. He was fond of pleasure, but very mo* 
derate at table, slept kttle, and was attentive 
to business. But his ambition, inhumanity, 
covetousness, and want of principle marred 
his good qualities, and his name is remem-' 
bered with sorrow and shame even now at 
Rome. (Panvinio, Vite dm Ptmt^i ; Mura- 
tori, AnncUi d Italia ; Tomasi, Vila di Cesare 
Borguu) A. V. 

ALEXANDER VIL (Pope), Cardmal 
Fabio Chigi, succeeded Innocent X. in 1655. 
He was bom at Siena about the year 1598, of 
a noble family, which has produced several 
distinguished men. Fabio Chigi, after going 



ALEXANDER. 

thfougjh his stodies in hii native oonntry | 
"^th great distinetion, entered the church : 
and repaired to Rome, where he became 
known to Pope Urban VIII., who appointed ! 
him vice-legate to Ferrara. He was after- ! 
wards sent to Malta as inquisitor, fixim 
thence as nuncio to Cologne, and afterwards 
to Munster, where the congress was then 
aitting, to establish the peace of Europe. He 
there opposed the concessions proposed to be 
made to the Protestants of Germany. Re- 
turning to Rome, he was made a cardinal 
by Innocent X. in 1662, and secretary of 
state. After Innocent's death, he was elected 
pope by a very large nuyority of votes, al- 
though he repeatedly declared to the cardi- 
nals his unwillingness to undertake an oiBce 
of such heavy responsibility. He began his 
pontificate by reforming several abases which 
had been mtroduced into the administratioii 
during the latter part of the reign of Inno- 
cent X. He received with great magnificence 
Queen Christina of Sweden^ who, having ab- 
jured the Lutheran communion and made 
profession of Catholicism, fixed her residence 
at Rome. In 1656 Pope Alexander con- 
firmed by a bull the former condemnation 
by his predecessor Innocent X. of the book 
of Jansenius. In the same year the plague, 
being brought from Sardinia to Naples, spread 
also to Rome, when 22,000 persons died of 
it, and about 160,000 m the whole papal 
state. The pope exerted himself strenu- 
ously in arresting the progress of the con- 
tagion, and in distributing assistance to many 
families which had become destitute in con- 
sequence of it. In the following year the 
plague was extirpated from the dtv of Rome. 
In 1658 Agostino Chigi, the pope^s nephew, 
was made prince of Famese, and married the 
Princess Borghese. Flavio Chigi, another 
of the pope's nephews, was made a cardinal. 
In the year 1660 a serious disturbance took 
place at Rome, owing to the immunities 
which were claimed by the fbreign ministers 
whose palaces and their inmiediate neighbour- 
hood were considered as so many asylums 
into which the Roman police officers were 
not allowed to enter for the purpose of serving 
warrants or arresting culprits. This abuse, 
which many popes had attempted to abolish 
or restrain, has continued till our own times. 
On the occasion referred to, the police having 
proceeded to seize a debtor in the neighbour- 
hood of the Cardinal d'Este, who acted as 
representative of the French king, the nu- 
merous servants of the cardinal opposed the 
police by force of arms, illtreated the officers, 
and drove them away. The other ministers 
having taken the cardinal's part, the court of 
Rome was obliged to ccMnpromise the affair. 
In 1662 another and a more serious affray 
took place. The Duke of Crequi being sent 
to Rome by Louis XIV. as ambassador ex- 
traordinary, came with a numerous retioue, 
.among whom were several reduced officers and 
881 



ALEXANDER. 

other military men. The duke tras haughty 
and hasty, and his master Louis at that time 
was not on very good terms with the pope. 
Disputes took place between the Frenchnven 
and the Corsican guards in the pi^l service, 
in which several persons were killed on 
both sides. The Duke of Crequi left Rome 
fi>r Tuscany, and Louis ordered the papal 
nuncio out of his kingdom, and took pos« 
session of Avignon and its territory, which 
belonged to the pope. The college of the 
Sorbonne at Paris took the part of the king 
by publishing certain theses in which it im- 
pugned the m&llibility of the pope even in 
matters of doctrine, and still more in the 
temporal affaurs of other countries. Pope 
Alexander was at last obliged to conciliate 
the French kinc, and after two years of nego- 
tiations and OS threats on the part of Louis, 
the pope in 1664 sent his nephew Cardinal 
Chigi and Cardinal Imperiali the governor of 
Rome to make an apology tar the insult 
offered to the Duke of Crequi; the pope 
also promised to send away from Rome his 
own brother, Don Mario Chi^ to disband 
the Corsican guards in his service, and never 
to enlist any more soldiers from Corsica, and 
fhrther to raise a pyramid at Rome with an 
inscription recording this resolution against 
the Corsicans. 

Alexander VIL is one of the popes who 
have contributed most to the embellishment of 
Rome. He completed the building of the 
university called La Sapienza, he enlarged the 
papal palace on the Quirinal, and built the 
fine palace Chigi on the square of the Anto- 
nine column. He cleared the street of the 
Corso of several obstructions, and raised pave- 
ments for the convenience of pedestrians ; he 
restored the city walls and the pyramid of 
C.Cestius; he cleared a space round the 
Pantheon so as to afford a good view of that 
structure ; he employed Bernini to decorate 
the gate del Popolo and the neighbouring 
church; he drained the unwholesome marsh 
called the lake of Baccano by opening a canal 
which carried its waters into the Tiber ; he 
built an arsenal at Civit^ Vecchia, and began 
the handsome colonnade before St Peter's 
Church. All these, and other works of Uie 
same kind, were undertaken by him during a 
pontificate of twelve years. 

The pope assisted the emperor and the 
Venetians in their wars against the Turks, 
bv sending several galleys to act with the 
Venetian fleet in the Levant, and by levying 
a tax upon church property in Italy to defray 
the expenses of the war. 

At the end of 1666 Alexander VIL fell 
dangerously ill, and after struggling for se- 
veral months against the disease, and rallying 
several times, he made a last effort to give, 
on Easter Sunday, 1667, his solemn blessing 
j from the balcony of St Peter's to the people 
of Rome, after which he grew worse, and 
I died on the 22d of May, having before his 



ALEXANDER. 

^iadih diAhrenA a Metare to die ttHeihbled 
eariinab npon the -vanity of all worldfy 
kooonn* and expresBing hu regret that h^ 
bad not done all the good he might hare 
done in the course of hia pontificate. 

Alexander VII. was learned and a patron 
of learning. A collection of his juvenile 
poems in Latin #ere published at Paris in 
1656. His bulls are inserted in Cherubini's 
** Bullarium." He was succeeded by Clement 
IX. (Bagatta, Vita di Alegtandro VIL in 
continuation of PanTinio's Lweaoflht Pope»; 
Botta, Storia (T Italiai Muratori, Annali 
d^Iialia.) A.V. 

ALEXANDER VIII. (Pope), Cardinal 
Pietro Ottoboni, succeeded Innocent XL in 
1689. He was bom at Venice in 1610 of a 
patrician fkmily, and bad been long known 
as one of the most distinguished memben of 
the college of cardinals for his abilities and 
knowledge of the world. He had been made 
a cardinal by Innocent X in 1652. After his 
elevation to the pontificate he endeavoured to 
restore the amicable relations with the court 
of France which had been again interrupted 
under his predecessor on account of the im- 
munities claimed by the French resident at 
Rome. In this he partly succeeded, and the 
French king restored Avignon ; but as the 
pope insisted upon the French bishops re- 
tracting the four propositions sanctioned by 
the Gallican church in 1682, which he con- 
sidered as derogatory from the papal authority, 
the negotiations lingered without any defini- 
tive resiilti The pope took great interest in 
the success of his coimtrymen the Venetians 
against the Turks, and he sent a messenger 
to Venice to carry a military hat and sword 
with the papal benediction to Morosini, the 
eonqueror of the Morea, who received it with 
great solemnity in the church of St Mark. 
In February, 1691, Pope Alexander died, and 
was succeeded by Innocent XIL The only 
charge brought against the memory of Alex- 
ander VIII. is that of nepotism. He added 
to the Vatican library the rich collection of 
MSS. of Queen Christina of Sweden, who 
died at Rome just before his exaltation to the 
papal chair. (Muratori, AnnaH cT Italia; 
Tiraboschi, Storia deOa ktteratura Italiana; 
Botta, Storia d* Italia,) A. V. 

ALEXANDER 8AULL [Sauli.] 

ALEXANDER L, king of Scotland, was 
the fourth of the five sons of King Malcolm 
Canmore and his wife Margaret, daughter of 
Edward the Outlaw, in virtue of which ma- 
ternal descent Alexander was considered to 
inherit the rights of the old Saxon kings of 
England. The date of his birth has not been 
recorded } but he was evidently in the vi- 
gour of manhood when he succeeded to the 
Scottish throne, on the death of his elder bro- 
ther Edgar without issue, on the 8th of Janu- 
ary, 1107. It appears from an allusion in 
.Ailred*s tract on the war of the Standard 
that Edgar at his death had bequeathed a 
882 



ALfiXAlCDfilt 

part of his kingdom to his ybtangest tyrothet 
David; and that Alexander, although he at 
first disputed the validity of the donation, 
ultimately acquiesced in it on finding that 
David's claim was supported by the Norman 
barons of the north of England. Lord Uailes 
conceives that the territory .thus separated 
fh>m the crown during Alexander's reign 
** could be nothing else but the part of Cum- 
berland possessed by the Scottish kings." 
Cumberland, originally a Celtic king^nn, 
had been bestowed on the Scottish king 
Malcolm I. by Edmund L of Enn^and in 946; 
and, although seized by Williain the Con- 
queror in 1072 on Malcolm Canmore*s re- 
iusal to do him homage for it, or, in other 
words, to acknowledge him as king of Eng- 
land, it was restored to Maioofan on his sub- 
mission the same year ; from which date it 
may be regarded as an English earldom, and 
sutject to the ordinary incidents of a fief. 
Without entering npon the dispute as to the 
nature of the homage anciently performed by 
the Scottish to the English kings, it may be 
mentioned as a remarkable fiujt, that no such 
homage was ever performed by Alexander L, 
nor, as far as appears, demanded or expected 
from him; so that his reign afibrds at the 
least no evidence in &vour of the 8uppositi<m 
that the homage was for the Scottish crown. 
Thus, in the summary of early Scottish his- 
tory given by Sir Francis Pidgrave in his 
work on ** The Rise and Pn^gress of the 
English Commonwealth" (vol ii. pp. occxxx. 
— cccxL), which is drawn up widi the view 
of proving the homage to have been per- 
formed for the crown hj an uninteirupted 
-series of instances, the reign of Alexander is 
passed over ahc^^^er ; there is no intimation 
that any king reigned in Scotland between 
his predecessor Edgar and his successor Da- 
vid I., both of whom indeed acknowledged 
themselves to be liegemen of the EngUsh 
king, bat both of whom held the English 
earldom of Cumberland, which Alexander 
never possessed, as well as wore the Scottish 
crown. Alexander lived during his whole 
reign in peace and friendship with the 
English king, Henry I., one of whoee natural 
daughters, Sibilla, or, as other authorities 
call her, Elizabeth, he married immediately 
after he came to the throne. Her mother was 
Elizabeth, sister of the Earls of Meulant and 
Leicester, and wife of Gilbert de Clare, earl 
of Pembroke, by whom she was mother of 
the fimious Richard de Clare, snmamed 
Strongbow, the conqueror of Ireland. The 
Scottish queen is reckoned by the English 

genealogists the fourteenth and youngest of 
enry's illegitimate children. ** Such an 
alliance," Lord Hailes remarks, ** was not 
held dishonourable in those days." SilnlUi 
died on the 1 2th of June, 1 1 22, without having 
had any issue by her husband, who, says 
William of Malmsbury, did not greatly 
lament the loss of her, adding, as the : 



ALEXANBEB. 



ALEXANDER. 



■on, Uiat die matM to faaTe had little to 
i^ommend her either in modesty of carnage 
or elegance of person. 

Almost the entire history of the reign of 
Alexander that has come down to us consists 
of the proceedings relating to the filling up 
of two successive Tscancies in the primatiid 
see of St. Andrew's. Alexander's conduct in 
this matter, howerer, with regard to which 
we haye rery full and authentic details, is 
highly characteristic The hishopric appears 
either to hare been vacant at his accession, 
or to have become so innnediately after. 
With the approbation, as it is stated, of the 
clergy and people, he nominated Turgot, a 
monk of Durfaiun, the same who is generally 
held to be the author of the Life of hu 
mother. Queen Maripret, and who in that 
case had already resided for some years in 
Scotland before her death in 1093. But a 
controversy which arose about the right to 
consecrate the new bishop, on the one hand 
between the archbishops of York and Canter- 
bury, on the other between both these foreign 
prelates and the body of the Scottish clergy, 
who denied the dauns of either, prevented 
Turgot receiving consecration till the 80th 
of July, 1 109, when the ceremony was per- 
formed in conformity with an agreement 
between the two kings, that Henry should 
eigoin the Archbishop of York to consecrate 
Turgot, saving the authority of either church. 
Turgot, who seems not to have been able to 
bring Alexander, although a steady friend 
of the church, to acquiesce in all his eccle- 
siastical pretensions, at last, in 1115, asked 
leave to revisit his old cell at Durham, and 
died there on the 3l8t of August in that 
year. Alexander, though he took some steps, 
did not actually nominate a new bishop till 
1120, when, with the design, probably, of 
resisting the pretensions of the see of York, 
which were considered the most formidable, 
he fixed upon Eadmer, a monk of the pro- 
vince of Canterbury, from whose relation, 
and from that of another contemporary 
writer, Simeon of Durham, our information 
as to these transactions is principaUy derived. 
The consent both of Ralph archbishop of 
Canterbury and of King Henry having been 
obtained, Eadmer came to Scotland, and was 
on the 29th of June formally elected to the 
bishopric by the clergy and people, with the 
permission of the kin^; but the next day, 
when Eadmer at a private conference pro- 
posed that he should be consecrated by the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, Alexander, with 
great emotion, started from his seat and 
left the apartment He immediately com- 
manded that the person who had admi- 
nistered the affiurs of the bishopric since the 
decease of Turgot, William, a monk of St 
Edmundsbury, should resume his functions ; 
but about a month after he was prevailed 
upon, at the request of the nobility, to agree 
that. Eadmer should be admitted by taking 
88S 



the fMStoral staff off th« altar, ««ai if re« 
eeiving it from the Lord,** while he received 
the ring from Alexander himselfl Eadmer 
complains that the king soon began to en- 
croach upon his privileges ; in consequence 
of which, he says, he resolved to repair to 
Canterbury for advice. But upon his asking 
permission to depart, Alexander told him 
that the church of Scotland owed no subr 
jection to CanterbuTj^i and in fact he was 
no| allowed to go till he oonsented to re* 
sign the bishopric, and promised not to 
reclaim it so long as Alexander should be 
king. After he had been for some time in 
England, however, he wrote to Alexander, 
expressing, in substance, hia willingness to 
submit to the king's wishes. ^ Should you 
continue in your former sentiments," he said 
(to quote the translation given by Lord 
Hailes^, ** I will desist from my opposition } 
for, with respect to the King of England, 
the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the sacer* 
dotal benediction, I had notions which, as 
I have since learned, were erroneous. They 
will not separate me from the service of God 
and your fiivour. In those things I will act 
according to your inclinations, if you only 
permit me to enjoy the other rights belong- 
ing to the see of St Andrew's." But Alex- 
ander would not yield ; Eadmer never was 
suffered to return to the country ; and the 
bishopric remained vacant till January, 1 124, 
when Alexander succeeded in procuring the 
election of Robert, prior of Scone, another 
English monk. The long story which we 
have thus abridged sufficiently paints the 
character of this remarkable kmg. One of 
his prelates, John, bishop of Glasgow, in a 
letter to Eadmer, which the latter has pre- 
served in his History, no doubt speaks the 
truth when he says of him, ** It is his will to 
be everything himself in lus own kingdom." 
But he has been described more fhlly, and also 
more fiiirly, by the English historian Ailred, 
who, in his treatise on the Genealogy of the 
English Kings, observes that ** he was humble 
and courteous to the clergy, but to the rest 
of his suljects terrible beyond measure ; high 
spirited; always endeavouring to compass 
things beyond his power ^ not ignorant 
of letters (literatns); zealous in establishing 
churches, collecting relics, and providing 
vestments and books for the clergy ; liberal 
even to proftision, and taking delight in the 
ofllces of charity to the poor." In the chro- 
nicles and traditions of lus own country he is 
distinguished by the epithet of ** the Fienie ;" 
and several stories are related of his great 
personal strength and daring valour. It is 
said that sometime during his reign the 
Celtic tribes of the district of Monj (the 
country of Macbeth) rose under his unde 
Donald Bane in support of the ancient mode 
of succession, called the system of tanistry, 
according to which the throne^ when it be* 
^eame vacant, was filled not by the sob bat 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDEB. 



by the brother of the deceased king ; and it 
appears from Eadmer that in the aatamn of 
1120 Alexander did levy an army, which he 
led against some enemy, no donbt within the 
kingdom. The account of the later Scottish 
chroniclers is, that the contest speedily ter- 
minated in the suppression of the insurrec- 
tion and the destruction of its leader. Alex- 
ander himself died on the 27th of April, 
1124 ; and, leayin^ no issue, was succeeded 
by his brother Dayid. He built the monas- 
tery of St Colm, or St Columba, on the 
islimd called Inch Colm, in the Frith of 
Forth, upon which he was entertained for 
three days by a hermit during a tempest in 
which he had nearly perished at sea ; and he 
was also liberal in his donations to several 
of the ancient ecclesiastical establishments. 
The earliest Scottish coins now extant are 
of the reign of Alexander L (Eadmems, 
HUtoria Novontm^ cum notis Jo. Seldeni, foL 
Lond. 1623, pp. 17. 98. 130, &c ; Simeon 
Dunelmensis, inter HUtoruB Anglic, Scriptorea 
Decern, pp. 207, &c ; Ailredus, Ducriptio 
Belli Standardii, Ibid. 344. ; Aikedus, Ge- 
neaiog, Reg, Angler^ Ibid. p. 368. ; Hailes, 
AnnaU of Scotland^ 3 vols. Svo. 1819, L 53 — 
74.) G. L. C. 

ALEXANDER IL, kii^ of Scotland, 
the son of William the Lion and his wife 
Ermengarde, was bom a. d. 1198, and suc- 
ceeded his fiither, 4th December, 1214. 
He was crowned at Scone on the 10th. 
Young as he was, he lost no time in as- 
suming the active part to which he was 
called by his high station. Within a few 
months after his accession he put himself at 
the head of an armed force, and marched 
into England to co-operate with the barons 
who were in revolt against Kin^ John. He 
had bargained to be rewarded with the coun- 
ties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and 
W^tmorland, to which, or at least to part of 
which, he advanced some hereditary claim ; 
and in the course of the military operations 
that followed, although he was unsuccessM 
in his attempts upon the castles of Norham 
and Carlisle, he actually received at Felton 
(on the 18th of October, 1215) the homage 
and fealty of the inhabitants of Northumber- 
land, and at Melrose (on the 2d of January, 
1216) the homage of Uie general body of the 
insurgent English barons of the northern 
counties who had fled before the advance of 
John. The English king, however, con- 
tinued his avenging march along the eastern 
coast, carrying fire and sword from the Tyne 
to the Forth, and reducing the country to 
A desert, so that he was obliged at last to 
tvtum to the south for want of subsistence. 
.John declared, we are told hj Matthew 
Paris, that he would smoke the little red fox 
(rnbeam vulpeculam) out of his covert, be- 
cause, says the historian, Alexander was 
rufua, which ought to mean that he was 
.red-haired, but probably means that he was 
884 



of a ruddy complexion, in conformity with 
the signification m which the same epithet is 
applied by the old monkish chnmiclers to 
William IL of England. When he had thus 
got rid of John, Alexander retaliated by 
making his way again into En§^d over 
the western marches, and laying waste Cum- 
berland ; and in a subsequent incursion he 
made himself master of the town of Carlisle 
(8th August, 1216). Alter this it is said that 
he did homage, no doubt in his quality 
of an English baron, to Louis of France, 
whom the insurgents had called over to their 
assistance, and to whom they and their ad- 
herents all swore fealty. The death of John 
however, on the 17th of October in this year, 
and the defeat of Louis at Lincoln by the 
Earl of Pembroke on the 20th of May, 1217, 
changed the position of affairs; and Alex- 
ander, excommunicated by the pope's legate, 
and left alone by the destruction or submission 
of his French and English confederates, was 
glad to make peace with the victorious party 
by the surrender of Carlisle, and by consent- 
ing to do homage to Henry IIL for the earl- 
dom of Huntix^on and for whatever other 
possessions he held or claimed in England. 

This reconciliation was cemented a few 
years after by the marriage of the King <^ 
Scots, on the 25th of June, 1221, to Heme's 
eldest sister, Joan ; a fbrtunate alliance, which 
helped along with other favourable circum- 
stances to preserve peace between the two 
kingdoms durinffthe remainder of Alex- 
ander's reign. While Queen Joan lived, 
Alexander and she repeatedly visited En- 
gland, and the general intercourse of the two 
countries was probably much greater than 
it had ever previously been. In 1237 Alex- 
ander's claims to the inheritance of the north- 
em counties and some other claims were 
arranged by the settlement on him of lands 
in Northumberland and Cumberland, to the 
value of two hundred pounds per annum, for 
which he did homage to Henry. Soon after 
this the Queen of Scots, having come to Eng- 
land in the hope of obtaining relief at the 
shrine of St Thomas a Becket fh>m a painlhl 
disease under which she had been long suf- 
fering, expired at London, on the 4th of 
March, 1238. She left no issue, and the 
following year, on the 1 5th of May, Alex- 
ander married at Roxburgh, Mary, daughter 
of Ingelram or Engueraud de Conci, snr- 
named le Grand, the head of a family in 
Picardy distinguished by its royal alliances, 
and accustomed to hold itself as rather of 
princely than of noble rank. This mar- 
riage, which was followed in course of time 
by the birth of a son, afterwards Alex- 
ander III., at first so little affected the good 
understanding between the two kings, that 
in 1242, when Henry was about to go to the 
Continent, he confided to Alexander the care 
of the northern borders ; but after some time 
jealousies began to arise, which are imputed 



ALEXANBEB. 



ALEXANDElL 



hy tihe dmmiclers partly to the growing in- 
fluence of the new Qaeen of Soots with her 
hnsband, partly to another canse. In 1242, 
Walter Bisset, a member of a powerftil Scot- 
tish &mily, had been worsted at a toomament 
near Haddington by the Earl of Athole ; 
Athole was soon after murdered ; the popular 
suspicion attributed the deed to Bisset or his 
kinsmen ; both Alexander and his queen 
appear to hare done ererything in their 
power to protect the accused, or at least to 
secure him a fair trial ; but the general feel- 
ing against him was too 8t9>ng to be resisted ; 
he and all his relations were stripped of 
their possessions and banished from Scotland ; 
upon which Bisset proceeded to the English 
court, and there set himself to enga^ King 
Henry in his quarrel by representing that 
Alexander was in truth Henry's yassal, and 
had no right to inflict such punishments 
on his nobles without the permission of his 
liege lord. Moved, whether wholly by 
Bisset's insti(^tion8 and intrigues, or in part 
also by other incitements, Henry in 1244 as- 
sembled a great army at Newcastle with the 
avowed design of invading Scotland ; and 
Alexander on his side took the field at the 
head of a force which Blatthew Paris says 
amounted to nearly 100,000 men ; but by the 
mediation of the £n^lish nobility, by^ whom 
and by all the English nation, the historian 
tells us, Alexander was justly as much beloved 
as by his own sul^ects, a peace was brought 
about without a resort to the sword. 

From the commencement of his reign, 
although he had enjoyed peace with England, 
Alexander had repeatedly to defend himself 
against the Celtic adherents of the ancient 
principle of succession to the throne. In 
1215, an invasion of the district of Moray, ap- 
parently by the partisans of the other branch 
of the royal house, who are said to have been 
assisted by the son of an Irish prince, was met 
and repelled by a local chief who is sup- 

r*dto have been the head of the clan Roas. 
1222 Alexander led an army in person 
against an insurrection in Argyleshire, which 
he speedily suppressed. He did not meet 
with the same success when he went to 
the north in 1228 to encounter the forces of 
Oilliescop Mac Soolane, who appears to have 
been the then representative of the Celtic 
line ; but that pretender and both his sons 
were fidlen upon and slain the following year 
by the Earl of Buchan, justiciary of the king- 
dom. Aiterthis we hear of no more attempts 
to dispute the possession of the throne ; but 
the Celtic population still evidently continued 
in an excitable state in various parts of the 
kingdom. In 1233 the people of Galloway, 
who were of that race, on the death of their 
lord Alan, who was constable of the king- 
dom, rose under the conduct of his illegiti- 
mate son and an Irish chief called Gildrodh, 
or Gilderoy, against the transference of his 
estates to his three daughters and their hus- 
885 



bands ; and Alexander had to arm to put 
down the insurrection, which he did not do 
without difficul^. Another more partial re- 
volt took place m the same quarter in 1247. 
Two years after this Alexander set out oo 
an expedition to the Western Highlands, with 
the object of enforcing the complete sub- 
jection of Angas of Arsyle and other chiefli 
of those parts, who had hitherto divided their 
allegiance between Scotland and Norway, 
generally under the pretence of holding lands 
in the Western Islands, of which the Norwe* 
gian king claimed the sovereignty : but he 
was seized with fever while at sea, and having 
landed on the small idand of Kerera, in the 
sound of Mar, he died there on the 8th of 
July, 1249. The name of Dalree, that is, the 
king's place, is supposed still to point out the 
spot on the shore where his tent was erected. 
He was buried in the abbey of Melrose. 

Alexander IL was a warm tiiend to the 
clergy and to the monastic orders, more spe- 
cially to the Dominicans or Black Friars, 
for whom he appears to have founded no 
fewer than eight monasteries. He also stood 
up on aU occasions with great steadiness for 
the independence of the national church; and 
his reign is memorable for a bull gnmted by 
Pope Honorius IV. in 1225, by which the 
Scottish clergy, on account of &eir distance 
from the apostolic seat, were authorised to 
hold provincial councils at their own discre- 
tion, or under the sanction of which at least 
they repeatedly exercised that right, although 
probably all the privilege that Sie bull was 
intended to convey was that of holding one 
such council See Lord Hailes's ** Historical 
Memorials concerning the Provincial Coun- 
cils of the Scottish Clergy," 4to. Edinburgh, 
1769. 

Alexander II. was succeeded by his son 
Alexander IIL {Chronicon de Maihros^ in 
Fell, Renim Angltcarum Scrwtores Veteresy 
foL Oxon. 1684 ; Matt Paris, Hiatoria Major ; 
Fordun. Scotkkronkan ; Hec. Boethius, Sco' 
torttm Historict; Rymer, Fctdera; Hailes's 
Annals of Scotland.) O. L. C. 

ALEXANDER IIL, king of Scotland, 
son of Alexander II. and his second wife 
Mary de Couci, was bom at Roxburgh, 4th 
December, 1241, and succeeded his fkther, 
8th Julv, 1249. He was crowned at Scone on 
the ISm ; the ceremony apparently having 
been hastened frxnn an apprehension that 
the King of England, Henry III., might seek 
to interfere in his pretended character of 
liege lord. It appears in fact that Henry did 
apply to the pope, Innocent IV., for a mandate 
to prohibit &s King of ScotUmd from being 
crowned without his permission : the answer 
of Innocent, dated at Lyon, the 8th of the 
ides of April, 1251, in which he r^ects the 
request, is printed by Rymer (FcederOy L 463.). 
Henry, however, abstamed from any open 
expression of resentment : on the contrary, 
he ftdfllled an arrangement which had been 



ALEXANDSa 



ALEXANDER 



made in 1342, by g^Vmg his'eldMt daoghtei' 
Margaret in marriage to Alexander : the 
naptialfl were celebrated at York with great 
pomp, in Henry's presence, on the S6Ui of 
December, 1351, the bride being then in 
her twelfth as the bridegroom was in his 
eleventh year. When Alexander upon this 
occasion did homage to Henry for his English 
possessions, Henry demanded homage also 
for the kingdom of Scotland, according, as 
he was pleased to say, to what eyidently ap- 
peared to hare been the nsage from many 
passages in the Chronicles. The boy, who 
had probably receiyed instructions how to 
act, replied, ^ That he had been mvited to 
York to marry the Princess of England, not 
to treat of affairs of state ; and that he could 
not take a step so important without the 
knowledge and approbsiion of his nobility 
(primates)." 

The history of the earlier part of Alex- 
ander's reign, so far as it has come down to 
us, consists almost exdusiyely of the con- 
tentions and intrigues of yarious Actions to 
obtain the ascendancy in the goyemment 
At his accession, the chief authority was in 
the hands of the Comyns, a fiunily so power- 
tnX that there were then, Fordun tells us, no 
fewer than thir^-two knights of the name 
in Scotland ; their head was William Comyn, 
earl of Menteith ; and they were popularly 
accounted the patriotic party, as being the 
keenest or the loudest opponents of the pre- 
tensions of the English king. In 1355 
Henry managed to effect what may be called 
a mtuisterial reyolution, by means of Richard 
de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and other emis- 
saries, at whose instigation it probably was 
that Uie young queen complained of many 
grieyances: — that she was confined to the 
castle of Edinburgh, and not permitted to 
make excursions through the kingdom ; that 
she had not the choice of her female attend- 
ants ; and, aboye all, that, although her hus- 
band had now completed his fourteenth year, 
they were still kept separate. Taking ad- 
vantage of the odium excited against the 
Comyns by these charges, the Earl of March 
and other leaders of me opposite party sur- 
prised the castle of Edinburgh and took 
possession of the persons of Uie king and 
queen, while Henry advanced with an army 
to the border { and the result was that the 
Comyns and their allies the Baliols were re- 
moved ftx>m the government, and that, by an 
arrangement made at Roxburgh on the 86th 
of September, a regency was appointed to last 
till Alexander should attain the age of twenty- 
one, the members of which were the earls 
of March, Stratheam, and Carrick, Alexander 
the Stewart of Scotland, and Robert de Bruce, 
with other heads of the English ftction. But 
the Comyns now obtained the assistance both 
of the pope, Alexander IV., and of the queen 
dowaj^r, Mary de Couci, who, after having 
mamcd a second husband, John de Briennes 
886 



soil of the titular king of Jerusalem, had 
lately returned with him to Scotland ; and in 
1357 they seixed Alexander and his queen 
at Kinross, and kept them in their hands till 
a negotiation took place the following jear, 
by which a new regency was established 
consisting of six members of the Comyn 
party and four of their opponents. This 
compromise appears to have subsisted till 
Alexander attamed his minority and took 
the ^vemment into his own hands, although 
the mfiuence of the Comyns had probably 
been deprived of ity preponderating character 
by the death of their leader the Eari of 
Menteith, which took place suddenly in the 
same year in which the new regency was 
formed, not without suspicion thst he had 
been made away with by un&ir means. The 
mixed regency seems to have been still in 
power when Queen Maigaret was brought to 
bed of her first child, a daughter, which was 
named Margaret, while she and her husband 
were on a visit at Londcm, sometime be- 
tween the middle of November, 1360, and 
the beginning of the following February. 

The commencement of the second part of 
Alexander's reign, or that in which he 
governed by himself, is memorable for the 
invasion of Scotland by Haco, king of Nor- 
way, in the summer and autumn of 1363. 
The expedition, according to the Norse ac- 
count, was provoked by an attack which the 
Earl of Boss and other northern chiefii had 
made upon the Western Islands, and which had 
been conducted with extraordinary ferocity 
even ibr those times. ** They burned villages 
and churches," sa^s the Norwegian annalist 
of Haco's expedition, ** and they killed great 
numbers both of men and women ; " and he 
adds that the kings or chiefs of the Hebrides 
in their letters to Haco affirmed *'that the 
Scotch had even taken the small children, 
and, raising them on the points of their spears, 
shook them till they fell down to their hands, 
when they threw them away lifeless on the 
ground." Haco, having collected a fleet 
which is represented as the greatest that had 
ever left the north, set sail from Herlover in 
the beginmng of July. Having remained 
neariy a fortnight at what is called Bre- 
deyiar Sound in Shetland, and afterwards 
for some time at Ellidarvic, near Kirkwall, 
it was the beginning of August when they 
reached Ronaldsvo, or Ronaldsay, the south- 
ernmost island of the Orkney group. ^ While 
King Haco lay in Roiialdsvo,'' says the an- 
nalist, ** a great darkness drew over the sun, 
so that only a little ring was bright round 
the sun, and it continued so for some hours." 
It is ibund that an annular eclipse of the sun 
was in fbet visible at Ronaldny on the 5th 
of August in this year. Haco, having sailed 
down the west coast of Scotland, afterwards 
divided his force ; and, while amt squadron 
pillaged the -Mull of Ctsatyre, another made 
a descent i^oii the Isle of Bute, and com- 



ALEXANDER. 



ALEXANDBIL 



peUed the casde of RoUiMy to forrender. 
Alter this Haeo made oveitiires Ibr an ae* 
oommodatioii, which aeemed at fint to be 
listened to hj Alexander, who named as the 
only islands that he would on no aeconnt 
relinqnish, those of Bote, Arran, and the two 
isletB on the coast of Ayrahire ealled the 
Cumbras. " As to other matters," conttniieB 
tbe aooonnt, ** there was very little dispate 
between the soTcreigns} but, however, no 
agreement took place. The Scotch pnr- 
posely declined anjr aeeommodation, because 
summer was drawing to a period and the 
weather was beooming bad. Finding this, 
Haoo sailed in with all his forces past the 
Cumbras." Having dragged their boats over 
the intervening Ijmd, a party of the Nor- 
wegians made their appearance in Loch 
Lomond. " In the lake," sa^s the annalist, 
** there were a great many islands well in- 
habited: these isbmds the Norwegians wasted 
with fire ; they also burned all the buildings 
about the lake, and made great devastation." 
But on the Monday after Michaelmas, which 
fell on a Saturday, so tremendous a tempest 
of wind, rain, and hail arose, "that people 
said it was raised by the power of magic" 
Some of the Norwegian ships ran aground 
near Largs, on which their crews were at- 
tacked by the Scotch, who were however 
driven off; but on the following morning 
(Tuesday, the Sd of October), the landing of 
the peater part of the Norwegians and the 
commg up of the entire Scottish army pro- 
duced a general engagement In the Scottish 
army there were cozgeetured to be near fifteen 
hundred cavalry (ridarar). ** All their horses," 
says the Norwegian account, "had breast- 
plates, and there were many Spanish steeds 
m complete armour. The Scottish king had 
besides a numerous army of foot soldiers, 
well accoutred: they generally had bows 
and spears." One Scottish knight is after- 
wards particularised, who "wore a helmet 
plated with gold and set with precious stones," 
with other armour of corresponding splen- 
dour. During the battle the storm, which 
had somewhat abated in the night, arose 
again and raged with great fur^. The end 
was, according to the Norwegian annalist, 
that the Scotch were put to night ; but in 
the Scottish chronicles and traditions the 
bottle of LargpB has always been represented 
as a gjoat national victory ; and it is certain 
that Haco, with the remains of his shattered 
armament, immediately left the coast and 
proceeded homewards without any fturther 
attempt to accomplish the object of his ex- 
pedition. He reached the nearest port in 
the Orkneys, " a certain sound to the north 
of Asmundsvo," on the evening of Monday, 
the 29th of October ; thence he immediately 
sailed for Ronaldsay, and firom that the next 
day for Medalland (probably a harbour in 
the island called Mamland), where he was 
taken ill on the Saturday bdbre Martinmas, 
887 



and he ^ed at Kiriiwall on Saturday, the 
1 5th of December. Three years after, in 
1366, a treaty of peace was concluded with 
his son and successor King Blagnus, by 
which the dominion of the Hebrides, of the 
Isle of Man, and generally of all the islands 
in the Scottish seas, with the exception of 
those of Orkney and Shetland, was ceded to 
Alexander fivr mnr thousand marks sterling, 
and an annual quit-rent of one hundred 
marks. 

After this, in 1267, a dispute broke out 
between Alexander and his clergy, but it 
did not last long ; and after it was composed, 
Alexander, with much firmness and policy, 
stood by the national churoh in maintaining 
itis rights against both the pope and the 
English king. Henry III. died in 1272, and 
Alexander was present with his queen and 
many of his nobility at Westminster at the 
coronation of Edward L in August, 1274, on 
which occasion, and also again in 1278, he 
did homage to the King of England in the 
usual general terms, which Edward, as the 
record states, received, saving his right and 
claim to homage for ^e kingdom of Scotland, 
when it should please him or his heirs to 
demand it 

Queen Margaret died on the 26th of Feb- 
ruary, 1275. In 1281 Alexander's daughter 
Margaret, now in her twenty-first year, was 
married to Eric, king of Norway, who was 
only fourteen ; but she died in 1283, leaving 
only an infant daughter, a third Margaret, 
commonly styled by the old Scottish his- 
torians the Maiden of Norway. Queen Mar- 
garet had also borne Alexander two sons, 
Alexander, prince of Scotland, at Jedburgh, 
on the 21st of January, 1264, and David, in 
1270, who died in infancy or boyhood. In 
1282 the Prince of Scotland, now eighteen, 
married Margaret, daughter of Guy, earl of 
Flanders; but he had always been sickly, 
and he died, without issue, on the 28th of Ja- 
nuary,1284. Onthel5thof April, 1285, Alex- 
ander married at Jedburgh Joleta, daughter 
of the Count de Dreux ; but on the night of 
the 16th of Maroh in the following year, 
while riding along the northern shore of the 
Frith of Forth, between Kinghom and Burn- 
tisland, his horse fell with him over a pre- 
cipice, at a place still called King's Wood End, 
and he was killed on the spot Thus within 
three years the king, his son, and his daughter 
were all cut off, each after having been mar- 
ried little more than a year, leaving the 
in&nt Princess of Norway the only relic of 
the royal house. Margaret was immediately 
acknowledged as Queen of Scotland. 

Alexander III. was long remembered in 
Scotland both for the peace and prosperity 
which the country enjoyed for the greater 
part of his reign, forming so remarkable a 
contrast with ti&e distractions and calamities 
of the immediately succeeding period, and for 
his personal qualities and conduct He is 



ALEXANDER. 

especiaHy celebrated bv the old writeifs for 
hifl lore of Justice and his exertions to main- 
tain a regular administration of the law, for 
which purpose, it is stated, he was wont to 
make an annual progress through his king- 
dom, and to hold a court in person for the 
trial of offences in all the principal towns. 
Some popular Terses of the time recorded 
by Wyntown (supposed to be the oldest spe- 
cimen extant of the Scottish dialect), strongly 
express the affectionate regard in which his 
memory was held, and also the happy effects 
of his government Indeed the nearly com- 
plete blank that the history of Scotland pre- 
sents for aboTC twenty years after the battle 
of Largs is the best proof of the tranquillity 



ALEXAND^ft. 

which the country ei^oyed. (Chron, de Mait^ 
rdt, in Fell, Ber. Anglic, Scriptor, Veteres, fol. 
Oxon. 1684 ; M. Paris ; Fordun ; Wyntown's 
CronykU tf JScodandy by Dayid M'Pherson, 
S vols. 8T0. Lon. 1795; R^er's Faderaj 
Norwegian Account ofHactfa ExpetUtum, from 
the FUteyan and Frisian MSS., by the Rev. 
James Johnstone, l2mo. 1782 ; OUervations 
on the Norwegian ExpediUon, by John Dillon, 
Esq., in Tranaactiana of the Society of Anti" 
quariea of Scotland^ voL ii. 4to. Edinb. 1823, 
pp. 350 — 407.; Hailes's .^IfmaZf ; Tytler's Hie- 
tory of Scodand, vol. i.; Lingard*s History of 
England, voL ill.; Allen's vindication of tks 
ancient Ind^endence of Scotland, 8vo. Lon. 
1888.) G.L.C. 



END OP THE nilST VOLUME. 



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