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7S-
LIBRARY CATALOGUE SUPS.
United States. Department of the interior. (U. 8. geological survey.)
Department of the interior | — | Bulletin | of the | Uuiled
States | geological survey | no. 91 | [Seal of the department] |
£ Washington | government printing office | 1891
— Second title: United States geological survey | J. W. Powell,
M director | — | Record | of | North American geology for 1890 | by |
£ Nelson Horatio Dartou | [Vignette] |
Washington | government printing office | 1691
8°. 88 pp.
Darton (Nelson Horatio).
United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | — |
Record | of | North American geology for 1890 | by | Nelson Hora-
tio Darton | [Vignette] |
Washington | government printing office | 1891
8°. 88 pp.
[U kited Stated. Department of the interior. (U. ti. geological rurcey).
Bulletin 91. J
Unite<l States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | — |
Record | of | North American geology for 1890 | by | Nelson Hora-
tio Darton | [Vignette] [
Washington | govern men t printing office | 1891
8°. 88 pp.
(United States. Department of the interior. (U. H. geological survey).
Bulletin 91.)
ADVERTISEMENT,
[Bulletin No. 91.]
Tlie publications of the United States Geological Survey aro issued in accordance with the statute
approved March 3, 1879, which declares that—
41 The publications of the Geological Survey shall consist of the annual report of operations, geological
and economic maps illustrating the resources and classification of the lands, and reports upon general
and economic geology and paleontology. The annual report of operations of the Geological Survey
shall accompany the annual report of the Secretary of the Interior. All special memoirs and reports
of said Surrey shall be issued in uniform quarto series if deemed necessary by the Director, but other-
wise in ordinary octavos. Three thousand copies of each shall be published fur scientific exchanges
and for sale at the price of publication ; and all literary and cartographic materials received in exchange
shall be the property of the United States and form a part of the library of the organization ; and the
money resulting from the sale of such publications shall be covered into the Treasury of the United
States."
On July 7, 1882, the following joint resolution, referring to all Government publications, was passed
by Congress:
" That whenever any document or report shall be ordered printed by Congress, there shall be printed,
in addition to the number in each case stated, the 'usual number' (1,900) of copies for binding and
distribution among those entitled to receive them."
Except in those cases in which an extra number of any publication has been supplied to the Survey
by special resolution of Congress or has been ordered by the Secretary#of the Interior, this office has
no copies for gratuitous distribution.
ANNUAL KEPOKTS.
I. First Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, by Clarence King. 1880. 8°. 79 pp.
1 map. — A preliminary report describing plan of organization and publications.
II. Second Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1880-'8l, by J. W. Powell. 1x83.
8°. lv, 588 pp. 62 pi. 1 map. ..
III. Third Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1881-'8ii, by .T. \V. Powell. 1883.
8°. xviii, 564 pp. 67 pi. and maps.
IV. Fourth Annual Report of the United Statin Geological Survey, 188i!-'83, by J. W. Powell. 1884.
&>. xxxii, 473 pp. 85 pi. and maps.
V. Fifth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1883-'84, by J. W. Powell. 1885.
8°. xxxvi, 469 pp. 58 pi. and maps.
VI. Sixth Annual Report of the United States Gcologii-al Survey, 18K4-'S5, by J. AV. Powell. 1885.
8°. xxix, 570 pp. 65 pi. and maps.
VII. Seventh Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, l&5-'86, by J. TV. Powell. 1888.
8°. xx, 656 pp. 71 pi. and maps.
Vin. Eighth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 18M6-K7, by J. W. Powell. 1889.
8°. 2 ▼. xix, 474, xii pp. 53 pi. and maps ; 1 p. 1. 475-1063 pp. 54-76 pi. and maps.
IX. Ninth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1887-'88, by J. W. Powell. 1x89.
8°. xiii, 717 pp. 88 pL and maps.
X. Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1888-'89, by J. W. Powell. 1890.
&>. 2 v. xv, 774 pp. 96 pi. and maps; viii, 123 pp.
The Eleventh and Twelfth Annual Reports are in press.
MONOGRAPHS.
I. Lake Bonneville, by Grove Karl Gilbert. 1890. 4°. xx, 438 pp. 51 pi. 1 map. Price $1.50.
H. Tertiary History of the Grand Cafion District, with atlas, by Clarence E. Dutton, Capt. V. S. A.
1682. 40. xlv, 264 pp. 42 pi. and atlas of 24 sheets folio. Price $10.00.
HI. Geology of the Comstook Lode and the Washoe District, with atlas, by George F. Becker. 1882.
«». xt, 422 pp. 7 pi. and atlas of 21 sheets folio. Price $11.00.
IV. Comatock Mining and Miners, by Eliot Lord. 1883. 4°. xiv, 451 pp. 3 pi. Price $1.50.
I
.II ADVKRTIREMEXT.
V. The Copper-Bearing Rock* nf hnke Superior, by Roland Uncr Irving. ]8J«. 4». x\ i, 404 pp.
151. SB pi. nod mops. Price »1.83.
VI. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Older Mesoioic Flora of Virginia, by William M.jrrl*
Fontaine. 1883. V>. li. 1H pp. Ml. 64 pi. Price tl.OS.
VII. Silver- Lead Depimit a of Euwlta, Nevmlii, by Jowph Story Curtis. 1S84. 4°. iLii. 200 pp. IB
pi. Pflcot!.20.
VIII. Paleontology of the Enrekn District, by Charles Doollttlc Wnlontt. 1884. 4\ xiil, 298 pp.
24 1. 24 pi. Price. (1.10.
IX. Brachlupoda and I.amcllibranchuitii of tho Rarftan Clays and Greeusand Marls of Now Jersey,
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X. Dinoccrata. A Monograph of an Extinct Order of Gigantic Mammal*, by Othnie.lCh«rlcsMar*h.
1880. 4°. xviil,243pp. Ml. SO pi. Price *2.70.
XI. Geological History or Lake Lnhnntan, n Quaternary Lake of Northwestern Nevada, by I*rael
Cook Russell. lABj. 4'. xiv. 288 pp. 4« pi. anil map*. Price *1.7S.
XII. Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville. Colorado, with atlas, by Samuel Franklin RnwH.
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XIII. Geology of tin? Quicksilver Deposit* of the Pacific Slope, with atlas, by George F. Becker.
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XIV. Fossil Fishes and Fossil Plant* of the Triessio Rocks of New Jersey and the Coun.-clirnt Val-
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XV. Tho Potomac or Younger Meaoznie Flora, by William Morris Fontaine. 1889. 4". ilv, 97;
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XVII. The Flora of Inn Dakota Group, a
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XVIII. Gnatcro|KKla ami Ccplmlop.nl a of
by Robert P. Whitlleld.
In preparation :
— The Penokee Iron-Bearing Series of Nor
C. R. Van Hise.
— Mollitsca and Crustacea of the Mi.H'cuc
— Geology of tho Green Mountains in Mai
Dale, and Bayard T. Pntnatn. *
— Geology of the Eureka Mining District, Nevada, with atlns, by Arnold Hague.
— Sanropoda, by O. C. Marsh.
— Slogoaanria. by O. C. Marsh.
— Brontetberidie. by O. C. Marsh.
— Report on tho Denver Coal llasln, by S. F. Emmons.
— Report on Silver Cliff and Ten Mile Mining District*. Colorado, by S. F. F.minnns.
— The Glacial Lake Agassii, hy Warren Dpluin.
ItlTLLETDTK.
1. On Hypersthcuc-Andosile and on Trielinic Pyroxene in Augitic Rock*, by Whitman Croi
Geological Sketch of Buffalo Punk*, Colorado, by S. F.F.mmons. 1883. 8'. 42 pp. 2 pi. Prici
2. Gold nnd Silver Conversion Tables, giving the coining vain™ of troy ounce* of line metal,
pitted by Albert Williams, jr. 1883. 8°. Spp. Price 5 cents.
3. On the Fossil Kaunas of the Upper Devonian, along the meridian of WW, from Tnropkim
New York, to Bradford County, Pennsylvania, hy Tlcnry S. Williams. 1884. r*. ;ia pp. Prio
4. OoMesonoicF.wsil*. by-Chsrlcs A.White. lKW. B°. 38 pp. 0 pi. Price f. cent*.
!i. A Dictionary or Altitude, in the United State*, compile! by Henry Gannett. 1881. 8'
Price SO c.-tlts.
0. Elevation* in the Dominion of Cnnailn. by .1. W. Kpencer. 1881, 3'. 43 pp. IWee 5 on
7. Hapotrra Geologies, Americana. A Catalogue ol Geological Maps of America (Win an
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1. An-imrtof work done In th.i Washing l-atwntorydi.ringlhenacalycnr I883-B4. F.V.
rlilef chemist. T. M.Chalard. assistant chemist. 1884. 8". 41) pp. Prlecorents.
10. On llu- Cambrian Fauna* of North America. Preliminary "t "dies, by Charles iNKilitilc
1884. 8=. 74|>p. 10 pi. Price Scent*.
11. On the Quaternary and Recent Mn
by R. Ellsworth Call. Introduced l.y n
Gllliert. 1884. b=>. 60 pp. 8 pi. Price
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the Rnritan Clays ami Gn-eiisaud Marl*
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d 1). Irviii;
Formatlona of New Jersey, by R. P. Whit
Bel.1.
Boachuselts, by Raphael Pmnpelly, J. E. '
.V..lfl, T. ,N
ADVERTISEMENT. Ill
12. A Crystallography Study of the Thinolito of Lake Lahontan. by Edward S. Dana. 18R4k 8^.
34 pp. 3 pi. Price 5 cents.
13. Boundaries of the LTnltod States ami of the several States and Territories, with a Historical
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14. The Electrical and Magnetic Properties of the Iron-Carburets, by Carl Barus and Vincent
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15. On the Mesozoic and Ccnozoic Paleontology of California, by CharleH A. White. 1885. 8°. 33 pp.
Price 5 cent*.
10. On tho Higher Devonian Fannaa of Ontario County, New York, by John M. Clarke. 1885. 8°.
86 pp. 3 pi. Price 5 cent*.
17. On the Development of Crystallization in the Igneous Rocks of Washoe. Nevada, with notes on
the Geology of the District, by Arnold Hague and Joseph P. Iddings. 1885. 8°. 44 pp. Price 5
cents.
18. On Marino Eocene. Fresh-water Mioccue* and other Fossil Mollnsca of Western North America,
by Charles A. White. 1885. 8°. 26 pp. 3 pi. Price 5 cents.
19. Notes on the Stratigraphy of California, by George F. Becker. 1885. 8°. 28 pp. Price 5 cents.
20. Contributions to the Mineralogy of the Rocky Mountains, by Whitman Cross and W. F. Hille-
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21. The Lignites of the Great Sioux Reservation. A Report on the Region between the Grand and
Morean Rivers, Dakota, by Bailey Willis. 1885. 8°. 16 pp. 5 pi. Price 5 cents.
22. On New Cretaceous Fossils from California, by Charles A. White. 1885. 8°. 25 pp. 5 pi.
Price 5 cents.
23. Observations on the Junction between the Eastern Sandstone and the Keweenaw Series on Ke-
weenaw Point, Lake Superior, by R. D. Irving and T. C. Chain be rlin. 1885. 8°. 124 pp. 17 pi.
Price 15 cents.
24. List of Marine Mollnsca, comprising th# Quatenary Fossils and recent forms from American
Localities lietween Capo Hatteras and Cape Roque, including the Bermudas, by William Healy Dall.
1885. 8°. 336 pp. Price 25 cents.
25. The Present Technical Condition of the Steel Industry of the United States, by Phineas Barnes.
1885. 8°. 85 pp. Pi ice 10 cents.
26. Copper Smelting, by Henry M. Howe. 1885. 8°. 107 pp. Price 10 cents.
27. Report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
1884-'85. 1886. 8°. 80 pp. Price 10 cents.
28. The Gabbros and Associated Hornblende Rocks occurring in the neighborhood of Baltimore,
Md., by George Huntington Williams. 1886. 8°. 78 pp. 4 pi. Price 10 cents.
29. On the Fresh- water Invertebrates of the North Americau Jurassic, by Charles A. AVhite. 1886.
8°. 41 pp. 4 pi. Price 5 cent*.
30. Second Contribution to the Studies on the Cambrian Faunas of North America, by Charles Doo-
little Walcott. 1886. 8*. 369 pp. 33 pi. Price 25 cents.
31. Systematic Review of our Present Knowledge of Fossil Insects, including My riapods and Arach-
nid*, by Samuel Hubbard Scudder. 1886. 8°. 128 pp. Price 15 centa.
. 32. Lists and Analyses of the Mineral Springs of the United States: a Preliminary Study, by Albert
C. Peale. 1886. **°. 235 pp. Price 20 cents.
33. Notes on the Geology of Northern California, by J. S. Diller. 1886. 8°. 23 pp. Price 5 cents.
34. On the relation of the Laramie Molluscan Fauna to that of the succeeding Fresh-water Eocene
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35. Physical Propertiea of the Iron-Carbnrots. by Carl Barua and Vincent Strouhal. 1886. 8°. 62
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36. Subsidence of Fine Solid Particles in Liquids, by Carl Haras. 1886. 8°. 58 pp. Trice 10 cents.
37. Types of the Laramie Flora, by Lester F. Ward. 1887. 8°. 354 pp. 57 pi. Price 25 centa.
38. Peridotite of Elliott County, Kentucky, by J. S. Diller. 1887. 8°. 31 pp. 1 pi. Price 5 cents.
39. The Up]»er Beaches and Deltas of the Glacial Lake Agassiz, by Warren Upham. 1887. 8°. 84
pp. 1 pi. Price 10 cents.
40. Changes in River Courses in Washington Territory duo to Glaciation, by Bailey Willis. 1887.
8°. 10 pp. 4 pi. Price 5 cents.
41. On the Fossil Fannaa of the Fpper I")evonian— the Genesee Section, New York, by Henry S*
Williams. 1887. 8°. 121pp. 4 pi. Price 15 cent*.
42. Report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
1885-'86. F. W. Clarke, chief chemist. 1887. 8°. 152 pp. 1 pi. Price 15 cents.
43. Tertiary and Cretaceous Strata of the Tuscaloosa. Tombiglwe, and Alabama Rivers, by Eugene
A. Smith and Lawrence C. Johnson. 1887. 8°. 189 pp. 21 pi. IVice 15 cents.
44. Bibliography of North American Geology for 1886, by Nelson H. Darton. 1887. 8°. 35 pp#
Price 5 cents.
45. The Present Condition of Knowledge of the Geology of Texas, by Robert T. TII11. 1887. 8°. 94
pp. Price 10 cents.
46. Nature and Origin of Dejiosits of Phosphate of Lime, by R. A. F. Penrose, jr., with an Intro-
duction by N. S. Shaler. 1888. 8°. 143 pp. Price 15 cents.
IV ADVERTISEMENT.
47. Analyse* of Waters of the Yellowstone National Park, witli an Account of the Methods of
Analysis employed, by Frank Austin Gooch and James Kdwurd Whitfield. 1K88. H''. «i pp. Pi ire
10 cents.
48. On the Form and Position of the Sea Level, by .Robert Simpson Woodward. 1888. 8°. 88 pp.
Price 10 cents.
49. Latitudes and Longitudes of Certain Points in Missouri, Kansas, and New Mexieo, by Robert
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50. Formulas and Tables to facilitate the Construe t ion and Use of Maps, by Robert Simpson Wood-
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51. On Invertebrate Fossils from file Pacitic Coast, by Charles Abiathar White. 1889. 8°. 102 pp.
14 pi. Price 15 cents.
52. Snbaerial Decay of Rocks and Origin of the Red Color of Certain Formations, by Israel Cook
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53. The Geology of Nantucket, by Nathaniel Southgate Shaler. 1889. 8°. 55 pp. 10 pi. Price 10
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54. On the Thermo- Electric Measurement of High Temperatures, by Carl Barns. 1889. 83. 313 pp.
incl. 1 pi. 11 pi. Price 25 cents.
55. Report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
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56. Fossil Wood and Lignite of the Potomac Formation, by Frank Hall Knowlton. 1889. 8D. 72 pp.
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57. A Geological Reconnaissance in Southwestern Kansas, by Robert Hay. 1890. 8°. 49 pp. 2 pi.
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58. The Glacial Boundary in Western Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois, by George
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59. The Gabbros and Associated Rocks in Delaware, by Frederick D. Chester. 1890. 8°. 45 pp.
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60. Report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
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61. Contributions to the Mineralogy of the Pacific Coast, by William Harlow Melville and Waldemar
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62. The Greenstone Schist Areas of the Menominee and Marquette Regions of Michigan; a contri-
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63. A Bibliography of Paleozoic Crustacea from 1698 to 1889, including a list of North American
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64. A report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
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65. Stratigraphy of the Bituminous Coal Field of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia, by Tsrnel
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66. On a Group of Volcanic Rocks from the Tewan Mountains, New Mexico, and on the occurrence
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67. The Relations of the Traps of the Newark System in the New Jersey Region, by Nelson Horatio
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68. Earthquakes in California in 18G9. by James Edward Keeler. 1890. 8°. 25 pp. Price 5 cents.
69. A Classed and Annotated Bibliography of Fossil Insects, by Samuel Hubbard Scndder. 1890.
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70. Report on Astronomical Work of 1889 and 1890, by Robert Simpson Woodward. 1890. 8°. 79 pp.
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71. Index to the Known Fossil Insects of the World, including Myriapods and Arachnids, by Samuel
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72. Altitudes between Lake Superior and the Rocky Mountains, by Warren Uphaiu. 1891. 8°.
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73. The Viscosity of Solids, by Cnrl Barns. 1891. 8°. xii, 139 pp. 6 pi. Price 15 cents.
74. The Minerals of North Carolina, by Frederick Augustus Genth. 1891. 8°. 119 pp. Price 15
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75. Record of North American Geology for 1887 to 1889, inclusive, by Nelson Horatio Darton. 1891.
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76. A Dictionary of Altitudes in the United States (second edition), compiled by Henry Gannett-,
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77. The Texan Permian and its Mesozoic Types of Fossils, by Charles A. White. 1891. 8°. 51 pp.
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78. A report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
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u .
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)
(
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BULLETIN
UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
No. 91
WASHINGTON
OOVBBNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1891
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
J. IV. POWELL, DIRECTOR
RECORD
NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890
NELSON HOHATIO I>AKTON
WASE1SGTOS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1891
•
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
By Nelson Horatio Daeton.
INTRODUCTORY.
This work is the continuation of the record for 1887-1889,1 inclusive,
and includes publications received during the year 1890.
The literary scope of this record includes geologic publications
printed in North America, and publications on North American geology
wherever printed. Purely paleontologic or mineralogic papers are not
included.
The entries are comprised in the three following classes, all arranged
in a single alphabetic sequence :
I. Principal entries. — Consisting of full titles of separate contribu-
tions classified by authors, together with an abbreviated reference to
the containing publication and a short note descriptive of the geologic
contents. Imprint dates are given only when other than 1 890, and
size of page when other than octavo. The extent of papers less than
a page in length is indicated thus : J p., J col., 3 lines.
II. Titles of containing publications. — Entered as headings under
which authors' names and short titles of the contained papers are listed
in their order of precedence.
III. Subject references. — Each consisting of a condensed title of paper,
and the author's name for cross-reference to a principal entry. These
are essentially index references, but they are entered under a limited
number of headings, of which a classified key is given below.
'Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 75, pp. 1T3. Washington, 1891.
CLASSIFIED KEY TO THE SUBJECT ENTRIES.
(1) GEOGRAPHIC SUBJECTS.
Alabama.
Alaska, and the other States and Territories.
Africa.
Asia.
Canada (including all of British Columbia).
Central America.
Hawaiian Islands,
Mexico.
South America.
(2) STRATIGRAPHIC SUBJECTS.
Archean and Algonkiau, with sub-headings as follows:
Eastern Canada.
Lake Superior to Lake Huron region.
New England.
New York to Georgia.
Western United States.
Nomenclature.
Cambrian, with sub-headings as follows :
Canada.
New York and New England.
Pennsylvania to Virginia.
Illinois-
Great Lakes region.
Western United States.
Nomenclature.
Carboniferous (including Permian), with snb-headings as follows :
Canada.
New England.
Appalachians to the Mississippi.
Iowa, Missouri, Kansas.
Arkansas to Mexico.
Bocky Mountain region.
Arizona. .
Central America.
California.
DArrox.l RECORD OV NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
Cretaceous, with sab-headings as follows :
Atlantic Coast region.
Canada.
Great Plains and Rocky Mountain region*
Texas region.
Mexico.
Kentucky.
Pacific coast.
South America.
Devonian, with sab-headings as follows:
Alabama.
Canada.
Central America.
England.
Illinois.
Iowa.
Kentucky.
Maine.
Massachusetts.
New Jersey.
New York.
Ohio and Indiana.
Pennsylvania.
Tennessee.
Virginia and Maryland.
Western United States.
Nomenclature.
Jura-Trias, with sub headings as follows:
Canada.
Central America.
Newark formation (Connecticut to North Carolina).
Western United States.
Nomenclature.
Pleistocene, with sub-headings as follows :
Alaska.
Appalachians to Mississippi basin.
Atlantic Coast region.
Central America.
General.
Great Lakes region and eastern Canada.
Mississippi basin to Rocky Mountains.
Rocky Mountains to Pacific coast.
Western Canada.
8 RECOBD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOB 1890. [blu.ii.
Silurian, with sub-headings as follows :
Appalachians (Maine to Alabama).
Canada.
Central and Western States.
Nomenclature.
Tertiary, with sub-headings as follows :
Atlantic Coast plain.
Gnlf States (Florida to Texas).
Arkansas to Kansas.
British Colombia.
Central and Western United States.
California and Oregon.
Mexico.
Central America.
South America.
(3) OTHEB SUBJECTS.
Geologic philosophy, with sub-headings as follows :
Petrology.
Qlaeiology.
Physiographic geology.
Earth crust deformation.
Chemical and chemico-organic deposition.
Geologic climate.
Volcanism.
Miscellaneous.
Petrography.
LIST OP PUBLICATIONS EXAMINED.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Proceedings, vol. 24.
Amerioan Association for the Advancement of Science, Proceedings, vol. 33. Salem,
Mass.
American Geologist, vols. 5, 6. Minneapolis, Minn.
American Jonrnal of Science, 3d series, vols. 39,40. Now Haven, Conn.
American Mnsenm of Natural History, Bulletin, vol. 2, Nos. 3,4 ; vol. 3, No. 1, pp.
1-194. New York, N. Y.
American Naturalist, vol. 23, November and December; vol. 24. Philadelphia, Pa.
American Philosophical Society, Proceedings, vol. 27, No. 131 ; vol. 28, Nob. 132-134.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Transactions, vol. 16, new series, part 3. Philadelphia, Pa.
Appalachia, vol. ti, Nos. 1,2. Boston, Mass.
Boston Society of Natural History, Proceedings, vol. 24, pp. 355 to end ; vol. 25, pp.
1-80. Boston, Mass.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, Report of fifty-ninth meeting.
London.
California Academy of Science, vol. 2. San Francisco.
California, State Mineralogist, Ninth and Tenth Annual Reports. Sacramento.
Canada, Geological and Natural History Survey, Annual Report, new series, vol. 3,
1887-'88, 2 parts. Montreal.
Canada, Royal Society, Transactions, vol. 7. Montreal.
Canada, Report of Commission on Mineral Resources of Ontario.
Canadian Institute, Proceedings, 3d series, vol. 7. Toronto.
Canadian Record of Scieuce, vol. 3, Nos. 7,8; vol. 4, Nos. 1-4.
Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Journal, vol. 12, No. 4; vol. 13, Nos. 1-3.
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Colorado Scientific Society, Proceedings, voL 3, part 2. Denver.
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, Transactions, vol. 8, part 1. Now Haven.
Denison University, Scientific Laboratories, Bulletin, vol. 5. Granville, Ohio.
Deutsche geologische Gesellschaft, Zeitschrift, vol. 40, No. 4 ; vol. 41, Nos. 1-3. Berlin.
Edinburgh Geological Society, Transactions, vol. (>, parts. 1,2. Edinburgh.
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Journal, 18*1, part 2 ; 181)0, part 1. Raleigh, N. C.
Essex Institute, Bulletin, vol. 21, Nos. 7-12; vol. 22, Nos. 1-6. Salem, Mass.
Engineering and Mining Journal, vol. 40, 50. New York.
Forum, 1890. New York.
Geological Magazine, new ser., decade in, vol. 7. London.
Geological Society of America, Bulletin, vol. 1. Wash ington, D. C.
Geological Society, Quarterly Journal, vol. 46. London.
Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm, Forhandliugar, vol. 11, Nos. 5-7; vol. 12. Nos.
1-4.
Georgia, Bulletin Experiment Station, 1*90.
Harvard College, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Bulletin, vol. 16, Nos. 5,7,8;
vol. 17, No. 6; vol. 18; vol. 19, Nos. 1-4; vol. 20, Nos. 1-5,7.
Iowa Aeademy of Science, Proceedings, 1837-'89.
9
10 RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. (snu-m.
Iowa State University, Laboratories of Natnral History, Bulletin, toI. 1, Nos. 2-4 ;
vol. 2, No. 1. Iowa City.
Johna Hopkins University, Circulars, No*. 78-84. Baltimore, Hd.
Kansas Academy of Science, Transactions, vol. 12, part 1. Topeka.
Liverpool Geological Association, Jonroal, vol. 9. Liverpool.
Liverpool Geological Society, Proceedings, vol. 6, part 1. Liverpool.
Liverpool Literary anil Philosophical Society, Proceedings, vol. 41. Liverpool,
Manchester Geological Society, Transact iocs, vol. 20, parts 9-17. Manchester.
Missouri, Geological Survey, Bulletins Nob. 1-3. Jefferson City.
National Geographic Magazine, vol. 2. Washington, D. C.
Nature, 1890. London.
Neuea Jabrbncn, 1800. Stnttgart.
New Brunswick Natural History Society, Bulletin, vol. 9. Saint John.
New Jersey Geological Survey, Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1689.
Trenton.
New York Academy of Sciences, Annals, vol. 4, No. 12 ; vol. 5. New York.
Transactions, vol. 9; vol. 10, Noa. 1-3. New York.
New York, Commissioners of tbe State Reservation at Niagara, Sixth Report.
New York State Masenm, Annual Reports, 41-42. Albany.
Bulletin, No. 7. Albany.
Obio Geological Survey, First Annual Report (3rd organization). Columbus.
Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 3, No. 4 ; vol. 4, No*. 1-9. Ottawa, Canada.
Pennsylvania Geological Snrvey, Annual Report for 1687. Harrisburg.
Seventh Report on Oil and Gas. Harrisbnrg.
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science, Proceedings, 1889, part 3 : 1890, parts 1-2.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Popular Science Monthly, 1890. New York.
School of Mines Quarterly, vol. 11, Nos. 2-4; vol. 12, No. 1. New York.
Science, vols. 15, 16. New York. *
Scientific American Supplement, vols. 20, 30. New York.
Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. 0. Edinburgh.
Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report, 1886, part 2; 1887, part 2, 1888, parts 1. 2.
Societe" goologique de France, Bulletin, 3* scrie, vol. 16, No. 10 ; vol. 17, Nos. 1-9.
Paris.
Society geologique du Nord, Annates, vol. 16, Nos. 5, 6 ; vol. 17, Nos. 1-3. Lilie.
Technology Quarterly, vol. 3, Nos. 1-3. Boston, Mass.
Texas Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 4. Austin.
First Annual Report. Austin.
U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletins, Nos. 54-64, 66-70. Washington.
Monographs, vols. 1, 15, 16. Washington.
Annual Reports, J. W. Powell, Eighth and Ninth, 1886-'88.
U. 8. National Museum, Proceedings, vol. 12. Washington, D. C.
Vaasar College Institute, Transactions, vol. 5. Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
Wagner Free Institute, Transactions, vols. 2, 3. Philadelphia.
Warren's New Physical Geography.
Washburn College Laboratory, Bulletin, vol. 2, No. 11. Topeka, Kans.
Washington Philosophical Society, Bulletin, vol. 11, pp. 173-358. Washington,
D. C.
Wyoming, Report of the Territorial Geologist, January, 1890. Cheyenne.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Institute, Proceedings, new series, vol. 11,
parts.
RECORD.
A.
ADAMS, F. D. Notes on the litholog-
ical character of some of the rocks
collected in the Yukon district and
adjacent northern portion of British
Columbia.
Canada, Gteol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part t, Report B, pp. 285-240. 1888.
Consists entirely of petrographio descrip-
tion*.
[Summary of observations in 1887
in Montcalm and Joliette counties.]
Canada, Gaol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, Report A, pp. 27-28. 1888.
Includes a brief description of the relations
of the anorthosite, and evidence as to its
eruptive nature.
[Account of explorations in the
eastern townships of Quebec.]
Canada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
aeries, part 1. Report A, pp. 84-86. 1888.
Includes brief summary regarding the re-
latione of the crystalline rooks.
Africa. Banket deposits of the Wit-
watersrand, Curtis.
De Kaap Transvaal gold-fields, Fur-
longs.
Nile and the desert, Bolton.
AOABSIZ, Alexander. Note [on ooral
reefo of southern Florida, and their
relation to the growth of the peninsula].
Harvard Collage, Mna. Oomp. Zool., Bull.,
toL 16, pp. 157-158.
Aiflhama Analy ses of dolomite and clay,
HlLLEBRAND.
Appomattox formation, McGee.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Pleistocene submergence, McGee.
Spkncrr.
Analyses of sand and white earth
from Talladega, Catlrtt.
Geology of Mon Louis island, Lang-
DON.
Alabama— Con tinned,
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Camp-
bell. Smith and Gesner.
Peculiarities in drainage, McGee.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
Alaska. Ice cliffs of Kowak river, Rus-
sell. Cantwell.
Surface geology, Russell.
American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Soienoe, voL 38.
North American Mesozoic, White,
C. A.
Origin of gneiss, Bell.
Level of no strain in crust of the
earth, Clatpole.
Trap ridges of East Haven, Bran ford,
Connecticut, Hovey, E. 0.
Devonian of Devonshire, Williams,
H. S.
Ogishke conglomerate, Winchell, A.
Origin of Keewatin ores in Minne-
sota, Winchell, N. H. and II. V.
Eagle Flats formation and basin of
Trans-Pecos, Texas, Hill.
Igneous rocks of central Texas, Hill
and Dcmble.
Staked Plains format ion, Texas, Hill.
Valley of Upper Canadian, Texas-
New Mexico, Hill.
Topographic features of Texas, Hill.
Zircon rocks in Archean of New Jer-
sey, Nason and Ferrier.
Archean northwest of Lake Superior,
Lawson.
Petrography of certain dikes of Rainy
Lake region, Lawson and Shutt.
Lake ridges of Ohio and glacial
drainage in valley of Susquehanna,
Wright.
U
12 EECOED OP NOBTH AMEBICAN GEOLOGY FOE
[bull OL
American Association, etc. — Cont'd.
Glacial phenomena, Illinois and In-
diana, Lkvrrktt.
Topographic types of northeastern
low ft, McGf.f..
Petroleum belt 'of Torre Hants,
Maqnoketa shales in Iowa, Jambs.
Studies of hornblende schist, Hitch-
cock.
Cretaceous of northern Mexico,
White, C. A.
Pits and domes of Mammoth Cave,
HOVEY, H. C.
AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. The Azoic
system.
American Goologlit, vol. 6, pp. 100-107. | p.
IliKniolon of deflnition given in Century
DVttfcmatj.
The pre-natal history of the geolog-
ical society of America-
Am. GeologUi, toI. S, pp. 181-10*.
What constitutes the Taconio range
of Mountains!
Am. Qeologiil, vol. 6, p, MT, PI. TI.
Kicotpts, with mips, from viriooi wr
In rt'Uuril itilhe loc»tlun uf [Lb Taeoaicm
UlMl
lOftb
— , vol 5.
Geographic features of the Tt
region, Hill.
l.auruntian asappliedto Quaternary,
Scotithus flattened by pressure, Wan-
Extiuct volcanoes in Colorado,
Islands of Santa Barbara Channel,
Yates.
North American Geology and Paleon-
tology by Miller, Dak a.
Geology of Eainy Lake Region, Law-
Fossils from Cambro- Silurian of Man-
itoba, WH1TBAVB8.
Geological Survey of Minnesota, re-
port for 1888, Winchkll, A.
Bivers and valleys of Pennsylvanii
Davis.
Structure of drumlins, Uphaii.
Fossils of the Trinity beds, Hill.
Kansas salt mine. Hay.
Silurian system, Muncmsos.
American Geologist, vol. S— Continued.
Level ofno strain in crust of the earth,
Claypolb.
Origiu of outlines of the Bermudas,
Fewk.es.
Extinction of species, McCREERY.
Glacial lunoid furrow*, Packard.
Azoio system, Am. Geologist.
Subaerial decay of rocks, Russell.
Geology of Nantucket, Bhalee.
Meeting of Geological Society of
America.
Meeting or Boston Society of Natural
History.
Well at Dixon, Ulinois, TIFFANY.
Well at Le Mars, Iowa, Todd.
Dikes near Kennebunkport, Maine,
Kemp.
Tr lassie traps of Nova Scotia, Maks-
Trainingof a geologist, Branner.
Triassic flora of Richmond, Virginia,
Mahcou.
Copper in Auimikie rocks of Thunder
Bay, Lawson.
Quicksilver deposits of Pacific slope,
Becker,
Prcglacial channels at the falls of
the Ohio, Brtson.
Level of no strain, Davis.
Use of terms Laurentian and Newark,
Hitchcock.
Glacial geology of Irondequoit re-
gions, Dhtbr.
Session of International Geological
Congress, Frazer.
History of the Quebec group, Hunt,
T.S.
Making of Pennsylvania, Claypole.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
Noto on Duck and Biding Mountains,
Tyrrell.
Report on James Bay country, Low.
Geology of Quebec, ELL8.
Northern New BrunswiokandMaiue,
Bailey and McInnes.
Surface geology of New Brunswick,
CnALMBRS.
Transactions of meeting of Kansas
Academy.
Drainage systems of New Mexico,
Tarr.
daotoii.J KECOED OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
13
American Geologist, voL 5 — Continued.
Survey of Concho country, Cummins
and Lerch.
Maquoketa shales, James.
Lower and middle Taconic, Marcou.
Meeting of International Congress of
Geologists, Hekrick.
Trenton limestone oil and gas, Orton.
, vol. 6.
A deserted gorge of the Mississippi,
Grant.
Permo-Carboniferous of Kansas,
Woostbr.
Huron ian-Laurenti an contact, Bar-
low.
Artesian water from the drift, Rolfe.
Non-feldspathic intrusives of Mary-
land, Williams, G. H.
Ice cliffs of Kowak River, Alaska,
Russell. Cantwell.
Quaternary history of Mono Valley,
Russell.
Use of terms Laurentian and Cham-
plain, Marcou.
Casts of orinoids from Burlington
limestone, Rowley.
Sergipe-Alagdas basin of Brazil,
Branner.
Check list of Cretaceous invertebrates
of Texas, Hill.
On the name Laurentian, James.
Carbon iferons of central Texas, Tar r.
Glaciation of the Cordillera, Daw-
son, G. M.
Eruptive rocks of Lake Huron region,
Fairbanks.
Pre-natal history of the Geological
Society of America, Am. Geologist.
Characteristics of volcanoes, Dana.
Geographic development of northern
New Jersey, Davis and Wood.
Geology of Lassen Peak district, Dil-
lbr.
Geology of island of Mt. Desert,
Shalkr.
Thickness of rocks in Central New
York, Prosser.
Artesian wells in the Dakotas, Up-
ham.
Cheyenne sandstone and Neocomian
shales of Kansas, Cragin.
Coal measures of Iudian Territory,
Changs.
Glaciation of eastern Cauada,CHAL-
MEB8.
American Geologist, vol. 5 — Continued.
What-conatitute the Taconic Moun-
tains? Am. Geologist.
Exploration of the Iudiau Territory,
Hill.
Texas Cretaceous, Hill.
The Wetwoods, Bryson.
Taconic iron ores, Winchell, N. H.
and H. V.
Pilot Knob, Hill. Kemp.
Ext ension of Iroquois beach, Spencer.
Relations of State and National Sur-
veys, Branner.
Quebec not in conflict with Taconic,
Am. Geologist.
The Iroquois beach, Spencer.
Glaciation of the Cordillera and Lau-
rentide, Chalmers.
Cause of the glacial period, Upham.
Great quart zite more recent than
Olenns schist, Holst.
Observations on some Canadian
rocks, Winchell, A.
Reconnaissance in Kansas, Hay.
Geology of 'Eastern Maine and New
Brunswick, Bailey.
Glacial boundary — Pennsylvania to
Illinois, Wright.
Submergence of Isthmus of Panama,
Upham.
Iroquois beach, Davis.
Ameri can Journal of Science, vol. 39.
Devonian system of Devonshire, Wil-
liams, H. S.
Zinciferous clays of Missouri, Sba-
mon.
Origin of normal faults, Reade.
•North American Geology aud Paleon-
tology, Dana.
lyth Report Minnesota Survey, Dana.
Fossils in Columbia County, New
York, Bishop.
Cretaceous, San Carlos Mouutain,
Mexico, White, C. A.
Fossils in Dutchess County, New
York, D wight.
Cretaceous plants from Martha's
Vineyard, White, D.
Review of Ells's report on Quebec,
Walcott.
Tracks in Animikie rocks, Selwyn.
Hercynian fauna, Walcott.
Sedgwick aud Mtirchison, Cambrian
aud Silurian, Dana.
14
RECOED OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. l»uu» »L
American Journal of flclonoe-- -Cont'd.
Cretaceous of British Columbia,
Dawson, G. M.
Recent rook flexnre, Chjmek.
Calciferons formation in Cbamplain
Valley, Bkainekd and Skely.
Geological survey of Canada, Reports,
vol. 3, Dawson, G.H.
Sandstones of Fernando de Noronlin,
Branner.
Dikes in central Appalachian, Vir-
ginia, Darton. Diller.
Soda-granite and quart z-kerato-
phyre, Pigeon Point, Haylkt,
Topographic features of central
Texas, Tarr.
Sub serial decay of rocks, Dana.
Diatom beds in Yellowstone Park,
Whd,
Arcbean limestone in Norfolk, Conn.,
Cornisr.
Glacial scratches in Norfolk, Conn.,
Characteristics of volcanoes, Dana.
Elementary proof of tbe earth's rigid-
ity, Becker.
Minerals of amphibole and pyroxene
groups. Cross.
Arcbean axes of eastern North Anier-
Metamorphio strata of southeastern
New York, Merrill, F. J. H.
History of Mono Valley, California,
Rusbkll.
Lower Carboniferous in central
Texas, Tarr.
Scapolite rock in New Jersey, Nason.
, vol 40.
Southern extension of Appomattox
formation, McGre.
Gonioliua in Comanche series of
Texas, Hill.
Fayalite in obsidian of Lipari, Id-
dings and Penpirld.
Post-tertiary deposits of Manitoba,
Tyrrell.
Curious occurrence of vivianite, Duo-
Claaalfl cation of glacial sediments of
Maine, 6 tone.
Silurian graptolites from Maine,
Dodge.
Siderite basins of Hudson River
epoch, Kt>iBit.r.
A merfo an Journal of Solanoe— Cont'd.
American Committees of Inleruo-
tional Congress, Williams, H. B.
Potomac or yonnger Mesozoic flora,
Fontaine.
Rocky Mountain protaxis, Dana.
Cretaceous of Manitoba, Tyrrell.
Geology of Mon Louis Island, Lang-
Microscopic struotnre of oolite, Bar-
bour and Toreky.
Clinton group fossils, Foerstb.
Blandfurd's address to Geological So-
ciety of Loudon, Dana.
Fossils in Hillsdale, NewYork, Dana.
' ' Bemardaton Series " of npper De-
vonian rooks, Emerson.
Keokuk beds at Keokuk, Gordon.
Indianapolis meeting of Geological
Society.
Super imposition of the drainage in
central Texas, Tarr.
Pre-glacial drainage nnd recent his-
tory of western Pennsylvania, Fo-
Long Inland Sound in the Quater-
nary, Dana.
Deformation of Irou uoig Beach, Spen-
8and transportation by rivers, Gra-
ham.
Cretaceous rocks of northern Califor-
nia, Dill Kit.
American Museum of Natural History
Bulletin, vol 3.
Calciferous formation in tbe Cham-
plain Valley,BRAiNEKDandSetCLY.
Fauna of rocks at Fort Cassin, Ver-
mont, Whitfield, R. P.
American Naturalist, vol. 23, Deceni-
Silver Lake of Oregon, Cope.
, vol. 24.
Excavations mode by sea-urchins,
Fawkes.
Breociated character of St. Louis
limestone, Gordon.
Erosive agents in the arid regions.
Tare.
Glacial phenomena in Beaver Valley,
Foshat and Hice.
Transitional drift of Iowa, Webster.
pamox.1 RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
15
American Philosophical Society,
Transactions, vol. 16.
[New series] part 3.
Sergipe-Aiagoas basin of Brazil,
Brannbr.
Mammalia of Uinta formation, Scott.
AMI, Henry M. On the geology of Que-
bec City.
Science, voL 16, p.317, 1} col., 4°.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 7, p. 71, i p, 1891.
Discission of the horisoa of the strata.
Appalachian vol. 6, Nos. 1,2.
Madison bowlder, Crosby.
Ice age in North America, Davis.
Volcanoes in Japan, Holland.
Archean and Algonkian.
Eastern Canada, report on Quebec, Ells.
Review of Ells on geology of Quebec,
Walcott.
Lake St. John country, Chambers.
Acadian and St. Lawrenoe water
shed, Bailey.
Stratigraphy of "Quebec group,"
Ells.
Eastern townships of Quebec, Adams.
Pre-Paleozoic surface in Canada,
Lawson.
Serpentines, GiROUX.
Eastern coast of Hudson Bay, Low.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
Mi8tassinni region, Low.
Between Montreal River and Lake
Huron, Bell.
Archean axes of eastern North Amer-
ica, Dana.
Origin of gneiss, Bell.
Hunter Island and Seine River region,
Smith, W. H.
New Brunswick, Bailey. -Bailey
and McInnes.
North side of St. Lawrence above
Quebec, Laflamme.
Warreu's geography, Brewer.
Eoxoon in rocks at St. John, Mat-
thew.
Areas of continental progress in
North America, Dana.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. Bf •
Iron ores, Hunt, T. S.
Lake Temisoaming and Montreal
River, Bell.
Summary reports of Geological Sur-
vey 1887^88, Selwyn.
Archean and Algonkian — Continued.
Montcalm and Joliette Counties,
Adams.
Excursion in northern Appalachians,
Williams, G. H.
Gpld -bearing rooks in Halifax County
Faribault.
Lafo Superior to Lake Huron region,
Report on Rainy Lake region, Law- •
SON.
Petrography of contain dikes of Rainy
Lake region, Lawson and Shutt.
Archean northwest of Lake Superior,
Lawson.
Eruptives of Lake Huron region,
Fairbanks.
Archean of oentral Canada, Lawson.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
Microscopic examination of rocks
from Thunder Bay silver district.
Bayley.
Pigeon Point, Minnesota, Bayley.
Report— Luke Superior division, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Irving. Van Hise.
Pre-Canibrian of the Black Hills,
Van Hise.
Geology of the northwest of Lake
Superior, Harvey.
Origin of ores of Keewatin in Min-
nesota, Winchell, N. H. and H. V.
Position of Ogishke conglomerate,
Winchell, A.
Results of Archean studies, Win-
chell, A. Van Hise.
Huronian-Laureutian contact north
of Lake Huron, Barlow.
Huron ian and Laurentian rocks north
of Lake Huron, Lawson.
Tracks in Animikie rocks, Selwyn.
Origin of gneiss, Bei£.
Greenstone schists of Marquette-Men-
ominee regions, Williams, G. H.
Irving.
Copper mining in Michigan, Eng.
and Mining Jour.
Kamanistiquia silver belt, Wood.
Observation on some Canadian rocks,
Winchell, A.
Mines on Lake Superior, Ingall.
Copper in Animikie at Thunder Bay,
Lawson.
Taconic iron ores of Minnesota, Win-
chell, N. H. and H. V.
Analyses of rocks from Menominee
River, Riggs.
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOE 1890.
16
Archean and Algonkiau — Con tinned.
Analysis of novaculite from Mar-
quette, HlLLEBRAND.
Analyses of racks from Pigeon Point,
EaKINS. HlLLEBRAND. R 1 O G S .
Whitfield, J. E.
Analyses of rocks collected by B. D.
Ik VINO. HlLLEBRAND.
, Analyses of rocks from Penokee-
Gogebic range, Chatard. K a kins.
Macfarlane's Railway Guido, Daw-
son, G. M. Winchell, A.
Analysis of diabase from Michigan,
Chatard.
Warren's geography, Brbwer.
Irou ores, Hunt, T. 8.
Northern and iretlern Hritiih America,
Caribou district, British Columbia,
Bowman.
Mineral wealth of British Columbia,
Dawson, G. M.
James Bay region, Low.
Lithology of rocks from Ynkon dis-
Big bend of the Columbia, Coleman.
Yukon district, Dawson, G. M.
Areas of continental progress in North
America, Dana.
Yukon and Mackenzie Rivers, Mc-
CONNELL.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M.
New England, Geology of Mount Desert
Island, Shaleh.
Areas of continental progress in
North America, Dana.
Arcbean axes of eastern North Amer-
Eastern Main-, Bailey.
Granites of Massachusetts, Emerson.
Essex County, Massachusetts, Sears.
Geology of Cape Ann, Shaler.
Report — Division of Arcbean geology,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Pdmpelly.
Kaolin in 131 ami ford, Massachusetts,
Crosby.
Macfarlane'sBailway Guide, Crosby,
Hitchcock.
Limestone at Norfolk, Connecticut,
Dana.
Report — Atlantic coast Division, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Shaler.
Studies of hornblende schist, Hitch-
cock.
Warren's geography, Bkkwkr.
[BUU.H.
Arc he an and Algonklan — Continued.
Granitoid areas in lower Lauren tian,
Hitchcock. Williams, G. H.
New York to Georgia, Excursion in
Northern Appalachians, Williams,
G.H.
Metamorphic strata of southeastern
New York, Merrill, F. J. H.
Iron ores of the United States, HUNT
T. 9.
Iron ores of New York, Smock.
Clays near Morrisania, New York,
Martin. Merrill, F. J. H.
Archean axes of eastern North Amer-
ica, Dana.
Areas of continental progress iu North
America, Dana.
Analyses of intrusive diorite near
Peekskill, New York, Chatard,
Studies of Arcbeau rooks,New Jersey,
Nason.
Zircou rocks in highlands of New
Jersey, Nason and Fekbier.
Scapolite rock, Nason.
Artesian wells, New Jersey, Nason,
Studies of Trinmio rocks in New
Jersey, Nason.
Serpentiuons rocks, New York and
Pennslyvanin, Merrill, G.P.
Serpentines of southeastern Pennsyl-
vania, Rand.
Analyses of serpentines, Catlett.
State lino serpentines, Pennsylvania,
Chester.
Gabbros of Delaware, Chester.
Nod -fold spathic intrusives of Mary-
land, Williams, G. H.
Vicinity of Baltimore, Williams, G.
H.
Analyses of rooks, Baltimore County,
Maryland, Chatard. WHITFIELD,
J. E.
Analysis of dolomite from Cockeys-
ville, Maryland, Whitfield, J. E.
Corundum in Patrick County, Vir-
ginia, Gbnth.
Warren's geography. Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Ches-
ter. Fontaine. Hammond. Hitch-
cock. Hunt. White, I. C. Mc-
Cutciien. 8 afford. Campbell.
Seely. Smock. Chance. Fon-
taine. Williams, G. H.
Wester* United State; Bl»<;k Hills, Van
oakto.x.] BECOBD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
17
Archean and Algonkian— Continued.
Areas of continental progress in North
America, Dana.
Report— Montana division, U. 8. Geol.
Survey, Pkalb.
Yellowstone Park, Iddings.
Crystalline rocks of Missouri, Ha-
worth.
Building stones, Missouri, Ladd.
Iron ores of tbe United States, Hunt,
T.8.
Indian Territory and Red River, Hill.
Movements in Rocky Mountains,
Emmons.
Northwestern Colorado region,
White, C. A.
Central mineral region of Texas,
C0M8TOCK.
Texas-Pecos, Texas, Strkkruwitz.
Review of Texas geology, Dctmble.
Displacements in the Grand Cafion,
Walcott.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, El-
dridge. Emmons. Upham. Broad-
head. Chambbrlin.Coopku. Daw-
son, G. M. Emmons. Hague. Pum-
PELLY. WlXCRELL, N. H.
Nomenclature, Use of term Laurentian,
Hitchcock. James. Marco u.
Iron ores of the United States, Hunt,
T.S.
Azoic system, Am. Geologist.
Archean and Algonkian — Continued.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Les-
ley.
Arizona. Analyses of recent lavas,
Eakins.
Arizona's new bonanza, Storms.
Bnilding-stonee, Merrill, G. P.
Displacement in Grand Cation, Wal-
cott.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Dut-
ton.
Primary quartz in basalts, Iddings.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
Arkansas. Analysis of eruptive rock,
Eakins.
Building-stone, Merrill, G. P.
Crowley's ridge, Call.
Eastern Arkansas, Call.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, JLougii-
ridge,Owen.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
ASHBTJRNER, Charles A. Natural gas
explorations in the eastern Ontario
peninsula.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49, p.
313, 4°.
Geologic map, and a tabular section baaed
mainly on well records.
Asia. Analysis of basalt, Chatard.
Ascent of Japanese volcanoes, Hol-
land.
B.
BAILEY, G. £. [Geological notes on Da-
kota.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d.
edition, p. 255, i p.
At stations on part of Fremont, Elkhorn &
Miaaonri Valley Railway.
BAILEY, L. W., Presidential' address
on the progress of geological investiga-
tion in New Brunswick.
Canada, Royal Soc, Trans., toI. 7, sec. iv,
pp. 3-17.
A general review of New Brans wick geol-
ogy and geologic history.
On some relations between the geol-
ogy of eastern Maine and New Bruns-
wick.
Canada, Royal Soc., Trans., vol. 7, sec iv,
pp. 57-68.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, voL 6, p. 390, | p.
Discussion of age, relations, and distribution
of the various formations, especially the De-
vonian a»d 8ilarian.
BULL 91 2
', L. W. — Continued.
— On the Acadian and St. Lawrence
watershed.
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 3, pp.
398-413, 1889.
A snmmary account oi its phyaiographio
and geologic characteristics, comprising, a
description of formation from supposed pre-
Cambrian to Devonian and a discussion of
their age and relations.
— and McINNES, Wm. Report on
explorations and surveys in portions of
northern New Brunswick and adjacent
areas in Quebec and in Maine, U. H.
Oanada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 2, report M, pp. 62, 1888.
Abstracts, ibid., part 1, report A, pp. 35-37;
Am. Geologist, vol 5, pp. 246-247, | p.; Am.
Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, p. 239. 4 lines.
The Silurian formation; its distribution,
structure, stratigraphy, paleontology, equlv-
aleucy, correlation and extent of its various
members and evidences of internal uncon.
formity.
18
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull. 91.
BAILEY and McINNES— Continued.
—i — [Account of explorations in
northern New Brunswick. 1
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 91-93. 1888.
Notes relating to the Silurian formation.
BARBOUR, Alfred E. On the contact
of the Huroniau and Laurentian rocks
north of Lake Huron.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 19-32.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 1072,6
lines.
Characteristics, diatributioD, relations, and
structure of the various rocks. With petro-
grapbic descriptions by A. C. Lawson, pp.
30-32.
BARBOUR, Erwin H., and TORREY,
Joseph, jr. Notes on the microscopic
structure of oolite, with analyses.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 246-
249.
From Iowa and Chester County, Pennsyl-
vania.
BARTHOLOMEW, J. G. Geological
sketch map of the world.
Scottish Geog. Magazine, vol. 6, plato 2.
Geology of North America from Marcon's
maps.
BAYLEY, W. S. Notes on microscop-
ical examinations of rocks from the
Thunder Bay silver district.
Canada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 2, report H, pp. 115-122, 1888.
Entirely petrographic.
The origin of the soda-granite and
quart z-keratophy re of Pigeon Point
[Minnesota].
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 273-
280.
Petrography, geologic relations, chemico-
mineralogic history, and contact relations.
[Notice of relation of rocks at Pigeon
Point, Minnesota.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, 8th Report, J. W.
Powell, p. 139, i p. 1889.
Staled by R. D. Irving, report— Lake Supe-
rior division.
BECKER, George P. Report— U. S. Ge-
ological Survey. California division
of Geology.
U. S. Geol. Survey, 8th Report, J. W.
• Powell, pp. 153-155, 1889.
Includes brief discussion of conditions
affecting the texture of massive rocks.
Summary of the geology of the quick-
silver deposits of the Pacific slope.
IT. S. Geol. Surrey, 8th Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. Odl-985, pis. LXll, lxiii, 1889.
Brief description of met amorphic and mas-
sive rocks and the geology of the various de-
posits ; sketch of historical geology, and dis-
cussion of the origin and conditions of depo-
sition of the ores.
BECKER, George F. — Contiuued.
Report — California division.
U. S. Geol. Surrey, 9th Report, J. TV.
Powell, pp. 100-102.
Includes some brief references to the geol-
ogy of Almaden mine in Spain and to the dis-
covery of Aucella in Tuolumne County, Cali-
fornia, by H. \V. Turner.
An elementary proof of the earth's
rigidity.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d aeries, vol. 39, pp. 336-
352.
BELL, Robert. On glacial phenomena
in Canada.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 287-310. x
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 207-
208, J p.; p. 771, 5 lines.
General review of glacial history and dis-
cussion of nature of certain glacial featun s.
The origiu of gneiss aud some other
primitive rocks [abstract].
Am. Assoc. Adv. Science, Proc., vol.38,
pp. 227-231.
General discussion, with incidental refer-
ences to nature of certain crystalline rocks in
various parts of Canada.
[Summary of exploration in lb87
about the Lakes Temiscaming and Ab-
bittibbi, the Montreal River, and the
upper waters of the Ottawa.]
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 22-27, 1888.
Brief reference to general geologic features,
mainly concerning characteristics and distri-
bution of crystalline rocks and extent of the
Silurian limestones.
[Summary of observations between
the Montreal River and the uorthern
shores of Lake Huron.]
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 77-80, 1888.
Includes brief reference to the distribution
and relations of the Huronian and Laurentian
rocks.
The geology of Ontario with special
reference to economic minerals. Report
of Loyal Commission on the mineral
resouroes of Ontario, pp. 57, Toronto,
1889.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 238-
240 ; Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49,
p. 468, U col., 4°.
Brief descriptions of the characteristics, dis-
tribution, general relations, and economic
resources of the Archean, Cambrian, Silurian,
Devonian, and post-Tertiary formations.
Bermudas. Origin of present outline of
the Bermudas, Fkwkes.
DAircou.) RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
19
BISHOP, I. P. A new locality of Lower
Silnriari fossils in the limestones of
Col am bi a Connty, New York.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 31, pp. 69-70,
Includes references to the geologic relations
of the limestones and their correlation with
other belts in the same county.
BOLTON, H. Carrington. Scientific
jottings on the Nile and in the desert.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp.
110-126.
Includes cotes on geology.
[BONNET, T. C. ] [Remarks on signifi-
cance of certain features of the Great
Lake region of America bearing on
their history.]
Geol. Soc., Quart. Jour., vol 46, p. 532, i p.
Discussion of paper by J. W. Spencer " On
the origin of the basins of the Great Lakes of
America."
Boston Society of Natural History,
Proceedings, voL 24, pp. 355 to end.
Reply to Selwyn on classification for
Quebec, Marcou.
Geographic development of northern
New Jersey, Davis and Wood.
Record of well at Nampa, Idaho,
Kurtz.
Age of beds in Boise* River region,
Idaho, Emmons.
Growth, culmination , and departure
of the ice sheets, Upham.
Changes of climate indioated by in-
terglacial beds, Leverett.
Note on glacial climate, Shalbr.
Exceptional nature of climate of gla-
cial period, Upham.
Evidence in the till on the glacial
climate, Crosby.
Saliferons deposits evidence of former
climatal conditions, Shalek.
Glacial studies bearing on the an-
tiquity of man, Leverett.
Sanborn bowlder, Saville.
voL 25, pp. 1-80.
Geological history of Boston basin,
Crosby.
BOWER, Stephen. San Nicolas Island.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 57-61.
Includes a brief account of its geology.
BOWMAN, Amos. Report on the geol-
ogy *f tne mining district of Caribou,
British Columbia.
Oanada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol 3, new
aeries, part 1, Report C, pp. 49, maps, 1888.
BOWMAN, Amos. Report— Continued.
Descriptions of Archean, lower and upper
Paleozoic, Cretaceous, Miocene, Pliocene (t),
and Pleistocene formations, and their struct-
ural relations, especially in connection with
the mineral deposits.
[Explorations on the seaboard of
British Columbia.]
Oanada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, Report A, pp. 66-69, 1888.
Includes brief references to the Tertiary
and Cretaceous formations and their coals and
lignites.
BOYD, C. R., Middiesborongh, Ky.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49, pp.
171-173, 4°.
Includes a section showing coal beds and
strata from upper Silurian fossil ore bed to
Carboniferous.
BRAINERD, Ezra, and SEELY, Henry
M. The Calcifcrous formations in the
Champlain Valley.
Geol. Soo. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 501-511.
Am. Mas. Nat. Hist., Bull., vol. 8, pp. 1-23
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 120, 7
lines; Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp.
235-238; Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 955, 6
lines.
Distribution, stratigraphy, detailed descrip-
tion of sect ions and correlation of FortCassin
strata and members of Phillipsburgh series.
BRANNER, John C. The JEolian sand-
stones of Fernaudo de Noronha.
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 247-257.
Characteristics, distribution, structure, ero-
sion, chemical composition, and history.
The training of a geologist.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 147-160.
The Cretaceous and Tertiary geology
of the Sergipe-Alagdas basin of Brazil.
Am. Phil. Soc, Trans., vol. 16, new series,
pp. 369-434, pis. 1-5.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol 6, pp. 121-122,
tP-
Description of characteristics and relations
at various localities of Mesozoic, Tertiary and
post-Tertiary formations; discussion ot'strati-
graphic relations and history of deposition,
etc.; references to other Mesozoio regions in
Brazil and to relations to Paleozoic and Ar*-
chean formations. Bibliography.
The relations of the State and Na-
tional Geological Surveys to each other
and to the geologists of the country.
Am. Geologist, voL 6, pp. 295-309.
Science, vol. 16, pp. 120-123. 4°.
BREWER, William H. Warren's New
Physical Geography, pp. 144, 4°. Phila-
delphia [1890].
20
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull. 91.
BREWER, William H. — Continued.
Include* tome general statements in regard
to the principles of geologic science and the
geologic history of North America, and a
colored geologic map of the United States on
which some new features are introduced,
notably the rer resentation of glacial and aque-
ous Quaternary deposits.
[BRIT TON, N. L.] [Clay outlier near
Monmouth Junction, New Jersey.]
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol.9, p. 83,
2 lines.
Reference to its age.
BROADHEAD, G. C. Missouri.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d cdi- ,
tion, pp. 267-273.
Geological notes for railway stations.
BRYSON, John. Prcglacial channels
at the falls of the Ohio.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 186-188.
Description of their course and topography
and reference to their history.
The Wetwoods.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 254-255.
Description of an imperfectly drained region
in central Kentucky and discussion of its
history.
c.
California, Analyses of clays from Owen's
Lake, Chatard.
Analyses of lavas from Lassen Peak,
HlLLBBRAND. RlGG6.
Analyses of lavas from Shasta
County, Riggs.
Analyses of volcanic rocks, Chatard.
Whitfield, J. E. Eakins. Hil-
LEBRAND.
Auriferous gravels, Hammond.
Building-stone, Merrill, G. P.
Cements, Ireland.
Clays, Johnson, W. D.
Cretaceous of northern California,
Diller.
Fossils as indicators of mineral prod-
acts, Cooper.
Geology of Channel Islands, Yates.
Geology of Lassen Peak district, Dil-
ler.
Geology of quicksilver deposits,
Bucker.
Glass, De Groot.
Islands of Santa Barbara Channel.
Los Angeles County, Pkeston.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide,CooPER.
Turner.
Mines of Calico County, Storms.
Natural soda, Chatard.
Paleontology of northwest coast,
Dall.
Protozootitcs, Friederich.
Quaternary history of Mono Valley,
Russell.
Report— California division, U. 8.
Geol. Survey, Becker.
Report — division of volcauic geology,
U. S. Geol. 8urvey, Dutton.
San Bemad ino County, Crossman,
California — Con tin ued.
San Diego County, Goodyear.
Sandstone dikes, Diller.
San Nicolas Island, Bower.
Santa Clara County, Webkk.
Santa Cruz Island, Goodyear.
Spherulites from near Hot Springs,
Rutley.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
California Academy of Sciences, Pro-
ceedings, vol. 2.
Petrographical notes from Baja Cali-
fornia, Mexico, Lindgken.
California, State Mineralogist, nintk
annual report.
Santa Clara County, Weber.
Sau Nicholas Island, Howbr.
Auriferous gravels, Hammond.
San Diego County, Goodyear.
Santa Cruz Island, Goodyear.
Notes on Channel Islands, Yates.
Los Angeles County, Preston.
San Bernardino County, Crossman.
Fossils as indicators of mineral prod-
ucts, Cooper.
Clays, Johnson, W. D.
Cements, Ireland.
Glass, De Groot.
CALL, R. Ellsworth. The geology of
Crowley's Ridge, Arkansas. [Abstract]
Iowa Acad. Sci., Proc, 1887-80, pp. 62-53.
Brief description of Eocene and Quaternary
formations.
On the geology of eastern Arkansas.
[Abstract.]
Iowa Acad. Sci., Proc, 1887, 1889.pp. 85-90.
General description of the formations, topo-
graphic characteristics and soils, and sketch
of geologic history of (he region.
dabtok.1 RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
21
Cambrian.
Canada, report on Quebec, Ells.
Reviow of Ella's report on Quebec,
Walcott.
Acadian and St. Lawrence water-
shed, Bailey.
Stratigraphy of "Quebec Group,"
Ells.
Geological classification for Quebec,
Marcou.
Geology of Quebec city, Ells. Skl-
WYN.
Quebec and Taconic, Am. Geologist.
Quebec group of Logan, Dawson,
J. W.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
New Bruuswick, Bailey. Bailey and
McInxes.
Lower and middle Taconic, Marcou.
Serpeutines of Canada, Giro ex. .
Organisms in Acadia, Matthew.
Pre-Paleozoie surface in Canada,
LAW80N.
Macfarlane's Railway Gnide, Daw-
son, G. M.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
New York and New England, Report,
paleozoic division of paleontology,
U. 8. Geol. Survey, Walcott.
Calciferons in Champlain Valley,
Brainard and Seely.
Report. — Division of Archean geol-
ogy* U- 8« Geol. 8urvey, Pumpelly.
Middle Cambrian at Stissing, New
York, Dwight.
Report, — Division of Paleozoic in-
vertebrates, U. S. Geol. Survey,
Walcott. #
Mount Desert Island, Sualer.
Studies of hornbleude schist, Hitch-
cock.
Cape Ann, Sualer.
Essex County, Massachusetts, Sears.
Granites in Massachusetts, Emerson.
Ottrellite and Ilmenite schists,
Wolff.
'History of Boston Basin, Crosby.
Iron ores, Hunt, T. S.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Dana.
Dwight. Ford. Crosby. Hunt, T.
S. Hitchcock.
Pennsylvania- Virginia, Making of Penn-
sylvania, Clay polk.
Casts of Scoli thus, Wanner.
Iron ores, Hunt, T. S.
Cambrian— Continued.
Pennsylvania-Virginia — Continued.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Camp-
bell. Fontaine. Lesley.
Illinois, Artesian waters from the drift,
Rolfe.
Great Lake Region, Menominee and
Marquette regions, Irving.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Cham-
BERLIN. WlNCHELL, A.
Western United States, Review of Texas
geology, Dumble.
Central mineral region of Texas,
Comstock.
Central Texas, Tarr.
Extinct volcanoes in Colorado,
Lakes.
Displacements in Grand Canon, Wal-
cott.
Movements in Rocky Mountains,
Emmons.
Northwestern Colorado region,
White, C. A.
Report, Montana division, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Peale.
Black Hills, Van Hise.
Warren's geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M. Emmons. Hague.
McGee. Pumpelly*. Putnam. Win-
chkll, N. H.
Nomenclature, Geological classification
for Quebec, Marcou.
History of Quebec group, Hunt.
Lower and middle Taconic, Marcou.
North Amerioan Geology by Miller,
Dana.
Quebec and Taconic, Am. Geologist.
Quebec group of Logan, Dawson,
J. W.
Sedgwick and Murchison ; Cambrian
and Silurian, Dana.
The Cambrian system, Dwight.
Iron ores of the United States, Hunt,
T. S.
("CAMPBELL, J. L. and H. D.] Georgia
Pacific Railway.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 383-385.
Geological notes for stations in Alabama
and Georgia.
[ ] [Virginia in part.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 359-362.
Geological notes for railway stations, mainly
in the western part of the State.
^^^^■^■^■^■•^■■e^He^Me^bBBMH
22
BECOBD OP NOBTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOB 1890. I»dlus1.
CAHADA Acadian aid St. Lawrence
watershed, Bailey.
Ancient shores in region of tbe Great
Lake*, SPENCER.
Arfis .if continental progress, Dana.
Arches n "f central Canada, LaWSoN.
Archean axesof eastern North Amer-
ica, Dana.
Arches h north west of Lake Superior,
Between Montreal River and Lake
Huron, Bell.
Big Bend of the Columbia, Cole man.
C'akiferona in C bam plain Valley,
Bhaisabi) and Seely.
Calciferous formation, Walcott.
Cambrian organisms in Acadia, Mat-
Caribou district, British Colombia,
Bkannkr.
Copper at Thunder Bay, Lawson.
Chalk from Niobrara, Dawson, G. M.
Cretaceous of Manitoba, Tyrrell.
Deformation of Iroquois beach, Spen-
cer.
Duck and Riding Mountains. Tyk-
hell.
Eastern townships of Quebec, Adams.
Eastern Maine and New Brunswick,
Bailey. .
Eozoon in Laurcntiau at St. John,
Matthew,
Erosion in valley of tbe Don, Hab-
Ernptives of Lake Huron region,
Fairbanks.
Excursion in northern Appalachians,
Williams, G. H.
Expedition down Anderson River,
Dawson, G. M.
Exploration in Yukon district. Daw-
sum, G. M.
Fossils from Manitoba, White* vis.
Fossil plants from Mackenzie and
Bow Rivers, Dawson, J.W.
Fossil plants from British Columbia,
Dawson, J. W,
Fossil sponges from Little Metis,
Dawson, J. W.
Gas in eastern Ontario, Ash burn kh.
Geology of Ontario, Bell,
Geology of Quebec City, Ami. Ells.
Sblwyn.
Geology of tbe northwest of Lake
Superior, IIarvky.
CANADA— Continued.
Geological progress, Ells.
Geological classification for Quebec,
Makcou.
Glacial featnrrs, Ynkon and Macken-
zie Rivers, McCosnbxi-
Glacial phenomena. Bell.
G la ci at ion of eastern Canada, Ciial-
Glaciation of northern Cordillera,
Dawson, G.M.
Gold-bearing rocks in Halifax Connty,
Faribault.
Gravels of Ontario, Spencer.
History of Quebec group, Hunt.
History of Niagara River, Gilbert.
Hudson Bay, Low.
Hunter Island and Seine River le-
gion, Smith, W. H.
Hum nian-I.au rent ion contact north
of Lake Huron, Barlow.
Hurotiian and Laurentian north of
Lake Huron, Lawson.
Iroquois beach, Davis. Spencer.
Iron ores of the United States, HUNT,
T.S.
James Bay region. Low.
Kamanistiqnia silver belt, Wood.
Lake Tamiscaming and Montreal
River region, Bell.
Lake St. John County, Chambers.
Laramie group, Tyrrell.
Limits of glaciation in tbe North-
west, Cbambekun.
T.i thology of rocks from Ynkon dis-
trict, Adams.
Lower and Middle Taconic, Marcou.
Lower Laird Reiver, McConnell.
Lower Helderberg of St. Helen's
Island, Def.kh.
Maquoketa shales, James.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M.
Microscopic examination of rocks
from Th under Bay silver district,
Bayley.
Mineral wealth of British Columbia,
Dawson, G. M.
Mines on Lake Superior, Ingall.
MistaBsinl region, Low.
Montcalm and Jolietta Counties,
Adams.
Moraine of recession in Ontario,
Wright.
ftiwrox] ftECOBD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
23
CANADA— Continued.
Northeastern extension of the Iro-
quois beach, Spencer.
North side of the St. Lawrence above
Quebec, Laflamme.
Northwestern Manitoba, Tyrrell.
Northern New Brunswick, Bailey
and McInne8.
Notes on Cretaceous of British Colum-
bia, Dawson, G. M.
Nova Scotia Carboniferous conglom-
erate, Gilpin.
Origin of the basins of the Great
Lakes, Spencer. Bonney. Hinds.
Seelt.
Origin of gneiss, Bell.
Observations on certain rocks, Win-
chell, A.
Petrography of certain dikes of Rainy
Lake region, Lawson and Shutt.
Pictou and Colchester counties, Nova
Scotia, Fletcher.
Pleistocene flora of Canada, Dawson,
J.W.
Pleistocene submergence, Spencer.
Post-Tertiary deposits of Manitoba,
Tyrrell.
Pot holes north of Lake Superior,
McKellar.
Pre-Paleozoio surface of Archeau,
Lawson.
Progress of investigation in New
Brunswick, Bailey.
Quebec group of Logan, Dawson,
J.W.
Quebec and Taconic, Am. Geologist.
Seply to Selwyu on geological classi-
fication for Quebec, Marco u.
Report on Rainy Lake region, Law-
son.
Report on Quebec, Ells.
Results of Arohean studies, Win-
ch kll, A.
Review of Ella's report on Quebec,
Walcott.
Rooky Mountain protaxis, Dana.
Seaboard British Columbia, Bowman.
Southern interior British Columbia,
Dawson, G. M.
Southern invertebrates on shores of
Acadia, Gannong.
Sponges in rocks at St. John, Mat-
thew.
CANADA — Continued.
Stratigraphy of "Quebec Group,"
Ells.
Summary reports of geological sur-
veys for 1887, 1888, Selwyn.
Surface geology of New Brunswick,
Chalmers.
St. Lawrence Valley, Ells.
Tracks in Animikie rocks, Selwyn.
Triassic traps of Nova Scotia, Mars-
ters.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Canada, Geological and Natural His-
tory Survey, Annual Report, new
series, vol. 3, parts 1 and 2, 1887-88.
Summary reports, Selwyn.
Yukon district, Dawson, G. M.
Lithology, Yukon collections, Adams.
Caribou mining district, Bowman.
Duck and Riding Mouu tains, Tyr-
rell.
Rainy Lake region, Lawson.
Mines of Lake Superior, Ingall.
Rocks from Thunder Bay district,
Bayley.
James Bay country, Low.
Portion of Province of Quebec, Ells.
Northern New Brunswick, Bailey
and McInnes.
Surface geology northeastern New
Brunswick, Chalmers.
Mineral wealth of British Columbia,
DAWson, G. M.
Canada, Report of Royal Commission
on the mineral resources of Ontario,
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
Canada, Royal Society, Transactions,
vol. 7.
Progress of investigation in New
Brunswick, Bailey.
Sponges from Siluro-Cambrian at
Little Metis, Dawson, J. W.
Eastern Maine and New Brunswick,
Bailey.
Plants from Mackenzie and Bow Riv-
ers, Dawson, J. W.
Fossils from Carabro-Silurian rocks
of Manitoba, Whiteaves.
Geology of Big Bend of the Colum-
bia, Coleman.
The Iroquois beach, Spencer.
Cambrian organisms in Acadia, Mat-
thew.
24
liECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull.9L
Canadian Institute, Proceedings, vol.
7.
Geology of northwest Lake Superior,
Harvey.
KaininiHtiqnia silver belt, Wood.
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 3,
Nos. 7, 8.
Cambrian organisms in Acadia, Mat-
thew.
Lake Sr. John country, Chambers.
Acadian and St. Lawrence water-
shed, Bailey.
How is the Cambrian divided f Mat-
thew.
. vol. 4.
Expedition down Anderson River,
Dawson, G. M.
Lower Helderberg of St. Helen's
Island, Deeks.
Quebec group of Logan, Dawson,
J. W.
CANNON, George L., jr. [Remains of
Dinosaurs and Stegosaurs in the Lara-
mie of Montana.]
Colorado Sci. Soc, Proc. vol. 8, p. 190, \ p.
Remarks on the paleoDtologic evidence a*
to the age of the containing beds.
[Notes on the formations in eastern
Colorado. ]
Colorado Sci. Soc., Proc., vol. 3, pp. 215-216,
I P-
Reference to the thickness of the loess,
presence of extensive superficial eolian depos-
its, and exposures of supposed Pliocene beds
lying on Fox Hills sediments.
CANTWilLL, J. C. [Letter on the ice
cliffs on Kowak River, Alaska. ]
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 51-52.
Brief description of their structure.
Carboniferous (including Permian).
Canada, Caribou district, British Co-
lumbia, Bowman.
Nova Scotia Carboniferous conglom-
erate, Gilpin.
Triassic traps of Nova Scotia, Mars-
TBR8.
Archean axes of eastern North Amer-
ica, Dana.
Serpentines, Giroux.
Pictou and Colchester Counties, Nova
Scotia, Fi ETCHER.
Progress in New Brunswick, Bailey.
Yukon district, Dawson, G. M.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M.
Carboniferous— Continued.
New England, History of Boston, Basin
Crosby.
Essex County, Massachusetts, Sears.
Ottretite and ilmenite schist, Wolff.
Areas of continental progress, Dana.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Crosby.
Hitchcock.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Archean axes, Dana.
Appalachians to the Mississippi, locality
numbers, Hall.
Paleozoic fishes, Newberry.
Report on oil and gas, Carll.
Report on New Boston and Morea
coal lands, Lyman.
Fractured strata in Bedford County,
Pennsylvania, Stevenson.
Making of Pennsylvania, Claypole.
Umbral limestone in Lycoming
County, Pennsylvania, Meyer.
Waverly group, Cooper, W. F.
Analysis of sandstone from Ports-
mouth, Ohio, Chatard.
Analysis of sandstone from Berea,
Ohio, Eakins.
Analysis of sandstone from Buena
Vista, Ohio, Clarke.
Syivania sand in Ohio, Nbff.
Geological survey of Ohio, report,
Orton.
Oil field of Barren County, Kentooky,
Fischer.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Proc-
tor. Safford. Collett. Win-
chell, A. Lesley. Lewis. Or-
ton. Rogers. Parsons. White,
I. C. Campbell. Smith and Ges-
NER. MCCUTCHEN. FONTAINE.
Analysis of met amorphic rock from
Marion, Kentucky, Eakins.
Middleborough, Boyd.
Central basin of Tennessee, Ken-
nedy.
Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Keokuk beds,
Gordon.
Deep well at Le Mars, Iowa, Todd.
Felding in southwestern Iowa, Todd.
Brecciated character of St. Louis
limestone, Gordon.
Crinoids from Burlington limestone,
Rowley.
daktok.] RECOED OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
25
Carboniferous — Continued.
Iowa, Missouri; Kansas— Continued.
Coal beds of Lafayette County, Mis-
souri, Winslow.
Introduction, Southwestern Kansas,
McGee. .
Southwestern Kansas, Hay.
Analysis of Silverdale limestone,
Catlett.
Artesian wells in Kausas, Hay.
Kansas salt mines, Hay.
Perino - Carboniferous of Kansas,
WoosTKR.
Warren's Geography, Bkkwer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Broad-
head. McGee. St. John.
Arkansas to Mexico, eastern Arkansas,
Call.
Areas of continental progress, Dana.
Indian Territory and Red River,
Hill.
Coal of Indian Territory, Chance.
Central Texas, Tarr.
Coal held of Colorado River, Tarr.
Trans-Pecos Texas, Strberuwitz.
Review of Texas geology, Dumblk.
Geographic features of Texas, Hill.
Permian of Texas, Cummins.
Central mineral region of Texas,
Comstock.
Central coal field of Texas, Cummins.
Concho couutry, Texas, Cummins
and Lkrch.
Coal fields of Texas, Weitzel.
Cretaceous of northern Mexico,
White, C. A.
Baja California, Lindgren.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Fra-
zer. Loughridge.
Rocky Mountain region, analysis of lime-
stone from Montana, Catlett.
Report — Montana division U. 8. Geol.
Survey, Peale.
Report — Division of paleobotany, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Ward, L. F.
Movements in Rocky Mountains, Em-
mons. •
Northwestern Colorado region,
White, C. A.
Extinct volcanoes in Colorado,
Lakes.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Davis.
Dawson, G. M. Emmons. Gil-
Carboniferous— Continued.
Rocky Mountain region — Continued.
bkrt. Hague. Pumpelly, Put-
nam.
Arizona, displacements in Grand Cation,
Walcott.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide.DuTTON.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Central America, Nicaragua, Crawford.
Calyforna, Lassen Peak district, Diller.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide,CooPER.
CARLL, John F. Pennsylvania Geolog-
ical Survey, Seventh Report, on the oil
and gas fields of western Pennsylvania
for 1887-'68 (following the annual re-
ports of 1885 and 1886), with additional
uupublished well records, pp. viii, 3r>6, 6
maps, sections, and charts.
Includes an extended account of the stratig-
raphy, structure, and distribution of the oil
and gas and associated formations in Pennsyl-
vania and aujoiuing States.
CASTILLO, Antonio del. Bosquejo de
una carta geol6gica de la Reptiblica
Mexicana, fonnada por disposition del
Secretario de Fomento, Gral. Carlos
Pocheco, por una comision especial.
Escale de 3,000,000. 1889. [41 x 29
inches. ]
Showing distribution ol the various Meso-
zoic ami Cenozoic sediments and volcanic and
metauiorphic rocks over about four-fifths of
its area,
CATLETT, C. [Carboniferous lime-
stones from Montana, analyses.]
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Boll. No. 60, p. 154, } p.
White earth from Talladega, Ala-
bama [analyses].
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 60, p. 158, i p.
[Trenton limestones from Ohio and
Indiana, analyses.]
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 60, pp. 161-162,
Serpentine and its associates,
[analyses].
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, pp. 43-44.
Moriah and New York, New York; Mont-
ville, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania.
Limestones from Silverdale, Kansas
[analyses].
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 46, i p.
Clays [analyses].
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, pp. 51, i p.
Talladega, Alabama; Richfleld Springs,
New York, and Northumberland County,
Pennsylvania.
26
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGV FOR 1890 Ihull.91.
Central America. About the Nicaragua
footprints, Flint.
Geologic survey of Nicaragua, Craw-
ford.
Letter on geology of Nicaragua,
Crawford.
Pleistocene submergence of the Isth-
mus of Panama, Upham.
CHALMERS, R. Report of the surface
geology of northeastern New Brunswick
to accompany quarter sheet maps 2
NE. and 6 SW.
Oanada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, vol.3, new
series, part 2, report N, pp. 33, 2 maps, 1888.
Abstracts, Ibid., part 1, report A, pp. 37-38.
| p ; Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 247, | p.
Descriptions of the various surface deposits,
glacial phenomena, terraces, and soils.
[Account of examinations of surface
deposits of southern New Brunswick.]
Oanada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol.3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 94-96, 1888.
Glacial deposits and stria), basins of extinct
post-Tertiary lakes and stratified post-Ter-
tiary deposits.
Glaciation of eastern Canada.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 240-244.
Abstract by author. Or.giual paper in
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 3, pp. 319-333,
1889.
The glaciation of the Cordillera and
the Laurentide.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 324-325.
Discusses extent, distribution, and condi-
tions of development of Canadian glacial sys-
tems.
CHAMBERLIN,T.C. Report— division
of glacial geology.
IT. S. Geol. Surrey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 141-144, 1889.
An account of the various investigations,
including a brief abstract of certain results
obtained by R. D. Salisbury, in northern In-
diana and Illinois.
Introduction. The glacial boundary
in western Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ken-
tucky, Indiana, and Illinois by G. F.
Wright.
U. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull. No. 58, pp. 13-38.
General remarks concerning the phenomena
and history of the southern margin of the
drift, account of observations on terraces
of the upper Ohio River, and discussion of the
age and relations and history of these terraces,
of the conditions attending the presence of a
glacial ice dam in the Ohio River, and of the
discrimination of fluvial and laoustral ter-
races in general
CHAMBBRLIN, T. C.— Continued.
Bowlder belts distinguished from
bowlder trains ; their origin and sig-
nificance.
Geol. Am. Soo., Bull. , vol. 1, pp. 27-28, 30-31.
Discussed by A. Winchell, G. F. Wright,
and C. fL Hitchcock, pp. 29-31.
[Remarks on the extent of Pleisto-
cene glaciers and the cause of the glacial
epoch.]
Geol. Soo. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 154-155, | p.
In discussion of paper by I. C. Russell en-
titled "Notes on the surface geology of
Alaska."
— [Remarks on the outlet of Lake
Agassiz and the limitation of Pleisto-
cene glaciation in northwestern North
America.]
Geol. Soc. Am,, Bull., vol. 1, pp. 407-408.
Some additional evidences bearing
on the interval between the glacial
epochs.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., voL 1, pp. 469-474,
475-476, 478-479.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 118, } p. ;
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 771, 6 lines.
Discusses evidence of lower Mississippi,
Ohio, Susquehanna, and Delaware Rivers.
Discussed by W J McGee. J. R. Proctor, F. J.
H. Merrill, and I. G. White, pp. 474-479.
North and South Dakota.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 253-256.
Geologic notes for railway stations.
Wisconsin.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 223-232.
Geologic notes for railway stations.
[Notes on glacial features at points
in New York, Illinois, and Dakota.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 131, 134, 138, 221, 253-256.
CHAMBERS, E. T. Notes on the Lake
8t. John country.
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 3, pp. 388-
394. 1889.
Contains brief references to characteristics
of the crystalline rocks and to some occur-
rences of Trenton fossils and Pleistocene
deposits.
CHANCE, H. M. Coal Measures of the
Indian Territory.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 238-240.
General account of thickness, extent, strati-
graphic components, and age.
[Geological notes on Mexican Cen-
tral Railroad.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, p. 418, J p.
dartox.J RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
27
CHANCE, H. M. -Continued.
North Carolina.
Macfarlane'a Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 365-368.
Chapter by W. C. Kerr of first edition, en-
larged and revised by II. M. Chance.
CHARLTON, Thomas. Notes on the
occurrence of charcoal at a depth of
630 feet in the Silver Cliff mining dis-
trict, Caster County, Colorado.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49, p.
332, ft col. 4°
Geologic relations. Reference to age of the
rhyolites.
CHATARD, T.M. Two [.eruptive] rocks
from Montana. [Analyses.]
IT. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull, No. 56, pp. 83-84,
§ p., 1889.
From Cottonwood Creek and east of Ft
Ellis!
[Volcanic] rocks from California.
[Analyses.]
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Boll., No. 65, p. 84, ft p.,
1889.
Two clays from shore of Owen's
Lake, California. [Analyses.]
IT. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull., No. 55, p. 89, ft p.,
1889.
Natural soda; its occurrence and
utilization.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, pp. 27-101.
Includes description of deposits in various
parts of the world, especially in California,
Nevada, and Oregon.
Brick clay from New Ulm, Minne-
sota. [Analyses.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, p. 151, ft p.
Rocks collected by R. D. Irving.
[Iron carbonates and limestones, Peno-
kee-Gogebic region. Analyses.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, pp. 150-151.
Inclusion in diorite from Cruger's
station, near Peekskill, New York.
[Analysis.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, p. 158, ft p.
Basalt Island of Mytilene,Asia Minor,
[Analysis.]
IT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, p. 158. ft p.
— - Rocks from Baltimore County, Mary-
land. [Analyses.]
XT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 64, p. 43, ft p.
Pyroxcnite and diallage-bronzite rocks.
Sandstones from near Portsmouth,
Ohio. [Analysis.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 64, p. 45, ft p.
Diabase, Penokee-Gogebic range,
Michigan . [Analyses. ]
U. S. Geol. Survey, BulL, No. 64, p. 47, ft p.
CHATARD, T. M. and EAKINS, L. G.
Rocks from Montana. [Analyses.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, pp. 152-154.
CHESTER, Frederick D. The gabbros
and associated rocks in Delaware.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 59, pp.45, map.
Petrographio descriptions, account of
structural relations, distribution, discussion
of origin, and genetic relations. Colored
geologic map of northern Delaware.
The state line serpentine and associ-
ated rockn.
Pennsylvania Geol. Survey, Report for
1887, pp. 93-105.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 23, p. 812, £ p.
1889.
Petrography of the serpentines and associ-
ated rocks and brief discussion of their history
and structural relations.
Delaware, Eastern shore of Maryland
and Virginia.
Macfarlane'i Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 329-331.
Geological notes for railway stations and
their vicinity,
Cincinnati Society of Natural His-
tory, Journal, vol. 13.
Cave in Clinton formation of Ohio,
James.
CLARK, William B. On the Tertiary
deposits of the Cape Fear River region.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 537-540.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 119, ft
p. ; Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 289, ft p.
Relations, history, and fauna of Cretaceous
Eocene and Miocene.
Third annual geological expedition
into southern Maryland and Virginia.
Johns Hop kins Univ., Circulars, vol. 9, No.
81, pp. 69-71,4°.
Brief summary of formations of the coastal
plain and notes on the exposures at Fort
Washington, Glymont, Acquia Creek, Pope's
Creek, Noroini Cliffs, St Mary's River, and
Cornfield Harbor on the Potomac, Yorktown
on the York, and Grove wharf on the James.
The geological features of Gay Read,
Massachusetts.
Johns Hopkins Univ., Circulars, vol. 10, No.
84, p. 28, 1ft col., 4°.
Includes brief general references to the
Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Pleistocene forma-
tions and structure.
CLARKE, F. W. Triassic sandstone
from Maryland. [Analysis.]
XT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 55, p. 80, ft p.,
1889.
From near Hancock.
28
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [buli*91.
CLARKE, F. W.
Clay . . .
-Continued,
from Martha's Vine-
yard, Massachusetts, parital analysis.
IT. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull., No. 55, pp. 89-90,
I p. 1889.
[Trenton limestone from Ohio and
Indiana, analyses. ]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, pp. 160,
162, i p.
Coquina and coral rocks. [From
Florida analyses.]
U. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull., No. 60, p. 162, | p.
Sandstone from Bnena Vista, Ohio.
[Analysis.] *
D. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull., No. 61, p. 45, i p.
and RIGGS, R. B. [Limestone
from Ohio. Analyses.]
XT. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull. , No. 60, p. 160, § p.
Trenton limestones and Utioa shales.
CLARKE, J. M. Report on the bones
of Mastodon or Elephas fonnd associ-
ated with charcoal and pottery at At-
tica, Wyoming County, New York.
New York State Museum, Forty-First Re-
port, pp. 388-390, pis. 1888.
Description and section of containing beds.
The Hercynian question. A brief
review of its development and present
status, with a few remarks npon its
relation to the current classification of
American faunas.
New York State Museum, Forty-Second
Report, pp. 408-437. 1889.
Discussed by C. D. Walcott, Am. Jour. Sci.,
3d serie*. vol. 39, pp. 155-156.
Review of the faunal relations of the Upper
Silurian to the Lower Devonian.
CL AYPOLE, E. W. Illustration of the
"level of no strain" in the crust of the
earth.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 83-88.
Discussion of its position.
The making of Pennsylvania.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 225-234.
Sketch of the Paleozoic geologic history.
The reality of a level of no strain in
"the crust of the earth. [Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc, vol. 38, p. 232,
J p.
CLAYPOLE, K. B. Recent glacial
work in Europe.
Popular Science Monthly, vol. 37, pp. 103-
106.
CLIFFORD, W. Additional notes no
Richmond coal field, Virginia, in reply
to criticisms.
Manchester Geol. Soc, Trans., vol.20, pp.
24*256, 1889.
Discussion of structure, stratigraphy, and
relation of ernptives, together with quota-
tions from various observers.
COLEMAN, A. P. Notes on the geogra-
phy and geology of the Big Bend of
the Columbia.
Canada, Roy. Soc, Trans. , vol. 7, Sec IV,
pp. 97-108, pi.
Petrographic description of rooks collected
and notes on the general geology of the re-
gion.
COLLETT, John. Indiana.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 198-207.
Geological notes for railway stations.
Colorado, charcoal in Custer County,
Charlton.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Colorado group, Stkvenson.
Eruptive rocks of Boulder County,
Palmer.
Eruptions of Spanish Peaks region,
Hills.
Extinct volcanoes, Lakes.
Formations of eastern Colorado,
Cannon.
Huerfano beds, Hills.
Laramie group, Cope. Newberry.
Stevenson. Ward, L. F.
Movements in Rocky Mountains, Em-
mons.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Em-
mons.
Northwestern Colorado, White, C. A.
Plications of coal measures, Van
DIE8T.
Pre-Cambrian of the Black Hills of
Dakota, Van Hise.
Primary quartz in basalts, Iddings.
Report— Rocky Mountain division, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Emmons.
Secondary minerals of am phi bole and
pyroxene groups, Cross.
Stratigraphicstudies in Denver basin,
Eldridgk.
Structural features near Denver, El-
dridge.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Colorado Scientific Society, Proceed-
ings, voL 3, part 2.
Plications in coal measures in south-
east Colorado, Van Diest.
dabto*.] BECOBD OF .NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
29
Colorado Scientific Society, Proceed-
ings— Continued.
Dinosaurs, etc., in Laramie of Mon-
tana, Cannon.
Formations of eastern Col orad (^"Can-
non.
Note on Hnerfano beds, Hills.
Eruptions of Spanish Peaks region,
Hills.
Eruptive rooks of Bonlder County,
Palmer.
COMSTOCK, Theodore B. A prelim-
inary report ou the geology of the cen-
tral mineral region of Texas.
Texas, Geol. Surrey, First Annual Report,
pp. 237-391, pi. 2.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 6, p. 123, 4
lines.
Archean. Eparehean, Cambrian, Silurian,
and Devonian f formations. Eraptives.
Structure, Carboniferous to Tertiary uplifts.
Economic geology, PP- 329-378. List of min-
erals, 379-391. Plate of geologic sections.
[CONDON, Thomas.] Oregon.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 316-317.
Geological notes for railway stations.
Connecticut, Archean axes, Dana.
Boring at New Haven, Hubbard.
Building stone, Merrill, G. P.
Glacial action in southeastern Con-
necticut, Wells.
Fillings in fissures at Meriden, Davis.
Glacial scratches near Norfolk, Cor-
nish.
Limestone at Norfolk, Dana.
Madison Boulder, Crosby.
Snbaerial decay of rocks, Dana.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hitch-
cock.
Taconio Mountains, Am. Geologist.
Traps of East Haven-Branford region,
Hovky, E. O.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
COOPER, J. G. The value of fossils as
indicators of important mineral prod-
ucts.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 284-280.
Comprises soma general statements regard-
ing the distribution of Quatei nary, Tertiary,
Cretaceous, Jura-Trias, Carboniferous, and
Archean formations in California.
— California.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 318-323, 324-328.
Geological notes for railway stations.
COOPER, W. F. The Waverly group.
Denison University, Sci. Lab., Bull., vol.
5, pp. 24-32.
Descriptions of the formation in central and
northern Ohio.
COPE, E. D. [Remarks on the age and
stratigraphic components of the Lara-
mie group.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 532.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 669.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 118, 4
linos.
Discussion of paper by J. S. Newberry,
"The Laramie Group."
The Silver Lake of Oregon and its
origin.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 23, pp. 970-982, pis. 40,
41. 1889.
Coutains incidental references to the geol-
ogy.
[ ] [Remarks on beds in which Nampa
image was found.]
Am. Naturalist, voL 24, p. 205, 3 lines.
Reference to their age and equivalency.
[ ] Macfarlane's American Geological
Railway Guide.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 952, J p.
Includes a brief criticism on the use of the
term "Niobrara."
CORNISH, R. H. Glacial scratches in
the vicinity of Norfolk, Connecticut.
Am. -our. Sci., 3d series, voL 89, p. 821, fa p.
Directions.
COX, E. T. An extensive deposit of
phosphate rock in Florida.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 1185-1186, g p.
Some general statements in regard to its
distribution, characteristics, and probable
origin.
CRAGIN, F. W. On the Cheyenne sand-
stone aud theNeocomian shales of Kan-
sas.
Washburn Coll., Lab., Bull., vol. 2, pp.
69-80.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 233-238.
Abstract, Popular Science Monthly, vol. 87,
pp. 566-567, J col.
Strati graph io and paleontologio equiva-
lency.
CRAMER, Frauk. On a recent rock
flexure. •
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 220-225.
An account of slight flexings in limestone
in the valley of Fox River, Wisconsin, and
' discussion of their nature and cause.
CRAWFORD, J. [Letter on the geol-
ogy of Nicaragua.]
Science, vol. 15, pp. 30-32, 4°.
In connection with the occurrence of foot-
prints described in the containing paper by
Sari Flint.
30
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. fBULL.91.
CRAWFORD, J.— Continued.
The geological survey of Nicaragua.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 377-381.
Brief notices of characteristics and distri-
bution of volcanic, Pleistocene, Tertiary,
Mesozoic, Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian,
and crystalline rocks.
Cretaceous. Atlantic coastal region. De-
posits of eastern Massachusetts,
Shale n.
Analyses of clay and sand from Mar-
tha's Vineyard, Clarke, F. W.
Riggs.
Gay Head, Massachusetts, Clark.
Merkill, F. J. H. Ward, L. F.
Cretaceous fossils, Martha's Vine-
yard, Shaler. White, D.
Report — Atlantic coast division, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Shaler.
Ancient shore lines, Merrill, F. J. H.
Long Island Sound and submerged
chaunel of the Hudson, Dana.
Traps of Newark system in New Jer-
sey region, Darton.
Clay at Monmouth junctiou, New
Jersey, Martin. Britton.
North American Mesozoic, White,
C.A.
Distribution of fossil plants, Ward,
L.F.
Macfarlaue's Railway Guide.
Chance. Chester. Fontaine.
Smith and Gesner. Hammond,
H. McCutchen. Smock. Uuler.
Rivers of northern New Jersey, Da-
vis.
Topographic development of New
Jersey, Davis and Wood.
Amboy clays, Newberry.
Artesian wells, New Jersey, Nason.
Gabbros of Delaware, Chester.
Report — Division of paleobotany, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Ward, L. F.
[.Age of Potomac formation.] Report
— U. S. Geol. Survey, Marsh.
Southern Maryland, Clark.
Potomac flora, Fontaine.
Fossil wood of Potomac formation,
Knowlton.
Southern extension of Appomattox
formation, McGke.
Southern drift of Georgia, Spencer.
Cape Fear River regiou, North Caro-
lina, Clark.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Cretaceous — Continued.
Canada, Cretaceous of Manitoba, Tyr-
rell.
Duck and Riding Mountains, Tyr-
rell.
Northwestern Manitoba, Tyrrell.
North American Mesozoic, White,
C.A.
Distribution of fossil plants, Ward,
L.F.
Expedition down Anderson River,
Dawson, G. M.
Mineral wealth of British Columbia,
Dawson, G. M.
Yukon and .Mackenzie Rivers, Mo
Connell.
Chalk, Dawson, J. W.
Macfar lane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M.
Laramie and its associates, Tyrrell.
Seaboard of British Columbia, Bow-
man.
Notes on British Columbia, Dawson,
G.M.
Caribou district, British Columbia,
Bowman.
Yukon district, Dawson, G. M.
Lower Liard River, McConnell.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Great Plains and Rocky Mountain region,
Cheyenne saudstone of Kansas,
Cragin.
Chalk from Niobrara of Kansas, Wjl-
liston.
Kansas salt mine, Hay.
Lignite in Dakota formation, Hay.
Macfarlaue's Railway Guide, Bailey,
G. E. Eldridgb. Emmons.
Broadhead. Chamberlin. Gil-
bert. Hague. McGee. Pum-
pelly. Putnam. St. John.
Scott. Todd. Upham. Win-
c ii ell, N. H.
Southwestern Kansas, Hay.
Lineage of Lake Agassiz, Todd.
Terraces of the Missouri, Todd.
North American Mesozoic, White,
C.A.
Artesian wells in Dakota, Upham.
Laramie, Montaua, Cannon.
Report of Geologist of Wyoming,
Ricketts.
Yellowstone Park, Iddings. Hague.
Skull of Ceratopsida), Marsh.
dabtox.J RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
31
Cretaceous— Con t in ued .
Great Plain's and Rocky Mountain re-
gion— Continued.
Northwestern Colorado region,
White, C. A.
Coal measures in Colorado and New
Mexico, Van Diest.
Crazy Moan tains, Montana, Wolff.
Distribution of fossil plants, Ward,
L.F.
Custer County, Colorado, Ciiarlton.
Eruptive rocks of Boulder Couuty,
Colorado, Palmer.
Areas of continental progress in
North America, Dana.
Huerfano beds, Hills.
Colorado group in Colorado and New
Mexico, Stbvknson.
Laramie group. Copk. Newberry.
Stevenson. Ward, L. F.
Spanish Peaks region, Hills.
Eocky Mountain pro tax is, Dana.
Movements in Rocky Mountains, Em-
mons.
Displacements in Grand Can on, Wal-
cott.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Lower Cretaceous of San Carlos
Mountains, New Mexico, Wiute,
C.A.
Texas region, American Neocomian,
Marcou.
Central coal field Texas, Cummins.
Macfarlane'a Railway Guide, Hil-
- GARD. LOUGHRLDGK. OWEN.
Concho country, Texas, Cummins and
Leach.
Trans- Pecos Texas, Strkkruwitz.
Review of Texas geology, Dumble.
Areas of continental progress in
North America, Dana.
Geographic features of Texas, Hill.
Igneous rocks of central Texas, Hill
and Dumble.
Fossils of the Trinity beds, Hill.
List of invortebratos of Cretaceous
of Texas, and short description of
the system, Hill.
Pilot Knob, Hill.
Occurrence of Goniolina in the Co-
manche series, Hill.
Permian of Texas, Cummins.
Central Texas, Tarr.
Central mineral region of Texas,
COMBTOCX,
Cretaceous— Continued.
Texas region— Continued-
Carboniferous of central Texas, Tarr.
Coal fields of Colorado River, Tarr.
Report — Division of Mesozoic paleon-
tology, U. S. Geol. Survey, White,
C.A.
Cretaceous rocks of Texas, Hill.
Eastern Arkansas, Call.
Analysis of eruptive from Arkansas,
Eakins.
Northern Mexico, White, C. A.
Report — Division of Mesozoic inverte-
brates, U. 8. Geol. Survey, White,
C.A.
Indian Territory and Red River,
Hill.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Mexico, Geological map, Castillo.
Kentucky, Macfarlane's Railway Guide,
Proctor.
Pacific coast, northern California, Dil-
LER.
Lassen Peak District, Diller.
Sandstone dikes, Diller.
Geology of quicksilver deposits,
Beck kr.
Report — Division of volcanic geology,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Dutton.
Report — California Division, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Becker.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Con-
don. Cooper. Dutton. Tur-
ner. Willis.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
South America, Sergipe-Alagoas region,
Brazil, Branner.
CROSBY, W. O. [Remarks on evidence
in the till as to the climate of the gla-
cial period.]
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Froc., vol. 24, pp.
4GG-467, | p.
Abstract. Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 123-124,
9 lines.
Brief statements in regard to composition
and relations of the till, especially in the Bos-
ton region, in their bearing on conditions of
rock decomposition and climate during the
glacial period.
Geological history of the Boston
basin.
Boston Soc Nat. Hist., Proc, vol. 25, pp.
10-17.
Abstract of a lecture in which a general
description is given of the geology of the re-
gion.
32
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. Ibull.91.
CROSBY, W. O.— Continued.
The Kaolin iu Blaudford, Massachu-
setts.
Technology Quart. , vol. 3, pp. 228-237.
Descriptions of its geologic relations and
associated rocks, and discussion of its pre-
glacial age and of lock decay in general in
New England.
The Madison bowlder.
Appalachia, vol. 6, pp. 61-70, 105, pi. 5.
Description of the bowlder and discussion
of its source. Includes a reference to a sim-
ilar bowlder in Connecticut.
— Massachusetts.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 99-107.
Geological notes for railway stations and
table of geological formations of the State.
CROSS, Whitman. Notes on some sec-
ondary minerals of the amphibole and
pyroxene groups.
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 859-370.
Includes brief prefatory statements in re-
gard to the dike iu Custer County. Colorado,
from which the specimens were obtained.
CROSSMAN, James H. San Bernar-
dino County.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 214-239.
Incidental references to geology at various
pointe.
CUMMINS, W. F. The southern bor-
der of the central coal held.
Texas, Geol. Survey, First Annual Report,
pp. 143-182.
Stratigraphy, Cretaceous and Permian for-
mations, dips, economic geology, soils, arte-
sian wells.
The Permian of Texas and its over-
lying beds.
Texas, Geol. Surrey, First Annual Report,
pp. 183-197.
Distribution, stratigraphy, and economio
geology of the Permian, and characteristics
of two overlying formations of undetermined
age.
and LERCH, Otto. A geological
survey of the Coueho country, State of
Texas.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 321-335, map.
Physiography, Pleistocene, Cretaceous, and
Permian formations. Economic geology.
CURTIS, J. S. The banket deposits of
the Witwatersrand.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49, pp.
200-201, 4o.
South Africa.
D.
Dakotae, Artesian wells, Upham.
Lineage of Lake Agassi z, Todd.
Pre-Cambrian of the Black Hills,
Van Hisk.
Report — Division of vertebrate pale-
ontology, U. S. Geol. Survey,
Marsh.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Bailey.
Chambkrlin. Dawson, G. M.
PtTMPELLY. Todd. Winch ell.
N.H.
iLALL, William Healey. Contributions
to the Tertiary fauna of Florida, with
especial reference to the Miocene si lex
beds of Tampa aud the Pliocene beds
of Caloosahatohie River.
Wagner Inst. Sci.. Trans., vol.3, part 1,
pp. 200, pis. 12.
Contains incidental references to tho fos-
siliferous strata.
[Remarks on the paleontology of
the northwest coast of the United
States. ]
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 1223-1224.
Read to Biological Society of Washington,
1890.
References to Tertiary and Pleistocene of
western Oregon and California,
DALL, William Healey— Continued.
Report — Division of Cenozoio inver-
tebrates.
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 123-127, 1889.
Includes brief references to observations on
Miocene marls of southern New Jersey and
to explorations by Joseph Wfllcox in south-
central Florida.
DANA, James D. Areas of continental
progress in North America aud the in-
fluence of the conditions of these areas
on the work carried forward within «
them.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 36-48.
A general review of the conditions attend-
ing the various stages of geologic develop-
ment of No.th America.
North American geology and pal od-
ontology for the nse of amateurs, stu-
dents, and scientists, by S. A . MUler.
Am. Jour, Sci., 3d series, vol. 24, p. 67, | p.
Review of use of term Taconic.
Sedgwick and Murchison : Cambrian
and Silurian. \
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp\ 167-
180, 235. \
Roview of early history of Silurian £*4
Cambrian nomenclature.
DAixoif. j BECOBD OF NOBTH AMEBIC AN GEOLOGY FOB 1890.
33
DANA, James D. — Continued.
Archeao axes of eastern North America.
Am. Jour. 8ci. , 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 378-383.
Classification of the axes and discussion of
geologic history and the origin of the troughs.
Rooky Mountain protaxis and the
poet- Cretaceous mountain -making
along its course.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, toL 40, pp. 181-196.
Review of history and relations of uplift*
In the Rocky Mountain region in Che United
States and Canada.
Long Island Sound in the Quater-
nary era, with observations on the sab-
marine Hudson River channel.
Am. Jour. 8ci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 425-
437, pi. x.
Review of the glacial and poet-glacial his-
tory of the sound depression and a diacussion
of the hearing of the submarine Hudson
River channel on the Jura-Trias to Cham-
plain history of the middle Atlantic coastal
region.
Characteristics of volcanoes with
contributions of facts and principles
from the Hawaiian Islands, including
a historical review of Hawaiian vol-
canic action for the last sixty-seven
years, a discussion of the relations of
volcanic islands to deep-sea topography,
and a chapter on volcanic island den-
udation, xvi, 399 pages, 16 plates.
New York, 1890.
Abstract*, -Am. Jour. Sol., 3d series, vol. 39,
pp. 323-334. Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 194-
195.
[ ] The geological and natural his-
tory survey of Minnesota for the year
1888, the 17th annual report, by N. H.
Wiuchell, State geologist.
Am. Jonr. Set, 8d series, vol.39, pp. 67-68,
I P-
List of papers, and review of N. H. Win-
chell on the correlation of Animikie iron ores
with those of the Taconio region of New Eng-
land.
[ ] 8ubaerial decay of rocks and
origin of the red color of certain for-
mations. [By 1. C. Russell.] Bull. U.
8. Geol. Survey, No. 52.
Am. Jonr. Set., 3d aeries, vol. 39, pp. 317-319.
Description of the memoir and review of
conclusions concerning the origin of the red
color of the Triaasio formation and certain
features of aobaerial decay in New England.
[ ) Arehean limestones and other
rocks in Norfolk, Connecticut.
Am. Jonr. 8ci., 3d sees, vol 39, p 321, | p.
Bull. 91 3
DANA, James D. — Continued.
References to observations of R. H. Cornish
on mineralogio characteristics and geologic
relations of the limestone*.
[ 1 Presidential address before the
Geological Society of London.
Am. Jonr. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 254-255.
On ocean basins. Abstracts and brief men-
tion of the bearing of American geological
history on the subject
[ ] Fossils in the Taconio limestone
belt at the west foot of Taconic range
in Hillsdale, New York.
Am. Jonr. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 256-257.
Refers to relations of the limestones and
paleontological evidence as to their age.
[ ] [Notes on the Bernardston series. ]
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, voL 40, pp. 263, 265,
tP.
Historical references and statement in re-
gard to Emerson's investigations of the series.
[ ] [Notes on geology of eastern New
York.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 137-138.
In regard to the age and distribution- of the
lower Paleozoios.
DARTON, Nelson Horatio. The rela-
tions of the traps of the Newark sys-
tem in the New Jersey region.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 67, pp. 82,
pis. 6.
Descriptions of the structure and relation**
of the various trap masaes, and differentiation
of intrusive* and extrnsivea. * Illustrated by a
colored geologic map.
On the occurrence of basalt dikes in
the upper Paleozoic series in central
Appalachian Virginia, with notes on
the petrography, by J. 8. Diller.
Am. Jonr. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 269-271.
Brief account of their location and geologio
relations.
[ ] [Notes on southeastern New York
and northeastern New Jersey.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 110, 128, 130, 132, 133, 134.
Geological notes regarding the Palisade
trap and the geology at some stations in
Orange County, New York.
DAVIS, William Morris. Structure and
origin of glacial sand plains.
Geol. Soo. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 195-202,
pL3.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 208, J p.
Description of structural characteristics
and discussion of their origin and history.
34
DAVIS, William Morris Continued.
[Remarki on evidence of unconformity
bat ween Hod noil aiiii Helderlierg
rock* in the Hudson Valley, Nen
York.]
Geol. Soc. Am. , Bull ., vol. I, pp. 354-355, 1 p
Brief review or the relations In the Catsklll
Mil RODDDI
[Remarks on structure of fillings in
fissures in trap at Mcrideu, Connecti-
Geol. 3oe. Aid., Bull, vol.1. p. MS.IP-
Discussion of the history or the nliinge.
[Remarks on certain peculiarities of
drainage in tbe Columbia formation
overlying (lie Appomattox.]
Geol. Boo. Am., Bull., vol. l,p. SiK.
Id connection with paper by W J McGei
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [wjuultt.
DAVIS, William Morris, and WOOD,
J. Walter, jr.— Con tinned.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 9. pp. 1B6-1W,
I P.
Ad analysis of tbe history recorded in the
topograph y and drainage of the region.
DAWSON, George M. Report on an ex-
ploration in the Yukon district, North -
west Territory, and adjacent northern
portion of British Columbia. 1887.
Canada, Qeol. Surrey, Report, vol 3, new
series, parti. ReportR, pp.ls3,tinaps, 1888.
Abstract*, Ibid., Report A, pp. 4 -12. .
Point
Sol., 3d w
ttptor.
ToLB,p;
I. IP- <
3 IP.
enul Iti
ary note* and
Dated cl»ss of drainage,
The rivers of northern New Jersey,
with notes on the classiii cation of riv-
en in general.
national Geogrsphlc Magazine, voL 2. pp.
81-110,
A discussion of tbe genetic relation* of rive™
of different kinds, u analysis of (he relation
and hlatorv of (ha drainage of northern New-
Jersey and a review of (he hlatorv of the
Oreen River In the Uinta Mountains.
The ice age in North America, and
its bearings on tbe antiquity of man,
by G. Frederick Wright; with an ap-
pendix on the probable cause of glacia-
tion, by Warren Upham, New York, 1890.
Appalachia, vol. 8. pp. 73-78.
Disci i Hea the evidence concerning a jrlaclol
ire dam in the Ohio.
The level of no strain.
Am. Qeologist, vol. S. pp. 180-101.
Review of conditions Involved and 1
conaeqoence In tbe cooling and contraction of
the earth's crust.
The Iroquois beach.
Am. a eulogist , vol. 8. p. (00, i p.
Remark* in regard to ontletaof Lake]
quoie and tbe glacial Like Ontario.
[ ] [Utah.]
Macfarl.-me's Geol. Railway Snide, 2d edi-
tion, pp, 1 1*, lit, t P-
Geological nolo* for railway stations in the
Dgden and Salt Lake regions.
and WOOD, J. Walter, jr. The
geographic development of norther
New Jersey.
Boston Son. Nat. Hist., free., vol 34, pp.
■ The mineral wealth of British Co-
lumbia, with an annotated list of local-
ities of minerals of economic value.
Canada, Geol. Bnrvey, Reports, vol 3, new
series, part 2, Report R, pp. 188. 1888.
Description of general geologic features or
the region and notes on the various on de-
posit*, building atones, relatione of Tertiary
giil'L bearing gravels, and stratigraphy of the
[Account of explorations in south-
ern interior British Columbia.]
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. S, new
eerie*, part 1. Report A, pp, 80-08. 1888.
Includes brief references to Tertiary coal*
and Irucuytea and gold-bearing metamorphio
Paleoioic*.
Notes on the Cretaceous of the Brit-
ish Columbian region. Tbe Nanaimo
group.
Am. Jonr. Sol., Sd series, vol. St, pp. 180-181.
Abstract, Am, Naturalist, voL 14, p. 784, i p.
Discussion oflta extent, stratigraphlc range.
history, and equivalency.
On tbe glaciation of the northern
part of the Cordilleras, with an at-
tempt to (Correlate the events of the
glacial period in tbo Cordillera and
Grout Plains.
Am. Geologist, vol. 8. pp. 183-182.
r. glac;
rod tl
.glac
the glacial formations.
— Introductory. On an expedition
down the Begh-nla or Anderson River,
by R. Macfarlaue.
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 4, pp.
28-28.
Include* remarks on the geology.
iuBra>.] EECOBD OF NOBTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOB 1890.
35
DAWSON, George M.— Continued.
The chalk from the Nfbbrara Creta-
ceous of Kansas.
Science, toL 16, p. 276, i ool. 4°.
Refers to certain microecopio organisms in
Niobrara beds of Manitoba.
The Dominion of Canada.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
• edition, pp. 61-83.
Geological notes for stations on railway and
steamboat routes.
[ ] Northern Pacific railroad.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 258-260, 261, 262.
Geological notes for stations at intervals
through Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washing-
ton, and Oregon.
DAWSON, J. William. On new species
of fossil sponges from the Siluro-Cam-
brian at Little Metis on the Lower St.
Lawrence.
Oanada, Roy. 8oo., Trans., vol. 7, section
It, pp. 81-55, pL Hi. 4°.
With a brief prefatory description of the
geology of the locality and dismission of the
age of the beds.
On fossil plants collected by Mr. R.
A. MoConnell on Mackenzie River, and
by Mr. T. C. Weston on Bow River.
Oanada, Roy. Soc., Trans., voL 7, seotion
It, pp. 60-74, pis. x, xi, 4°.
Discussion of the eqaivalenoy and age of
containing formations.
On burrows and tracks of inverte-
brate animals in Paleozoic rooks, and
other markings.
Geol. Soc., Quart. Jour., vol. 47, pp. 695-
617.
Includes descriptions and illustrations of
various kinds of inorganic markings.
— The Qnebec group of Logan.
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 4, pp.
138-148.
General discussion of its stratigraphio
status, nomenclature, and equivalency.
Fossil plants from the Similkameen
River and other places in the southern
interior of British Columbia.
Science, vol. 15, p. 378, £ coL 4°.
Abstract of paper read to Royal Society of
Canada, 1890.
— On the Pleistocene flora of Canada.
Geology of the deposits.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 811-820.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 298-
294.
General account of the deposits, brief de-
scriptions of the plant localities, and discus-
sion of geographic and climatic conditions.
DESKS, William. The Lower Holder-
berg formation of St. Helen's Island.
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 4, pp. 106-
109.
Characteristics, fossils, eruptives, equiva-
lence in New York series.
DE OROOT, Henry. The manufacture
of glass in California. History, con-
dition, and future of the business.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 324-329.
Includes brief description of glass sand de-
posit in Placer County.
Delaware, Gabbros and associated rocks,
Chester.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Ches-
ter.
Denlaon University, Scientific Labo-
ratories, Bulletin, vol. 5.
Waverly group. Cooper, W. F.
Devonian.
Alabama, Macfarlane's Railway Guide,
Smith and Gesner.
Canada, Report on Quebec, Ells.
Acadian and St. Lawrence water-
shed, Bailey.
Review of Ells on geology pf Quebec,
Walcott.
Northwestern Manitoba, Tyrrell.
Duck and Riding Mountains, Tyr-
rell.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
New Brunswick, Bailey. Bailey
and McInnes.
Expedition down Anderson River,
Dawson, G. M.
Yukon and Mackenzie Rivers, Mc-
Connell.
Lower Liard River, McConnell.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Central America, Nicaragua, Craw-
ford.
England, Devonshire, Williams, H. 8.
Illinois, Macfarlane's Railway Guide,
Worthen.
Iowa, Macfarlane's Railway Guide,
McGee.
Kentucky, oil field of Barren Couuty,
Fischer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Proc-
tor.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Middlesborough, Boyd.
Maine, Eastern Maine and Now Brunt**
wick, Bailey.
36
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. Ibull.«L
Devonian — Continued.
Massachusetts, Bernardston series, Em-
erson. Dana.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hitch-
cock.
New Jersey, Macfarlane's Railway
Guide, Smock.
New York, Cuboides zon,e, Williams,
H. S.
Thickness of rocks in west-central
New York, Prosser, C. S.
Areas of continental progress in North
America, Dana.
Paleozoic fishes, Newberry.
Rock salt deposits, western New York,
Newberrv.
Locality numbers, Hall.
Supposed dikes at Ithaca, Kemp.
Report on oil and gas, Carll.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Lind-
sey. Williams, H. S.
Ohio and Indiana, Waverly group,
Cooper.
Analysis of Defiance li mestone, Whit-
field, J. E.
Trenton limestone oil and gas, Or-
ton.
Geological survey . of Ohio report,
Orton.
Report on oil and gas, Carll.
Paleozoic fishes, Newberry.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Col-
lett. Orton.
Pennsylvania, Making of Pennsylvania,
Claypolk.
Report on oil and gas, Carll.
Paleozoic fishes, Nkwbkrry.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Les-
ley. Lewis.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Tennessee, Central basin of Tennessee,
Kennedy.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Sap-
ford.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Virginias and Maryland, Dikes in Appa-
lachian Virginia, Darton.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Camp-
bell. Fontaine. White, I. C.
Western United States, Report — Montana
division, U.S. Geol. Survey, Pealk.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Broad-
head. Ciiamberlin. Hague.
WlNCHELL, A. WlNCHKLL, N. H.
Devonian — Continued.
Western United States— Con tinned.
Review of Texas geology, Dumble.
Central mineral region of Texas,
Comstock.
Displacements in Grand Canon, Wal-
cott.
Cuboides zone, Williams, H. S.
Nomenclature, Hercynian question,
Clarke.
DILLER, J. S. Geology of the Lassen
Peak diHtrict.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 395-432, platen xlv-li, 1880.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 8, pp. 106-197,
Description of hypsography, auriferous
slate series, geologic history, Cretaceous to
Quaternary, structure of the Sierras, and rela-
tions of the displacements of the Sierras to
each other aud to volcanic phenomena.
Report — Division of petrography.
17. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 98-100.
Includes brief references to the crystallisa-
tion of poiphyritic quartz in eruptive rocks
and the discovery of chalk in Texas by R. T.
Hill.
Notes on the Cretaceous rooks of
Northern California.
Am. Jonr. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 478-
478.
Description of two sections in -the northern
part of the Sacramento Valley.
Sandstone dikes.
Geol. Soc. Am., Ball., vol. 1, pp. 411-442,
plates 6-8.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 121, &
p.; Am. Naturalist, vol. 24. p. 211, 6 lines; pp.
768-769, 6 lines; Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series,
vol. 40, p. 33J, £p.
Descriptions of dikes in northern Cali-
fornia and discussion of 'their nature, origin,
history, and significance. Includes references
to dikes observed in other localities. Dis-
cussed by W. M. Davis and B. K. Emerson,
p. 442.
Petrographic notes. [Basalt dikes
in upper Paleozoic series in oentral
Appalachian Virginia.]
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 270-
271.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24. pp. 773-
771, 5 lines.
Description of the rocks and reference to
other dikes in the Great Valley aud in Lou-
doun County, Virginia.
DODGE, W. W. Some lower Silurian
graptolites from northern Maine.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d scries, vol. 40, pp. 153-
165.
Descriptions of the remains and reference
to their stratigraphio equivalency.
dabtov.) RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
37
DRYER, Charles R The glacial geol-
ogy of the Irondequoit region.
Am. Otologist, vol. 6, pp. 202-207.
Topographic features and glacial deposits
and their history.
DUDLEY, William L. A curious occur-
rence of Viviauite [near Eddyvillc, Ky ].
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 120-
121.
Brief prefatory account of inclosing strata.
DUMBLE, E. T. Results. A review of
Texas geology as developed by the
work of the Survey.
Texas, Geol. Surrey, First Annual Report,
pp. xxix-lxxiv, plate 1.
Summary descriptions and taxonomic table
of formations from Quaternary to Archean.
— and HILL, R. T. The igneous rocks
of central Texas. [Abstract. ]
Am. Assoc. Adr. Science, Proc, vol. 38,
pp. 242-243, *.
Notice of their distribution, general rela-
tions, and age.
DTJTTON, C. E. Report— Division of
volcanic geology.
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 156-165, 1889.
Brief description of the exploration of Cra-
ter Lake, and in northern California and west-
ern Oregon.
Atlantic and Pacific Railroad.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 323.
Geological notes for stations in New Mexico
and Arizona.
DWIGHT, W. B. Fossils of the west-
ern Taconic limestone in the eastern
part of Dutchess County, New York.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, p. 71, \ p.
Uoviews their bearing on geology of Dutch-
ess County limestone*.
Discovery of a locality of Trenton
E.
E AKINS, L. O. Rooks from New Mexi-
co. [Analyses.]
D. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull. No. 60, p. 155, f p.
Obsidian and basalt* from Bio Grande
Can on.
Sandstones; Berea, Ohio. [Analysis.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 60, p. 158, i p.
Cog u in a, coral, coral rocks, etc.
[Analyses.]
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull. No. 60, pp. 163-164.
Coral rocks and soil Jroiu Hawaiian Islands;
Hammock clay, ocherous deposit, and coqui-
nas from Florida ; phosphatio deposit, Som-
brero; coralline bottom, Earbadoes, and re-
cent coral, Bermudas.
Met amorphic rook from Marion,
Kentucky. [Analysis.]
TJ. 8. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64 p. 46, \ p.
Porphyry from Pigeon Point, Michi-
gan. [Analyses.]
TJ. S. GeoL Surrey, Bull. No. 64, p. 46, | p.
limestone rich in ostracoid entonios-
tracoa and other fossils at Pleasaut Val-
ley, New York.
Vassar Inst., Trans., vol. 5, pp. 75-77.
Includes a brief prefatory description of the
containing strata.
— The Cambrian system of strata.
Vassar Inst., Trans., vol. 5, pp. 98-102.
A brief general review of Cambrian classi-
fication.
— D iscovery of fossiliferous strata of
the middle Cambrian at Stissing, New
York.
Vassar Inst., Trans., vol. 5, pp. 102-109.
lias a brief prefatory note regarding the in>
closing strata and their relations.
Glacial phenomena.
Vassar Inst , Trans. , vol, 5, pp. 116-118.
Brief reviews of opinions in regard to gla-
ciation and the accumulation of ice masses.
[ ] [Notes on southeastern New York.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. HI, 130-131, 233, 134, 135-137.
Geological notes for railway stations and
adjoining regions.
>, L, G. Penokee- Gogebic rocks
from Wisconsin. [Analyses.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 47, \ p.
— Eruptive rocks from four mile ^south-
east of Hot Springs, Arkansas. [Analy-
sis.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 48, i p.
— Recent lavas from two miles south of
Mouut Trumbull, Arizoua. [Analysis.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 48, i p.
— Eruptive rocks from Castle Moun-
tain, Montana. [Analysis.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 49, t p.
— [Eruptive] rocks from northern
California. [Analyses.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 50, | p.
— [Analyses of adobe soils.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 51, ) p.
New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah.
— and CHATARD, T. M. Rocks from
Montana. [Analyses.]
TJ. S. GeoL Survey, Bull. No. 60, pp. 152-154.
BECOBD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [ac
BLDRIDGE, George Humans. On cer-
tain pecnlia* structural features in the
foot-hill region of the Rooky Moun-
tains, near Denver, Colorado.
Washington Phil. Sac.. Boll., vol. 11, pp.
2*7-271. id ftp.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist , vol. 21. n. 212, 1 p.
Description of a novel tjpeof structure and
of the Cenotolo, Mesoioie, ind Archesn for-
ms Hone involved ud m eualyalaof the struc-
tural de velopmenl of t lie region .
[Notice of remits of stratigraphic
Studies in the Denver basin.]
IT. S. Owl. Surrey, Eighth Repon, J. W.
Powell, pp. 1M-1U, | p,
Given by 8. F. Kmnnra in report— Rocky
Itoiinluiii division of neology.
XUiaha Mitchell Scientific Society
Journal, WeS, part 2,
Conglomerates of Mesozoic iu North
Carolina, Holmes, J. A.
EI1I.8, R. W. Second report on the
geology of a portion of the province of
Canada, Gaol. Survey, Reports, vol. t, new
series, part I, report R, pp. 1-114, 1888.
Abstract, Ibid.. Port 1, Report A, pp. 26-
Sl, 1888 i Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 243-210.
Review by V. D. Waloott, Am. Jour. Sei.,
Bd eerie*, vol. 30, pp. 101-115.
Description or Devunlsn, Bilnrisn, Cam-
brlao, pro-Cam brlnn, crystalline and igneous
rooks, superficial deposits end structure in
structure and equivalency. Economic rain.
■ [Account of investigation*! in the
St Lawrence Valley.]
Osnsda, Geol. Survay, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, psrt 1, report A. pp. 80-9] , 1888.
brief remarks oo euitlvalency of member, of
the Quebec groop.
The stratigraphy of the Quebec
GsoLSoc. Am., Boil., vol. 1, pp. 453-458.
pi. 10.
Abstract, Am. Qeolotisl, vol. 5, p. 120, 1
His
rical review of opinions
succession. Illustrated by gcologlo n
- The geology of Quebec City.
ELLS, R. W. ■ -Con tinned. .
Geological progress in Canada.
Ottiiws Naturalist, vol. I, pp. 1UVHG.
A general sketch of the history of geologic
exploration* in Canada.
BMEHSON, Ben. K. A description of
the " Bernardston series "of metanior-
pblc upper Devonian rocks.
Am. Jonr. Sol., 3d aeries, vol 40, pp. 293-
276. 303-874.
Detailed dosoriptlona, maps and seel ions or
structure, stratigraphy and relations. With
prefatory note by J. D. liana.
[Remarks on vein fillings in till of
the Connecticut Valley],
Qeol. Hoc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 412, ^ p.
Discussion of their origin.
— — ■ [Remarks on met amorphic conglom-
erates ami other inotaniorphic phenom-
ena in north central Massachusetts.]
Geo!. Soc. Am., Boll., vol. 1, p. 653, ( p.
- Pornbyritic and gneiesoid granitt
i Massachusetts [abstract.].
Geol. Soo. Am., Hull., vol. I, pp. 560-5*1.
Chin
lural r
1, liis-
EMMONB, 8. F. Report— Rocky Moun-
tain division of geology.
U. 8. Geol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. V.
Powell, pp. 114-140, 1089.
I nclndes brief general statement or results
attained by U. H Eldildfie on the Tertiary
formation* of the Denver region.
)uts in the Rocky
Gaol. Soc.Am., Bull., vol. 1. pp. HS-Sflt.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 111-
312, i p.
Comprtsea a general discussion of the geo-
logic history of the region.
— [On the age of the beds in the Boise"
River region, Idaho.]
Boston Sou. Nai. Hist., Froo., vol. Is, pp.
424-134.
Discussion of I be geological h orison of the
beds from which the Samps Image was ob
- Colorado.
edlliui
ory *kel<
or geology
Guide, 2d
sud geological
ENGINEERING AND MINING
JOURNAL. The cupper mining dis-
trict of Michigan audits industries.
Engineering and Mining Jonr, vol. 50,
pp. ISS-301, *>.
UMPOx.] RECORD OF NOJtTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
39
ENGINEERING AND MINING
JOURNAL— Cootinned.
With tome general prefatory remarks en
the geology of the region.
Engineering and Mining Journal, voL
49.
Malatos gold mines, Mexico, Janin.
Middlesborough, Boyd.
Phosphate beds of Florida, Lkdoux.
Mines of Calico district, California,
Storms.
Oil fields of Barren County, Ken-
tacky, Fischer, *
Banket deposits of Witwaterarand,
Curtis.
DeEaap Transvaal gold fields, Fur-
longs.
Gas explorations in Ontario, Ash-
RURNKR.
Charcoal in Caster County, Colorado,
Charlton.
VoL 50.
Arizona's new bonanza, Storms.
Coal fields of Texas, Weitzbl.
Florida phosphate beds, Wyatt.
Ores of Mina Geraes, Brazil, Mez-
OER.
Engineering and Mining Journal, vol
50— Continned.
Copper mining district of Michigan.
Eno. and Mining Journal.
Iron ores of the United States, Hunt.
Europe. Cnboides zone, Williams, H. S.
Devonian in Devonshire, Williams,
ELS.
Fayalite in obsidian of Lipari, Id-
dings and Penfield.
Glacial climate, Shaler.
Glacial lunoid furrows, Packard.
Great quartzite more recent than the
Olenus schist, Holst.
Lower and middle Taconio. Mar-
cou.
Natural soda, Chatard.
Observations in Norway, Williams,
G. H.
Quaternary changes in level, Upham.
Recent glacial work, Claypole.
EVANS, H. A. The relations of the flora
to the geological formations in Lincoln
County, Kentucky.
Botanical Gazette, 1889.
Not seen.
F.
FAIRBANKS, Harold W. Notes on
the character of the eruptive rocks of
the Lake Huron region.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 162-172.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 1072,
3 lines.
Mainly on petrography. Brief references
to occurrence, history, age, and relations to
other rocks.
FARIBAULT, £. R. [Account of exam-
ination of gold-bearing rocks of the
Atlantic coast in Halifax county.]
Canada, OeoL Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 99-100.
Includes a brief statement in regard to the
folds of the gold-bearing rocks.
FERRTER, Walter F., NASON, Frank
L., and. A notice of Zircon rocks in
Archean highlands of New Jersey. [Ab-
stract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Science, Proa, vol. 38,
pp. 244-245.
Includes remarks on mineralogio constitu-
ents of the rocks, and evidence of their intru-
sive nature.
FEWKES, J. Walter. The origin of the
present outline of the Bermudas.
Am. Geol., vol. 5, pp. 88-100.
Discussion of evidences bearing on theories
of subsidence and erosion.
On excavations made in rocks by
sea-urchins.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 1-21, plates 1, 2.
With discussion of the geologic significance
of the facts.
FISCHER, Moritz. The oil field of Bar-
ren County, Kentucky.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49, pp.
107-198, 4°.
Geologic map. Sections. Geologic distribu-
tion of the olL
FLETCHER, H. [Account of examina-
tions of Pictou and Colchester counties,
Nova Scotia. ]
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 97-99, 1888.
Includes brief references to the distribution
and relations of the various formations and
especially to their economic resources.
FLINT, Earl. About the Nicaragua foot-
prints.
Scienoe, voL 15, pp. 80-32.
40
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 189.
(BULUfL
FLINT, Karl— Continued.
Discussion of the age and history of the for*
mation. Includes'a letter from J. Crawford on
the geology of the region.
FLOklDA. Analyses of coquina, clay,
and coral rocks, Clarke, Eakins.
Barrier beaches, Meriull, F. J. H.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide. John-
son.
Note on coral reefs, Agassiz.
Observations on Southern Florida,
Wilcox.
Origin of present outlines of the Ber-
mudas, Fkwke*.
Phosphate beds, Ledoux, Gold-
smith, Cox, Wyatt.
Pleistocene submergence, Shalkr.
Report — Atlantic coast division, U.
8. Geol. Survey, Shalkr.
Report — Division of Cenozoic inverte-
brates, U. S. Geol. Survey, Dall.
Tertiary fauna of Florida, Dall.
Topography of Florida, Shaler.
Saliferous deposits as evidence of cli-
matal condition, Shaler.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
FONTAINE, William Morris. The Poto-
mac or younger Mesozoic flora.
17. S. Geol. Survey, Monographs, vol. 15,
vol. 1. 14, 377 pages, vol. 2, 180 plates, 4°,
Washington 1880.
Abstract, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39,
p. 520, i p., vol. 40, pp. 168-180, | p.
Has prefatory chapter on the location and
geology of tho Potomao beds and the plant
localities, pp. 1-62.
— [Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 333-334.
Geological notes for stations in western
Maryland.
[ ] [Virginia.]
Macfarlane's GeoL Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 359, t p.
Geological notes for railroads in eastern
Virginia.
FORD, S. W.] [Notes on easiern New
York. J
Macfarlane's GeoL Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 111,131.
Geological notes along New York Central
Railway from Rhinebeck to Troy.
Forum, 1890, Encroachments of the sea,
MgGee.
Recent views about glaciers, Win-
chkll, A.
FOSHAY, P. Max. Preglacial draiuage
and recent geological history of west-
ern Penusylvauia.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, voL 40, pp. 897-
403.
Conditions and course of preglacial drain-
age and evidences of post-glacial uplifts.
and HICE, R. R. Newly discovered
glacial phenomena in the Beaver Val-
ley [Pennsylvania].
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 816-818.
Notice of gravel deposits, grooves and
stria>, and potholes, several miles south of the
terminal moraines of previous observers.
FRAZER, Persifor. The session of the
International Geological Congress in
Philadelphia.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 208-212.
Report of proceedings.
[ ] [Notes on northern general divis-
ion Mexicau National Railway.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 420. i p.
FRIEDERICH, J. J. On some new spe-
cies of Protozootites, Quaternary and
Tertiary, from California, and on the
importance of protozoa as rock-building
agents.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp. 32-
36.
Includes brief references to the localities
and conditions of occurrence.
FURLONGE, W. H. Notes on the geol-
ogy of the Do Kaap Transvaal gold-
fields.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49, pp.
287-291,4°.
South Africa.
G.
G A.NONQ, W. F. Southern in vertebrates
on the shores of Acadia.
Science, vol 15, pp. 373-375, i col., 40.
Abstract of paper read to Royal Society of
Canada, 1890.
OENTH, F. A. Contributions to Miner-
alogy. On a new occurrence of Corun-
dum, in Patrick Connty, Virginia.
Am. Jour. Sol., 3d series, vol.39, pp. 47-49.
Includes a reference to nature of associated
rooks.
Geologic Philosophy.
Petrology,
Origin of soda granites, etc., Pigeon
Point, Bayley.
Origin of gneiss, Bell.
[Texture of massive rocks.] Report
California division U. 8. Geol. Sur-
vey, Becker.
Bernardston series, Emerson.
Primary quarts in basalts, Iddings.
BASTOH.J RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
41
Geologic Philosophy— Coutiuued.
Petrology— Continued.
Met amorphic phenomena in Massa-
chusetts, Emerson.
Pre-Cainbrian of the Black Hills, Van
Hisk.
Greenstone schists, Menominee and
Marquette regions, Williams, G.
H. Irving.
Granitoid areas in lower Laurentian,
Hitchcock. Williams, G. H.
Studies of hornblende schist, Hitch-
cock.
Non-feldspathic intrnsives of Mary-
land, Williams, G. H.
Granites in Massachusetts, Emerson.
Dikes of Kennebnnkport, Maine.
Kemp.
Report on Rainy Lake region, Law-
son.
Report — Division of Petrography, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Diller.
Archean of central Canada, Lawson.
Serpentines of southeastern Pennsyl-
vania, Rand.
Igneous rocks of Yellowstone Park,
Iddings.
Petrography for 1887 and 1888, Mer-
rill, G. P.
Glaciology.
Glacial phenomena in Canada, Bell.
Drift of northern Iowa, Webster.
Glacial phenomena, D wight.
Bowlder belts v*. bowlder trains,
Chamberlin.
Glacial boundary, Pennsylvania to
Illinois, Wright. Chamberlin.
Origin of extra-niorainic till, Todd.
Island of Monnt Desert, Maine,
Shalek.
Cape Ann, Massachusetts, Shaler.
Glacial sediments of Maine, Stone.
Topography of Florida, Shaler.
Origin of glacial sand plains, Davis.
Glacial lnnoid furrows, Packard.
Surface geology of Alaska, Russell.
Quaternary history of Mono Valley,
California, Russell.
Recent views about glaciers, Winch-
ell, A.
Physiographic geology.
Topographic types, Iowa, McGee.
Drainage systems of New Mexico,
Tabs.
Geologic Philosophy— Continued.
Physiog raphie geology — Con t i n ned.
Drainage in central Texas, Tarr.
Topographic features of central
Texas, Tarr.
Northwestern Colorado and vicinity,
White, C. A.
History of the Niagara River, Gil-
bert.
Certain peculiarities of drainage,
Davis. McGee.
Encroachments of the sea, McGee.
Central basin of Tennessee, Ken-
nedy.
Topography of Florida, Shaler.
Development of uorthern New Jersey,
Davis and Wood.
Rivers of northern New Jersey,
Davis.
Mount Desert Island, Shaler.
Erosive agents in arid regions, Tarr.
Lake Bonneville, Gilbert.
Barrier beaches, Merrill, F. J. H.
Earth cruet deformation.
Proof of earth's rigidity, Becker.
Strength of the earth's crust, Gil-
• BERT. WlNCHELL, A.
Level of no strain in earth's crust,
Claypole. Davis.
Shear in earth crust movements,
Stevenson.
Origin of diagonal trends in the
earth's crnst, Martin.
History of the Niagara River, Gil-
bert.
Areas of continental progress in North
America, Dana.
Ocean basins, Dana.
Rocky Mountain protaxis, Dana.
Origin of normal faults, Reads.
Lake Bonneville, Gilbert.
Displacements in Grand Cation, Wal-
cott.
Recent rock flexure, Cramer.
Topography of Florida, Shaler.
Chemical and chemico organic deposits.
Origin of Keewatin ores, Winchell,
N. H. and H, V.
Quicksilver deposits, Becker.
Natural gas and oil, Orton.
Formation of traventine and sinter
by vegetation of hot springs,
Weed.
Protozoa as rock-building agents,
Friedrich.
42
RECORD OF JtORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [wu-W.
Geologic Philosophy— Continued.
Cktmtaal and ehtmico-oryanie depctti —
Continued.
Corals and oora.1 islands, Dana.
Phosphate rock in Florida, Cox.
Lkdogx. Wtatt.
Snbaerial decay of rocks and origin
of red color in certain formations,
Dana..
Geological climate.
Climate of glacial period, Crosby.
Hhaxer,
Pleistocene submergence, UpbaH.
Shaler.
Saliferong deposits as evidence ofcli-
matal conditions, Shaler.
FWsaatlW.
Volcanoes, Dana.
Geysers, Weed.
Newark trap* of New Jersey region,
DaBTOW.
Lake Bonneville, Gilbert.
Miietltanwu*.
Southern extension of Appomattox
formation, HcGee.
Sand transportation by rivers, Gka-
Harkings in PaleoEoio rocks, Daw-
son, J. W.
Lake Bonneville, Gilbert.
Excavations made in rocks by sea-
urcbine, Fewkes.
Origin of rock pressure of natural
gas, Ortoh.
Geological survey of Ohio, report,
Orton.
Sandstone dikes, Diller. Davis.
Emerson.
Geology of Cape Ann, Shaler.
Geology for 1837 and 18-e, McGeb.
Geological Magaxlnc, decade III, vol. 7.
Skull of Ceratopsidn, Marsb.
Continental elevation preceding
Pleistooene in America, Spencer.
Quaternary changes of level, Ufham.
Data of continental elevation of
America, Ji-kks-Rbownr.
Geological Sooiety of America, Bulle-
tin, vol. 1.
Strength of the earth's ornst, Gil-
bert. Winchell, A.
[Lignite in Dakota formation in
Kansas], Hay.
[Shear in earth crust movements],
Stevenson.
Geological Society of America, Bulle-
tin, vol. 1— Con tinned.
Bowlder belts distinguished from
bowlder trains, Chambeeltn.
[Bowlder* in morainal fringe],
Weight.
[Distribution of bowlders in Michi-
gan], WlNCHRLL, A.
[Distribution of bowlders in New
England], Hitchcock.
Trap dikes near Kennebankport,
Maine, Kemp.
Sylvania sand, Ohio, New.
Areas of continental progress in North .
America, Dana.
Displacement in Grand Canon of
Colorado, Walcott.
Continental elevation preceding
Pleistocene period, Spencer.
Ancient shores, etc., in region of the
Great Lakes, SPENCER.
Origin of rock pressure of natural
gas, Orton. McGer. White, I. C.
Surface geology of Alaska, Russell.
[Extent and cause of Pleistocene gla-
ciers], CHAM BERLIN,
Pre-Paleozoic surface In Canada,
Lawson.
[Bounded surfaces not due to glacial
erosion], Spencer.
Glacial sand plains, Davis.
Pre-Cambrian of the Black Hills,
Tan Hise. ,
Orographic movements in the Rocky
Mountains. Emmons.
Value of term "Hudson River group,"
Walcott.
[Unconformity between Hudson and
Helderberg formations], Davis.
Results of Archean studies, Wincb-
[ Remarks on crystallines of the
Northwest], Tan Hise.
Post-Tertiary deposits of Manitoba,
Tyrrell.
[Lake Winnipeg-Mississippi drain-
age], Mills.
[Outlet of Lake Agassis and limits of
glaoiation], Chamberlin.
[Pleistocene sob mergence of Atlantic
coast], Shaler. McGee.
dartou.I BECOBD OF NOBTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
43
Geological Society of Amerloa, Bulle-
tin, vol. 1 — Continued.
[Evidences of general Pleistocene
submergence], 8pbkcer.
Sandstone dikes, Diller.
[Vein filling in till], Emermon.
[Fillings in fissures in trap], Davis.
Tertiary and Cretaceous of eastern
Massachusetts, Shale r.
Stratigraphy of the Quebec group,
Ells.
Ouboides zone and its fauna, Wil-
liams, H. S.
Evidence on interval between glacial
epochs, Chamberlin.
[Formations termed Orange sand],
McGeb.
[Orange sands of western Kentucky],
Procter.
[Interglacial deposits of the Dela-
ware], Merrill, F. J. H.
[Glacial deposits of upper Ohio Riv-
er], White, I. C.
[Pleistocene deposits at Belvidere],
McGee.
Calciferous in Cham plain Valley,
Brainkrd and Sekly.
[Calciferous formation from Canada
to Tennessee,], Walcott.
[Eolian limestone of Vermont],
Hitchcock.
Fort Cassin rocks and their fauna,
Whitfield, R. P.
Laramie group, Newberry. Tyr-
rell. Ward. Stevenson. Cope.
[Colorado group in Colorado and
New Mexico], Stevenson.
Eruptive origin of Syracuse serpen-
tine, Williams, G. H.
[Dikes near Ithaca, New York],
Kemp.
Tertiary deposits of Cape Fear River
region, Clark.
Glacial features of Yukon and Mac-
kenzie basins, Tyrrell.
Moraine of recession in Ontario,
Wright.
[Certain gravel deposits of Ontario],
Spencer.
Southern extension of Appomattox,
McGeb.
[Peculiarities of drainage in Colum-
bia formation], Davis. McGee.
Observations in Norway, Williams,
G. H.
Geological Society of America, Bulle-
tin, vol. 1 — Continued.
[Metamorphism in Massachusetts],
Emerson.
Cretaceous plants from Martha's Vine-
yard, White, D. Ward. Merrill,
F. «J. H. •
[Northern extension of Amboy clays],
Newberry.
Oval granitoid areas in the Lanren-
tian, Hitchcock. Williams, G. H.
Granites in Massachusetts, Emerson.
Intrusive origin of Watchung traps
of New Jersey, Nason.
Fiords and Great Lake basins of Nort h
Amerioa, Upham.
Potholes north of Lake Superior,
McKellar.
Geological Society, Quarterly Journal,
vol. 46. •
Origin of basins of the Great Lakes,
Spencer. Bonn by. See ley.
Hinde.
Spherulites from California, Rutley.
GEORGIA, Appomattox formation, Mc-
Gee.
Rounded rock surfaces, Spencer.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Southern drift, Spencer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Camp-
bell. McCutchen.
Georgia, Bull Exp. Sta., 1890, Depart-
ment of Geology.
Southern drift, Spencer.
[GESNER, William, SMITH, Eugene
and.] Alabama.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 378-382.
Geological notes for railway stations.
GILBERT, Grove Karl. Lake Bonne-
ville, U. S. Geol. Survey, Monographs,
vol. 1, xx, 438 pages, 51 plates, map. 4°.
Washington.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 7, pp. 132-134,
1891. Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 41, pp.
327-329, 1891.
Systematic description of the shore phe-
nomena, Pleistocene deposits, volcanic fea-
tures and structure of the Bonneville basin,
and discussion of its geologic history. Con-
tains chapters on topographic features of lake
shores in general, Lake Bonneville and dias-
trophism, and the age of the Eqnus fauna.
Appendix A, on altitudes and their determi-
nation, by A. L. Webster; B, on the deforma-
tion of the geoid by the removal, through
evaporation, of the water of Lake Bonneville,
44
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1W0. rnn.L.91.
GILBERT, Grove Karl—Continued.
by 11. S. Woodward; and C. on the elevation
of the surface of the Bonneville baain, by ex-
panalon due to change of climate, by R. S.
Woodward.
The history of the Niagara River.
New York, Com. State Reservation at
Nfagara, Sixth Report, pp. 61-84, plates 1-8.
A sketch of the post-Tertiary history of the
• Great Lakes region, comprising a description
and discussion of the phenomena by which
its history is recorded, and of the agencies
and attendant conditions.
The strength of the earth's crust.
Geol. Soo. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 23-24, 28,
27.
Abstracts, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24; pp. 109,
467-470.
Discussion of limits of rigidity and the
nature of geologic conditions producing defor-
mation. Discussed by A. Winchell, Robert
Hay, J. J. Stevenson, and J. C. Branner, pp.
26-27.
[ ] Utah.
Macfarlane's Gaol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 313-315.
Geological notes for railway stations.
GILPIN, E. The evidence of a Nova
Scotia Carboniferous conglomerate.
Science, vol. 15, p. 373, J col., 4°.
Abstract of paper read to Royal Society of
Canada, 1890.
GIROTJX, N. J. Serpentines of Canada.
Ottawa Naturalist, vol 4, pp. 95-116.
Descriptions of all known localities, quoted
mainly from various authorities.
GOLDSMITH, Edward. Pea-like phos-
phorite from Polk County, Florida.
Philadelphia, Aoad. Nat. Sciences, Proc,
1890. p 10, ft p.
Description of its constitution.
GOODYEAR, W. A. San Diego County.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 139-155.
Incidental references to geology.
Santa Cruz Island.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 155-170, map.
A description of its geology.
GORDON, C. H. On the Keokuk beds at
Keokuk, Iowa.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 295-
800.
Abstract, Iowa Aoad. Sci., Proc., 1887-1889,
pp. 98-100.
Extent, fauna, stratigraphy and history, of
some of the members.
On the breccia ted character of the
St. Louis limestone.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 305-313, plates
10, 11.
Description of the relations and discussion
of the history of the formation.
GRAHAM, James C. On a pecnliaf
method of sand transportation by rivers.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 476, f p.
Abstract, Engineering and Mining Jour.,
vol. 50. p. 648, ft ool., 4°.
Discussion of the floating of sand.
GRANT, Uly S. Account of a deserted
gorge of the Mississippi near Minne-
haha Falls.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 1-6, plate 1.
Account of its topography and review of its
history.
GRAT ACAP, L. P. [ Block of Potsdam
sandstone from drift on shore at Totten-
ville, Staten Island.]
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 695, 8 lines.
Science, vol. 15, p. 14, 4°.
H.
!, Arnold. Report — Yellowstone
National Park division.
17. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 91-96, 1889.
Includes a brief general reference to geology
of the upper Yellowstone.
[ ] Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and
Idaho.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 309-312, 315.
List of formations and geological notes for
railway stations.
[HALL, C. W.] [Notes for Fergus Falls
and Black Hills Railway, Gara and
Winnebago City.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 251, ft p.
[HALL, James.] Record of locality
numbers.
New York State Museum, Forty-second
Report, pp. 451-496, 1889, (to be continued).
Brief reference to fossiliferous localities in
the State of New York and adjoining portions
of Pennsylvania.
[HAMMOND, Harry.] South Carolina.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 3G9-373.
Geological notes for railway stations.
HAMMOND, John Hays. The aurifer-
ous gravels of California. Geology of
their occurrence and methods of their
exploitation.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 105-138, pis. 1-8.
DiBTON.) RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
45
John Hayg — Continued.
Abstract, Engineering and Mining Jour. ,
toI. 50, pp. 310-311, 2 cola., 4°.
Incidental reference to geology and cross
sections of several distriots.
Harvard College, Museum of Compar-
ative Zoology, Bulletins, vol. 16.
Cretaceous fossils on Martha's Vine-
yard, 8HALKR.
Topography of Florida, Shaler.
Coral reefs of southern Florida, AG-
A881Z.
Ottrelite and Ilmenite schist in New
England, Wolff.
HARVEY, Arthur. Broad outlines of
the geology of the northwest of Lake
Superior.
Oanadian Inst., Proc, new series, vol. 7,
pp. 218-225.
Review of geologic history, mainly of the
Great Lakes region.
[ ] Erosion in the valley of the Don.
Oanadian Inst., Proc, vol. 7, pp. 28-29, i
p., 1889.
Disonssion of its rate.
[HASTINGS, John B.] Notes for
Union Pacific Railroad.
Maefarlane's Oeol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 312, 813, 314.
Geological notes for stations between Am-
erican Falls, Idaho, and Ketch um, Oregon.
Hawaiian Islands. Analyses of coral
rocks and soils, Eakins.
Volcanoes, Dana.
HA WORTH, Erasmus. The crystalline
rocks of Missouri. ( Abstract. )
Iowa Aoad. Sci., Proc., 1887-1889, pp. 67-
' 88.
General references to the various rocks and
their relations.
Robert. A geological reconnais-
sance in southeastern Kansas.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bulletin, No. 57, pp.
15-49, pis. 1, 2.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 389-
390,1 p.
Description of Carboniferous, Jura-Trias,
Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary forma-
tions, and discussion of various questions of
stratigraphy, equivalency, geologic history,
source of the Tertiary conglomerates, posi-
tion of the Tertiary shores and the history of
the unconformities. Colored geologic map
and plate of cross-sections.
— Notes on Kansas salt mines.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 65-07. pis. 2.
Stratigraphy at Kingman *nd reference to
, Robert — Continued,
occurrence of red beds at Ellsworth and of
gypsum deposits in Permo-Carboniferous and
red beds.
— Artesian wells in Kansas and causes
of their flow.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 296-301.
Sci. Am. Suppl., vol. 29, pp. 12066-12067 No.
753.
Abstract, Kansas Aoad. Soi., Trans., vol.
12, pp. 24-25.
Review of conditions affecting artesian wa-
ter supplies at various localities in Kansas.
] [Remarks on certain peculiarities
in the distribution of lignite in the Da-
kota formation in Kansas.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 26, £ p.
Reference to local flexures along depres-
sions.
In discussion of paper by G. K. Gilbert
" The strength of the earth's crust."
Angelo. The corals and
coral reefs of the western waters of the
Gulf of Mexico.
Philadelphia, Acad. Nat. Sola nee, Proc,
1890, pp. 303-316. pis. 6, 7.
Includes a description and chsrt of the
reefs and discussion of their history and its
bearing on coral reef theories.
HERRICK, C. L. The Philadelphia
meeting of the International Congress
of Geologists.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 379-388.
Record of proceedings.
HEWITT, W. The evolution of the
Grand Canon of the Colorado. A prob-
lem in physiograpbical geology.
Liverpool Geol. Assoc., Jour., vol. 9, pp.
49-55.
Extracts from C. E. Duttou's "Tertiary
history of the Grand Canon District," 17. S.
Geol. Survey, Monographs, vol. 2, 1882.
HICB, R. R., POSHAY, P. Max, and.
Newly discovered glacial phenomena
in the Beaver Valley, [Pennsylvania].
Am. Naturalist, vol. 21, pp. 816-818.
Notice of gravel deposits, grooves, stria,
and pot-holes, several miles south of the
terminal moraines of previous observers.
[HILGARD, E. W. ] Mississippi.
Maefarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 386, 389.
Brief sketch of the geology of the State and
notes for railway stations.
[ ] Louisiana.
Maefarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, pp.
390-391.
Geological notes for railway stations.
BECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [miu.il
HILL, Robert T.-Ooutinoed.
Am. QeologHt, voLS, pp. »-2», sg-80, map.
(To he continued.)
Uoicription of tho various topographic
anas iuid geologic formation* and sketch of
the history of lb* topographic development
of the region.
The fossils of the Trinity bed*.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 02, j p.
Remark* In retard to identity of certain
general stratlgraphlc
of Texas, accompanied by a short de-
scription of the lithology anil stra-
tigraphy of the system. Texas Geologi-
cal Survey, Bulletin No. 4, pp. xzxi.
57. Austin, 1889.
Abstract. Am. Geologist, vol. a, p. 121. } p.
Reviewed by J. Maroon, Am. Geologist, vol
J, pp. SIS-MI.
rage* vii-nii. prefatory general descrip-
tion and stratlgraplilo labia or the Texaa sec-
tion of the Cretaceous.
A brief description of the Cretaceous
rocks of Texas and their economic value,
based principally npon a preliminary
section along the Colorado River from
near Smithwick Mills, Burnet County,
to Webbervitle, Travie County.
Tai» Gaol. Surrey, Firit Annual Report,
General strati graphic n
lew of the c
isorlption
■erlalu
dlstnrbed area*, and or >
The Eagle Flats formation and the
basin of the Trans-l'ecos or mountain-
ous region of Texas. (Abstract.)
Am. aia». Adv. Science, Throe., vol. SB, p.
212. 8 line*.
Brief natloe of Quaternary lake bed*.
The geology of the valley of the
tipper Canadian from Taecoaa, Texas,
to Tncumcarrl Mountain, New Mexico,
with notes on the age of the same.
(Abstract.)
Am. Assoc Ad*. Science, Pros., vol. 38. p.
2 IS, E line*.
Notice of Its genera] topographic relation*,
and of a detriUl filling for which a namai*
proposed.
The geology of the Staked Plains of
Texas, with a description of the Staked
Plains formation. (Abstract.)
Am. Assoc. Adv. Science, Froc, vol. 38, p.
213. 1 line*.
Notice or history of the plains and applica-
tion of a name to their Pleistocene deposits.
A classification of the topographic
features of Texas, with remarks upon
the areal distribution of the geologic
formations. (Abstract.)
Am. Anoo. Adv. Science, Froc, vol. Jf, pp.
2*3-214, 8 line*.
The abstract consists of a brief general
claaninrikilnn of tho principal topographic
feature* of Ibe State.
Classification and origin of the chief
geographic foataros of tlie Texas region.
nature or the!
Exploration of the Indian Territory
and the medial third of Red River.
Am, Geologist, vol. fl, pp. 252-253.
Brief statement In regard to relation* and
structure of folded Paleozoic* and a granite
belt and discussion or age of the disturbance*.
The Texas Cretaceous.
— Pilot Knob. A marine Cretaceous
volcano. [Texas.]
Am. GeologlM, roLS, pp. 288-293.
Abalratct, Am. Naturalist, vol. 2a, pp.275,
!"«, i
1991.
Geologic relations, ash bed*, contact phe-
nomenaand CreUoeoua, Tertiary and Plaialo-
Occurrence of Goniolina in the
Comanche series of the Texas Creta-
Am. Jom. Sei., 3d series, vol. «,pp.S4-S5.
Include* brief description of containing
beds.
and DTJMDLB, E. T. The igneous
rocks of central Texas. [Abstract.]
]. Adv. Science, Froc, vol.38, pp.
S42 -:i
latlon
ip-
HTLLETIHAND, W. F. Hocks from
Pigeon Point, Minnesota. Analyses.
IT. 8. Oeol. Suiroy, Ball. No. 51, pp. Bl-82.
1880.
[Volcanic] rooks from California.
Analyses.
IT. S. Oeol. Survey, Bull. No. 55. pp. 84-85.
188*.
Rocks collected by R. D. Irving.
[Gabbro, limestone, and iron carbon-
ate. Analyses.]
U. S. Oeol. Surrey, Bull. No. 80, pp. 111. tin.
Penokee-Gogebior
a, Michigan and, Wit-
»abh».] RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
47
HTLLEBRAND, W. $\— Continued.
Novaonlite from Marquette, Michigan.
[Analysis.]
TT. S. Geol. Surrey, Boll. Na 60, p. 151, | p.
Lavas from near Lassen Peak, Cal-
ifornia. [Analyses.] •
U. S. Gaol. Surrey, Boll. No. 00, pp. 155-167.
Dolomite from Tnokahoe, Westches-
ter County, New York. [Analysis.]
U. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull. No. 00, p. 159, § p.
- — Marble from Louisiana. [Analysis.]
V. S. Qeol. Surrey, Bull. Ko. 00, p. 100, | p.
HILLS, R. C. Additional note on the
Huerfano beds.
Colorado Sol. Soc, Proc., vol. 3, pp. 217-223-
Diatribution, relation* to marine Cretaceous
and to the Laramie, mammalian remain*, over-
lying Pliocene beds, and* absence of Eocene
fresh-water deposits east of tho Rocky Moun-
tain divide.
Additional notes on the eruptions of
the Spanish Peaks region.
Colorado Sci. Soo., Proc., vol. 3, pp, 224-227.
Extent, structural relations and correlation
of some of the masses and notice of newly dis-
covered sheets and dikes.
[HINDU, 6. J. ] [Remarks on the origin
of the basins of the Great Lakes of
America.]
Qeol. Soc., Quart. Jour., vol. 40, pp. 531-
632, |p.
Discussion oi paper with that title by J. W.
Spencer.
HITCHCOCK, C. H. Significance of
oTal granitoid areas in the lower Lau-
rentian. [Abstract.]
Qeol. Soc. Am., Boll., vol. 1, pp. 557-558.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 6, p. 121, 7
• lines.
Discussion of the causes and conditions
which have given rise to certain ooncentrio
arrangements of minerals and structure, in-
atanoine an area at Hanover, K. H. DiacussSd
by G. H. Williams, p. 558, « p.
— [Remarks on the equivalency of the
Eolian limestones of Vermont.]
Geol. Soo. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 513, i p.
In discussion of paper by E. Braincrd and
H. M. Seely on " The Calciferous formation in
the Champlain Valley."
— [Remarks on distribution of bowld-
ers, especially in New England.]
OeoL Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 30, ft p.
In discussion of paper by T. C. Cbamberlin
em "Bowlder belta distinguished from bowlder
trams."
— - The use of the terms Lauren tian and
{fowark in geological treatises.
HITCHCOCK, C. H.— Continued.
Am. Q-eologist, vol. 5, pp. 107-902.
Discussion of the status of various terms
whioh have been applied to Archean, Jura-
Trias, and late Pleistocene formations.
Field studies of hornblende schist.
[Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sol., Proc., vol. 38, p. 251,
ip.
Evidence of its original eruptive nature,
and age of eruption.
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
and Connecticut.
Macfarlane's Oeol. Railway Quids, 2d
edition, pp. 80-08.
Table of geological formations oi the New,
England States and geological notes for rail-
way stations.
Wright's " Ice age in North America
and its bearings on the antiquity of
man."
Bibliotheca Sacra, Jan'., 1890, pp. 90-121.
A description of the work and a discussion
of the events of Pleistocene history, mninly
in connection with the age and relations of
the Columbia formation.
[ ] [Notes on Harlem division New
York Central Railroad.]
Macfarlane's Oeol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 132, 135.
HOLLAND, VV. J. Ascent of the volca-
noes Nan tai -san, Asama-yama, and
Nasu-take, Japan.
Appalachia, vol. 0, pp. 109-137, plates 0-8.
Includes notes on their geologio structure
and history.
HOLMES, J. A. The conglomerate and
pebble beds of the Triassic and Potomac
formations in North Carolina. [Ab-
stract.]
Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soo., Jour., 1889, p. 148,
Brief reference to conditions of deposition
and bearing on geologio history of the region.
HOLST, N. O. A great quartzyte more
recent than the Olenus-schist.
Am. Geologist, vol. 0, pp. 357-300.
FromCreologiskaForeningens 1 Stockholm,
Fdrhandl., bd. 11, p. 33, 1889.
In Sweden.
HOVBY, E. O. Observations on some of
the trap ridges of the East- Haven-
Bran ford, Connecticut, region. [Ab-
stract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc., vol. 88, pp.
232-233, | p.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, voL 24, p. 110, 4
lines.
Structural relations, contact features, ago
and history.
48
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull. M.
', Horace C. The pits and domes
of Mammoth Cave. [Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adr. Sci., Proc., vol. 88, pp.
253-255.
Description of certain recently explored
chambers of the cave.
HUBBARD, O. P. [Notice of pot-holes
opposite Catskill, New York, and deep
boring in Newark sandstones at New
Haven, Connecticut.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 0, p. 8, i p.
Gives elevation and dimensions of pot-holes
and brief account of a 2,400-loot boring.
HUNT, Joseph H. A group of copper
pseudomorphs after chalcocite, and sil-
ica and phrenite pseudomorphs after
pectolite, from Paterson, N. J. [Ab-
stract. ]
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp.
140-144.
HUNT, Joseph H. — Continued.
With prefatory description of the contain-
ing altered eruptive*.
HUNT, T. Sterry. The iron ores of the
United States.
« Engineering and Mining Jonr., vol. 50, pp.
601-602, 622-624, 4°.
Comprises a discussion of their geologic dis-
tribution.
The geological history of the Quebec
Group.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 212-425.
Review of the "Quebec Group" question.
[ ] [Notes on geology of eastern New
York.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 137.
On the age, equivalency, and relations of
the Silurian to^Archean rooks.
I
IDAHO. Age of beds in Boise* River
region, Emmons. Cope.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide,
Dawson, G. M. Hague. Hast-
ings. Pumpelly.
Movements in Rocky Mountains, Em-
mons. Scott.
Record of well at Nampa, Kuktz.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
UDDINGS, Joseph Paxton. On a group
of volcanic rocks from the Tewan Moun-
tains, New Mexico, and on the occur-
rence of primary quartz in certain
basalts. U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No.
66, pp. 34.
Abstract, Am. Jonr. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 41,
pp. 248-249, * p. 1801.
Petrography description and discussion of
the possible origin of porphyritio quartz.
The mineral composition and geo-
logical occurrence of certain igneous
rocks in the Yellowstone National
Park.
Washington Phil. Soc., Bull., vol. 11, pp
101-220, table.
Prefatory geologic sketch of the region;
petrographio descriptions, chemical constitu-
ents and discussion of the variations in min-
eralogic composition and crystalline struc-
ture.
and PENFIELD, S. L. Fayalite in
the Obsidian of Lipari.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 75-78.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24. p. 1072, 7
lines.
Includes brief references to the containing
and associated rooks.
Illinois. Artesian waters from drift,
Rolfe.
Bowlder belts and bowlder trains,
Chamberlin.
Building stones, Merrill, G. F.
Climate indicated by interglacial
beds, Leverett.
Deep well at Dixon, Tiffany.
Glacial boundary, Wright.
Glacial phenomena, Lkverett.
History of Niagara River, Gilbert.
Report — Division of Glacial Geology,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Chamberlin.
Warren's Geography, Brewer,
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Cham*
BERLIN. WORTHEN. WRIGHT.
Indiana. Analyses of limestone, Clares.
Catlett.
Bowlder belts and bowlder trains,
# Chamberlin.
Buildiug stones, Merrill, G. P.
Climate indicated by interglacial
beds, Leverett.
History of Niagara River, Gilbert.
Glaoiul boundary, Wright.
Keokuk beds, Gordon.
Origin of pressure of gas, Orton.
McGee.
Trenton limestone, oil, and gas, Or-
ton.
Petroleum belt at Terre Haute,
Waldo.
Report — Division of Glacial Geology,
I U. S. Geol. Survey, Chamberlin.
damoh.) EECOED OF NOBTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
49
Indiana — Continued.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Cham-
BERUN. COLLETT. WRIGHT.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Indian Territory. Coal Measures,
Chance.
Explorations, Hill.
Macfarlane's Railway Gnide, Lough-
RIDGB.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
INGALL, Elfric Drew. Report on mines
and mining on Lake Superior.
Canada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 8, new
soriea, part 2, Report H, pp. It, 1-114, 125-
131, pis. i-ix, map, 1888.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 242. § p.
Includes frequent incidental geologic de-
scriptions and sections. Accompanied by col-
ored map and section of Silver Mountain dis-
trict
Breccia ted character of St. Louis
limestone, Gordon.
Bnilding stones, Merrill, G. P.
Deep well at Le Mar*, Todd.
Folding of Carboniferous in south-
western Iowa, Todd.
Lineage of Lake Agassiz, Todd.
Loess and its fossils, Shimek.
Loess about Muscatine, Witter.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Mc-
Gkb.
Makoqneta shales, James.
Microscopic structure of oolite, Bar-
hour.
Origin of extra-morainic till, Todd.
Report— Potomac Division, U. S.
Geol. Survey, McGee.
Terraces of the Missouri, Todd.
Topographic types of southeastern
Iowa, McGee.
Transitional drift, Webster.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Iowa Academy of Sciences, Proceed-
ings, 1887-1*89.
.Terraces of the Missouri, Todd.
Origin of extra-morainic till, Todd.
Loess about Muscatine, Witter.
Crowley's Ridge, Arkansas, Call.
Lineage of Lake Agassiz, Todd.
Folding of Carbon ife rone, Todd.
Crystalline rocks of Missouri, Ha-
worth.
Eastern Arkansas, Call.
Keokuk beds at Keokuk, Gordon.
Iowa State University Laboratories
of Natural History, Bulletin, vol.
1, Nos. 2-4, vol. 2, No. 1.
Loess and its fossils, Shimek.
[IRELAN, William, jr.] California ce-
ment.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 309-311.
Analyses of certain calcareous deposits
from San Diego and Los Angeles counties and
near Port Costa.
IRVING, R. D. Report— Lake Supe-
rior Division.
TJ. S. (Jeol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 132-141. 1889.
Includes a brief account of result* of studies
in Huronian region in Canada and the Mar-
quette iron region; of the rocks at the falls
of the Menominee, by G. H. Williams ; and in
the Mesabe Range and at Pigeon Point, by
Bayley.
Explanatory and historical note.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 62. The
greenstone schist areas of the Menominee and
Marquette regions of Michigan, by G. H.
Williams, pp. 11-30, pis. 1-2.
Review of previous observers, and discus-
sion of geologic structure and relations of the
region, especially in connection with the re-
sults of Williams's studies. Illustrated by
two colored geologic maps.
J.
JAMES, Joseph F. On Lauren tian as
applied to a Quaternary terrane.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 29-35.
History of the use of the term with quota-
tions from various writers to illustrate its ap-
plication.
On the Maquoketa shales, and their
correlation with the Cincinnati group
of southwestern Ohio.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 33f»-356, 394.
Comprises an account of their stratigraphy,
geologic relations, fauna, and distribution,
JAMES, Joseph F. — Continued.
and a discussion of their extent and strati*
graphic equivalency.
On the name " Laurentian."
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 133-134, $ p.
Keply to Hitchcock in regard to its deriva-
tion, spelling and status as a geologic terra.
Section of tbe Makoqueta [Maquo-
keta] shales in Iowa [abstract].
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,Proc, vol. 38, pp. 250-
251.
List of ntrata exposed in railroad cuts near
Graf station.
50
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull. 91.
JAMES, Joseph F. — Continued.
A cave in tbe Clinton formation of Ohio.
Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist, Jonr., roL 13,
pp. 31-32.
Description of the cave and brief reference
to the distribution and characteristics of the
Clinton formation in Ohio.
JANIN, Louis, jr. Mulatos gold mines,
State of Sonora, Mexico.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 40, pp.
131-132. 49.
Brief account of geology of the vicinity.
Johns Hopkins University Circulars,
Nos. 78-84.
Expedition into southern Maryland
and Virginia, Clark.
Excursion in northern Appalachian
region, Williams, G. H.
Gay Head, Massachusetts, Clark.
JOHNSON, Lawrence C. Report —
Lower Mississippi division.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell pp. 110-111, 1880.
Includes a brief allusion to a section exhib-
iting the Grand GulF-Vicksburg contact in
Wayne County, Mississippi. •
[ ] Florida.
Macfarlane's G-eol. Railway G-nide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 392-394.
General notes on the geology of the State
and geological notes for railway stations.
JOHNSON, W. D. Clays.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 287-308.
Inclndes several brief references to day
localities and analyses of eleven samples.
JTJKES-BROWNE, A. J. The date of
the high continental elevation of
America.
Geol. Magazine, decade III, voL 7, pp. 561-
562.
Discussion of the evidence in the Caribbean
region.
Jura-Trias.
Canada , Yukon district, Dawson, G. M.
Lower Liard River, McConnell.
Triassic traps of Nova Scotia, Mars-
tbrs.
New Brunswick, Bailey.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlaue's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M.
Central America, Nicaragua, Crawford.
Geologic map of Mexico, Castillo.
Newark formation (Connecticut to
North Carolina).
Jura-Trias — Con ti nued.
Building stones, Merrill, G. V.
North American Mesozoic, White,
C. A.
Use of terms Laurentian and Newark,
Hitchcock.
Archean axes of eastern North Amer-
ica, Dana.
Boring in Trias at New Haven, Hub-
bard.
Traps of East Haven-Brantford
region, Hovey, E. O.
Fillings in fissures in trap near Meri-
den, Davis.
Decay of rocks and origin of red
color, Dana.
Relations of traps of Newark system,
Darton.
Intrusive origin of Watchung traps,
New Jersey, Nason.
Studies of Triassic rocks of New Jer-
sey, Nason.
Artesian wells, New Jersey, Nason.
Pseudomorphs at Paterson, New Jer-
sey, Hunt, J. H.
Rivers of northern New Jersey,
Davis.
Ancient shore lines, Merrill, F. J. H.
Long Island Sound in Quaternary,
Dana.
Topographic development of New
Jersey, Davis and* Wood.
Tracks in York County, Pennsyl-
vania, Wanner.
Analysis of sandstone from Maryland,
Clarke, F. W.
Triassic flora of Riohmond, Virginia,
Marco u.
Notes on Richmond coal field, Clif-
ford.
Conglomerates in North Carolina,
Holmes, J. A.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Camp-
bell. Chance. Crosby. Darton.
Hitchcock. Lesley. Rogers,
Smock. Uhler.
Western United States, North American
Mesozoic, White, C. A.
Permian of Texas, Cummins.
Review of Texas geology, Dumble.
Introduction, southwestern Kansas!
McGejb.
dawoh.) BECOED OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
51
Jora-TriaA — Continued.
Kansas salt mine. Hat.
Southwestern Kansas, Hay.
Triassic flora of Richmond, Virginia,
Marcou.
Movements iu Rocky Mountains, Em-
mons. •
Extinct volcanoes in Colorado,
Lakes.
Macfarlane's Railway Quide, Bailey.
Condon. Button. Eldridge.
Jura-Trias— Continued.
Emmons. Hague. Pumpelly.
Scott. St. John. Upham.
Spanish Peaks region, Hills.
Displacements in Grand Cation, Wal-
cott.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Nomenclature, Use of terms Lauren ti an
and Newark, Hitchcock.
Triassic flora of Richmond, Virginia,
Marcou.
K.
Kansas, Artesian wells, Hay.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Chalk from Niobrara Cretaceous,
Williston.
Cheyenne sandstone, Cragin.
Loess and its fossils, Shimek.
Lignite in Dakota formation, Hay.
Permo-Carboniferons of Greenwood
and Butler counties, Woostkr.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, St.
John.
Southwestern Kansas, Hay. McGee.
Salt mine, Hay.
Silverdale limestone, analysis, Cat-
lett.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Kansas Academy of Sciences, Trans-
actions, vol. 12, part 1.
Artesian wells in Kansas, Hay.
KEMP, J. F. On the dikes near Kenue-
bnnkport, Maine.
Am. Otologist, vol- 5, PP- 129-140.
Abstract, Geol. Soo. Am., Boll., vol. 1, pp.
31-32. (By author.)
Geologic relations, petrography, and ages.
Notes on a nephelino- basalt from
Pilot Knob, Texas.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 292-294.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist vol. 24, p. 1 189, 3
lines.
Petrography. Chemical analyses.
[Notice of snpposed dikes in Devon-
ian shales near Ithaca, New York. ]
Gaol. Soo. Am., Boll., vol. 1, p. 534, & p.
XNNEDT, William. The central basin
of Tennessee. A study of erosion.
Canadian Inst., Proc., vol. 7, pp.28, 64-108.
1819.
Description of the physiography and geol-
ogy of the region and discussion of its geologio
p, William. — Continued,
history and topographic development and of
erosion in general.
KENTUCKY. Analysis of met amorphic
rock from Marion County, Eakins.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Macfarlane's Railway Quide, Proc-
tor, Whitk, I. C. Wright.
Middlesborough, Boyd.
Glacial boundary, Wright.
Oil field of Barren County, Fischer.
Orange sands and gravels, Procter.
Pits and domes of Mammoth Cave,
Hovey, H. C.
Preglacial channels at Falls of the
Ohio, Bryson.
Relations of flora to geology in Lin-
coln County, Evans.
Vivianite near Radsville, Dudley.
Wetwoods, Bryson.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
KIMBALL, James P. Siderite basins of
the Hudson River epoch.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d aeries, vol. 40, pp. 155-
100, pi. 6.
Geologic relations, structure, and genesis
of certain deposits in Columbia County, New
York.
KNOWLTON, Frank Hall. Fossil wood
and lignite of the Potomac formation.
TT. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 56, pp. 72,
pis. 7. 1889.
Includes a brief sketch (pp. 38-41 ) of the dis-
tribution of the formation from various au-
thorities, and an account of the modes of
occurrence of the organic remains.
[KURTZ, M. A.] [Record of well at
Nam pa, Idaho.]
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc, vol. 27, pp.
425-426, i p.
List of beds penetrated to a depth of 320
feet
52
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [buix.81.
L.
LADD, 6. £. Notes on the building
stones, clays, and sands of iron, St.
Francois and Madison counties, Mis-
souri.
Missouri, Geol. Surrey, Boll. No. 1, pp.
22-44.
Brief descriptions of quarries.
' The clay, stone, and sand industries
of St. Louis city and county.
Missouri, Gsol. Surrey, Bull. No. 3, pp. 5-
84, pis., maps.
Sketch of general geology, description of
quarries, and analyses.
[LAFLAMME, J. C. K.] [Report on
observations on north side of the St.
Lawrence above Qnebec]
Canada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 27-28. 1888.
Brief reference to occurrence of limestone
bands, surface deposits of clay and dip of
Trenton limestones.
LAKES, Arthur. Extinct volcanoes in
Colorado.
Am. Geologist, voL 5, pp. 36-43, pis. 2.
Description of crater and recent volcanic
products near Dotsero station, preceded by
brief accounts of the relations of various older
lava flows in Colorado and recent ones in New
Mexico.
LANGDON, Daniel W., jr. Geology of
Mon Louis Island, Mobile Bay.
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 237-238.
Notice of a fossiiifcrous stratum and of an
overlying sand series of supposed Appomat-
tox age.
LAWS ON, Andrew C. Report on the
geology of the Hainy Lake region.
Canada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, voL 3, new
series, part 1, report F, pp. 182, map, pis. 1-7.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 55-56.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 170-171, i p. ; Geol.
Magazine, decade 3, vol.7, pp. 36-39.
Description of structure, distribution and
petrography of tbe various crystalline rook
series and discussion of their structural rela-
tions, stratigraphy, age, history, and equiva-
lency. Brief chapter on glacial phenomena,
post-glacial deposits, and economic geology.
Notes on the pre- Paleozoic surface
of the Arcbean terranes of Canada.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 133-173.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 119, & p.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 208, i p.
Account of the irregularities of contour of
pre-Paleozoic floor in various regions and brief
discussion of the persistence of these irregu-
larities after the erosion of the Paleozoic*;
former extension of the Paleozoic* ; overlaps
due to trausgessioiiH and oscillation* in level;
erosion of the Arohesn, and sonrco of Paleo-
solo sediments. Discussed by J. W. Spencer.
LAWSON, Andrew C— Continued.
Note on the mapping of the Arcbean
northeast of Lake Superior. [Ab-
stract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sol., Proc., voL 88, pp.
245-246, J p.
Brief notice of components and relations of
upper and lower Archean.
Note on the occurrence of native
copper in the Animikie rocks of Thun-
der Bay.
Am. Geologist, voL 5, pp. 174-178.
Geologic relations and petrographio char-
acteristics of containing rooks.
[Petrographic descriptions of Hur-
onian and Laurentian rocks from north
of Lake Huron.]
Am. Geologist, vol. 6. pp. 30-32.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 1072, 6
lines.
and SHTJTT, F. T. Petrograpical
differentiation of certain dikes of the
Rainy Lake region.
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc., vol. 38, pp.
246-247, | p.
Discussion of structural, mineralogioal, and
chemical variations in different parts of the
same dike.
LEDOTJX, Albert B. The phosphate beds
of Florida.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp.
84-94.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 49, pp.
175-177. 4°.
Sci. Am. Supt., vol. 30, pp. 12104-12105, No.
758. 4°.
Includes incidental accounts of geologic re-
lations and a brief sketch of geology of Flor-
ida, quoted from XL A. Smith's papers.
LEIDY, Joseph. Notice and description
of fossils in caves and crevices of the
limestone rocks of Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania, Geol. Survey, Report for
1887, pp. 1-20, pis. 1, 2.
Includes a brief description of cave in Lower
Helderberg limestone near Stroudsburg.
LERCH, Otto, CUMMINS, W. F., and.
A geological survey of the Concho
country, State of Texas.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 321-835, map.
Physiography, Pleistocene, Cretaceous, and
Permian formations. Economic geology.
LESLEY, J. P. Pennsylvania.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 151-175.
Geologic notes for railway stations.
LEVERETT, Frauk. Chauges of cli-
mate indicated by iuterglncial beds
and attendant oxidation and leaching.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc., vol.24, pp.
456-459.
DArroit.i RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
53
LEVERETT, Frank—Con tiuued.
Abstracts. Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 123, 7
lines. Am. Naturalist, vol.25, p.270, 1-6 p. 1881.
Discussion of the bearing of various lines of
evidence, especially that furnished by rocent
studies in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois.
Glacial studies bearing on the an-
tiquity of man. [Abstract.]
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc., vol. 27, pp.
Discussion of bearing of evidence afforded
by moraines and post-morainal deposits.
- Glacial phenomena of northeastern
Illinois and northern Indiana. [Ab-
stract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc., vol. 38, p. 248,
IP-
Morainal structure and history.
[LEWIS, H. C] [Note for vicinity of
Blackville, Pennsylvania.]
Macfarlane'a Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 172, 5 lines.
LINDGREN, W. Petrographical notes
from Baja California, Mexico.
California Acad. Sci., Proc., vol. 2, pp.
1-17.
Descriptions of granites, dioritea, qnartz-
porphyrites, basalt, slates, and diabases, with
incidental references to their occurrence, rela-
tions, and age.
[LINDSBY, J ames G. ] [Notes for cen-
tral New York.]
Macfarlane'a Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 134-136.
Stations on West Shore railway, Esopus to
Albany.
Liverpool Geological Association
Journal, vol. 9.
Evolution of Grand Canon of the Col-
orado, Hrwitt.
Liverpool Literary and Philosophical
Society, Proceedings, voL 41.
Lake Lahontan, McLintock.
[LOTJGHRIDGE, R. II.] Arkansas [in
part], Indian Territory and Texas.
Macfarlane's Oeol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 407-413.
Geological notes for railway stations.
Louisiana, Analysis of marble, Hillk-
brand.
Appomattox formation, McGbk.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hil-
gard.
Saliferous deposits as evidence of
cliraatal conditions, Shaler.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
LOW, A. P. Report on explorations in
James Bay and country east of Hudson
Bay drained by Big, Great Whale, and
Clearwater Rivers.
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 2, report J, pp. 1-32, 1888.
Abstract, Ibid., part 1, report A, pp. 10-21
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 242-243, } p.
Itinerary accounts of geology and list of
glacial stria:.
[Report on explorations of the east-
ern coasts, islands, and rivers of Hud-
son Bay.]
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3. new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 80-82. 1888.
Includes a brief reference to the nature of
the rocks of the region and to the occurrence
of bowlders.
The Mistassini region.
Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 4. pp. 11-28.
With several brief references to geologic
features.
LYMAN, Benjamin Smith. Report on
the New Boston and More a coal Jands
in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania, Geol. Survey, Report for
1887, pp. 37-01, map in pocket.
Stratigraphy and structure.
M.
MoCONNELL, R. G. Glacial features
of parts of the Yukon and Mackenzie
rivers.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 540-544.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, d. 110,
| p. Am. Naturalist, vol. 21, p. 208, ft o.
Topographic features, alluvial and glacial
deposits, direction of ice flow, terraces, gla-
cial history, and incidental reference to Arch-
ean, Devonian, and Cretaceous formations.
[Letter on explorations on the
lower part of Liard Rfver.]
Canada, Gaol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3,
new series, part 1, report A, pp. 12-13. 1888.
MoCONNELL, R. G.— Continued.
Includes a brief reference to occurrence of
Devonian, Triassic and Cretaceous rocks.
McCREERY, J. M. Notes on some of
the causes of extinction of species.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5. pp. 100-104.
lteviews the stratigraphio distribution of
several Silurian species in Ohio.
[McCTJTCHEN, A. R.] Georgia.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pD. 374-377.
Revision and new notes for railway sta-
tions.
M
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [buu.W.
MACFARLANE, .luiiirs. An American
geological railway guide, giving the
geological formation at every railway
station, with altitmleH above mean
tide water, notes on interesting places
on the routes and a description of each
formation. Second edition, revised
and enlarged. Edited by James R.
Macfarlane, 4"J6 pages, New York.
The revisions aud enlargements contributed
by Bailey, G. K., Broadhead; Campbell, J.L.
ami H. D., Chamberlin, Chance, Cheater, Col-
lett, Coudon, Cooper, Crosby, Dans, J. D.,
Darton, Davis, Dawson. O. M., Dntton,
Dwight, Emmons, Foutalne, Ford, Frarer,
Gilbert, Hague, Hall. C. W.t Hammond,
Hastings, Hilgard, Hitchcock, Hunt, T. S..
Johnson, L. C, Lesley, Lewis, H. C , Lind-
sey, Loughridgo, McCntchen. McGee, Orton,
Owen, Parsons, Proctor, Pumpclly, Putnam,
Rogers, St. John. Safford. Scott, Smith and
Gesner, Smock, Todd. Turner, Uhler, Upham,
White, I. C Williams, (J. H.. Williams, H. S.,
Willis. Winchell. A., Winchell, X. H.,
Wortlicn, and Wright.
McGEE. W J. The southern extension
of the Appomattox formation.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 15-41.
Abstract. Geol. Soc. Am.. Bull., vol. l.pp.
546-647, 548-649 (by author), with tlificussiou by
C. H. Hitchcock. C. I>. Walcott, W. M. Davis,
and J. Hall, pp. 54ft, 540 ft p. Other abstracts.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 120, i p ; Am. Natur-
alist, vol. 24, p. 200. * p.
Distribution, characteristics, relations, and
history from North Carolina to Mississippi,
with briefrefereiic.es to associated Columbia
and Tertiary formations. Taxonomy. Expo-
sition of methods of classification and correla-
tion by "homogeny.'* illustrated by the forma-
tions of the coastal ulain of the Atlantic slope.
Report — Potomac di vision of geology .
rr. S. Geol. Survey. Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pd. 102-110.
Includes brief statements regarding the
Pleistocene bistorv of northeastern Iowa.
Introduction.
P. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No, 57. A geolog-
ical reconnaissance in southwestern Kansas,
by Robert Hay. pp. 11-14.
Review of the problems presented in the
Great Plains region.
Topographic types of northeastern
Iowa. [ Abstract. 1
Am. Assoc. Adv. Soi. , Proc., vol. 38, pp. 248-
240.
The abstract consists of brief descriptions
of the various types and of the history re-
corded in the tonography and associated
deposit n. Incidentally there is postulated a
new law of water carving.
Mr: GEE, W J. Continued.
KiHToarliineiitM of the sea.
The Forum, vol. 10, pp. 437-440.
Review or evidences of coastal subsidence
of eastern North America.
[Remarks on pressure of rock gas,
especially in Indiana.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 06-07, } p.
In discussion of memoir by Edward Orton
on "origin of rock pressure of natural gas."
— [Remarks on the extent of an early
Pleistocene submergence of the Atlautio
coast.]
Geol. Sci. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 400, | p.
Reference to amount of submergence la
South Carolina, and to the Columbian deposits
to which it gave rise in the southeastern
United States.
— [Remarks on the formations com-
prised under the term " orange sand/'
aud on the relations of certain loams
and gravels in the vicinity of Vicks-
burg aud Grand Gulf.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol 1, pp. 474-475.
In discussion of paper by T.C. Chamberlin
on " Some additional evidence bearing on the
interval between the glacial epochs."
— [Remarks on the relations of the
Pleistocene deposits at Belvidereon the
Delaware.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 480, § p.
Brief reference to relations of Columbia ter-
races and the terminal moraine.
[Remarks ou certain peculiarities of
drainage in the southeastern United
States.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 548-549.
Calls attention to drainage systems having
the same location in successive geologic times
from late Eocene to the present and suggest*
a designation for this class of drainage
Geology foi 1887 and 1838.
Smithsonian Instn., Report, 188& (part 1),
pp. 2L7-2G0.
An account of the principal contributions to
North American geology, with a prefatory
account of the institutions promoting geology.
Iowa.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 233-245.
Brief sketch of the geology of Iowa and
geological notes for railway stations.
McINNES, William, BAILEY. L. W.,
and. Report on exploration and surveys
in portions of northern New Brunswick
and adjacents areas in Quebec and
Maine, U. 8.
DABTOM.
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
55
McINNES, William, BAILEY, L. W.,
and— Continued.
Canada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, voL 3, new
series, part 2, report M, p. 52. 1888.
Abstracts, Ibid, part 1, report A, pp. 35-87;
Am. Geologist, voL 5, pp. 246-247, | p. ; Am.
Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 30, p. 239, 4 lines.
The Silurian formation; its distribution,
structure, stratigraphy, paleontology, the age,
correlation, and extent of its various members,
and evidence of internal unconformity.
— [Account of explorations in
northern New Brunswick.]
Canada, Geol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, report A, pp. 91-03, 1888.
Notes relating to the 8ilurian formation.
McKEIaLAR, Peter. On potholes north
of Lake Superior unconnected with
existing streams.
Geol. 800. Am., Bull., voL 1, pp. 588-570.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 292-
203,1 p.
Description of the holes, and allusions to
the schists in which they lie, topographic
characteristics of region, date of current* by
which they were produced, and existence of
terraces in their vicinity.
MelilNTOCK, R. Lake Lahontan, an
extinct Quaternary lake of northwest
Nevada, U. S. A.
Liverpool Lit. and Fail. Soo., Froc., vol, 41,
pp. 339-342.
Abstract of I. C. Russell's U.S. Geol. Survey,
Monograph, vol. 1L
Maine. Arehean axes of eastern North
America, Dana.
Classification of glacial sediments of
Maine, Stonr.
Building stories, Merrill, G. P.
Eastern Maine and New Brunswick,
Bailey.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hitch-
cock.
Northern New Brunswick, Bailey
and McInnes.
Investigations in New Brunswick,
Bailey.
Mount Desert Island, Shaler.
Report on coast line geology, U. S.
Geol. Surrey, Shaler.
Silurian graptolites, Dodge.
Trap dikes near Kennebunkport,
Kemp.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Manchester Geological Society,
Transactions, vol. 20, parts 9-17.
Richmond coal field, Clifford.
Salt deposits of America, Ward, T.
MARCOU, Jules. Reply to the questions
of Mr. Selwyn on "Cauadian geolog-
ical classification for Quebec."
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Froc., vol. 24, pp.
357-864.
In regard to the nature of the rocks at the
falls of the Montmorenoi, the age of the sand-
stones of the strait of Belle Isle, and the rela-
tions in the Quebec region.
The Triassic flora of Richmond, Vir-
ginia.
Am. Geologist, voL 5, pp. 100-174.
Historical descriptions and review of litera-
ture from 1834 to 1889, and discussion of pale-
ontologio evidence as to age of the Jura
Trias of the United States.
The American Neocomian and the
Gryphffia Pitcheri.
Am. Geologist, voL 5, pp. 315-317.
Review ot B. T. Hill's "A preliminary anno-
tated check list of the Cretaceous inverte-
brate fossils of Texas," Texas Geol. Survey,
Bull. No. 4.
In regard to discovery and nomenclature of
the lower Cretaceous.
The lower and middle Taconio of
Europe and North America.
Am. Geologist, voL 5, pp. 357-375 ; vol. 6, pp.
78-102, 221-233.
A general review of certain questions relat-
ing to stratigraphy, distribution, general rela-
tions, taxonomy, and nomenclature of the
lower Silurian and Cambrian formations.
Use of the terms Laurentian and
Champlain in geology.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 03-65.
History of the terms and discussion of their
status.
MARSH, O. C. The skull of the gigantic
Ceratopsidffi.
Geol. Magazine, decade III, voL 7, pp. 1-5,
pi. L
Includes brief prefatory remarks on the
geology of the " Ceratops " beds.
Division of vertebrate paleontology.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 114-115. 1889.
Includes brief reference to subdivisions in
the great Miocene basin of Dakota and evi-
dence of vertebrate remains on the age of the
Potomac formation.
MARSTERS, V. F. Triassic traps of
Nova Scotia, with notes on other " in-
trusives" of Pictou and Antigonish
counties, Nova Sootia.
Am. Geologist, voL 6, pp. 140-146.
Grologio relations, petrography, and evi-
dences of extrusive nature of the more promi-
nent trap masses in the Triassic and Carbon*
iferous
56
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. lBUU.iL
Maryland. .Analyses of rocks from
Baltimore County, Chatard. Writ-
field, J. E.
Analysis of Triassic gandstoue,
Clarke, F. W.
Analyses of doloniite from Cockeys-
ville, Whitfield, J. E.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Expedition in southern Maryland and
Virgiuia, Clark, W. B.
Fossil wood of Potomac formation,
Knowlton.
Gabbros of Delaware, Chester.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Fon-
taine. Uhler. Williams, G. H.
Chester.
Non-feldspathio intrusives, Wil-
liams, G. H.
Potomac flora, Fontaine.
Report— Division of Paleobotany, U.
8. Geol. Survey, Ward, L. F.
Report — Division of vertebrate Pale-
ontology, U. 8. Geol. Survey,
Marsh.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Wright's •' Ice age in North America,"
Hitchcock.
*
Massachusetts. Analyses of sands and
clay, Martha's Vineyard, Clarke, F.
W. Riggs.
Archean axes of eastern North Amer-
ica, Dana.
Bernardston, series of upper Devon-
ian, Emerson. Dana.
Building stone, Merrill, G. P.
Cretaceous plants, Martha's Vine-
yard, White, D. Newberry.
Cretaceous fossils, Martha's Vine-
yard, Shaler.
Evidence of till on glacial climate,
Crosby.
Essex County, Sears.
Excursion in northern Appalachians,
Williams, G. H.
Gay Head, Clark, W. B. Merrill,
F.J. H. Ward, L. F.
Granitoid areas in lower Lauren ti an,
Hitchcock.
Granites in Massachusetts, Emerson.
Kaolin in Blanford, Crosby.
History of Boston Basin, Crosby.
Macfarlane's Railway Gnide,CROSBY.
Upham.
Ottrelite and ilmenite schists, Wolff.
Massachusetts— Continued.
Metamorphic phenomena, Emerson.
Report — Division of Archean geol-
ogy* U. 8. Geol. Survey, Pump-
ELLY.
Report — Atlantic coast division, U.
8. Geol. Survey [shore lines,
Cretaceous, metamorphic rocks],
Shaler.
Report — Division of coast line geol-
ogy* U. 8. Geol. Survey, Shaler.
Report — Division Paleozoic inverte-
brates, U. S. Geol. Survey, Wal-
cott.
Sanborn bowlder, Scoville.
Taconic mountains, Am. Geologist.
Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits,
Shaler.
Vein filling in till, Emerson.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
MARTIN, Daniel S. The origin of diag-
onal trends in the earth's crust, with
application to the production of normal
and reversed faults and the folding of
strata. [Abstract.]
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp.
15-21.
A general discussion.
A note on the colored clays recently
exposed in railroad cuttings near Mor-
risania, New York.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, p. 46,
*P-
Decription of an exposure exhibiting highly
colored days.
[Clay outlier near Monmouth Junc-
tion, New Jersey."]
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., voL 9, p. 83,
*P-
Reference to a small area of supposed Cre-
taceous age. Disoussed by N. L. Britton, p.
83, 2 lines.
MATTHEW, G. F. On Cambrian or-
ganisms in Acadia.
Canada, Roy. Soc., Trans., vol.7, section
rv, pp. 131-162, pis. v-ix.
Abstract, Canadian Record of Science, vol.
3, pp. 383-387. 1889.
With prefatory remarks on the stratigraphy
and equivalency of the basal series, (pp. 13S-
143).
Eozoon and other low organisms in
Lanrentian rooks at St. John.
New Brunswick, Nat. Hist. Soc., Boll.,
vol. 9, pp. 36-41.
Includes references to their modes of occur*
renoe and the relations of the containing rooks.
hawoh.) RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
57
MATTHEW, G. F.— Continued.
Ou the occurrence of sponges in
Lanrentian rooks at St. John, N. B.
New Brunswick, Nat. Hist. Soc, Boll.,
voL 0, pp. 42-45.
Includes brief supplemental portion on the
stratigraphy and equivalency of the rooks and
their associates.
How is the Cambrian divided f A
plea for the classification of Halter and
Hicks.
Canadian Record of Science, vol. 3, pp. 475-
485. 1889.
From the Am. Geologist, 1889, and described
in the Bibliography for 1887 to 1889.
MERRILL, Frederick J. H. On the
metamorphio strata of southeastern
New York.
Am. Jour. Sci., 8d series, voL 39, pp. 383-
Classification and characteristics of the
several belts and discussion of relations, ex-
tent, age, and equivalency.
— A note on the colored clays recently
exposed in railroad cuttings near Mor-
risania, New York.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., voL 9, pp. 45,
4Afp.
Description of their relations and allusions
to the history of the associated superficial
deposits.
— Some ancient shore-lines and their
history.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp.
78-83.
Review of the evidence and history of Trias*
sic to post-Quaternary orographic movements
in the middle Atlantic coast region. Dis-
cusse4 by D. & Martin and N. L. Britton, p.
8Mp.
Barrier beaches of the Atlantic
coast.
Popular Science Monthly, vol. 87, pp. 736-
745.
Includes a discussion of the origin and
history of the New Jersey beaches and brief
reference to some of those of Florida.
— [Remarks regarding the interglacial
deposits of the Delaware.]
Oeol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. I, p. 477, i p.
Brief allusions to their relations, distribu-
tion, and equivalence, especially at Belvidere.
— [Remarks on the stratigraphy and
structure of Gay Head.]
Oeol. Soo. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 556, f p.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 563, 564.
Briefly discusses age. history, and relations
of the several formations.
MERRILL, George P. The collection of
building and ornamental stones in the
U. S. National Museum. A handbook
aud catalogue.
Smithsonian Inst., Report for 1886, part 2,
pp. 277-648, pis. 1-9. 1889.
Includes brief descriptions of principal
quarries and stones of the United States and
reference to notable foreign localites, ai>d a
short chapter on physical and chemical prop-
erties of rooks, illustrated by a plate of tbin
sections of the following: Granite, Hallowell.
Maine; oolitic limestones, Caldwell County,
Kentucky; marble, Rutland, Vermont ; dia-
base, Weebawken, New Jersey ; sandstones,
Portland, Connecticut, and Potsdam, New
York.
Petrography for 1887 and 1888.
Smithsonian Inst, Report, 1888, (parti),
pp. 327-354.
Bibliography of lithological publications and
account of contribution:) on physical and
chemical conditions of crystallization, contact
metamorphism, dynamio metamorphism, and
some other general subjects.
[Preliminary notes on eruptive rocks
collected about Fort Ellis and in Gal-
latin Valley, Montana.]
XT. S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 147, 148. 1889.
Given by A. C. Peale, Report, Montana
Division of geology.
Notes on the serpentinous rocks of
Essex County, New York, from aqueduct
shaft 26, New York City, and from near
Eastern, Pennsylvania.
rj. S. Nat. Museum, Proc., vol. 12, pp. 595-
600.
Mineralogio.
Mexico. Corals and reefs of western
Gulf of Mexico, Heilprin.
Division of Mesozoic invertebrate
paleontology, U. 8. Geol. Survey,
White, C. A.
Geological map, Castillo.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Chance.
Macfarlank. Frazer.
Mulatos gold mines, Souora, Janin.
Petrographical notes from Baja Cal-
ifornia, LlNDGRKN.
MEYER, Abraham. Notes ou the pres-
ence of Umbral or Mountain limesioue
in Lycoming County, Pennsylvania.
Philadelphia, Acad. Nat. Sciences, Proc.,
1889, pp. 810, 311.
Description of outcrops on Hogelan Run and
Loyalsock Creek.
58
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull.0l
MEZGBR, A. The ore deposits and
m in 68 of Minas Geraes, Brazil.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 50, pp.
238,272,273. 4°.
With incidental reference* to nature of the
containing formations.
Michigan. Analysis of novaculite from
Marquette, Hillrbrand.
Analysis of porphyry from Pigeon
Point, Eakins.
Analyses of rocks collected by Irving,
HlLLKBRAND.
Analyses of rooks from Penokee-
Gogebic range, Chatard.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Copper mining district^ Eng. and
Mining Journal.
Distribution of bowlders, Winchkll,
A.
History of Niagara River, Gilbrrt.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Winch-
kll, A.
Report — Lake Superior division, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Irving.
Greenstone schists, Marquette and
Menomiuee regiqn, Williams, G.
H. Irving.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Origin of basins of the Great Lakes,
Spencer.
MILLER, S. A. North American geology
and paleontology for the use of ama-
teurs, students, and scientists, pp. 664,
Cincinnati.
Reviewed by J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d
series, vol. 39, p. 07, f p.
Includes a prefatory general account of
North American geology.
MILLS, J. E. [Remarks on the history
of Lake Winnepeg-Mississippi draiu-
age.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Boll., vol. 1, p. 407, J p.
In discussion of paper by J. B. Tyrrell on
"Post-Tertiary deposits of Manitoba."
Minnesota. Analysis of brick clay, New
Ulna, Chatard.
Analyses of rocks from Menominee
River, Riggs.
Analyses of rocks from Pigeon Point,
Riggs. Hillebrand. Whitfield,
J. E.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Deserted gorge near Minnehaha Falls,
Grant.
Geological Survey, report for 1833 re-
viewed, Dana.
Minnesota— Continued.
Lineage of Lake Agassi/, Todd.
Loess and its fossils, Shimkk.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hall,
C. W. Upham. Winch ell, N. H.
Origin of rocks, Pigeon Point, Bay-
ley.
Origin of Keewatln ores, Winchkll,
N. H. and H. V.
Position of Ogishke conglomerate,
Winch ell, A.
Relation of rocks on Pigeon Point,
Bayley.
Report on Rainy Lake region, Law-
son.
Results of Archean studies, Winch-
ell, A.
Taconic iron ores of Minnesota and
New England, Winciiell, N. H.
and H. V.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
MINOR, Francis. Evidences of glacial
action in Virginia.
Popular Science Monthly, vol. 37, p. 651, }
col.
Calls attention to occurrence of certain
bowlders in Orange County, Virginia.
Mississippi. Appomattox formation, Mc-
Gee.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hil-
GARD.
Report— Lower Mississippi division,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Johnson, L. C.
Orange sand formations, McGee.
Sandstone dikes, Diller.
Peculiarities in drainage, McGee.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Missouri Bibliography of geology,
Sampson.
Brecciated character of St. Louis
limestone, Gordon.
Building stones, clays, and sands,
Ladd. Merrill, G. P.
Coal beds of La Fayette County,
WIN8LOW. *
Crinoids from Burlington limestone,
Rowley.
Crystalline rooks of Missouri, Ha-
worth.
Glacial boundary, Wright.
Iron ores of the United States, Hunt,
T. S.
Lineage of Lake Agassiz, Todd.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Broad-
head.
DAEtoK] RECORD OF NORTfl AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
59
Missouri—Continued.
Tallow clays, Skamon.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Zinciferous clays, 8eamon.
Missouri Geological Surrey, Bulletin
No. 1.
Coal of Lafayette Comity , Winslow.
Bnilding stones, Ladd.
No. 2.
Bibliography of zoology of Missouri,
Sampson.
No. 3.
Clay, stone, lime, and sand of St.
Louis region, Ladd.
Montana. Analyses of rocks, Chatard
and Eakins. Chatard. Cat-
lbtt. Eakins.
Montana— Con ti n ued .
Crazy Mountain**, Wolff.
Macfarlane's Railway Gaide. Daw-
box, g. m. pumpklly. putnam.
Upham.
Notes on rocks from Fort Ellis and
Gallatin Valley, Mrrrill, G. P.
* Remains in Laramie, Cannon.
Laramie group, Ward, L.
Report — Montana division, U. S. Geol.
Survey, Pkalk.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
MURCHISON, R. L. Ou the Silurian
system of rocks.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 80-83.
From London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag., 3d
series, July, 1835.
N.
NASON, Frank L. On the intrusive
origin of the Watchung traps of New
Jersey. [ Abstract. ]
Geol. Boo. Am., Boll., vol. 1, pp. 662, 563, | p.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol 24, p. 212, | p.
Discusses bearing of occurrence of trap con-
glomerates along western border of the New-
ark formation.
Scapolite rock.
Am. Jour. Set., 3d series, vol. 80, p. 407, 6
lines.
Notioe of an occurrence in northern New
Jersey.
Geological studies of the Archean
[
rocks.
New Jersey, Geol. Survey, report for 1889,
pp. 12-65, 1880.
Historical review of surveys in tbe Archean
highlands. Faulted structure. Type rocks
and their distribution. Building stones.
Molybdinite, xircon, and graphite.
] Geological studies of the Triassio
or red sandstone rooks.
New Jersey Geol. Survey, Report, 1889, pp.
66-72. 1880.
Discussion of origin of trap pebbles in the
conglomerates and general statements in re-
gard to the structure of tbe formation and
the history of its eruptive rocks.
f] Artesian wells.
New Jersey Geol. Survey, Report for 1889,
pp. 82-80.
Records of recent well-borings in various
parts of the State.
— and FERRIER, Walter F. A no-
tice of some zircon rocks in the Arch-
ean highlands of New Jersey. [Ab-
stract]
NASON, Frank L., and FERRIER,
Walter L. — Continued.
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc., voL 38, pp.
244-245.
Includes remarks on mineralogic constitu-
ents of the rock and evidence of its intrnsive
nature.
National Geographic Magazine, voL 2.
Rivers of northern New Jersey, Da-
vis, W. M.
Nebraska, Lineage of Lake Agassiz,
Todd.
- Loess and its fossils, Siiimek.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Todd.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
NEFF, Peter. The Sylvania sand in
Cuyahoga Connty, Ohio.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 32-34.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 110, 4
lines.
Reviews evidence of well records as to
its distribution, characteristics and strati
graphio relations.
Nevada, Analysis of adobe soil,
Eakins.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hague.
Natural soda, Chatard.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
NEWBERRY, John Strong. The Pal-
eozoic fishes of North America, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Monograph, vol. 16, 340
pages, 53 pis.
Includes a brief reference to Devonian and
Carboniferous stratigraphy in general, mainly
in connection with the occurrence of fish re-
60
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull*.
NEWBERRY, Jobn Strong—Cont'd.
Tim Laramie group. Its geologic
relation, its economic importance, and
its fauna and flora.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp.
27-32.
Abstract (by author). Geol. Soc. Am.,
Bull., vol. 1, pp. 524-527, 527-628, with dla-
ciiMion by J. B. Tyrrell, L. F. Ward, J. J.
Stevenson, and E. D. Cope, pp. 527-532.
Other abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p.
1 18, i p. Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 856-857,
Discussion of its Btratigraphic position and
the relation* and equivalency of its compo-
nent formations in different regions.
The rock-salt deposits of the Sal in a
group in western New York. [Ab-
stract. ]
New York Aoad. Sci., Trans., vol. 9, pp.
39-45.
Includes an account of their geology, and
records of several bored wells.
[Remarks on the northern exten-
sion and equivalency of the Amboy
clays. ]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 455, | p.
In discussion of paper by D. White on
"Cretaceous plants from Martha's Vine*
yard."
New Brunswick Natural History So-
ciety, Bulletin, vol. 9.
Organisms in Laurent i an at St.
John, Matthew.
Sponges in Lauren tian rocks at St.
John, Mattiikw.
New Hampshire, Archean axes of east-
ern North America, Dana.
Granitoid areas in lower Laurentian,
Hitchcock.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hitch-
cock.
Report — Division of coast-line geol-
ogy. U. S. Geol. Survey, Shaler.
Madison bowlder, Crosby.
Studies of hornblende schist, Hitch-
cock.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
New Jersey, Analyses of serpentine,
Catlett.
Ancient shore lines, Merrill.
Amboy clays, Newberry.
Artesian wells, Nason.
Arte»Uii wells, Atlantic City, Wool-
man.
Barrier beaches, Merrill, F. J. H.
New Jersey — Continued.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Clay at Monmouth Juuction, Brit-
ton, Martin.
Cretaceous plants, Martha's Vine-
yard, White, D.
Encroachments of the sea, McGee.
Excursion in northern Appalachians,
Williams, G. H.
Fiords and great lake basins of
North America, Upham.
Glacial boundary, Wright.
Glacial studies bearing on the an-
tiquity of man, Lrverett.
Glacial deposits at Belvidere, Mc-
Gee. Merrill, F. J. H.
Intrusive origin of Watch ung traps,
Nason. m
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Dar-
ton. Smock.
Metamorphie strata of southeastern
New York, Merrill, F. J. H.
Potomac flora, Fontaine.
Psendomorphs at Paterson, Hunt,
J. H.
Rivers of northern New Jersey, Da-
vis.
Report — Division of Cenozoio inver-
tebrates, U. S. Geol. Survey, Dall. !
Sea polite rock, Nason.
Studies of Archean rooks, Nason.
Studies of Triassio rocks, Nason.
Traps of Newark system, Darton.
Topographic development of north-
ern New Jersey, Davis aud Wood.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Wright's " Ice age in North Amer-
ica.
n
Zircon rocks in Archean highlands,
Nason and Ferrier.
New Jersey Geological Surrey, An-
nual Report for 1889.
Studies of Archean rocks, Nason.
Triassic rocks, Nason.
Artesian wells, Nason.
New Mexico, Aualysis of adobe soil,
Eakins.
Analysis of [eruptive] rooks, Ea-
kins.
Colorado group, Stevenson.
Cretaceous and northern Mexico,
White, C. A.
Draiuage systems, Tarr.
Extinct volcanoes of Colorado,
Lakes.
DAnroa.) RECORD OF NOETH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
61
New Mexico — Cod tinned.
Laramie group, Copk. Newberry.
Ward, L.
Lower Cretaceous of San Carlos
monn tains, White, C. A.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Dutton.
Movements in Rocky Mountains,
Emmons.
Plications of Coal Measures, Van
D1E8T.
Volcanic rooks from Tewan moun-
tains, Iddings.
Warren's Geography, Brewer,
New York, Analysis of dolomite from
Westchester County, Hillbbrand.
Analyses of inclusions in diorite at
Crngers, Chatard.
Analyses of serpentines, Catlett.
Amboy clays, Newberry.
Ancient shore lines, Merrill, F. J. H.
Building stones, Merrill, G. P.
Calciferous in Champlain Valley,
Brainerd and Seely.
Clays near Morrisiana, Martin,
Merrill, F. J. H.
Cuboides zone, Williams, H. 8.
Deformation of Iroquois beach,
Spencer.
Excursion in northern Appalachians,
Williams, G. H.
Extensions of the Iroquois beach,
Spencer.
Fiords and great lake basins of
North America, Upham.
Fossils in eastern part of Dutchess
County, Dwight.
Fossils at Pleasant Valley, Dwight.
Fossils in Taconio belt at Hillsdale,
Dana.
Glacial boundary, Wright.
Glacial geology, Irondequoit region,
Dryer.
History of Niagara River, Gilbert.
Iron mines, Smock.
Iron ores, Hunt, J. S.
Iroquois beach, Davis, Spencer.
Lake ridges of Ohio, Wright.
Long Island Sound in Quaternary
and submerged Hudson River
channel, Dana.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Dana.
Darton. Dwight. Ford, Hitch-
cock, J. M. Hunt, T. S. Lind-
sey. Smock. Williams, II. S.
Mastodon at Attica, Clarke, J. M.
New York — Continued.
Middle Taconio at Stissing, Dwight.
Origin of Syracuse serpentine, Wil-
liams, G. H.
Pot-holes opposite Catskill, Hub-
bard.
Report on oil and gas, Carll.
Report — Paleozoic division of paleon-
tology* U. S. Geol. Survey, Wal-
cott.
Report — Division of Paleozoic inver-
tebrates, U. S. Geol. Survey, Wal-
cott.
Report — Atlantic coast division, U.
S. Geol. Survey [shore lines on
Catskill mountains], Shaler.
Richfield Springs clay, analysis, Cat-
lett.
Rock salt deposits, Newberry.
Saliferous deposits as evidence of
cliinatal conditions, Shaler.
Sandstone in drift on State n Island,
Gratacap.
Serpentinous rocks, Merrill, G. P.
Siderite basins, Kimball.
Silurian fossils, Columbia County,
Bishop.
Structure of Devonian and Silurian
in west central New York, Pros-
ser, C. S.
Supposed dikes at Ithaca, Kemp.
Traps of Newark system, Darton.
Unconformity in Hudson valley,
Davis.
Value of term " Hudson River group,"
Walcott.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Wright's " Ice age in North America,"
Hitchcock.
New York Academy of Sciences,
Transactions, vol 9.
Salt deposits western New York,
Newberry.
Clays at Morrisania, New York, Mer-
rill, F. J. H., Martin.
Ancient shore lines, Merrill, F.J.H.
Clay at Monmouth Junction, New
Jersey, Martin.
Phosphate beds of Florida, Ledoux.
Jottings on the Nile and in the desert,
Bolton.
PBeudoinorphs at Paterson, New Jer-
sey, Hunt, J. H.
, vol. 10, Nos. 1-3.
Geology of the Bahamas, Northrup.
62
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull. 81.
New York, Commissioners of the State
Reservation at Niagara, 6th report.
History of the Niagara River, Gil-
bert.
New York State Museum, Bulletin,
No. 7. Iron ores of New York, Smock.
New York State Museum, 41st annual
report.
Mastodon at Attica, Clarke, J. M.
, 42d annual report.
Hercynian question, Clarke, J. M.
Record of locality numbers, Hall.
New Zealand. Analysis of geyserite.
Whitfield, J. E.
North Carolina. Appomattox formation,
McGkk.
Cape Fear River region, Clark.
Iron ores, Hunt, T. S.
Mesozoio conglomerates, Holmes, J.
A.
Triassio flora of Richmond, Virginia,
| Marcou.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Chance.
NORTHRTJF, John I. Notes on the geol-
ogy of the Bahamas.
New York Acad. Sci., Trans., vol. 10, pp.
4-22.
0.
Ohio. Analyses of limestones, Catlett.
Whitfield, J. E.
Analyses of sandstones, E a kins.
Clarke, F. W.
Bowlder belts and bowlder trains,
Chambrrlin*.
Building stone*, Merrill, G. P.
Cave in Clinton formation, James.
Climate indicated by . iuterglacial
bed, Leverett.
Glacial boundary, Chamberlin.
Wright.
History of Niagara River, Gilbert.
Lake ridge of Ohio, Wright.
Geological Survey report, Orton.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Cham-
berlin. Orton. White, I. C.
Wright.
Origin of pressure of gas, Orton.
Portsmouth sandstones, analyses,
Chatard.
Pre-glacial channels at Falls of the
Ohio, Bryson.
Pre-glacial drainage of western Penn-
sylvania, Foshay.
Report on oil and gas, Carll.
Some causes of extinction of species,
McCreeuy.
Sylvania sand in Cuyahoga County,
Neff.
Trenton limestone oil and gas, Or-
ton.
Waverly group, Cooper, W. F.
Warren's Geography, Brkwer.
Ohio, Geological Survey. First annual
report, Orton,
Oregon. Natural soda, Chatard.
Macfarlane's Railway Gnide, Con-
don. Dawson, G. M. Hastings.
Paleontology of the northwest coast,
Dall.
Report — Division of volcanic geology,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Dutton.
Sandstone dikes, Diller.
Silver Lake, Cope.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
ORTON, Edward. The Trenton lime-
stone as a source of petroleum and in-
flammable gas in Ohio and Indiana.
U. S. Geol. Surrey, 8th Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 475-662, pis. Llv-LX, 1889.
Abstracts, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 661-
063 ; Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 888-991 .
Discussion of the origin and modes of accu-
mulation of oil and gas. Description of tbe
stratigraphy and rook structure of tbe region
and an account of the practical development
of the oil and gas fields. Illustrated by colored
geologic maps and sections.
On the origin of the rock pressure of
natural gas of the Trenton limestone of
Ohio and Indiana.
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 225-229.
Statement of conditions and discussion of
the nature and cause of the pressure.
Origin of the rock pressure of natural
gas iu the Trenton limestone of Ohio
and Indiana.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 87-94, 98.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 119, J p.
Am. Naturalist, vol 24, p. 955, 4 lines.
Thin paper differs from tbe one on tbe same
dabtom.] RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
63
ORTON, Edward— Continued.
subject in Am. Jour. Sol., voL 39, in oonsisting
of a more extended discussion of the several
theories, the laws of gas production, and the
duration of the gas supply. Discussed by
I.C. White, W J MoGee, and A.C.Lawson,
pp.W-97.
Geological survey of Ohio (third
organization), first annual report, x,
323 pages, 2 maps in pooket. Col ambus.
Mainly covering the oil and gas fields, with
a prefatory geueral sketch of the geology of
the State, a review of theories of the origin
and accumulation of gas and oil a discussion
of laws that govern their distribution, and a
description of the fault in Adams County.
Accompanied by two maps of oil fields. -
ORTON, Edward— Continued.
Ohio.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 177-187.
Revision of table of geological formations of
the State and geological notes for railway
stations.
Ottawa Naturalist, vol. 3, No. 4.
Geological progress in Canada, Ells.
, vol. 4, Nob. 1-9.
Mistassini region, Low.
Serpentines of Canada, Giroux.
OWEN, Richard. Arkansas [in part j.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp.406, 407. ,
Geological notes for railway stations.
P.
A. S. An attempt to ex-
plain glacial lunoid furrows.
Am. Geologist, voL 6, pp. 104-106.
Description of some instances in Switzer-
land and New England and discussion of their
origin.
PALMER, Charles S. A preliminary
paper on the ernptive rooks of Boulder
County and adjoining counties, Colo-
rado.
Colorado Sci. Soc. , Proc. , voL 3, pp. 230-236.
Brief reference to geologic formations and
structural relations and petrographic notes
concerning the various eruptives.
[PARSONS, James.] West Virginia
Central and Plattsburg Railway.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, p. 347, 4 p.
Geological notes for the stations.
PBAIiE, A. C. Report — Montana divi-
sion of geology.
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, 8th Report, X. W.
Powell, pp. 144-148, 1888.
Brief accounts of the extension of lake beds
westward to Madison Valley, and to the occur-
rence and extent of certain ernptive rocks
near Fort Ellis and in the southwestern part
of the Gallatin Valley, with petrographic de-
scription by G. P. Merrill.
Report — M ontana division of
geology.
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, 9th Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 111-114, 1880.
Brief summary of results of observation* in
Gallatin and Jefferson River regions.
Pennsylvania. Analysis of serpentine.
Catlett.
Building stones, Mkrrill, G. P.
Casta of flattened soolithus, Wanner.
Pennsylvania— Continued.
Clay in Northumberland County,
analysis, Catlbtt.
Diatoms from river clays of Philadel-
phia, Woolman.
Fossil in oaves in limestone, Liedt.
Fractured strata in Bedford County,
8TEVENSON.
Glacial boundary, Chamberlin.
Wright.
Glacial phenomena in the Beaver
Valley, Foshay and Hice.
History of Niagara River, Gilbert.
History of glacial deposits of Ohio
Valley, White, I. C.
Irou ores, Hunt, T. S.
Makiug of Pennsylvania, Claypole.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Les-
ley. Lewis, H. C. White, I. C.
Microscopic structure of oolite, Bar-
bour.
Origin of pressure of gas, White, I.jC.
Pro-glacial drainage of western Penn-
sylvania, Foshay.
Report on New Boston and Morea
coal lands, Lyman.
Report on oil and gas, Carll.
Serpentines of southeastern Pennsyl-
vania, Rand.
Serpentine rocks near Easton, Mer-
rill, G. P.
State line serpentines, Chester.
Tracks in Trias of York County, Wan-
ner.
Traps of Newark system, Darton.
Umbral limestone in Lycoming Coun-
ty, Meyer.
.t
64
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bum. W.
Pennsylvania — Continued.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Wright's " Ice age in North America,"
Hitchcock.
Pennsylvania Geological Survey, An-
imal report for 1887.
Cave fossils, Leidy.
Fossil tracks in Trias, Wanner.
New Boston coal basin, Lyman.
State line serpentines, Chester.
Pennsylvania Geological Survey.
Seventh report on oil and gas fields,
Carll.
PENFIELD, S. L., IDDINGS, Joseph P.
and. Fayalite in the obsidian of Lipari.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d aeries, vol. 40, pp. 75-76.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 1073,
7 linen.
Includes brief references to the containing
rooks and their associates.
PENROSE, R. A. F. A preliminary re-
port on the geology of the Gnlf tertia-
ries of Texas from Red River to the Rio
Grande.
Texas, Oeol. Surrey, First Annual Re-
port, pp. 3-101.
Stratigraphy, structural relations and dis-
tribution, of Tertiary and post- Tertiary de-
posits, pp. 3-64. Economic geology, pp. 65-
101.
Petrography, Hnronian and Laurentian
north of Lake Hnron, Barlow.
Lawson.
Archean of central Canada, Lawson.
Building stones of the United States,
Merrill, G. P.
Eruptives of Lake Huron region,
Fairbanks.
Rocks of Thnuder Bay district, Bay-
ley.
Copper in Animikie at Thunder Bay,
Lawson.
Origin of soda granite, etc., Pigeon
Point, Bayley.
Greenstone schists, Michigan, Wil-
liams, G. H.
Certain dikes of Raiuy Lake region,
Lawson and Shutt.
Report ou Kainy Lake region, Law-
son.
Notes on Big Bend of the Columbia,
Coleman.
Granitoid areas in lower Laurentian,
Hitchcock.
Bernardston series of upper Devon-
ian, Emkrson.
Petography— Continued.
Rocks of Essex County, Massachu-
setts, Lewis.
Granites of Massachusetts, Emerson.
Crystalline rooks of Missouri, Ha-
worth.
Pre-Cambrian of the Black Hills,
Van Hise.
Geology of Cape Ann, Shaler.
Metamorphio strata of southeastern
New York, Merrill, F. J. H.
Archean rocks, New Jersey, Nason.
Zircon rocks in highlands off New
Jersey, Nason and Ferrier.
Non feldspathic intrusives of Mary-
land, Williams, G. H.
Traps of Newark system in New
Jersey region, Darton.
Syracuse serpentines, Williams, G.
H.
Serpentinons rocks, New York and
Pennsylvania, Merrill, G. P.
Serpentines of southeastern Pennsyl-
vania, Rand.
Lithology of rocks from Yukon dis-
trict, Adams.
Structure of oolite, Barbour.
Trenton limestone, Ohio and Indi-
ana, Orton.
Trap dikes near Kennebunkport,
Maine, Kemp.
Triassic traps of Nova Scotia, Mars-
ters.
Dikes in Appalachian Virginia, Cil-
ler.
Notes from Baja California, Mexico,
LlNDGREN.
Rooks from Montana, Merrill, G. P.
Eruptive rocks of Boulder County,
Colorado, Palmer.
Volcanic rocks from Tewan Moun-
tains, New Mexico, Iddings.
Igneous rocks of Yellowstone Park,
Iddings.
Fayalite in obsidian of Lipari, Id-
dings and Pknkield.
Basalt from Pilot Kuob, Texas,
Kkmp.
Origiu of gneiss, Bkll.
Observations in Norway, Williams,
G. H.
Report— Division of Petrography, U.
8. Geol. Survey, Diller.
Secondary minerals of ampbibole
and pyroxene groups, Cross.
Petrography for 1887 and 1888.
I.ART02C.J EECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY TOR 1890.
65
Philadelphia, Academy of Natural
Sciences, Proceedings, 1889,
part 3.
Uinbral limestone in Lycoming
County, Pennsylvania, Mkykr.
Drift on Block Island, Rand.
, 1890, parts 1, 2.
Serpentines of southeastern Pennsyl-
vania, Rand.
Artesian wells at Atlantic City, New
Jersey, Woolman.
Diatoms iu clays of Philadelphia,
Woolman. .
Vincelonian volcano, Sharp.
Coral and coral reefs of western
Gulf of Mexico, Heilpkin.
Pleistocene.
Alaska, Surface geology, Russell.
At antic coast region, Classification of
glacial sediments of Maine, Stone.
Hihtory of Boston basin, Crosby.
Glacial sand plains, Davis.
Tertiary and Cretaceous of Massa-
chusetts, Shalrr.
Glacial lunoid furrows, Packard.
Cape Ann, Massachn setts, Siialkh.
Bernaidston series, Emerson.
Mount Desert Island, Shalrr.
Sanborn bowlder, Massachusetts,
Saville.
Distribution of bowlders, Hitch-
cock.
Kaolin in Blandford, Massachusetts,
Cp.osby.
Gay Head, Merrill, F. J. H.
Glacial scratches near Norfolk, Con-
necticut, Cornish.
Vein filling in till of Connecticut
Valley, Emerson.
Drift on Block Island, Rand.
Evidence of till on glacial climate,
Crosby.
Division of coast line geology, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Sualkr.
Magnetite and sea water in drift,
Robertson.
Report — Atlantic coast division, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Shaler.
Madison bowlder, Crosby.
Glacial action iu southeastern Con-
necticut, Wells.
Long Island Sound and nib merged
channel of the Hudson, Dana.
Pot-holes opposite Cat-skill, New
York, Hub hard.
Bull. 91
5
Pleistocene -Continued.
Clays near Mortisania, New York,
Merrill, F. J. 11.
.Sandstone in drift on Staten Island,
Gratacap.
Ancient shore lines, Merrill, F. J.
H.
Topographic development of New
Jersey, Davis and Wood.
Wright's •* lee Age in North Amer-
ica," Hitchcock.
Rivers of Northern New Jersey, Da-
vis.
Artesian wells, New Jersey, Nasox.
Fiords and great lake basins of
North America, Upham.
Deposits on the Delaware, McGee.
Mkckill, F. J. H.
Barrier beaches, Merrill, F. J. H.
Report — Atlantic coast division, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Siialkh.
Encroach meut of the sea, Thompson*.
McGee.
Diatoms from river clays at Phila-
delphia, Woolman.
Potomac flora, Fontaine.
Southern Marylaud and Virginia,
Clark.
Southern extension of Appomattox
formation, McGee.
Topogm phy of Florida, Shaler. Ag-
assiz.
Analyses of coquina and coral rock,
Florida, Clarke, F. W.
Pleistocene submergence, McGee.
Spencer. Shaler.
Report — Atlantic coast division, IT.
8. Geol. Survey, Florida, Shaler.
Extent of submergence of Atlautic
coast, McGee.
Continental elevation of America.
Browne.
Southern drift iu Georgia, Spen-
cer.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Mon Louis Island, Mobile Bay,
Langdon.
Date of high continental elevation
of America, Browne.
Macfarla lie's Railway Guide, Cham-
berlin. Chance. Chester. Cros-
by. Fontaine. Gesner. Ham-
mond. Hitchcock. Johnson.
Lesley. Lewis, II. C. Smith,
E. A. Smock. Uhlek. Upuam.
66
HECOED OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. (bum. «
Pleistocene— Conti d ued .
Appalachian* to Mitfitiippi sarin, Gla-
cial phenomena of northern Illinois
and Indiana, Lkvkuktt.
Climate indicated by in tergl acini
bedS, LKVERETT.
Deep well at Dixon, Illinois, TIF-
FANY.
Central basin of Tennessee, Kkn-
Orauge aaud formations, McGee.
Procter.
Vivian ite, Kentockj, Dudley.
Wet woods, Bryson.
Ico ago in North America, Davis,
History of npper Ohio region,
White, I. C.
Pre-glacial drainage of western Penn-
sylvania, Fosiiay.
Prc-glacinl channels at Falls of the
Ohio, BnvsoN.
Glacial phenomena in Beaver Valley,
Fosiiay and Hick.
A recent rock-flexure [in Wisconsin],
Cramer.
Interval between glacial epochs,
ClIAMBKKLIN.
Glacial sand plains, Davis.
Bowlder belt and bowlder train
ClIAMItKBLlN.
Distribution of bowlders, WlNCHELI.,
A. Wright.
Report— Division of glacial geology,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Chambkmjn.
Warren'n Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlaue's Railway Guide, Camp-
BULL. CltAMHRRUN. COLLETT.
Lesley. Orton. PkOCTOB. Saf-
ford. White, I.C. Winchkll,A.
Worth en. Wright.
Central America. Abont tlie Nicaragua
footprinis, Crawford. Flint.
Geologic map of Mexico. Castillo.
Submergence of Isthmus of Panama,
General. Growth, culmination and de-
parture of ice sheets. Urn am.
Interval between glacial epochs.
Chambrrlik.
Cause of the glacial period, Upham.
Cham be it lin.
Quaternary changes of level, Upham.
Glacial climate, CROSBY. ShaLer.
Extent of glaciers, Chamberlin.
Flelatocflne— Conti n ued.
Glacial studies bearing on the an-
tiquity of man, Levkrbtt.
Continental elevation preceding the
Pleistocene, Spencer.
Pleistocene flora of Canada, Daw-
son, J. W.
Glacial pheuomena, Bell. Dwight.
Use of terms Laurentiaii and Cham-
plain, Marcou. James. Hitch-
cock.
-Wright's "Ice age in North Amer-
ica," Hitchcock.
Great Laics region and ta&ttrn Canada.
History of Niagara River, Gilqkrt.
Iroquois beach, Davis. Spencer.
Deformation of Iroqnois beach,
Spencer.
Northeastern extension of the Iro-
quois beach, Si'enckk.
General Pleistocene anb merge nee,
Spencer.
Ancient shores in region of Great
Lakes, Spencer.
Origin of basins of tbe Great Lakes,
Spencer. Bonnky. Hindis. She-
ley.
Fiords and great lake basins of North
America, Upham.
Lake St. John country, Chambers.
Glacial geology, Irondequoit region,
i Ontario,
Wright.
Gravel deposits of Ontario, SpbKCKR.
P Leg lac i nl drainage of weetern
Pennsylvania, Fosiiay.
Mastodon at Attica, New York,
Clarke, J. M.
Lake ridges of Ohio, Wright,
Pot-holes north of Lake Superior,
McKei.lak.
Minus of Lake Superior, Ingall.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
Geology of the northwest of Lake
Superior, Harvey.
Hudson Bay, Low.
Glacial phenomena in the Beaver
Valloy, Pennsylvania, FosHAY and
Hice.
Northwestern Manitoba, Tyrrell.
Glaoiation of eastern Canada, Chat,.
i.ARTox.1 RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
G7
Pleistocene — Continued.
Lake Temiscaming and Montreal
River region, Bkll.
Progress of investigations, New
Brunswick, Bailey.
Report on Quebec, Ells. Walcott.
Picton and Colchester Counties,
Nova Scotia, Fletcher.
Southern invertebrates on shores of
Acadia, Gannong.
St. Lawrence Valley, Laflammk.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Cham-
berlin, Dawson, G. M. Hall,
C. W. Winchell, A.
Mississippi basin to Rocky Mountains.
Lineage of Lake Agassiz, Todd.
Origiu of extra-moraiuic till, Todd.
Outlet of Lake Agassiz, Ciiamber-
lin.
Terraces of the Missonri, Todd.
Sand of St. Louis County, Ladd.
Brick clay, New Ulm, Minnesota,
analysis, Chatard.
Deserted gorge near Minnehaha falls,
Grant.
Lake Winnipeg, Mississippi drainage,
Mills.
Loess and its fossils, Shimek.
Report — Montana division, U. S.
Geol. Survey, Peale.
Artesian wells jn Dakotas, Upham.
Southwestern Kansas, Hat.
Greenwood and Butler Counties, Kan-
sas, Wooster.
Kansas salt mine, Hay.
Drift of northern Iowa, Webster.
Report — Potomac division, U. S. Geol.
Survey, McGee.
Topographic types, Iowa, McGee.
Loess at Muscatine, Iowa, Witter.
Crowley's Ridge, Arkansas, Call.
Staked Plains, Texas, Hill.
Eagle Flats formation, Texas, Hill.
Pilot Knob, Texas, Hill.
Indian Territory and Red River,
Hill.
Valley of Upper Cauadiau, Texas,
Hill.
Report on Gulf Tertiaries of Texas,
Penrose, R. A. F.
Central Texas, Comstock. Tarr.
Trans-Pecos Texas, Streeruwitz.
Review of Texas geology, Dlmble.
Eastern Colorado, Cannon.
Yellowstone Park, Weed.
I Pleistocene— Continued.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Broad-
IIKAD. ClIAMBERLI.V. ElDRIDGR.
Hall, C. W. Hilgard. Lough-
ridge. McGee. Owen. St. John.
Todd. Upham. Winchell, N. H.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Itocky Mountains to Padfic Coast. Analy-
sis of adobe soil, Eakins.
Analyses of lavas, Arizona, Eakins.
Lake Lahontan, MgLintock.
Lake Bonneville, Gilbert.
Analyses of lavas from Lassen Peak,
Hilled han i).
Analyses of volcanic rocks from Cali-
fornia, Ciiatard.
Protozootites, Friedrich.
Analyses of rocks from northern Cali-
fornia, Eakins. Whitfield, J. E.
Analysis of lava from Shasta County,
California, Riggs.
Natural sex la, Ciiatard,
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Con-
don. Cooper. Dall. Davis.
Gilbert. Hague. Hastings.
Pumpelly. Willis.
Analysis of clays from Owen's Lake,
California, Chatard.
Auriferous gravels of California,
Hammond.
Mono Valley, California, Russell.
Clays, Johnson, W. D.
Santa Clara County, California,
Weber.
Record of well at Nanipa, Idaho,
Kurtz.
Age of beds in Boise* River region,
Emmons. Cope.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Western Canada. Glaciation of northern
Cordillera, Dawson, G. M.
Post-Tertiary deposits of Manitoba,
Tyrrell.
Duck and Riding Mountains, Tyr-
rell.
James Bay region, Low.
Limits of glaciation in the Northwest,
Cham berlin.
Yukou and Mackenzie Rivers, Mc-
Connell.
Yukou district, Dawson, G. M.
Caribou district, British Columbia,
Bowman.
Glaciation of Cordillera and Lauren-
tide, Chalmers.
68
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [blll.»L
Popular Science Monthly, li!M).
Glacial action in Virginia, Minor.
Glacial action in southeastern Con-
necticut, Wells.
Barrier beaches of the Atlautic coast,
Merrill, F. J. H.
PRESTON, E. B. Los Angeles County.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. l£9-2iu.
Incidental references to geology at various
points.
PROCTER, John R. [Remarks on the
relations of Orange tends and certain
gravels in the western Kentucky re-
gion.]
G-eol. Soc.Axn., Ball., vol. 1, pp. 476-477. 2 p.
Notes on relations and distribution in vari-
ous parts of the region.
[ ] Kentucky.
Macnrlane's Oeol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 395-400.
Geological notes for railway stations.
PROSSER, Charles S. The thickness
of the Devonian aud Silnrian rocks of
western central New York.
Am. Geologist, voL 6, pp. 199-2J 1.
PROSSER. Charles S.— Continued.
Well record*. Gt*ner*l geologic section of
the region. Review of previous estimates of
thickness.
PUMPELLY, Raphael. Report— Divi-
sion of Archean geology.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 124-125. 18*0.
Includes a brief notice of certain results in
the Hoosac Mountain region.
Report — Division of Archean geol-
ogy.
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, Ninth Report, J.W.
Powell, pp. 75-76, 1889.
Includes brief statement regarding strat-
igraphic relations and age of the formations in
the Green Mountains.
[ J Northern Pacific Railroad.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, Id edi-
tion, pp.250-'JG2.
Geological notes for stations in western
Dakota, Montaua, and Idaho.
[PUTNAM, B. T.] Northern Pacific
Railroad.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, p. 261.
Geological notes for stations from Garrison
to Missoula, Montana.
R.
RAND, Theodore D. Notes on the drift
on Block Island.
Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci., Proc.. 1889,
pp. 408-409.
General description of topography and cer-
tain bluff exposures.
Notes ou the genesis aud horizon of
the Serpentines of southeastern Penn-
sylvania.
Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci., Proc., 1890,
pp. 76-123.
Comprised in a general description of their
outcrops, structural relations, and associated
rocks.
READE, T. Mellard— Origin of normal
faults.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 51-52.
Discussion of conditions involved in the
development of normal faults mainly in re-
view of Le Conte.
Rhode Island. Archean axes of eastern
North America, Dana.
Drift on Block Island, Rand.
Ottreliteand iluienite schists, Wolff.
Warren's Geography, Bkkwku.
I
RICKETTS, Louis D. Annual report
of the Territorial Geologist to the gov-
ernor of Wyoming, January, 189U, fcO
pages, 3 plates.
Consist!* mainly of descriptions of tbe coal
fields, with brief reports ou the iron ores and
other tniuerala, the petroleum beds, soluble
salt deposits, marbles, building stones, ami
the resources of the Black Hills in Crook
County.
RIGGS, K. B. Twelve rocks from Me-
nomiuee River, Michigan and Wiscon-
sin. Analyses.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 55, p.81,| p.,
1889.
Rocks from Pigeou Point, Minne-
sota. Analyses.
TJ. S. GeoL Survey, Bull., No. 55, pp. 82-83,
1889.
[Lava from Shasta County, Califor-
I
uia. Analysis. J
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 55, p. 84, i p.,
1889.
— [Green sands, white sand, fossil
i'ahtox | RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
69
RIGGS, R. B.— Continued.
bones, and phospliatic noduleM at Gay
Head, Massachusetts.] [Analyses.]
17. S. Geol. Surrey, Ball.. No. 55, p. 90, £ p.,
1889.
Eruptive rock from Henry Moun-
tains, Utah. [Analysis.]
17. S. Geol. Surrey, Bull., No. 60, p. 154, f p.
Lavas from near Lassen Peak, Cal-
ifornia. [Analyses.]
T7. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. , No. 60, pp.156, 157,
CLARKE, F. W. and. Limestones
from Ohio. [Analyses.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 60, p. 160, f p.
Trenton limestones and Dtica shales.
ROBERTSON, Robert. [On distribu-
tion of raaguetite and sea water in
drift formations of Now England.]
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, p. 127, | p., 1889.
Referred to by N. S. Shaler in-Report— Di-
vision of coast line geology.
ROGERS, William B. Virginia.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 352-358, 363.
Republished from 1st edition.
ROLFE, Charles W. Artesian water
from the drift [in eastern Illinois].
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 32 35.
Description of surface relations and well
borings in drift, and discussion of the source
of the water supply and its relation to the
structure of the subterrane.
ROWLEY, R. R. Some observations on
ROWLEY, R. R.— Continued,
uatnral casta of crinoiris and Mastoids
from the Burlington limestone.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 66, 67.
Includes brief reference to tbe components
of the formation in Pike County, Missouri.
RUSSELL, Israel C. Quaternary history
of Mono Valley, California.
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, 8th Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 201-394, )>U. 16-44. 1889.
Abstracts. Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 54-56 ;
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 39, p. 402, £ p.
Lacufltr&l. glacial, and volcanic deposits,
phenomena anU history; and post-Quaternary
orographic movements.
Notes on the snrfaee geology of
Alaska.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 99-154-155,
pi. 2.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, voL 5, p. 118-119,
I p. ; Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 208, 4 lines.
Physiography. Geology of the Yukon River.
The tundra, Rock decomposition, (ilaciatiou
terraces. Lake Yukon. Existing glaciers.
Discussed by N. S. Shaler and T. G. Chamber-
lln, pp. 155-156.
Ice cliffs on Kowah River, Alaska,
observed by Lieutenant Cantwell.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 49, 50.
Presenting a letter from J. C. Cantwell,
which briefly describes the ice cliffs and dis-
cusses tbeir nature and history.
RTJTLEY, F. Composite sphernlites in
obsidian from Hot Springs, California.
Geol. Soc. Quart. Jour., vol. 46, pp. 423-427.
Aba tract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 1188,
1189, 8 lines.
Discusses the origin of the spherulitio
structure. Petrographic
S.
[S AFFORD, James M. ] Tennessee.
ICacfarUne's Geol. Railway Gnide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 40 1-465.
Geological notes for railway stations.
ST. JOHN, Orestes. Kansas.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 274-289.
Geological notes for railway stations.
SAMPSON, F. A. A bibliography of
the geology of Missouri.
Missouri Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 2, 158,
xvm pages.
8AVTLLE, M. H. The Sanborn bowlder.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc, vol. 24, pp.
586-588.
SAVILLE, M. H.— Continued.
Description of the IwwMer and discussion
of its source and the condition under which it
was transported.
School of Mines Quarterly, vol. 11,
parts 2 to 4.
Gevsers, Wkkd.
Science, voL 15.
Nicaragna footprints, Flint.
Fossil plants, British Columbia, Daw-
son, J. W.
Nova Scotia Carboniferous conglom-
erate, Gilpin.
Sontbern invertebrates on shores
Acadia, Ganong.
70
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GKoL-OGY FOR 1X«»0. [him. Dl.
Science- Continued.
, vol. 16.
Chalk from Kansas, Wii.liston. Daw-
son, G. M.
Geology of Quebec, Ami. Sblwyn.
Ells.
Hypothesis for encroachments of sea,
Thompson, G.
SCOTT, William B. Geological aud
fauna I relations of the Uinta forma-
tion.
The Mammalia of the Uinta formation. Am.
Phil. Soc, Trans., vol. 16, (new series), pp.
401-470.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 470, } p.
Review of structural, stratigraphic, aud
paleoutological evidene.
L ] [Notes in Wyoming and Idaho.]
Maofarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, p. 312.
Geological notes for stations on Union
Pacific Railroad from Granger, Wyoming, to
Squaw Creek, Idaho.
Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. 6.
Geological map of the world, Bar-
tholomew.
SEAMON, W. H. Tallow clays.
Sci. Am. Snpt., vol. 30, p. 12287, 1J col., No.
709.4°., from Scientia Baccalaureus.
Abstract, School of Mines, Quart., vol.11,
p. 175, i p.
A nal> ses of 32 sperfrueus from Missouri lead
regions.
The zinciferous clays of southeast
Missouri and a theory as to the growth
of the calamine of that section.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 38-42.
Conditions of occurrence, chemical compo-
sition, and relations to the zinc deposits.
SEELY, Henry M., BRAINERD, Ezra
and. The Calciferous formations in the
Champlain Valley.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 501-511.
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull., vol. 3, pp. 1-23.
Abstracts. Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 120, 7
lines; Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp.
235-238 ; Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 955, 6 lines.
Distribution, stratigraphy, detailed descrip-
tions of sections, and correlation of Fort Cas-
sia stmt a and members of Phillipsburg series.
[SEELEY, H. G.] [Remarks on the
origin of the basins of the Great Lakes
of America.]
Geol. Soc, Quart. Jour., vol. 46, p. 533, £ p.
Discussion of paper by that title by J. W.
Spencer.
SEARS. John II. The stratified rocks of
Essex County.
Essex Inst., Bull., vol. 22. pp. :tl 47.
Description of the nioreorless met amorphic
rocks, including (den ell us limestones, their
petrograph3', distribution, relations, and asso-
ciated eruptives.
SELWYN, Alfred R. C. Summary re-
ports of the operations of tho Geological
Survey for the years 1887 and 1888.
Canada, Geol. Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, now
series, part 1, Report A, pp. 117, 1888.
Includes extracts from reports of assistants
as follows: G. M. Dawson in Yukon region
and southern interior of British Columbia ; R.
G. McConnell on the lower Liard River; J. B.
Tyrrell in Duck and Riding Mountains region
and in northwestern Manitoba; A. P. Low in
the Hudson Bay region ; R. Bell in northwest-
* era Quebec And adjoining regions ; F. D.
Adams in<eastern townships of Quebec ; R. W.
Ells in southeastern Quebec; J. C. E. La flam me
on north side of the St Lawrence above Que-
bec; L. W. Bailey and William Mclnnes in
northern New Brunswick; R. Chalmers on
surface geology of New Brunswick ; J. F.
Whiteavee on age of fossils collected by Mc-
Connell on Liard River; A. Bowman on sea-
board British Columbia ; II. Fletcher on Pic-
tou and Colchester Counties, Nova Scotia, and
£. R. Faribault on gold-bearing belt in Halifax
County. Also a brief reference to rocks aud
relations at gold mine nsar White tish station.
C. P. R. R. (p. 59).
Tracks of organic origin in rocks of
the Animikie group.
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 145-
147.
Prefatory to letter by G. F. Matthews in re-
gard to the nature of the tracks. Statement
of opinion in regard to age of containing
rocks.
The geology of Quebec city.
Science, vol. 16, p. 359, 1J cols. 4°.
Brief review of relations and equivalency of
the rocks at Quebec.
SHALER, N. S. Report — Division of
coast-line geology.
U. S. Geol. Surrey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 125-128. 1P89.
Includes references to studies of elevated
coast lines in Maine and New Hampshire and
observations by Robert Robertson on distri-
bution of magnetic iron and salt water in the
drift formations of New England.
The geology of the Island of Mount
Desert, Maine.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 087- 1061, pis. 64-76. 1889.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 197-198.
dabmm.] RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
71
SHALER, N. S.— Continued.
Description of superficial deposits granites,
stratified rocks, and glacial phenomena, and
discussion of evidence of glacial and post-
glacial anbaidence and of the origin and phys-
ical history of the Mount Desert rocks. Illus-
trated by colored geologic maps.
Report — Atlantic coast division.
U. S. Gtsol. Surrey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 71-74. 188ft.
Includes brief references to evidence of
wave action at the peak of Wachnaett, Massa-
chusetts, and in the Catskill Mountains in
New York; occurrence of Cretaceous fossils ou
Martha's Vineyard; metamorphism of Car-
boniferous beds in Rhode Island ; causes of
undulations of sandy deposits in lake district
of Florida ; proofs of periods of elevation and
anbaidence of Florida, and subdivisions of the
roetarnorpbio rocks west of Attleborough,
Massachusetts.
The geology of Cape Add, Massa-
chusetts.
TJ. S. Oeol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 529-611. pis. 32-37. 1889.
Abstract, Am. Oeologist, vol. 7, p. 201, } p.
1891.
General geologic and geographic relations
of Cape Ann district ; nature and distribution
of drift deposits ; amount of erosion during
the glacial period ; postglacial erosion, ma-
rine and atmospheric ; recent changes of
level; marshes; physical structure of bed
rocks, dikes, joint planes, and general petrog-
raphy. With colored geologic maps.
— On the ocenrrence of fossils of the
Cretaceous age on the island of Mar-
tha's Vineyard, Massachusetts.
Harvard Ooll., Mns. Oomp. Zool., Bull., vol.
16, pp. 89-97, pis. 1, 2. 1889.
Description of the relations of the fossilif.
erous beds.
— [Remarks on conditions attending
a Pleistocene snbtnergence on the At-
lantic coast. ]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vot. 1, p. 409, T p.
Discussion of this submergence in connec-
tion with the cause of the last glacial period.
— The topography of Florida.
Harvard Ooll., Mns. Oomp. Zool., Bull.,
voL 16, pp. 139-156, pi.
Abstract. Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 768, i p.
Sets forth a hypothesis of the origin of the
Floridian peninsula and the West India
islands and points ont the probable struc-
tural similarity to the Cincinnati arch. Clas-
sifies the topographic features of the State
and discusses their history in some regions.
Describes the coral reefs on the southeastern
coa&t, their effect on drainage, erosion, extent
SHALER, N. S.- Continued.
northward, andevidence of subsidence. I mi
dentally refers to origin of kames.
Tertiary and Cretaceous deposits of
eastern Massachusetts.
Oeol. Soc. Am. ,Bull. , vol. 1, pp. 443-452, pi. 9.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 118, } p.;
Am. Naturalist, vol.24, p. 210 i p. ; Science,
voL 15, p. 10, i col. 4°.
Discussion of structure and age of disloca-
tions, ages of the various deposits and gla-
cial origin of bowlder beds containing frag-
ments of osseous conglomerate. Description
and plate of detailed sections at Gay Head
and from Vineyard Sound.
Note on glacial climate.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc., vol. 24, pp.
460-465.
Abstract, Am. Oeologist, vol. 5, p. 124. i p.
Discusses the southward extension of the
glacial ice line along the Appalachians, the
Rocky Mountains, and in Europe ; evidences
of glacial action afforded by certain high level
gravel deposits in the mountains of Virginia;
position of the glacial snow line in America;
evidence that the southern United States
were considerably elevated during the glacial
period; rainfall during glacial period, and
climate immediately preceding that period
Note on the value of saliferous de-
posits as evideuce of former climatal
conditions.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc, vol. 24, pp.
580-585.
Discussion of the conditions under which
salt was deposited at various geologic times.
*, Benjamin. An account of tbo
Vincelonian volcano.
Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sciences, Proc.,
189, pp. 280-295, pi. 4.
Ou the island of St. Vincent, West Indies.
1, B. The loess and its fossils.
IowaLab. of Nat. Hist.. Bull., vol. 1, pp.
200-214, vol.2, pp. 89-98.
Abstract, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol.4,
p. 72, i p., 1891.
Includes a discussiou of the bearing of the
palcontologic evidence us to the physical and
climatic conditions under which the loess
was deposited.
SHTJTT, F. T., LAWSON, A. C. and.
Petrographical differentiation of cer-
tain dikes of the Raiuy Lake region.
[Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. , Proc. , vol. 38, pp. 246-
247, £ p.
Discussion of structural, mineralogical,
and chemical variations in different parts of
the same dike.
72
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN (JKOLOOY FOR 1890. fnrix. 91.
Silurian.
Appalachian. '^Maine to Alabama.)
Grapiolite* from northern Maine,
Dodge.
Areas of continental progress in North
America, Dana.
New Brunswick and Maine, Bailey.
Bailey and McInnes.
Geology of Mount Desert. Shaler.
Fanna of rocks at Fort Cassin, Ver-
mont, Whitfield, R. P.
Eolian limestone, Hitchcock.
Calciferons in Cbamplain Valley,
Braixerd and Skely.
Calciferous formations, Walcott.
Lower and middle Taconic, Marcou.
8urvey of Minnesota, 1888, Review,
Dana.
Rooks of Essex County, Massachu-
setts, Sears.
Iron ores of the United States, Hunt,
T. S.
Taconic iron ores, Wixchell, N. H.
and H. V.
Report — Division of Archean geol-
ogy, U S. Geol. Survey, Pumpelly.
Studies of hornblende schist, Hitch-
cock.
Reporr — Division of Paleozoic inver-
tebrates, U. S. Geol. Survey, Wal-
cott.
Report — Paleozoic division of Pale-
ontology, U. 8 Geol. Survey, Wal-
cott.
Sidorite basin of Hudson River epoch,
Kimball.
Unconformity in the valley of the
Hudson, Davis.
Saliferous deposits as evidence of
climatal conditions, Shaler.
Iron mines of New York, Smock.
Rock salt deposits of western New
York, Newberry.
Metamorphic strata of southeastern
New York, Merrill, F. J. H.
Fossils in Dutchess Couut-v. New
York, Dwight.
Fossils at Pleasant Valley, New York,
Dwight.
Silurian fossils in Columbia County,
New York, BisnoP.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Camp-
bell. Crosby. Dana. Darton.
Dwight. Ford. Fontai n e.
Hitchcock. Hunt, T. S. Lks-
Silurian— Continued.
LEY. LlNDSEY. McCUT I HEN.
Saffokd. Smock. Smith and
Gesneic. Williams, H. S.
Fossils in Hillsdale, New York, Dana.
Thickness of rocks in west central
New York, Prosser, C. S.
Analysis of dolomite from Westches-
ter County, New York, Hille-
bhand.
Locality number*, Hall.
Traps of Newark system in New
Jersey, Darton.
Making of Pennsylvania, Claypole.
Casts of scoltthus, Pennsylvania,
Wanner.
Fossils in caves in Pennsylvania,
Leidy.
Dikes in Appalachian Virginia, Dar-
ton.
Middle borough, Kentucky, Boyd.
Oil field of Barren County, Ke .Lucky,
Fischer.
Analyses of dolomite and clay, Mor-
risville, Alabama, Hillebkaxd.
Warren's geography, Brkwkr.
Central and Western b'tate*. Central
Basin of Tennessee, Kennedy.
Cave in Clinton formation of Ohio,
James.
Origin of pressure of gas in Trenton
limestone, Orton.
Geological Survey of Ohio, report,
Orton.
Causes of extinction of species, Mc-
Creery,
Analyses of limestones from Ohio aud
Indiana, Clarke, F. W.
Areas of continental progress, Dana.
Sylvania sand in Ohio, Neff.
Trenton limestone oil and gas, Orton.
Petroleum at Terro Haute, Indiana,
Waldo.
Artesian waters from drift, Illinois,
Rolfe.
Deep well at Dixon, Illinois, Tiffany.
Maq-uoketa shales in Iowa, James.
Zinciferous clays of Missouri, Sea-
mon.
Building stones of Missouri, Ladd.
Indiau Territory and Red River,
Hill.
Drainage of central Texas, Tarr.
Carboniferous of central Texas, Tarr.
Review of Texas geology, Dumblk.
DMTcm.1 RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
73
Silurian — Continued.
Central mineral region of Texas,
COM8TOCK.
Extinct volcanoes of Colorado,
Lakes.
Warren's geography, Brkwbr.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Buoad-
HBAD. CHAMBKRI.IN. COLLKTT.
Dawson, G. M. Emmons. Hague.
LOUGHRIDOE. McGkK. OrTON.
Procter. Safford. Winchell,
a. worthen.
Canada, Northern New Brunswick and
Maine, Bailey and McInnes.
Lake St. John country, Chambers.
Acadian and St. Lawrence water-
shed, Bailey.
Areas of continental progress, Dana.
Investigations in New Br n us wick,
Bailey.
Geology of Ontario, Bell.
History of Quebec group, Hunt.
Report on Quebec, Ells.
Review of Ells on geology of Quebec,
Walcott.
Geology of Qnebec City, Ami. Ells.
Selwyn.
Lower and middle Taconic, Marcou.
St. Lawrence Valley, Ells. La-
FLAMMB.
Geological classification for Qnebec,
Marcou.
Qnebec and Taconic, Am. Geologist.
Lake Temiscaming and Montreal
River region, Bell.
Qnebec group of Logan, Dawson, J.
W.
Stratigraphy of " Quebec group,"
Ells.
Lower Helderberg of St. Helens
Island, Desks.
Pre-Paleozoic surface of Canada,
Lawson.
Gas in eastern Ontario, Ashburner.
Fossil sponges from Little Metis,
Dawson, J. W.
Fossils from Manitoba, Whiteaves.
Fossil plants from Mackenzie and
Bow Rivera, Dawson, J. W.
Caribou district, British Columbia,
Bowman.
Tnkon district, Dawson, G. M.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M.
Silurian— Continued.
Nomenclature: Value of term "Hud-
son River group," Walcott.
Iron ores of the United States, Hunt,
T. S.
Lower and middle Taconic, Marcoc
Silurian system of rocks, Murciiison.
Sedgwick and Murchison : Cambrian
and Silurian, Dana.
Area of continental progress in North
America, Dana.
Hercynian question, Clarke, J. M.
Walcott.
Quebec group of Logan, Dawson, J.
W.
[SMITH, Eugene A. and OESNER,
William], Alabama.
Macfarlane's Qeol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 378-382.
Geological notes for railway stations.
[SMITH, W. H.] [Notes on Hunter
Island and Seine River sheet.]
Canada, Qeol. Survey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part lJReport A, pp. 76-77. 1888.
Brief reference to distribution of the crys-
talline rocks.
Smithsonian Institution, Annual Re-
port, 1886, part 2.
Building stones in the National Mu-
seum, Merrill.
, 1888 (part 1).
Geology for 1887 and 1888, McGee.
Paleontology of 1887 and 1888, Wil-
liams, H. S.
Petrography for 1887 and 1888, Mer-
rill, G. P.
SMOCK, John C. Iron mines and iron
ore districts in the State of New
York.
N. Y. State Museum, Bull., No, 7, 70 pages,
map. 1889.
With incidental references to geologic rela-
tions.
, New Jersey.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 139-149.
Tables of formations of the State and geo-
logical notes for railway stations.
South America. Fernando de Noronha,
Branner.
Ore deposits of Minas Geraes, Brazil,
Mezger.
Sergipe-Alagoas basin, Brazil, Bran-
ner.
74
RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [»uu- M.
South Carolina. Appomattox formation,
McGee.
Extent of Pleistocene submergence,
McGbr.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Ham-
mond.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
SPENCER, J. W. The Iroquois beach ;
a chapter in the geological history of
Lake Ontario.
Canada, Roy. Soc, Trans., vol. 7, Sec iv,
pp. 121-134.
Abstracts, Science, Jan, 1888; Am. Natural-
ist, vol. 24, p. 057, i p. ; Am. Geologist, vol. 6,
pp. 311-812.
Description of the beach ami discussion of
the glacial and post-glacial history of the
region.
The deformation of Iroquois beach
and birth of Lake Ontario.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 443-451.
More in regard to the Iroquois beach and
the history of tho Lake Ontario basin.
— The high continental elevation pre-
ceding the Pleistocene period.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 65-70.
Geological Magazine, 3d decade, vol. 7, pp.
208-213.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 957-
958. i p.
Discussion of the evidence in various
regions.
— Ancient shores, bowlder fragments,
and high level gravel deposits in tho
region of the Great Lakes.
Oeol. Soc. Am., Bull., vot. 1, pp. 71-86.
Description of the phenouienaanddiscussion
of their history and bearing.
— [Remarks on rounded rock surfaces
due to causes other than glacial ero-
sion.]
Oeol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 176, } p.
Instances Stone Mountain in Georgia.
— [Remarks on evidence of a general
Pleistocene submergence.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 409, § p.
•Brief references to occurrence and history
of certain bowlder deposits in northwestern
Canada, to the bearing of the old beaches of
tho Great Lakes and the Northwest, and to
the occurrence of Pleistocene deposits at high
altitude in Alabama.
— [Remarks on the distribution and
differentiation of certain gravel
deposits in Ontario.^
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 546, ] p.
Discussion ot pspor by G. F. Wright " A
moraine of recession in Ontario."
SPENCER, J. W.— Continued.
Department of geology. *' Southern
Drift" and its agricultural relations.
Bull. Exp. Sta., Ga., 181)0, pp. 5. [Noth-
ing further is known of tho status of
this pamphlet.]
A brief description of the characteristics
and relations of the Tuscaloosa, Appomattox,
and Columbia formations in the central
Georgia region.
Origin of the basins of the Great
Lakes of America.
Geol. Soc. Quart. Jour., vol.46, pp. 623-531,
633.
Abstracts, Geol. Magazine, 3d decade, vol.
7, pp. 281-282, \ p. ; Am. Naturalist, vol. 25, p.
276, i p. 1891.
A general discussion of their origin and
history.
The northeastern extension of the
Iroquois beach of New York.
Am. Geologist, vol. 8, pp. 204-295, \ p.
Abstract, Popular Science Monthly, vol. 37,
p. 718, £ col.
Elevations. Warnings. Topography.
STEVENSON, J.J. [ Remarks on shear
in earth's ornst movements and to the
fractured condition of Pocono strata iu
Bedford County, Pennsylvania.]
Geol. Soc., Am., Bull., vo!. l,p. 26,f p. •
In diacussion of paper by G. E. Gilbert "The
strength of the earth's crust."
[Remarks ou the differentiation of
the Colorado group iu Colorado and
New Mexico.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 532, f p.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 668-569.
Discussion of paper by J. S. Newberry,
" The Laramie group."
STONE, George H. Classification of the
glacial sediments of Maine.
Am. Jour. Soi., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 122-
144.
Abstract. Am. Geologist, vol. 7, pp. 136-137.
1891.
Includes discussions of their relations and
history and conditions of deposition.
STORMS, W. H. The mines of Calico
district, California.
Engineering and Mining Jour. , vol. 49, pp.
382-383, 4 3.
Description of geologic features.
Arizona's now bonanza.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 50, pp.
162-163, 4°.
Includes brief statements in regard to geol-
ogy and a cioss section of mine at Hillside,
Yavapai County.
BAnox.] RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN QKOI.OGY FOK 1800.
75
, W. von. Geology of
Trans-Pecos, Texas. Preliminary state-
ment.
Texas Geol. Surrey, First Annual Report,
pp. 217-233.
STRBERUWITZ, W. von.— Continued.
Topography; Carboniferous, rretaccong,
anil Pleistocene format ions ; loeliuuorphic*,
eruptive*, and economic*.
T.
Ralph S. A preliminary report
oil the coal fields of the Colorado
River.
Texas Oeol. Survey, First Annual Report,
pp. 199-210.
Carboniferous stratigraphy, relations to
associated format ion* and coals.
— Drainage systems of New Mexico.
Am. Geologist, vol 5, pp. 261-270.
General description of their relations and
discussion of the history of their develop-
ment.
— The Carboniferous area of central
Texas.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 145-153.
Extent, stratigraphy, subdivisions, thiok-
' neas, structure, history, relations to Silurian,
and erosion of the Cretaceous.
— Origin of some topographic features
of central Texas.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39. pp. 306-
311.
Discussion of the topographic development
of the regiou with a prefatory account of the
geologic history of the formations.
— On the lower Carboniferous lime-
stone series in central Texas.
Am. Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 39, p. 404, $ p.
Brief acconnt of Carboniferous stratig-
raphy and relations of Silurian formations
in central Texas.
Superposition of the drainage iu
central Texas.
Am. Jonr. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40, pp. 359-
362.
Discussion of tho relations and history of
the Colorado and Brazos Kiver systems.
— ■ — Erosive agents in the arid regions.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 455-459.
Brief review of the various inorganic and
organic ageucies.
Technology Quarterly, vol. 3, Nos.
1-3.
Kaolin in Blandford, Massachusetts,
Crosby.
Tennessee, Appomattox formation, Mc-
Gke
Calciferous formation, Walcott.
Tennessee— Continued.
Central basin, Kennedy.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Sap-
ford.
Warren's Geography, Brkwku.
Tertiary. Atlantic const plain (Massa-
chusetts to South Carolina).
Cretaceous plants, Martha's Viue-
yard, White, D.
Cretaceous fossils, Martha's Vine-
yard, Siialer.
Deposits of eastern Massachusetts,
Shaler.
Gay Head, Massachusetts, Clark.
Merrill, F. J. H.
Aualyses of clay and sands from Gay
Head, Clarke, F. W. Riggs.
Ancient shore lines, Merrill, F.
J. H.
Fiords and great lake basins of
North America, Upham.
Long Island Sound and submerged
channel of the Hudson, Dana.
Development of northern New Jer-
sey, Davis and Wood.
Artesiau wells, Atlantic City, Wool-
man.
Report — Division of Cenozoic inver-
tebrates, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Dall.
Artesian wells, New Jersey, Nason.
Traps of New Jersey region, Dar-
ton.
Warren's Geography, Urkwkk.
Southern Marylaud and Virginia,
Clark.
Potomac flora, Fontaine.
Cape Fear River region, North Caro-
lina, Clark.
Distribution of fossil plants, Ward,
L. F.
Southern extension of Appomattox
formation, McGke.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide,
Chance. Chester. Crosby.
Fontaine. Hammond. Hitch-
cock. Johnson. Roger s.
Smock. Uhlkr.
76
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY TOR 1800. |mu.oi.
Tertiary — ('out inm-d.
Gulf States (Florida to Texas), Phos-
phates )t Florida, Cox. (Jolu
SMITH. LEDOI'X. WYATT.
Structure of oil-bearing strata.
Report — Division of Ceuozoic inver-
tebrates, U. S. Geol. Survey,
Dall.
Observations on southern Florida,
Willcox.
Tertiary fauna of Florida, Dall.
Topography of Florida, Shaler.
Orange sand formations, McGkr.
Southern extensiou of Appomattox
formation, McGee.
Peculiarities in drainage, McGre.
Mon Louis Island, Mobile Bay,
Langdon.
Southern drift of Georgia, Spencer.
Saliferous deposits as evidence of
climatal conditions, Shaler.
Report — Lower Missis: opi division,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Johnson,
L. C.
Analysis of marble from Louisiana,
HlLLBBRAND.
Geographic features of Texas, Hill.
Permian of Texas, Cummins.
Pilot Kuob, Texas, Hill.
Division of Mesozoic invertebrates,
U. S. Geol. Survey, White, C. A.
Central Texas, Tarr.
Report on Gulf Tertiaries of Texas,
Penrose, R. A. F.
Review of Texas geology, Dumble.-
Macfarlaue's Railway Guide. Smith
andGESNER. Hilgard. Johnson.
McCutchen.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Arkansas to Kansas. Crowley's Ridge,
Arkansas, Call.
Eastern Kansas, Call.
Liuenge of Lake Agassiz, Todd.
Kansas salt mine, JIay.
Southwestern Kansas, Hat.
Macfarlaue's Railway Guide, Lough-
ridge. Owen. St. JonN.
British Columbia. Caribou district,
Bowman.
Fossil plants, Dawson, J. W.
Distribution of fossil plants, Ward,
L. F.
Mineral wealth, Dawson, G. M.
Notes ou Cretaceous, Dawson, G. M.
Tertiary — Continued.
Seaboard of British Columbia, Bow-
man.
Serpentines of Canada, Giroux.
Southern interior British Columbia,
Dawson, G. M.
Yukon district, Dawson, G. M.
Laramie and its associates, Tyrrell.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Daw-
son, G. M.
Central and western United States. Re-
port— Division of Paleobotany, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Marsh.
Distribution of fossil plants, Ward,
L. F.
Uinta formation, Scott.
Sknl I of ceratopsidsB, Marsh.
Report of Geologist of Wyoming,
Ricketts.
Eastern Colorado, Cannon.
Spanish Peaks region, Colorado,
Hills.
Huerfano beds, Hills.
Structural features near Denver, Col-
orado, Eldridge.
Movements of Rocky Mountains, Em-
mons.
Report — Rocky Mountains division,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Emmons.
Custer County, Colorado, Charl-
ton.
Stratigraphy in Denver basin, El-
dridge.
Northwestern Colorado, White, C A.
Laramie group, Newberry. Steven-
son. Ward, L. F.
Displacements in Graud CaQon, Wal-
cott.
Drainage systems of New Mexico,
Tarr.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Macfarlane's Railway Gnide, Bailey,
G. E. Broadhead. Davis. Em-
mons. Gilbert. Hague. Proc-
ter. PUMPELLY. S AFFORD. SCOTT,
Todd. Wilus.
Analyses of eruptive rocks, New
. Mexico, Eakins.
California and Oregon. Auriferous
gravels of California, Hammond.
Geology of quicksilver deposits,
Becker.
Islands of South Barbara channel,
Yates.
Lassen Peak district, Diller.
DABToa.) BECOED OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1*90.
77
Tertiary — Continued.
Report— Division of volcanic geology,
U. S. Geo]. Survey, Dutton.
Paleontology of northwest coast,
Dall.
Protozootites, Frikdrich.
Maefarlaue's Railway Guide, Con-
don. Cooper. Hastings. Tur-
ner.
San Diego County, California, Good-
YEAR.
Santa Cruz Island, Goodyear.
Santa Clara County, California,
Webkr.
San Nicolas Island, Bowrr.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Mexico. Chance.
Geologic map, Castillo.
Central America. Nicaragua, Craw-
ford.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide [Nio-
brara], Cope.
South America. Brazil, Sergipe-Alagdas
basin, Brannkr.
American Neocomiau, Marcou.
A review of Texas geology, Dumble.
Basalt from Pilot Knob, Kemp.
Building stone, Merrill, G. P.
Carboniferous of ceo tral Texas, Ta kk.
Central coal field, Cummins.
Central mineral region, Comstock.
[Chalk.] Report — Division of Petro-
graphy, U. S. Geol. Survey, Diller.
Classification of topographic fea-
tures, Hill.
Coal fields, Weitzel.
Coal fields of Colorado River, Tarr.
Concho country, Cummins and
Lerch.
Cretaceous of northern Moxico,
White, C. A.
Description of Cretaceous rocks,
Hill.
Drainage of central Texas, Tarr.
Eagle Flats formation. Hill.
Fossils of the Trinity beds, Hill.
Geographic features of Texas, Hill.
Geology of Trans-Pecos region,
Streeruwitz.
Gnlf Tertiaries from Red River to
Rio Grande, Penrose, R. A. F.
Igneous rocks of central Texas, Hill
and Dumble.
Indian Territory and Red River,
Hill.
Texas— Continued.
List of Cretaceous invertebrates,
Hill.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Lough-
ridge.
Movements iu Rocky Mountains,
Emmons.
Occurrence of Gouiolina in Coman-
che series, Hill.
Permian, Cummins.
Pilot Knob, Hill.
Report — Division of Mcsozoic Paleon-
tology, White, C. A.
Staked Plains, Hill.
Topographic features of central
Texas, Tarr.
Valley of upper Canadian, Hill.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Texas, Geological Survey. First An-
nual Report.
A review of Texas geology, Dumble.
Gulf Tertiaries, Penrose.
Cretaceous of Texas, Hill.
Sou (hern border of central coal field,
Cummins.
Permian of Texas, Cummins.
Coal fields of Colorado River, Tarr.
Trans- Pecos Texas, Streeruwitz.
Central mineral region, Comstock.
Texas, Geological Survey. Bulletiu
No. 4.
List of Cretaceous invertebrates of
Texas, Hill.
THOMPSON, Gilbert. A hypothesis for
the so-called encroachments of the sea
upon the land.
Science, vol. 15, p. 333, g col. 4°.
Discusses evidence of a seaward motion of
the middle Atlautic coastal plain region.
TIFFANY, A. S. Record of deep well at
Dixon, Illinois.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 124, £ p.
Statement of rocks penetrated by a 1750-foot
well.
TODD. J. E. The terraces of the Mis-
souri. [Abstract.]
Iowa Acad. Sci., Froc, 1887-1(89, pp. 11-12
Altitudes, deposits, subtcrrane, age, and
history.
The origin of theextramoraiuic till.
[Abstract.]
Iowa Acad. Sci.,Proc, 1887-1889, pp. 12-1*.
Discussion of evidence presented in the
Missouri Valley.
78
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull. 01.
TODD, J. E.— Continued.
The lineage of Lake Agassi z. [Ab-
stract.]
Iowa Acad. Sci., Proc, 1887-1889, pp. 57-58.
Sketch of the history of the basin from
Eocene to Quaternary times.
On the folding of Carboniferous
strata in southwestern Iowa. [Ab-
stract. ]
Iowa Acad Sci., Proc., 1887-1889, pp. 58-C2.
Description of the flexures and of the strata
involved.
Deep well at Le Mars, Iowa.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 124-125, > p.
Nature ol rock* from 900 to 1,400 loot.
Nebraska.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 293-296.
Geueral sketch of geology of State and
geological note* for railway station*.
[- — ] [Notes on glacial deposits of North
and South Dakota.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 233, 254, 255, 256.
Geological notes for railway stations.
TORREY, Joseph, jr., BARBOUR,
Erwin If ., and. Microscopic structure
of ooli'e, with analyses.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series. vol. 40, pp. 216-249.
From Iowa, and Chester County, Pennsyl-
vania.
[TURNER, H. W.] [Notes ou Califor-
nia.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 320, 324, 326, * p.
Reference to the ago of the rocks at San
Francisco, format ions in hill* of Santa Rosa
and Miocene at Alum Rock Canon.
TYRRELL, J. B. Notes to accompany a
preliminary map of the Duck and Rid-
ing Mountain in northwestern Mani-
toba.
Canada, Geol Surrey, Reports, vol. 3, new
series, part 1, Report E, 16 pages, map. 18M.
Abstracts, Ibid., Report A. pp. H IS ; Am.
Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 241-242, g p.; Am. Jour
Sci., 3d aerie*, vol. 38. p. 78. \ p.
Pleistocene deposit*, shoreline features, and
history. Brief references to Devonian and
Cretaceou* suhterraue.
[Observations in southwestern Man-
itoba.]
Canada. Geol. Survey, Reports, vol.3, new
•eriea, part 1, Report A. pp. 72-75. 1888.
Includes brief re feicuce to glacial deposits,
Cretaceous outcrops, a gypsum deposit, and*
TYRRELL, J. B —Continued.
bore well through the Cretaceous to the
Devonian.
The Cretaceous of Manitoba.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d aeries, vol. 49, pp.227-
232.
Relation-*, distribution, equivalency, and
stratigraphy.
Post-Tertiary deposits of Manitoba
aud the adjoining territories in north-
western Canada.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 395-406, 407,
440.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 119, \ p.;
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 208-209, J p.; Am.
Jour. Sci. , 3d series, vol. 40, p. 88-90.
An account of the distribution, character-
istics, and relations of the various glacial and
aqueous deposil* and discussion of their his-
tory. Discussed by J.E.Mills, T.C.Cham-
berlin, N. S. Shaler, W J McUee, aud J. \V.
Sj>eucer, pp. 407-409.
[Remarks on the Laramie group and
its associates in Canada.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 528-529, i p.
In discussion of paper by J. S. Newberry on
"The Laramie group."
UHLER, P. R. Maryland.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d edi-
tion, pp. 332 331.
(ioological notes for railway station*.
U. S. Geological Survey, Eighth An-
nual Report, itfdG-'ttf, byJ.W. Powell.
Division of Archean geology, Pum-
I'KLLY.
Division of coast line geology, Sha-
I.KJt.
Lake Superior division, Irving.
Division of glacial geology, Cham-
bkklin.
Rocky Mountain division of gfology,
Emmons.
Montana division of geology, Pkalk.
California division of geology, liitCK-
KR.
Division of volcanic geology, Dut-
TON.
Paleozoic division of invertebrate
pa leontology , \V a lcott.
Division of Mesozoio paleontology,
Wiiitk, C. A.
Division of paleobotany, Ward.
Quaternary history of Mono Valley,
California, Russell.
Geology of Lasseu Peak district, Dil-
ler.
daktok.] RECORD OP NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
79
IT. 8. Geological Survey — Cod tinned.
Trenton limestone petroleum and gas
in Ohio aud Iudiaua, Orton.
Geographical distribution of fossil
plants, Ward.
Geology of quicksilver deposits of
Paciric slope, Becker.
Geology of Mt. Desert Island, Maine,
Shalbr.
, Ninth AnnoalReport, 1887-88,
by J. W. Powell.
. Atlantic coast division, Shalbr.
Archean geology, Pdmpelly.
Lake Superior division. Van Hisb.
Yellowstone Park division, Hague.
Division of petrography, Dillbr.
California division, Becker.
Potomac division of geology, McGee.
Lower Mississippi division, Johnson.
Montana division of geology, Pealb.
Division of vertebrate paleontology,
Marsh.
Division of Paleozoic invertebrates,
Walcott.
Division of Mesozoic invertebrates,
White, C. A.
Division of Cenozoic invertebrates,
Dall.
Division of Paleobotany, Ward.
Geology of Cape Auu, Massachusetts,
Shalbr.
Formation of travertin and sinter by
vegetation of Hot Springs, Weed.
Northwestern Colorado and adjacent
parts, White, C. A.
TJ. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No.
55. Triassic sandstone from Mary-
land, analysis, Clarke, F. W.
Liuiostoue near Defiance, Ohio, analy-
sis, Whitfield, J. E.
Rocks from Menominee River, analy-
sis, KlGGS.
Rocks from Pigeon Point, analyses,
HiLLEBitAND. Whitfield, J. E.
Riggs.
Rocks from Montana, analyses, Cha-
tard.
Lava from Shasta County, California,
analysis, Riggs.
Volcanic rocks from California, analy-
ses, Chatard. Hillebrand.
Clays from Owen's Lake, California,
analyses, Chatard.
Clays, sand, etc., from Martha's Vine-
yard, Clarke. Riggs.
U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No.
56. Fossil wood of the Potomac for-
mation, Knowlton.
, No. 57.
Introduction, McGee.
Reconnaissance in southwestern Kan-
sas, Hay.
, No. 58.
Introduction, Chamberlin.
Glacial boundary iu western Pennsyl-
vania to Illinois, Wright.
, No. 59.
Gabbrqs aud associates in Delaware,
Chester.
-, No. 60.
Natural soda, Chatard.
Novacnlites, Michigan, analysis,
HlLLEBRAND.
Brick clay, Minnesota, analysis, Cha-
tard.
Rocks from Montana, analyses, Cha-
tard aud E a kins.
Limestoues from Montana, analyses,
Catlbtt.
Eruptives from Henry Mountain,
analyses, Riggs.
Rocks collected by Irving, analyses,
Hillkbrand, Chatard.
Rocks from New Mexico, analyses,
EAKIN8.
Lavas from Lassen Peak, analyses,
HlLLEBRAND. RlGGS.
Basalt, Asia Minor, analysis, Cha-
tard.
Sandstones, Berea, Ohio, analyses,
Eakins.
White earth from Georgia, analysis,
Catlett.
Inclusion in diorite, New York,
analysis, Chatard.
White marble, Cockeysville, Mary-
land, analysis, Whitfield, J. E.
Dolomite, Westchester County, New
York, analysis, Hillebrand.
Dolomite and clay, Alabama, analy-
sis, HlLLEBRAND.
Marble from Louisiana, analysis,
HlLLEBRAND.
Limestones from Ohio, aualyses,
Clarke aud Riggs.
Trentou 1 i in e.s tones from Ohio aud
Indiana, analyses. Clarke, F. W.
Catlett.
Coquina, aud coral rock from Florida,
analyses, Clarke, F. W.
80
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. Ihitll. 0L
U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin No.
56 — Coutinued.
Coquina, coral and coral rocks,
analyses, Eakins.
, No. 62.
Explanatory aud historical note,
Irving.
Greenstone schists of Menominee and
Martinet to region of Michigan,
Williams. G. U.
, No. 64.
Rocks from Baltimore County, Mary-
land, analyses, Wiiitkikld, J. E.
Chatard.
Serpentines, analyses, Catlktt.
Geyserito from New Zealand, analy-
ses, Whitfield, J. E.
Sandstone from Bnena Vista, Ohio,
analysis, Clark k, F. W.
Sandstone from Portsmouth, Ohio,
analysis, Chatard.
Limestone from Silverdale, Kansas,
analysis, Catlktt.
Rock from Marion, Kentucky, analy-
sis. Eakins.
Rocks from Pigeon Point, Michigau,
analyses, Eakins.
Diabase, Michigan, analysis, Cha-
tard.
Rocks from Penokee-Gogebic, Wis-
consin, analyses, Eakins.
Eruptive, Hot Spriugs, Arkansas,
analysis, Eakins.
Recent lavas from Arizona, analyses,
Eakins.
Eruptive, from Mo u tana, analysis.
Eakins.
Rocks from northern California,
aualyscs, Whitfield, J. E. Ea-
kins.
Adobe soils, analyses, Eakins.
Clays, analyses, Catlktt.
, No. 65.
Stratigraphy of coal rocks of northern
half of the Appalachian field,
White, I. C.
, No. 66.
Volcanic rocks from Tewan moun-
tains, New Mexico, Iddings.
-, No. 67.
Traps of Newark system in New Jer-
sey region, Dakton.
TJ. S. Geological Survey ,*Monographa.
Vol 1. Lake Bonneville, Gilbert.
U. S. Geological Survey, Monographs.
Vol. 15. Potomac or youuger Moso-
zoic flora, Fontaink,
Vol. 16. Fossil fishes of the Paleo-
zoic. Newberry.
U. S. National Museum, Proceedings,
Vol. 12.
Serpentiuous rocks, Mkiiuill, G. II.
UPHAM, Warren. The growth, cul-
mination, aud departure of the Qua-
ternary ice sheets.
Botton Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc., vol. 24, pp.
450-455.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 123, g p.
A general review of the history of the
glacial period, especially of the climatic con-
ditions ami their relations to continental up-
lift
[ Remarks on the exceptional charac-
ter of t lm climate of the glacial period. ]
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Proc, vo'. 24, pp.
465-466.
Discussion of evidence of glaciation in pre-
Pleistocene times in varioiiH parts of the world
and the cause of the climatic changes.
Quaternary changes of level.
Geol. Magazine, decade III, vol. 7, pp. 492-
407.
Discussion of history and consequences of
Pleistocene changes of level of North America
and Europe.
The liords and great lake basins of
North America considered as evidence
of preglacial continental elevation aud
of depression during the glacial period.
G-eol. Soc. Am., Ball., vol. *., pp. 593-567
Artesian wells in North and South
Dakota.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6. pp. 211-212.
DUcassion of conditions controlling depth,
disirihution, amount, pressure, and composi-
tion of the artesian waters.
On the cause of the glacial period.
Am. Geologist, vol. (?, pp. 327-339.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 25, p. 277, J p.
1881.
Discusses evidence of a general great post-
glacial continental subsidence.
Pleistocene submergence of the Isth-
mus of Panama.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, p. 396, } p.
Discussion of the bearing of certain fossil -
iferous deposits and the effoct of the sub-
mergence on climatic conditions of the Ice
aj;e.
[ ] [Notes ou glacial features, Massa-
chusetts and Minnesota.]
babtos-1 RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
81
T, Warren — Continued.
Macfarlane's G-eol. Railway Guide. 2d
edition, pp. 107, 210-252.
Notes for railway stations.
[ ] St. Paul, Minneapolis and Mani-
toba Railway.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 264.
Geological noteajfor the stations in Montana.
Utah, Analysis of adobe soil. Eakins.
Analyses of rooks from Henry Moun-
tains, Riggs.
Lake Bonneville, Gilbert.
Utah — Co n ti nued .
Origin of normal faults, Readk.
Macfarlaue/s Railway Guide, Davis.
Gilbert. Hague.
Movements in Rocky Mountains, Em-
mons.
Northwestern Colorado region,
White, C. A.
Rooky Mountain protasis, Dana.
Strength of the earth's cruet, Gil-
bert.
Uinta formation, Scott.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
v.
VAN DIBST, P. H. Remarks on the
plication of the Coal Measures in south-
eastern Colorado and northeastern New
Mexico.
Oolorado Soi. Soc. , Proc, vol. 3, pp, 185-190.
An account of the flexures and of tho coal
beds involved.
, C. R. The pre-Cambrian
rocks of the Black Hills.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 203-244,
pis. 4,5.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 201,
954, 1070-1071.
Distribution; structure; lithologio charac-
ters and history of the various rooks; nature
of the original sediments ; origin and age of
the granites, and correlation and comparison
with pre-Cambrian of Lake Superior region
and elsewhere. Includes some brief general
remarks of the permanency of clastio charac-
ters in rooks.
[Remarks on certain questions of
equivalency and structure of the crys-
tallines of the Northwest.]
Geol. Soo. Am., Boll., vol. 1, pp. 390-301, 393.
Discussion of paper by A. Winohell on
"Some results of Archean studies."
Report — Lake Saperior division.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 79-64. 1889.
Incidental reference to results of investiga-
tions by Irving and himself in the Penokee
iron-bearing series, and by G. H. Williams in
the Menominee-Marquette region.
Vassar College Institute, Transac-
tions, vol. 5.
Trenton fossils at Pleasant Valley,
New York, D wight.
Cambrian system, D wight.
Foasillferous strata at Stissing, New
York, Dwight.
Glacial phenomena, Dwight.
Bull. 91 6
Vermont, Archean axes of eastern North
America, Dana.
Calciferous in Cham plain Valley,
Brainard and Seely. Walcott.
Beruardston scries, Emerson.
Building stone, Merrill, G. P.
Granitoid areas in Lower Lauren tian,
Hitchcock.
Eoliau limestones, Hitchcock.
Distribution of bowlders, Hitchcock.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hitch-
cock.
Report, Paleozoic division of Paleon-
tology, U. S. Geol. Survey, Wal-
cott.
Rocks at Fort Cassin, Whitfield, R.
P.
Tacdnic Mountains, Am. Geologist.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
Virginia, Building stone, Merrill, G. P.
Corundum in Patrick County,
Genth.
Dikes in Paleozoic series, Darton.
Diller.
Evidence of glacial action in Vir-
ginia, Minor.
Expedition into southern Maryland
and Virginia, Clark.
Fossil wood of Potomac formation,
Knowlton.
Glacial climate [gravels], Shale r.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Camp-
bell. Chester. Fontaine.
Rogers.
Notes on Richmond coal field, Clif-
ford.
Potomac flora, Fontaine.
Triassic flora of Richmond, Virginia,
Marcou.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
82
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. Cull. 91.
w.
Wagner Free Institute of Science,
Transactions, vol. 3.
Miocene fauna of Florida, Dall.
WALCOTT, C. D. Report— Paleozoic
division of invertebrate paleontology.
U. S. Geol. Survey, 8th Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 174-178, 1889.
Includes brief reference to novae results of
explorations in Washington County and
northern Du tehees County, New York, and in
the roofing slates of Vermont.
Report — Division of Paleozoic in-
vertebrates.
U. S. Geol. Stirrer, 9th Report, J. W. Pow-
ell, pp. 115-120, 1889.
Includes a brief account of results of inves-
tigations in the Taconio region of Washing-
ton County, and of the Hudson terrane in the
Hudson valley and Schoharie County, New
York.
A review of Dr. R. W. Ella's second
report on the geology of a portion of
the Province of Quebec ; with addi-
tional notes on the "Quebec Group."
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 101-
115.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 954,
iP.
Abstracts from the report, comparison of
statements of various observer's concerning
the region and discussion of stratigraphy and
faunal relations of the lower Silurian and
Cambrian.
» Stndy of a lino of displacement iu
the Grand Canon of the Colorado in
northern Arizona.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 49-64.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 110, 4
lines.
Description of the displacement phenomena
and sketch of the various movements and
their bearing on the geologic history of the
region.
The value of the term "Hudson
River Group" iu geologic nomencla-
ture.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 335-353,
354, 355.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 120, 6
lines.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24. p. 955. C lines.
Review of the application and taxonomic
value of the term, and of the distribution,
characteristics, and general stratigrapbio re-
lations of the group. P. 355 announces the
discovery of Niagara fossils in Washington
WALCOTT, C. D.— Continued.
County, Now York. Discussed by James
Hjll and W. M. Davis, pp. 354-355.
[Remarks on the thickness and
identity of the Calciferous formation
from Canada to Tennessee.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 512-513.
In discussion of paper by E. Brainerd and
II. M.Seely on "The Calciferous formation*
in the Cbamplain valley."
[ ] The Hercynian fauna of the
northern Hartz in Germany.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d scries, voL 39, pp. 155-
156.
Description of paper of this title by J. M.
Clarke, with a remark in regard to the classi-
fication of the Paleozoic groups.
WALDO, C. A. The petroleum belt of
Terre Haute. [Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc., vol 38, p.
250, i p.
Stratigraphic position, extent, and atruoture
of oil-bearing strata.
WANNER, Atreus. Casts of scolithus
flattened by pressure.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 35-38.
York County, Pennsylvania.
The discovery of fossil tracks, al-
gae, etc., in the Triassic of York
County, Pennsylvania.
Pennsylvania, Geol. Surrey, Report for
1887. pp. 21-35.
With incidental descriptions of the con-
taining beds.
WARD, Lester F. Report— Division of
paleobotany.
U. S. Geol. Surrey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 184-188, 1889.
Include brief reference to paleontologic ev-
idence as to age of sandy clays at Grove
Point on Chesapeake Bay, Maryland.
The geographical distribution of
fossil plants.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 063-960, pi. LXI, 1889.
Consists of an enumeration of localities all
over the world, with references as far as prao*
ticable to the age of the containing forma-
tions.
Paucs 818-931 aud the map relate to the
United States under which the geological
horizon of plant bearing beds is in some cases
briefly discussed.
da«*o.i.| KKCORD OP NOKTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
83
WARD, Lester F. — Coutiuued,
Report — Division of paleobotany.
TJ. S. Geol. Surrey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 128-131, 1889.
Includes brief untie* of the results of a re-
connaissance in southern Montana.
[Remarks on the age of the Lara-
mie group.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Boll., vol. 1, pp. 529-532.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 564-568.
Discussion of paper by J. S. Newberry on
"The Laramie group."
[Remarks on the Cretaceous forma-
tion in Gay Head.]
GeoL Soo. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 555-556,
§ i>-
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 562-503.
Discussion of paper by D. White, ou " Cre-
taceous plants from Martha's Vineyard."
WARD, T. On the salt deposits of tho
United States of America and Canada,
with notes on a visit to tho more im-
portant of them.
Manchester, Geol. Soc, Trans., vol. 20, pp.
471-496.
Includes some brief incidental geologic ref
erences, mainly from previous writers.
Warren's New Physical Geography,
Brewer.
Washburn College Laboratory, Bul-
letin, vol. 11, No. 2.
Cheyenne sandstone and Neocomian
of Kansas, Craoin.
Washington, Macfarlane's Railway
Gnide, Dawson, G. M. Willis.
Washington Philosophical Society,
Bulletin, voL 11, pp. 191-220.
Igneous rooks in Yellowstone Park,
IDDING8.
"WEBER, A. H. Santa Clara County.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
pp. 48-56.
Includes references to geology.
WEBSTER, Cloment L. The transi-
tional drift of a portion of northern
Iowa.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 1182-1185.
Description of a hitherto undifferentiated
tnembei of the drift formations, with remarks
on its history.
WEED, Walter Harvey. Formation of
travertine and siliceous sinter by the
vegetation of hot springs.
U. S. GaoL Surrey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 618-676, pis. 78-87.
Abstracts, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol 41,
WEED, Walter Harvey— Continued,
pp. 158-159. 1891 ; Am. Geologist, vol. 7, p.
201, 1 p. 1891.
Description of the deposits and discussion
of their origin and rate and condition of depo-
sition. Relates mainly to the Yellowstone
Park accumulations, but also includes a brief
account of those of New Zealand.
Diatom bods and bogs of the Yellow-
stone National Park.
Botanical Gazette, vol. 14.
Abstract* Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39,
p. 521, i p.
Geysers.
School of Mines Quart., vol. 11, pp. 289-
306.
Review of geyser theories, prefaced by brief
accounts of the geyser phenomena in various
pails of the world.
WELLS, David A. Evidences of gla-
cial action in southeastern Connecticut.
Popular Science Monthly, vol. 37, pp. 190-
201.
Descriptions and illustrations of some nota-
ble bowlders and remarks on their history and
the glacial history of the region.
WEITZEL, R. S. The coal fields of
Texas.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 50, pp.
214-216, 2 cols , 4°.
Includes references from various sources.
West Indies. Analynis of coral, Eakixs.
Notes on geology of the Bahamas,
Nortiirup.
Vincelonian volcano, Sua up.
West Virginia. Glacial boundary,
Chambkrlin. Wright.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Par-
sons. White, I. C.
Wairen's Geography, Brewer.
WHITE, C. A. The North American
Mesozoic.
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,Proo., vol. 38, pp. 205-
226.
Abstract, Popular Science Monthly, voL
37, pp. 140, 141, * col.
A general review.
Report — Division of Mesozoic paleon-
tology.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Eighth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 178-181. 18*9.
Includes an account of studies of the Cre-
taceous formations in Texas.
Report — Division of Mesozoic inver-
tebrates.
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 120-123, 1889.
84
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [bull. 91.
"WHITE, C. A.— Continued.
Includes statements regarding the classifi-
cation of the Texas Cretaceous formations
aud the relations of the Laramie group on the
. Rio Grande.
On the geology and physiography of
a portion of northeastern Colorado and
adjacent points of Utah and Wyoming.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, pp. 677-712, PI. LXXVlll, 1889.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 7, pp. 67-58,
1891.
Description of the Archean, Uinta, Carbo-
niferous, Cretaceous, and Tertiary forma*
tions, and the structural features, and review
of the relations and the history of the dis-
placements. With a colored geologic map
Remarks on the Cretaceous of north-
ern Mexico. [Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. , Proc. , vol. 38, p. 252.
State of Chihuahua and adjacent parts of
Texas and New Mexico. Thickness, equiva-
lenoy of stratigraphic components, and rela-
tions of underlying Carboniferous.
The lower Cretaceous of the San
Carlos Mountains, New Mexico.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d serfes, vol. 39, p. 70, | p.
Statement of opinion in regard to its history.
WHITE, David. On Cretaceous plants
from Martha's Vineyard.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 39, pp. 93-101,
PL II.
Abstracts, Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp.
564-556; Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 121, } p.
List of plants, review of previous observers,
and discussion of the horizon of the plant-
bearing series.
Discussed by J. S. Newberry, L. P. Ward,
F. J. H. Merrill, Geo. Soc. Am. , Bull., vol. 1.
pp. 553-556.
"WHITE, I. C. [Remarks on the history
of the glacial deposits in the npper
Ohio region.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 477-478,
479-480.
In discussion of paper by T. C. Chamberlin
on " 8onie additional evldenoo bearing on the
interval between the glacial epochs."
— [Remarks on pressure of gas in
western Pennsylvania region.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 95-96,
In discussion of memoir by Edward Orton
on "Origin of rock pressure of natural gas."
[ ] Pittsburg and Lake Erie Railroad.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, p. 174, J p.
Geological notes for the stations.
[ ] West Virginia [aud Chesapeake
and Ohio Railroad in Kentucky].
WHITE, I. C— Continual.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 337-351.
Description of tho formations of West Vir-
ginia and geological notes for railway sta-
tions.
WHITEAVES, J. F. Description of
eight new species of fossils from the
Cambro-Silurian rocks of Manitoba.
Canada, Roy. Soc., Trans., vol. 7, section
iv, pp. 76-83, Pis. xii-xvn..
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 58, £ p.
Includes (i page) note on the equivalency
of the Cambro-Silurian members in Manitoba.
WHITFIELD, J. Edward. Limestone
from the Auglaize River near Defiance,
Ohio. [ Partial analysis. ]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., 56, p. 80, i p., 1889.
Rocks from Pigeon Point, Minne-
sota. [Analysis.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 65, pp. 81-82,
1889.
White dolomite marble, Cockeys-
ville, Maryland. [Analysis.]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 60, p. 159, i p.
Rocks from Baltimore County,
Maryland . [ Anal x sis. ]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 42, J p.
PyroxenitOH.
Geyserites from Rotorua, New Zea-
land. [Analyses.]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, p. 45, £ p.
Eruptive rocks from northern Cali-
forni a. [An aly ses. ]
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 64, pp. 40-50.
WHITFIELD, R. P. Observations on
the fauna of the rocks at Fort Cassin,
Vermont, with descriptions of a few
new species.
Am. Museum Nat. Hist., Bull., vol. :*, pp.
25-39, pis. 1-3.
With prefatory discission of the scinti-
graphic position of the membors in the Fort
Cassin region.
Tho Fort Cassin rocks and their
fauna.
Geol. Soc., Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 514-515.
Discussion of faunal evidence as to their
age and equivalency.
WTLLCOX, Joseph. [Observations on
geology of southern Florida. ]
TJ. S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, p. 125, i p. lt>9. "
Noted by W. M. Pall, Report— division of
Cenozoic invertebrates.
DAKTow.J RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
85
WILLIAMS, George Huntington. The
greenstone schist areas of the Menom-
inee and Marquette regions, of Michi-
gan ; a contribution to the subject of
dynamic metamorphisra in eruptive
rocks.
U. S. G-eol. Survey, Ball. No. 62, pp. 31-241,
pis. m-xvi.
Petrographic descriptions and discussion
of the origin of the rooka and the hiatory of
their metaraorphism. Inclades incidental
descriptions of relatione in the field, and
as chapter on the present state of knowledge
regarding the metamorphism of eruptive
rocks. Illustrated by colored micro-petro-
graphic plates.
The nonfeldspathic iutrnsive rocks
of Maryland, and the course of their
alteration.
Am. Geologist, vol. 8, pp. 35-49.
Mainly petrographic. Includes an account
of their occurrence and geologic relations.
Note on the eruptiye origin of the
Syracuse serpentine.
Gaol. Soc. Am., Boll., vol. 1, pp. 533-534.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 118, J p.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 211, 4 lines.
Description of new exposures exhibiting
the relations of the dike and the occurrence
of inclusions. Remarks by James Hall and
J. F. Kemp, p. 534, & p.
Geological and petrographical ob-
servations in southern and western
Norway.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 551-553.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 120-
121, t p.; Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 210-211,
iP
Mainly in regard to metamorphism: dis
cuased by B. K. Emerson, p. 553, | p.
Significance of oval granitoid areas.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, p. 558, J p.
Discussion of paper by C. H. Hitchcock on
" Significance of oval granitoid areas in the
lower Laurent ian."
— On a geological excursion in the
northern Appalachian chain.
•
Johns Hopkins Univ., Circulars, vol. 10,
No. 84, pp. 27-28, 1} cols., 4°.
Remarks on observations on the crystalline
rocks of western New England, the crystal-
line limestones of New Jersey, the structure
and relations of cruptives and metamorphics
constituting the Adirondacks in New York,
and the Hasting series of Canada.
— [Notice of the results of studies in
the Menominee aud Marquette regions.]
U. &. Geol. Survey, Eigth Report, J. W.
Powell, p. 135, { p. 1880.
WILLIAMS, George H.— Continued.
Brief reference to nature and origin of cer-
tain rocks.
[Notice of results of petrographic
studies in the greenstone schist areas
of the Marquette and Menominee re-
gions of Michigan.]
TJ. S. Geol, Survey, Ninth Report, J. W.
Powell, p. 83, } p. 1889.
Stated by C. R. Van Hise in Report-Lake
Superior division.
Geology of the vicinity of Balti-
more.
■ Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 334-335.
Description of the crystalline rocks.
WILLIAMS, H. S. The Devonian sys-
tem of North and South Devonshire.
Am. Jour. Sci. , 8d series, vol. 39, pp. 31-38.
Abstract, Am. Assoc. Adv. Science, Proc,
vol. 88, pp. 233-234, { p.
Geologic and faunal characteristics and
comparison of faunae with those of the North
American formations.
The Cuboides zone and its fauna;
a discussion of methods of correlation.
Geol. Soc. Am., Boll.! vol. 1, pp. 481-500,
pis. 11-13.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 120, 1 p.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 290, 766. } p.
Comprises a discussion of principles of cor-
relation and the homotaxis of the Tully limo-
stone of New York and the Cuboides zone of
Europe.
North American paleontology for
1887 and 1888.
Smithsonian Institution, Report, 1888 (part
1), pp. 261-326.
Contains incidental references to the geo-
logic bearing of some of the paleontologio
papers.
] The American committee of the
[
International Congress of Geologists.
Am. Jour. Sci., 3d scries, vol.40, pp. 166-167.
Discussion of its status.
] [Geological notes in central and
western New York.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 121,123,131.
Delaware, Lackawana and Western Rail-
way from Biughamton to Buffalo and West
Shore Railway from Albany to Buffalo.
[WILLIS, Bailey.] Washington.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 264-266.
Geological notes for railroad stations.
WILLISTON, 8. W. Chalk from the
Niobrara Cretaceous of Kansas.
86
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOOY FOR lsflO. [nm..91.
WILLISTON, S. W.-Coutinm-d.
Science, vol. 16, p. 204, g col., 4°.
An account of tbo organic component*.
.WINCHELL, Alexander. Some results
of Arcbean studies.
Geol. Soc. Am., Boll., vol. 1, pp. 357-390,
392-393.
Abstracts, Am. Geologist, vol. 5, p. 121, J p.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, pp. 291-292.
A discussion of the relations, structure,
olRssi6catioDl age, and history of the crystal-
line rocks of the Northwest, especially in tho
northeastern Minnesota region.
Discussed by C. K. Van Hise, pp. 391-393.
— - [Strength of tho earth's crust.]
Oeol. Soc. Am., Boll., voL 1, pp. 25-26, t p.
Diaoussion of paper by G. EL Gilbert with
that title.
[Remarks on the distribution of
bowlders in the lower peninsula of
Michigan.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Ball., vol. 1, p. 29, J p.
In discussion of paper by T. C. Chamberlin
on "ttowlder belts distinguished from bowl-
der trains."
Tho geological position of the
Ogishke conglomerate. [Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proa, vol. 38, pp.
234-236, | p.
Recent observations on some Cana-
dian rocks.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 360-370.
Between Sault Ste. Marie and Echo River,
on the rivi r Ste. Marie and in the vicinity of
Echo Lake. Description of Huron tan rocks
and their ferruginous deposit*, aud dixcugAion
of tho relation and equivalency of the rocks
of the Echo Lake region.
Michigan.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 189-107.
Sketch of the geology of Michigan, list of
£ormations and geologic notes for railway sta-
tions.
Recent views about glaciers.
The Forum, vol. 10, pp. 306-314.
A general review of glacial theories.
[WINCHELL, N. II.] Northern Pa-
cific Railroad.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 258-259.
Geologic notes for stations in Minnesota
and eastern Dakota.
and WINCHELL, H. V. On a
possible chemical origin of the iron
ores of the Keewatiu in Minnesota.
Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Proc, *oL 38, pp.
235-212.
WINCHELL, N. H.,aiid WINCHELL,
H. V. — Continued.
The Taconic iron ores of Minnesota
and western Now England.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 263-274.
Abstract, Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. 40,
p. 332, i p.
Discussion of the equivalency of certain ore
horizons in the two regions and a review of
the age and relations of the Umestoues of
western New England.
WINSLOW, Arthnr. Notes on the
coal beds of Lafayette County.
Missouri, Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 1, pp.
14-21.
Extent, thickness, ago, geologic map.
Wisconsin, Analyses of rocks collected
by Irving, Hillebkaxd.
Analyses of rocks from Menominee
River, Rigos.
Analyses of rocks from Penokee-Go-
gebio range, Eakixs.
A recent rock-tlexure, Cramer.
Glacial sand plains, Davis.
Greenstone schists of Menominee-
Marquette region, Williams, G. H.
Irving.
Pro-Cambrian of the Black Hills of
Dakota, Van Hise.
Report — Lake Superior division, U.
S. Geol. Survey, Irving. Van Hise.
Warren's Geography, Drkwkr.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Cham-
be ulik.
WITTER, F. M. Some additional ob-
servations on the loess in aud about
MnBcatine. [Abstract.]
Iowa Acad. Sci., Proc, 1 887- 1889. p. 45, f p.
Description of it* characteristics and refer-
ence to its organic remains.
WOOD, Herbert R. Kamanistiquia sil-
ver-bearing belt.
Canadian Inst., Proc, vol. 7. pp. 245-250.
With brief prefatory notes on its geology.
WOOD, J. Walter, jr., DAVIS, William
Morris, and. The geographic develop'
ment of northern New Jersey.
Boston Soc. Nat Hist., Proc, vol. 24, pp.
3tt-42».
A lis tract, Am. Geologist, vol. 8, pp. 105-
106, 1 p.
An analysis of tho history recorded in tho
topo^inphy and drainage of the rogion.
WOLFF, J. E. On some ocriiiTonces of
ottrelile and ilmeuite schUt iu 2s'o\v
' England.
uakton.] RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890.
87
WOLFF, J. E.— Continued.
Harrard Ool., Mai. Oomp. Zool., Ball:,
vol. 16, ]»p. 159-165.
Petro graphic descriptions of specimens
from Rhode Island and western Massachu-
setts.
The geology of the Crazy Mountains,
Montana.
Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 290, 6 lines.
Notice of paper read to Geol. Society of
America, December, 1889. Reference to rela-
tions of eruptives to the Cretaceous strata.
WOODWARD, R. S. See GILBERT,
G. K., Lake Bonneville.
WOOLMAN, Lewis. Geology of arte-
sian wells at Atlantic City, New Jersey.
Philadelphia, Acad. Nat. Sciences, Proc.,
1890. pp 132-147, plate.
Abstract by author, N. J. OeoL Survey,
Report for 1889, pp. 89-99, plate.
Abstract, Popular Science Monthly, vol. 37,
pp. 848-849, 7 lines. .
Descriptions and columnar record of the
borings, list of fossils and remarks on the
horizon and the equivalency of the formations
penetrated.
Marine and fresh water diatoms and
sponge-spicules from the Delaware
River clays of Philadelphia.
Philadelphia, Acad. Nat. Sciences, Proc,
1890, pp. 189-191.
With incidental references to exposures and
the history of the beds.
WOOSTER, L. C. The perrno-Carbou-
iferous of Greenwood and Butler Coun-
ties, Kansas.
Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 9-18.
Stratigraphy. Equivalency. Fauna. Drain-
age and superficial deposits.
[WORTHEN, A. H.] Illinois.
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 209-221.
Geologic notes for railway stations.
WRIGHT, George Frederick. The gla-
cial boundary in western Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois.
U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 58, pp. 39-110,
pis. 1-7.
Abstract, Am. Geologist, vol. 6, pp. 390-391,
4 P-
Distribution of till near the margin from
New England to Missouri. Striated rook
surfaces. Hypothesis of a glacial dam at
Cincinnati. The loess and its relations to the
glacial drift Interglaoial man in Ohio.
WRIGHT, George F.— Continued.
The lake ridges of Ohio and their
probable relations to the lines of gla-
cial drainage into the valley of the Sub-*
quebanna. [Abstract.]
Am. Assoc. Adv. Science, Proc. , vol. 38, p.
247, | p.
Abstract, Popular Science Monthly, vol.
36, pp. 423-424, \ col.
— [Remarks on disposition of bowlders
in the morainal fringes.]
Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 1, pp. 29-30.
In di8cnssion of paper by T. C. Chamberlin
on " Bowlder belts distinguished from bowl*
der trains."
A moraine of recession in Ontario.
Geol. Soc. Am. , Bull., vol. 1, pp. 544-545.
Abstract, Am. Naturalist, vol. 24, p. 209, i
p. ; p. 771, 4 lines.
Topography, structure, and history.
Discussed* by J. W. Spencer, p. 546, i p.
[ ] [Notes on glacial features.]
Macfarlane's Geol. Railway Guide, 2d
edition, pp. 178, 179, 181, 182, 184, 185, 206, 221,
395, | p.
For certain districts in Ohio, Indiana, Illi-
nois, and Kentucky.
W YATT, Francis. Notes on Florida
phosphate beds.
Engineering and Mining Jour., vol. 50, pp.
2l8-'-»:0. 4o.
Geologic relations, history, and composi-
tion, mainly of deposits in Marion and Citrus
couuties.
Wyoming, Diatom beds, Yellowstone
Park, Weed.
Gey sere, Weed.
Macfarlane's Railway Guide, Hague.
Scott.
Laramie group, Newberry. Ward,
L. F.
Northwestern Colorado region,
White, C. A.
Report — Yellowstone Park division,
U. S. Geol. Survey, Hague.
Report of geologist, Ricketts.
Skull of Ceratopsida), Marsh.
Traventine and siliceous sinter,
Weed.
Uinta formation, Scott.
Warren's Geography, Brewer.
"Wyoming, Annual Report of the Ter-
ritorial Geologist, Ricketts.
88
RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN GEOLOGY FOR 1890. [hull 91.
Y.
YATES, Lorenzo Gordin. Notes on the | YATES, Lorenzo Gordiu — Continued.
geology and scenery of the islands '
forming the southern lino of the Santa \
Barbara Channel.
Am. Geologist, vol. 5, pp. 43-32.
Belations, distributions, and topography of
volcauic materials and Tertiary sediments.
— Stray nQtes on the geology of the
Channel Inlands.
California, Ninth Report of Mineralogist,
tpp. 171-174, map.
, LIBRARY CATALOGUE SUPS.
United States. Department of the interior. ( U. S. geological survey)*
Department of the interior | — | Bulletin | of the | United
States | geological survey | no. 92 | [Seal of the department] |
Washington | government printing office | 1892
X Second title: United States geological survey | J. W. Powell,
• director | — | The | compressibility of liquids | by | Carl Barns |
[Vignette] |
Washington | government printing office | 1892
8°. 96 pp. 29 pi.
Barns (Carl).
• United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | — |
e
The | compressibility of liquids | by | Carl Barns | [Viguette] |
Washington | government printing office | 1892
8°. 96 pp. 29 pi.
[United States. Department of the interior. (V. 8. geological turvey).
Bulletin 92].
■ United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | — |
| The | compressibility of liquids | by | Carl Barns | [Vignette] |
? Washington | government printing office | 1892
2 8°. 90 pp. 29 pi.
£ [United States. Department of the interior. (U. S. geological eurvey).
J Bulletin 92].
c
ADVERTISEMENT,
[Bulletin No. 92.]
The publications of the United States Geological Survey are issued in accordance with the statute
approved March 3, 1879, which declarer that —
"The publications of the Geological Survey shall consist of the annual report of operations, geological'
and economic maps illustrating the resources anil classification of the lands, and reports upon general
and economic geology and paleontology. The annual rej>ort of operations of the Geological Survey
shall accompany the, annual report of the Secretary of the Interior. All special memoirs and reports
of said Survey shall be issued iu uniform quarto series if deemed necessary by the Director, but other*
wise in ordinary octavos. Three thousand copies of each shall 1>e published for scientific exchanges
and for sale at the price of publication ; and all literary and cartographic materials received in exchange
ahall be the property of the United States and form a part of the library of the organization ; and the
money resulting from the sale of such publications shall be covered into tbo Treasury of the United
States."
On July 7, 1882, the following joint resolution, referring to all Government publications, was passed
by Congress :
"That whenever any document or report shall Ik* ordered printed by Congress, there shall be printed,
in addition to the number in each case stated, the 'usual number1 (1,900) of copies for binding and
distribution among those entitled to receive them."
Except in those cases in winch an extra number of any publication has been supplied to the Survey
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no copies for gratuitous distribution.
ANNUAL REPORTS.
I. First Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, by Clarence King. 1880. 8°. 79 pp.
1 map. — A preliminary report describing plan of organization and publications.
II. Second Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1880-' 81, by J. W. Powell. 1882.
8°. lv, 588 pp. 62 pi. 1 map.
III. Third Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1881-'82, by J. W. Powell. 1883.
8°. xviii, 564 pp. 67 pi. and maps.
IV. Fourth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1882-'83, by J. W. Powell. 1884.
8°. xxxii, 473 pp. 85 pi. and maps.
V. Fifth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1883-'84, by J. W. Powell. 1885.
8°. xxxvi, 469 pp. 58 pi. and maps.
VI. Sixth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1884-'85, by J. W. Powell. 1885.
8°. xxix, 570 pp. 65 pi. and maps.
VH. Seventh Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1885-'86, by J. W. Powell. 1888.
8°. xx, 656 pp. 71 pi. and maps.
VIII. Eighth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1886-'87, by J. W. Powell. 1889.
8°. 2 v. xix, 474, xii pp. 53 pi. and maps; 1 p. i. 475-1063 pp. 54-76 pi. and maps.
IX. Ninth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1887-'88, by J. W. Powell. 1889.
8°. xiii, 717 pp. 88 pi. and maps.
X. Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1888-' 89, by J. W. Powell. 1890.
8°. 2 v. xv, 774 pp. 9ft pi. and maps; viii. 123 pp.
XI. Eleventh Annual Report of the United States iroological Survey, 1889-'90, by J. W. Powell. 1891.
8°. 2v. xv, 757 pp. 66 pi. and maps; ix, 351 pp. 30 pi.
XII. Twelfth Aunnal Report of the United States Geological Survey, 1890-'91, by J. W. Powell. 1891.
8°. 2v. xiii, 675 pp. 53 pi. and maps ; xviii, 576 pp. 146 pi. and maps.
The Thirteenth Annual Report is in press.
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75. Record of North American Geology for 1887 to 1889, inclusive, by Nelson Horatio Darton. 1891.
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76. A Dictionary of Altitudes in the United States (second edition), compiled by Henry Gannett,
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78. A report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
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79. A Late Volcanic Eruption in Northern California and its Peculiar Lava, by J. S. Diller. 1891 . 8°.
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80. Correlation papers— Devonian and Carboniferous, by Henry Shaler Williams. 1891. 8°. 279 pp.
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81. Correlation papers— Cambrian, by Charles Doolittle Walcott. 1891. 8°. 447 pp. 3 pi. Price
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ADVERTISEMENT. T
82. Correlation papers— Cretaceous, by CharleR A. White. 1891. 8°. 273 pp. 3 pi. Price 20 cents.
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91. Record of North American Geology for 1890, by Nelson Horatio Darton. 1891. 8°. 88 pp. Price
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92. The Compressibility of Liquids, by Carl Barus. 1892. 8°. ' 9« pp. 29 pi. Price 10 cents.
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86. Correlation papers — Archean and Algonkian, by C. R. Van Hise.
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96. The Volume Thermodynamics of Liquids, by Carl Barus.
97. The Mcsozoic Echinodermata of the United States, by W. B. Clark.
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99. Record of North American Geology for 1891, by Nelson Horatio Darton.
100. Bibliography and Index of the publications of the U. S. Geological Survey, 1879-1892, by P. O.
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— Correlation papers — Pleistocene, by T. C. Chamberlin.
101. Insect fauna of the Rhode Island Coal Field, by Samuel Hubbard Scudder.
102. A Catalogue and Bibliography of North American Mcsozoic Invertebrata, by C. B. Boyle.
103. High Temperature Work in Igueous Fusion and Ebullition, Chiefly in Relation to Pressure, by
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104. Glaciation of the Yellowstone Valley, by W. H. Weed.
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Mineral Resources of the United States, 1883 and 1884, by Albert Williams, jr. 1885. 8°. xiv, 1016
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Washington, D. C, OetoUr, 139$.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BULLETIN
UNITED STATEf
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
No. 92
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING UFPIOB
1802
UNITED STATUS GEOLOGICAL StJltVEY
COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS
CARL BARTTS
w»SBi»t:i»»
aOTKHNMKNT FEINTING OFFICE
is 93
CONTENTS.
Pnrcw
Letter of transmittal 13
Preface 15
Chapter I. Fluid volume: Its dependence on pressure anil temperature 17
Introduction 17
Literature of compressibility 17
Literature of heat expansion HI
Remarks on the literature 20
Apparatus 20
Force pump and appurtenances 20
Pressure tube and appurtenances 20
Method of charging the tube 21
Method of heating 22
Pressure measurement 23
Volume changes of the glass tubes 25
Mercury tests 25
Isothermals and adiabatics m
f-!
Thermal expansiou : 27
Experimental results 28
Explanation 28
Ether 28
Alcohol 30
Palmitic acid 32
Pnra-toliiidiuc 33
Dipheny lamine 34
Caprinie acid ^ 35
Benzoic acid 35
Paraffin 30
Thymol 37
Naphthalene 40
Method of discussion 42
Plan pursued 42
Quadrat ic constants 42
Compressibility increasing inversely as the pressure binomial 43
Transition to exponential constants 43
Properties of the exponential equation 44
Exponential constants computed 40
Mean exponential constants derived 4H
Subsidiary results 40
Isothermals computed 50
Isometrics 5-1
Digression on thermal expansion 55
Exponential equation proposed 55
Observed contractions due to cooling iiih'.it piv.sM'.iv 50
'o
6 CONTENTS.
Vago.
Chapter I. Fluid volume: Its dependence on pressure and temperature — Con-
tinued.
Compressibility increasing inversely as the second power of the pressure
binominal 61
Properties of the hyperbolic equation til
Presumptive character of the isometrics 62
Hyperbolic constants computed 63
Mean hyperbolic constants derived 64
The isothermal band 65
Conclusion 65
Chapter II. The effect of pressure on the electrical conductivity of mercury. 68
Introductory G&
Purposes of the work 68
Literature 69
Simple methods and results 69
Cailletct's tubes described 69
Electrical apparatus 70
Preliminary data 70
Correction for volume changes of tube 71
Preliminary result stated 71
Piezometer methods and results 72
Tubular piezometer described 72
Results 73
Deductions 74
Purely thermal variation of resistance 74
Comparison with J. J. Thomson's equation 75
Zero of resistance 75
Electrical pre-wnr*1 iiieasnivrnvnt 75
Measurement of melting point and i>rossiii'e 7H
Conclusion 76
Chapter III. The compressibility of water above 100' * and its solvent action on
glass 78
Introduction 78
Behavior of water 78
Literature. Compressibility of water 78
Literature. Solvent action of water 79
Method of measurement and results 79
Apparatus 79
Low temperature data 80
High temperature data 80
Discussion of these result s SI
High temperature measurement repeated 82
Discussion of these results 82
Conclusion 83
Chapter IV. The solution of vulcanized india rubber 85
The present application 85
Solution in carbon disulphide 86
Solution in liquids of the pa raflin series 87
Solution in turpentine 87
Solution in chloroform and carbon tetrachloride 87
Solution in aniline 88
Solution iu animal oils 88
Treatment \>ith, glycerin 88
Solution in benzol and higher aromatic hvdrocarbons 88
CONTENTS. 7
Page.
Chapter IV. The solution of vulcanized india rubber — Continued,
Solutions in ethy lie and higher ethers 88
Treatment with alcohols 88
Treatment with ketones „ 88
Treatment with water and mineral acids 88
Treatment for vulcanization. Liquid ebonite 89
Solution in mixtures of solvents, and solution of mixed gums 89
Direct devulcanization 90
Fusion of impregnated rubber 90
Behavior of reagents and solvents 92
Summary of the results 93
Presumable conditions regarding the solution of carbon, etc 93
Index 95
i .-
TABLES.
Talile J. Compressibility of air. Tent of gauge
2. Comparison uf gauges
3. Compressibility of mercury. Test of tubes
i. Compressibility of filler
5. Compressibility of ether, referred to 100 atmospheres
li. TJieruial expansion of ether, referred to 2iW
7. Compressibility of alcohol
X. Compressibility of alcohol, referred to 150 atmospheres
9. Thermal expansion of alcohol, referred to 281"-
10. Compressibility of palmitic acid
11. Thermal expansion of palm i lie acid, referred to G3g
12. Compressibility of para-toliiidine
13. Thermal expansion of para-tolitidinc, referred ta'M'
II. Compressibility of diphenyl amine -
If.. Thermal expension of di|dienylaiiiiue, referred to 1>6J
Hi. Compressibility of capiinie acid
17. Tln-riiiiil expansion of caprinlc neid, referred to 30-'
18. Compressibility of benzoic acid
13. Compressibility of paraffin
20. Thermal expansion of paraffin, referred to SI1-"
21. Compressibility of paraffin
23. Compressibility of thymol
23. Thermal expansion of thymol, referred to 28"
21. Compressibility of raonobzoni camphor
21. Thermal expansion of mouohrom camphor, referred to Km-
2d. Compressibility of a nnpbthol
27. Thermal expansion of «naphtbol, referred to lOflv
2K. Compressibility (ifiizobcnz.il
2!). Thermal expansion of nzobeuzol, referred to WO0
311. ComiiressLl.il ity of vanillilie
31. Tbennat expansion of vanilline referred to 100>
32. Compressibility ofnaphthale.no
33. Compressibility of monoelilor-acetie acid
31. Quadratic constants which reproduce the isothermal decrements...
35. Exponential constants which reproduce the isothermal decrements.
Direct computation
SB. Meau exjHinential constants
37. Compressibility at melting anil at boilini; points
38. Isothermal*, of ether, referred to unit of volume. a!2 K-' and 100
atmospheres
89. Isothermal* of alcohol, referred to unit of volume at 28- anil 150
atmospheres
10
TABLES.
Table 40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
51.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
"Page.
Isothermals of paraffin, referred to uuit volume at 65° and 20 at-
mospheres 52
Isothermals of diphenylaminc, referred to uuit volume a£ 65° and 0
atmosphere 52
Isothermals of para-toluidine, referred to unit volume at 28c and 20
atmospheres 53
Isothermals of thymol, referred to unit volume at 28° and 20 atmos-
pheres 53
Expansion and compression constants of ether 56
Contraction due to cooling under pressure. Paraffin 5g
Contraction due to cooling under pressure. Paraffin 58
Contraction duo to cooling under pressure. Paraffin 59
Contraction due to cooling under pressure. Paraffin 60
Contraction due to cooling under pressure. Naphthalene 60
Contraction due to cooling under pressure. Monochlor-aeetic acid. 61
Hyperbolic constants which reproduce the isothermal decrements.
Direct computation 64
Mean hyperbolic constants 64
Isothermals of ether. Direct measurement 66
Effect of compression on the resistance of mcrcuty and of zinc sul-
phate solution * 70
Effect of isothermal compression on the electric resistance of mer-
cury. Piezometer method 73
Compressibility 6f water at low tempera t ures « 80
Compressibility of water at higher temperatures 81
Compressibility of water 82
Contraction and compressibility of siiicated water. Referred to
wntcr at -i and 2 J atmosphe:vs F2
ILLUSTRATIONS.
TV
• x Fig. 2. Relative isopiestics of paraffin. p0=20 atmospheres,
32
31
31
3(5
Page.
Plate I. — Capillary tube, with appurtenances, for measuring the compressi-
bility of liquids. Scale, one-third 20
II. — Approximate compressibility of mercury 26
fFig. 1. Relative isothermals of ether. ^0=100 atmospheres,
O0=29° 28
* ^ Fig. 2. Relative isopiestics of ether. j>o=100 atmospheres,
[ 0O=29O 28
( Fig. 1. Relative isothermals of alcohol. p0= 150 atmospheres,
I %=2&..* 30
| Fig. 2. Relative isopiestics of alcohol. p0=l50 atmospheres,
0o=28 30
Fig. 1. Relative isothermals of palmitic acid. j>0=20 atinos-
I pheres, 0O=65° 32
'I Fig. 2. Relative isopiestics of palmitic acid. j>0=20 atmos-
[ pheres, 0rt=65°
fFig. 1. Relative isothmals of toluidino. j>0=20 atmospheres,
>-=*>■'
IFig. 2. Relative isopiestics of tolniditie. />o=20 atmospheres,
6„^=28-
VTT J * **%' ** Relative isothermals of dipbenylamine. />t>— 0, 0U=66J).
' f Fig. 2. Relative isopiestics of diphcnylainine. /)g=0, 0n— -66°.. 36
'Fig. 1. Relative isothermals of capriuic acid. j>0— 20 atmos-
pheres, 0o—3O° 38
▼ 111. < p|g *j. K«)]{ltive isopiestics of capriuic acid. jj0=.20 atmos
[ pheres, 0„ --=30^ 38
(Fig. 1. .Relative isothermals of parallin. ;;„— 20 atinospberes,
ofl—fcv
[ 0o^~-(i5 40
X. — Relative isothermals of paraffin. jv-=0, 0. -=05' ' 42
1' Fig. 1. Relative isothermals of thvmol. ^0^=2() atmospheres,
6->^ • «
~*" )»Fig. 2. Relative isopiestics of thymol. })U-=2Q atmospheres,
| 00^28 ! 44
XII. — Relation of pressure coefficient and eomprcssi bility 46
^ Fig. 1. 1 sot hernials of alcohol 48
XI11* ) Fig. 2. Isometrics of alcohol 48
i Fig. 1. Isothermals of ether 50
A1>* / Fig. 2. Isopiestics of ether 50
£ Fig. 1. Isothermal*; of paraffin 52
A T •
40
I Fig. 2. Isometrics of paraffin
XVI. — Isothermals of dipheny Limine "4
XVII. — Isothermals of tolnidinc :"(»
XVII I. — Isothermals of thymol 53
11
12
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plato XIX. — Isometrics of ether, alcohol, paraffiue, diphenylamine, toluidine,
and thymol compared
XXi — Thormodynaniic surface
XXI. — Contraction on cooling. Para ffi ;i
Fig. 1. Contraction on cooling under pressure. Paraffin. 20
and 400 atmospheres
Fig. 2. Contraction on cooling under pressure. 20 ami 500
XXII. { atmospheres
Fig. 3. Contraction on cooling under pressure. 20 and 600
atmospheres ; i
Fig. i . Relative rates of contraction . Pa ra Hi n
XXIII. — Contraction on cooling under pressure. Paraffin
XX I V. — Contraction on cooling under pressure. Naphthalene
* Fig. 1. Contraction on cooling under pressure. Monochlora-
XXV. / cetie acid
( Fig. 2. Relative rates of contraction. Monochloracetic acid.. .
XXVI. — Apparatus for compressing mercury
XXVII. — Chart showing the relations between corresponding values of
the increments of specific resistance, hydrostatic pressure,
and volume compression in case of mercury and a concentrated
solution of zinc sulphate
/Fig. 1. Time contraction of superheated silieated water
XXVIII. ' Fig. 2. Contraction and compressibility of silieated supcr-
' heated water
Fig. 1. Successive isothermals of superheated silieated water.
24° a u d 185 "
Fig. 2. Relation of compressibility and contraction of super-
XXIX. , i,eatocl silieated water
Fig. 3. Time contractions of superheated silieated water
,Fig. 4. Compressibility of paraffin and water compared
60
02
fit
6(5
6G
66
60
68
70
72
72
71
76
80
80
82
82
82
82
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Department of the Interior,
IT. 8. Geological Survey,
Division of Chemistry and Physios,
Watkington. J>. C, July 31, 1891.
Hie : I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a re-
port by Dr. Carl Barns on "The Compressibility of Liquids," and to
request that it be published as a bulletin of the U. S. Geological
Snrvey.
Very respectfully,
F. W. Clarke,
Chief Chemist
Hon. J. W. Powell,
IHrectibr TJ. if. Ueohical Survey.
PREFACE.
The present volume is the outgoing installment of certain researches
on the thermodynamics of liquids now in progress at this laboratory.
The results are exhibited in four sections. In the first of these I en-
deavor to circumscribe the relation between the volume changes of a
fluid, in their dependence on pressure and on temperature, fusion effects
being excluded. Jn the second I describe the volume lag (hysteresis),
identify it as a limit case of the phenomenon of viscosity, and discuss
its fundamental bearing on the molecular structure of matter. Jn the
third section (chapter n of this book) I submit an electric method by
which the phenomenally small compressibility of metals can be studied
with a facility unattainable in mere volume measurement. In the fourth
part (chapter in), finally, the compressibility of water above 100° is
shown, particularly in relation to the solvent action of water on glass,
and to the contraction of liquid bulk due to such action. In preparing
the work for publication it was expedient to add the data on lag phe-
nomena to my second bulletin on the viscosity of solids, soon to appear.
The other matter is contained in the present volume.
Chapter iv has been added as an illustration of the easy application
of the results deduced in chapter in to industrial problems.
I am aware that the subject of compressibility has to a considerable
extent engaged the attention of Maj. J. \V. Powell. The present work,
however, was suggested, and in its general scope and character sharply
outlined, by Mr. Clarence King, as will appear from a perusal of the
geological inferences to which the present results are tributary. The
experimental methods and discussions are mine; and purely physical
inferences are, as a rule, given on my own responsibility.
The casual reader may ask. What has the behavior of complex or-
ganic matter and of liquid metal to do with geology !? To such a one
1 may reply: It is now generally conceded by the clearest thinkers that
the crust of the earth is underlain by a liquid stratum, and that most
surface phenomena of upheaval and subsidence are in some way (re-
garding which the clear thinkers by no means agree) referable to this
liquid. Now, until quite recently the topography of the thermodynamic
surface of fluids has been altogether unknown. Mathematicians like
J. Willard Gibbs have done much toward mapping out its possible
contours. But the experimental facts were vague and useless. To
endeavor to obtaiu these from rock magmas, which can be operated on
15
16 PREFACE.
only under formidable difficulties, would at the present stage of research
be manifestly absurd. Hence other substances of more definite charac-
ter and more convenient fusing points are appropriately selected for
examination; and the observer is throughout his work stimulated by
the belief that an available analogy in the thermodynamic behavior of
liquid matter in general, whether fusing at temperatures high or low,
is not beyond the province of probability. The reader who is willing
to peruse the following chapters with me may find evidence here and
there that the suggestion of an analogy is not unreasonable.
Since the following work wras done I have succeeded in constructing a
screw compressor by aid of which 2,000 atmospheres may be applied
with facility. I have also constructed a gauge by which these pressures
may be accurately measured. The general adjustment is such that all
necessary electric insulation of different parts of the apparatus is pro-
vided for, and most of the measurements may, therefore, be made elec-
trically. With this apparatus I hope to subject the data which the
following pages have laboriously shaped to a direct and more satisfac-
tory test.
Carl Barus.
Washington, January, 1889.
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
By Carl Barus.
CHAPTER I.
FLUID VOLUME: ITS DEPENDENCE ON PRESSURE AND TEMPER-
ATURE.
INTRODUCTION.
1. The present chapter purposes to investigate the probable con-
tours of the isothennals and the isometrics of liquid matter, in so far as
this can be done with the means now at my disposal.
2. Literature of compressibility. — The literature of the subject has
recently been critically digested by Tate1. Excellent excerpts are often
to be found in the Fortschritte der Physik, so that I may content myself
with brief mention. Thework of Canton (170:2-170 1), Perkiu (1820-1820),
Oersted (1822), Colladon and Sturm (1827), Keguault (1847), Grassi
(1S51), Amaury and Descamps (1809), is discussed in most text books.
Since that date the contributions have been manifold and are fast
increasing. 1 shall, therefore, principally confine myself to papers
in which volume changes produced by the simultaneous action of both
pressure and temperature are considered.
Setting aside the literature2 of critical points, which is too volumi-
nous for discussion here, the work of Cailletet3 is first to be noticed as
introducing a long range of pressures (700 atmospheres). Ainagatfs4
early work contains a larger temperature interval (0° to 100°), but
applies for pressures belowr 9 atmospheres. The results are discussed
in reference to Dupre's5 equation. Passiug Buchanan's6 aud Van der
WaalsV results for the compressibility of water and of solutions, I came
to an exceedingly important step in the subject made by Levy,8 though
lie had been considerably anticipated by Dupre.Q
Levy seeks to prove that the internal pressure of a body kept at con-
stant volume is proportional to its temperature, which follows thermo-
dyiiamically if the internal work done by heating is a volume function
only or if specific heat in case of constant volume is a temperature func-
1 Tate: Properties of Matter.
8 See Lamlolt ami IKiriiMtein* Phyjikalutt'li-cliwiitKirho Tab-lien, Herlin. J. Springer, 1883, p. 62.
•Cailletet: C 11.. vol. 75. 187*_\ p. 77.
4 Amajrut: V. R.. vol. 85. 1877, p. *27. 1.19: Aim. eh. «t phy* . vol. U, 1877, p. 521).
• Dnpre: C. It., vol. 59, 1861. p. 490: iliiil, vol. 67, 1808, p. 3W.
• Buchanan: Nature, vol. 17, 1878, p. 4:19.
T Van der Waals: lieiblatter, vol. 1. 1X77. p. 511.
• L*vy: 0. K., vol. 87, 1878. pp. 449, 18*. «70. 554. «4». 826T
• Duprt : Tlteorto moennhiue ilo la chaletir, 1839, p. 51.
Bull. 02 $ 17
18 TIIK COMPKKSSIMLITY OF LIQKIJKS. |mix.02.
tion only. The position of Levy is sharply antagonized by II. F. Weber, J
Jioltziiiaim,2 (lausius,* ami Massieu.1 See below.
Amagat's5 important work on the compression of pises may be
mentioned because of its important bearing oil methods of pressure
measurement. In two critical researches Mees6 perfects liegna ult's
piezometer and redetermines the compressibility of water. Tait7 ami
his pupils, Buchanan/1 Marshall, Smith, Omond,9 and others, carry the
inquiry of compressibility and maximum density of water much further,
and the data are theoretically discussed by Tait. Pressures as high
as 600 atmospheres are applied. Solutions of salt and alcohol are also
tested. Pagliani,,0l>alaz/o, and Vicentini,11 using Kegua nit's piezometer,
publish results for water and a number of other substances, mostly
organic. They also examine mixtures. Temperature is varied between
0° and 100°, and the results are considerably discussed and utilized to
show that Dnpre's formula is only approximate. l)e lleen,12 who has
spent much time in studying volume changes of liquids, deduces a
formula of his own, chietty in reference to the thermal changes of com-
pressibility. The theoretical results are tested by many experiments.
The research which Aniagat13 published at about this time is remarka-
ble for the enormous pressure applied hydrostatically (3,000 atmos-
pheres). Ether and water are operated on. In later work11 these re-
searches are extended to other liquid substances, with the ulterior
object of finding a lower critical temperature. The behavior of water
is fully considered. Grimaldi13 critically discusses the earlier work on
the maximum density of water. lie'6 also examines the volume changes
produced in a number of organic substances by temperature (0° to 100°),
and pressure (0 to 25 atmospheres), and finds both Dupre's and l)e
HeeiTs formula* insiiHicient.
In further discussion he17 also shows the insufliciencvof Konowalow's18
formula. At this stage of progress the points of view gained in the
* IT. V. Wi-lirr: (\ 11.. vol. 87. 1X7X. p. .">17.
* Iloltzniaim: C. K.. vul. 87. 1«7X. pp. 593, 773..
* CluusiiiH: C. It., vol. x7. 1878. p. 718.
« MiiMHifii: C. K.. vol. 87. 1X7*. p. 731.
5 Amngat : C. U.. vol. 89. 1879. p. 437: ihiil. .vol. 90. 1880. pp. 803. 995; ihid.. vol. 91. 18x0. p. 428. and
elMfWlll-H'.
6 Mew: Hrililatti'r. vol. 4. IW\ p. '>12: vol. 8. 1884. p. 4:*.').
TTait: Cliallfii^or KrporfH. vol. 2. 1*82. appendix, pp. 1 t" 40; Nairn*, vol. Si. 1881, p. 5or»: Prop.
Hoy. So:-. Ed., vol. 12. 1SS.US4. p. 757; iliid.. vol. 13. 1881- 8.">. p. 2; ihid., vol. 11. 1882-83, p. 813; ihid..
vol. 12. 1Km3. pp. 4.*». 22:i. 220.
» ISiirhaiiaii: Prop. IJoy. Sim-. Ed., vol. 10. 1X811. p. 097.
9 Marxian. Smith, and Omond : Croc. Roy. Sim-. Ed., vol. 11, 1882, pp. 0'JO. 800.
w Paiiliani and Calay./o: ItcihliittiT. vol. 8. 18X4. p. 79."i: ihitl.. vol. 0. lxx;>. p. 149.
11 l*aiL'li.mi iiinl Vii-fiitiui : ISfildsiftor. vol. 8. 18*4. p. 794: Joiirn. tl«- ph>s. (2). vol. 30. 1883. p. 401.
'» IV ifcfii: Hull. Sop. liny. lli-l". CI), vol. 9, 1x85. p. ."»0.
» Auia»ai : C. \l.. vol. lo:« 18x0. p. \»x
'» Amagai : (*. K.. vol. lot. 1x87. p. Il-Vi; ihid.. vol. 10.",. 18X7, pp. 10.*>, 1120; Journal d. phyn. (2), vol.8,
18K«>. p. 107.
"(irinialdi: Hciolafli-r \ol. la. lH--ii». p. :I38.
■«Thid.. \«1. 11. 1X87. pj». i:}«. i:;7. I3x.
17 Orimaldi : ft-itM-hr. f. pli\n. C'Ihmii.. vol. 2. 1X88. p. S74,
•* KouuwaluW: ZviUchr. 1*. pliys. Cliviu., 2. 11*88, |>. 1.
BAHnM ALLIED RESEARCHES. 19
extensive researches of Ramsay and Young' throw new light on the
subject. They prove experimentally that, if pressure, ;>, and tempera-
ture, o, vary linearly (p = bo — a)i the substance operated on does not
change-in volume. The substances tested are ether, methyl and ethyl-
alcohol, acetic acid, and carbon dioxide. Exceptional results for the
case of acetic acid and nitrogen tetroxide are referred to dissociation.
Utilizing James Thomson's2 diagram they point out that the locus of
the isothermal minima and maxima intersects the locus of maximum
vapor tensions at the critical point. They show this to be the ease for
ether. Fitzgerald,3 reasoning from Ramsay and Young's results,
proves that for such liquids as obey the linear law specific heat must be
a temperature f miction only, and internal energy and entropy must be
expressible as the sum of two terms, one of which is a temperature func-
tion only and the other a volume function only. Thus Fitzgerald and
Kauisay and Young arrive at the same position from which Dupre and
Levy originally started. My own work was brought to a conclusion
before I had read the above researches; it was therefore specially
gratifying to me to tind my results according with those of Kamsay and
Young. The data which I give apply emphatically for liquids, that is,
for substances very far below the critical temperature. My pressures
are, therefore, over six times as great as those of the English chemists.
In case of thymol and of para-toluidine I even observed 23° and 15°
below the respective melting points (under-cooling). Furthermore, my
method of discussion is different. Fitzgerald,4 has further applied
ClausiusV equation to a discussion of Kamsay and Young's results.
Warraii6 similarly endeavored to iNlapt Amagat's data. Dickson7 has
digested Andrews's data. Tait,8 who is still actively at work oil high
pressures, has recently made publication on the effect of dissolved sub-
stances on internal pressure.
3. Literature of heat expansion. — A few words relative to thermal ex-
pansion of liquids, which enters incidentally into the present paper,
may be added. Many fonnuhe have recently been devised or tested by
Avenarius,9 De 1 1 ecu,10 Mendcleetf,11 Thorpe and Kiicker,12 Jouk,13 and
others,14 not to mention older observers. None of the forms seem to be
'Ramsay ami Yoiiiik: Phil. Ma«r. (5). vol. 23, 18*7, p. 43.">; ibid., vol. 2-1, 1887, p. 100; Proc. Roy. Soo.
Loud., vol. 42. 1**7. p. :i. *
* James ThoniMun: Phil. Ma;:., vol. 43. InJ. p. 227; Xuturc, vol. 0, 1*73, p. 392.
•Fitrjii-ttiM: Pro*-. Ko> . Soi\, vol. 42, 1887. p. j0.
Moid., p. 2 Hi.
•riaiisiiis: Wiiil. Ann., vol. !). 18*0. p. ::37.
•Sarrau: ('. II.. vol. <»4. 1882. pp. «'!!», 71S. 84."»: ibid., vol. 101. 18>C>, p. 041.
7 Dirk son: Phil. Maj,'.. vol. in. I S8 », p. 40.
•Tait: Clisill«*ii^ci' KijKMts, Phya. and (Muni., vol. 2. "part 4, 1888; Proe. Roy. Soo. Edinh., vol. 15,
1888, p. 420.
•Avonarius: Mel. jiIi.vh. Ah. St.-Prtrr«b., vol. 10, 1877. p. 007; BribliUtrr, vol. 3. 1878, p. 211: ibid.,
vol. 8. li»8J, p. 806.
"IMIwii: Bull. Av. Uov. IV1». (3). vol. 4. 18*2. p. 52(1; Joiirn. Chrm. Soo., Mil. 45, 1881, p. 408.
"Mfiiih-ki-ir: Climi. Ikr.. vol. 17. ls-U. p. 12i); Hi-ililiitli»r. vol. 8. 1*84, p. 806.
"Thorpe and KiU-ki-r: Journal <'h«*ui. Sor., vol. 43, 1881. p. 135,
"Jouk: IJviblutkr. vol. *, 1i«x4. p. 808.
l«ltownUrg: Juuni. d'Almcidu, vol. 7, 1878, p. 35u,
20 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. \v.vu..*2.
satisfactory when long ranges of temperature are introduced. This is
shown in a critical research by Bartoli and Stracciati1 relative to
MendeleofTs and Thorpe and liiicker's formula* and by the discussion
between Mendeleeft' and Avenarius.
4. Remarks on the literature. — Surveying the foi cmentioned re-
searches as a whole, it appears that at their present stage more work
has been spent ou the compressibility of water than the exceptional
behavior of this substance justifies. In other words, the volume-pres-
sure-temperature changes of the great majority of liquids probably
conform closely to a general thermodynamic law discovered by l)upr6
and L6vy, and by Ramsay, Young, and Fitzgerald, severally. It is
therefore first desirable to find experimentally the full importance of
this law, and then to interpret exceptional cases with reference to it.
Again, it appears that researches in which long-pressure ranges are
applied simultaneously wjfh long-temperature ranges are urgently
called for, and that it is from such work that further elucidation of this
important subject may be obtained.
Among pressure experiments the late researches of Amagat stand
out by their originality and importance. One can not but admire the
experimental prowess which has enabled him to penetrate legitimately
into a region of pressures incomparably high without lowering his
standard of accuracy.
{Special mention must be made of the celebrated papers of J. Willard
Gibbs,2 by whom the scope of graphic method in exhibiting the thermo-
dynamics of fluids has been surprisingly enlarged. The terms home-trie,
hopiestiCj isothermal, isentropic, etc., are used in the present paper in
the sense defined by Gibbs (loc. cit., p. 311).
APPARATUS.
5. Force pump and appurtenances. — In making the: experiments de-
tailed in the following pages I used a large Cailletet compression pump,
in the form constructed both by Ducretet, of Paris, and by the Society
G<»nevoise. Its efficiency is 1,000 atmospheres. It is made to be fed
with water, but I found that by using thin mineral sperm oil it was
possible to facilitate operations, because there is less danger of rusting
the fine polished steel parte of the machine. The pump consists of two
parts: the pump proper and the strong cylindrical wrought-iron trough
in which the compression tubes are screwed. This trough is cannon-
shaped, its axis vertical, and the open end uppermost. Pump and
trough are connected by strong phosphor-bronze tubing, and similar
tubes lead to the large Bourdon manometer, by which the pressures
arc measured.
6. Pressure tube and appurtenances. — The substance- to be tested is
inclosed in capillary tubes of glass of very fine bore (0-03<>,n or less) and
iltartoli ami Sfracctati: ltaibllittcr, vol. 0. W\ p. fllO.
1 J. W. Uibba: Traua. Colin. Acad., II \2)t 1873, j>j>. WD, 383.
OH«ltar> lobe. • fli I Ipl«u 1 ruatr.t '. f 'T
barus] APP ARATtTS MANIPULATION. 2 1
about 0*0° m thick, such as are often used for thermometers. In my
earlier exx>erimeuts I had cylindrical bulbs blown near the middle of
these tubes, and to give them greater strength a cylinder of solder was
cast in brass around the bulb. This arrangement is very much more
delicate than a plain capillary; but the tubes broke under pressures
exceeding 200 atmospheres. For this reason, and because of the diffi-
culty of adjusting a suitable vapor bath, the bulb tube was rejected in
favor of a straight capillary tube. The length used was about 50cm or
G0',,u. To insert them into the trough the solid glass of the capillary
tube abcj PL i, was swelled or bulged at />, about 5om from one end, and
then pushed through an axially perforated steel flange A BBA, in which
it fitted snugly. The bulged end and the flange faced the inside of-
the trough, so as to be acted against by the pressure. To seal the tube
in the steel flange fusible metal ff was cast around it at the bulge,
and the joint was then further tightened by a thick coating of marine
glue, gg. A strong hollow nut of iron, surrounding both the lower end
of the tube and the flange, fastened it to the trough, by forcing it
against a leather washer. When completely adjusted the capillary
tube projected about 40°'" or 50* "»- clear, above the trough. Pressure
was communicated through the oil of the pump to the mercury in the
trough, which was in immediate connection with the open lower end of
the capillary tube.
7. Method of charging the tube. — A thread of the solid substance to
be acted on was introduced into the capillary between threads of mer-
cury. This is a difficult operation, requiring much care. My first
method was to pump out the air with a Sprengel pump; then to let the
substance run down into it from a reservoir at the top of the tube by
appropriate fusion. This method was far from perfect, and I found it
almost impossible to insert the two mercury threads at the right place.
After a variety of other trials of this kind I finally abandoned the
vacuum method in favor of the following: Wide glass tubes (reservoirs)
were fused both to the upper and the lower end of the capillary. The
wide tube at the lower end was bent nearly at right angles to the axis
of the capillary. 1 then poured mercury into the bent end, a continu-
ous thread of which could be made to run quite through the capillary
by properly inclining it. The substance was introduced into the upper
reservoir and fused, care being taken to boil out the air, so that even-
tually the thread of mercury came directly in contact with the fused
substance. The capillary is now less inclined. Mercury thread slowly
ran back toward the lower end, followed by a thread of the substance,
kept fused by applying a burner on the outside of the tube. This opera-
tion was repeated a number of times, so as to cleanse the tube with the
substance and expel the little bubbles of air which might adhere to the
walls of the capillary canal. Finally, when the mercury thread, capped
by the thread of substance, was of suitable length, a globule of mercury
was also put into the upper reservoir, covered by the fused substance
22 THK COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS, [hull. 02.
ill such a way as to exclude air. By a quick motion the tube was then
placed in nearly a vertical position, whereupon the lower thread of
mercury ran down farther, followed bv the thread of substance and an
upper thread of mercury. The tube was now again brought back to the
former position, with the thread of substance between the two threads
of mercury, nearly in place. At this point the upper reservoir was
cleansed with bibulous paper and, to seal it, tilled with fused parafline,
in such a- way that no air was left at the upper end of the upper mer-
cury thread. Gently inclining the tube again, parafline ran into the
capillary, following the other threads. When the parafline thread was
sufficiently long the tube was left to itself till the threads solidified.
•
During the whole operation the capillary tube must be kept heated.
Considerable skill is required to obtain a properly charged tube, and
the method must be varied, of course, when volatile liquids are to be
introduced. It is not advisable to seal the upper end of the glass
by fusing it, because the strains introduced during cooling greatly
diminish the strength of the tube. The parafline thread must be kept
solid by a cold-water jacket, (iO. Uuder these conditions its viscosity
is too great to admit of its being forced out of the capillary tube by any
pressure (1,000 atmospheres') compatible with the strength of the tube.
Faultless adhesion of the parafliue to the glass is essential. In case of
hygroscopic substances, therefore, this method fails, and the tube must
be sealed iu other ways.
Passing from the top to the bottom of the charged capillary one
therefore encounters the following succession of threads: Paraffin
(5cnl), mercury (iVul), substance -(20cm, depending on its compressibilty
however; in case of ether a thread l0Ul long is sometimes essential),
mercury (2;V,n), in communication with the mercury of the trough.
Measurements are therefore made by observing the distance apart of
the lower meniscus of the upper thread of mercury, and the upper
meniscus of the lower thread, with Gruuow's cathetometer. AVhen the
adjustment is perfect the motion at the upper thread is nearly zero.
Any sliding here is fatal, and the tube must be readjusted when this
occurs.
8. Method of heating. — To heat the sample to any required tempera-
ture 1 surrounded the capillary tube, a/>r, with one of my closed boiling
tubes,1 ceec, PI. I, of clear glass.
By connecting the latter with a condenser at />, the ebullition may
be prolonged for any length of time. The whole thread of the sub-
stance is thus virtually exposed in a vapor bath. Methyl alcohol (oVP),
water (100~), aniline (18.K), and diphenyhunine (310°) are available for
boiling points. The position of these liquids is shown at kk. and they
are heated by Dr. Wolcott Gibbs's ring burner, 7i\ A\ A thermometer
is inserted at T. At high temperatures it is of course necessary to
» Cf. liiillrtiu, U. S. Ck-ul. Survey, No. 54, 18st>, pp. Wi to W.
tJARrs.l MANIPULATION" — MEASUREMENT. 23
•
jacket the boiling tube appropriately with asbestos wieking, leaving
only two small windows exposed through which the substance may be
seen with the telescope. When the tube is fully heated it is clear, and
condensation takes place only in the condenser. By adjusting suitable
white and black screens with reference to the line of sight the image
of the meniscus may be sharpened. Intermediate temperatures arc
reached by boiling the substances under low pressures. For this pur-
pose it is merely necessary to attach the open end of the condenser to
Prof. li. IT. HichardsV pneumatic exhausting pump. The temperature
is read on the thermometer at 7T.
It is scarcely necessary to state that the manipulations are difficult
throughout, and that with the best of care breakage of tubes is a
frequently recurring annoyance. Special attention must be given to
obtain capillary tubes well annealed; otherwise internal strains add
themselves to external strains and the strength of the tube is insuffi-
cient. Vapor baths must not be removed until the tube is thoroughly
cold. With the best of care a tube will not outlast many series of ex-
periments, for as pressure continues the glass undergoes a change very
analogous t(> permanent set, so that eventually a tube may be broken at
less than one-half the original test pressure.
9. Pressure m rax arc went. — As is easily seen the method of experiment
must necessarily be such that temperature is kept constant while
pressure is varied at pleasure. To measure pressures I used a Bour-
don gauge2 graduated in steps of 10 atmospheres each, up to 1,000.
So graduated, the gauge registers smaller differences of i>ressure than
can be measured in terms of the volume changes of the liquid in the
capillary tubes. Hence the gauge is suitable.
To test the gauge" I com] tared it with a similar gauge graduated as
far as tfOO atmospheres and found the lack of accordance no larger than
the error of reading. Again 1 compared the gauge indications with
the changes of electrical resistance of mercury under identical condi-
tions of pressure, with results equally satisfactory, as will be explained
in the next chapter.
10. Curious results were obtained on comparing the gauge with a
closed manometer, the essential part of which was a capillary tube
containing air. The results calculated with reference to Boyle's law,
i. e., for isothermal expansion, were found to be wholly discrepant.
The difficulty was interpreted by computing with reference to Poisson's
law, i. e., for adiabatic expansion. Some results are given in Table 1:
i Richards: Trans. Am. lust. Mining Kni:., vi. 1879. p. 1.
*1 think IVof. Tail, who has count ni'tcd other irauires based on Hookc s law, undciv>iiiuateM tin* in-
geiniity of Bourdon'* jjaujjc; and 1 holiexe that, either by increasing the number of coil* or b\ unit.
ably adjusting a mirror index, the gauge can be made nerviee.ihlc without a multiplying gear. Rrad
off dircetly. the only limit to the scientific efficiency of* the gauge is the viscosity of the Bourdon tula*.
1 1 have since compared the t;uugc directly with Amuj;at * "Alamuuetrc a pistoua libre*" ami found
my minimcs nubataiitialcd.
24
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 92.
p, r, A* denotes pressure, volume, and the specific- heat ratio, respec-
tively. The error at p = 100 is due to the time lost in making the
measurement, since it is here that volume changes are large and re-
quire special adjustments of telescope,
TaM,k 1. — Compressibility of air. Test of gauge.
1
p i
V
log v*p
6-25
616
615
615
V
Tog v*p
100 i
200 |
300
400
500 ,.
1
1,030
550
400
329
1,040
552
393
324
285
6-25
617
C14
616
616
It appears that in case of quick manipulation this method is avail-
able for the measurement of A*, particularly with reference to its varia-
tion with pressure. It appears also that when work is done on gases
much time must be allowed in capillary tube experiments before the
changes pf volume obtained can be pronounced isothermal.
Since the gauge is based on Hooke's law, errors of the zero point are
eliminated by working between indicated pressures and taking differ-
ences of reading. So far as relative pressure data are concerned it is
then merely necessary that the attached dial and mechanism be virtu-
ally a scale of equal parts.
Finally, I compared the Bourdon gauge with a form of Tait gauge
of my own, in which the volume expansion of a suitable steel tube is
measured externally. Leaving further description to be given else-
where, I will here insert a mere example of the results obtained. N.
G. denotes the reading of the new gauge, an arbitrary scale being
attached.
Table 2. — Companion of gauges.
Bourdon.
N.G.
1 Bourdon.
600
N.G.
0
0
1045
100
160
700
1210
. 200
335
800
1370
300
520
900
1530
400
690
1000
1700
500
870
■
Constructing the data graphically and remembering that all devi-
ations are to be apportioned between the gauges, it appears that the
error must everywhere be less than 10 atmospheres in most unfavorable
cases.
No stress WiW placed on the absolute correctness of the standard
atmosphere employed. The results sought follow equally well for an
approximate standard, correctly multiplied.
babusO METHOD OF MEASUREMENT. 25
11. — Volume change* of the glass tubes. — Prof. Tait1 has given the fol-
lowing expression for the volume increment of a cylinder, subjected to
internal hydrostatic pressure:
Si2 — «0*\ *«!?»/
where 77 is the pressure, , and n the compressibility and the rigidity
of the glass, and where a-o and a{ are the iuner and the outer radius of
the tube, respectively.
The internal and external radii of my tubes were 0*015cm and 0*3cra,
respectively. It is easily seen that in case of so small a ratio the
term of the above expression involving the compressibility of glass
may be neglected with no greater error than a few tenths per cent.
Hence, if proper value2 of ?i be introduced and pressure be measured by
atmospheres, the above expression reduces, approximately, to 47710-6.
Unfortunately this correction is by no means negligible3 and may in
unfavorable cases amount to as much as 5 per cent of the correspond-
ing volume decrement of the liquid to be tested. The case is worse;
most of the experiments are to be made at temperatures between 60°
and 300°, for which interval the rigidity of glass can not be said to be
known. To determine it myself was out of the question. Hence, in-
stead of introducing arbitrary considerations, I resolved to neglect the
correction altogether in favor of direct test experiments with mercury
and with water.
12. Mercury tents. — The compressibility of mercury is too small to be
amenable to the present method of measurement. Hence, since its
compressibility is known, it is well adapted for testing the errors of
the apparatus.
In Table 3 1 have given the temperature, #, and the length of the mer-
cur thread, tr, observed; also the volume decrement v/V per unit of
volume, for each pressure^, as well as the corresponding mean compress-
ibility fi. Many methods were tried; best results were obtained for a
thread of mercury inclosed between end threads of melted paraffin.
At the low temperature, 30°, the lower thread was alcohol. The first
column, v/ F, was obtained by increasing p from 20 to 400 atmospheres,
the second by decreasing p from 400 to 20 atmospheres, though the
data given are meaus of a number of such measurements. Great care
must be taken to keep the mercury thread free from adhering bubbles
of air or volatile liquid (alcohol, for instance). At high temperatures
these globules expand and may utterly vitiate the results, as I found
in more than one instance.
1 Tait: Challenger Reports, 1882, Appendix, p. 29.
* Everett: Unit* ami Physics)! Constanta, Miumillun, 1870, p. 53.
3 Since the soctioual expansion alone enters, the correction is smaller than the above estimate.
20
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OK LIQUIDS.
[lU'lX. 02.
TaIJI.K .'). — f'niH}trr*sihiIilif nf mtlCHi't/.
B.L
lo«
V
101
j8 10-5
'M\r-
10-
.
| 20
00
| 100
o-o
200
o-3
300
o-o
{ 400
1-8
i
[ 20
KM)
00
12
0-0
65°
16- 8*-
00
8
200
300
21
2 1
20
1-7
14
8
_
400
:>o
2-9
8
1(XP
lG-9"»
f -° i
•100 '
200
300
0-0 ,
09
12
24
0-0 . . .
00
18
IK
10
9
8
400
*7 ,
i
:to
8
18.V
171—
20
100
00 ,
10
o-o . . .
12 ,
14
200
:so:>
2-3
2 0
2'2
20
13
9
i
400
45
39
11
ANOTHER TURK AD, BETWEEN PARAFFIN
18.V
19-3™
310°
197™
10
0-0
00
loo
OK
08
200
2 9
30
300
3-7
39
400
49
45
2>
o-o
00
100
10
14
2:h>
2 0
20
300
39
41
400
.V3
.V2
10 !
17
14
13
1.")
14
15
14
Some of these results are shown in PI. n, pressure being the abscissae
and volume decrements, 103xr 'T the ordinates. This figure should
be compared with the subsequent ligures for organic substances.
Table 3 is reassuring. From the known low-temperature compressi-
bility of mercury1 it appears that the error of //, made by neglecting
Tait's correction, is about 1IM, and that it is not greater than the un-
avoidable errors of measurement. Again, since the compressibility of
the organic substances to be examined is in almost all cases much
greater than 00 x 10- c, the said error of ft is not much above 2 or 3 per
cent.
By comparing table 3 with tables 4 to IS (#) it will be seen that the
results at high temperatures are even more favorable.
Similar results were obtained for water, which may therefore be
omitted here.
13. iMOthermah and adiabatics. — To obtain the isothermals of the
compressed liquids it would be necessary to wait a long time after each
1 Evrn-tt: Lm\ «it., pp. ,r>2, 53. Aliment : C R.f vol. 108, 1889, p. 228; Joiirn. tit' pliyn. <2). vol. 8,
1889, p. 197. Tait: U*c. tit.
BARre.1 METHOD OF MEASUREMENT. 27
compression. But by so doing, at high temperatures, the tube would
be seriously weakened in virtue of the diminished viscosity1 of the ma-
terial, if not even distorted, it appears, moreover, that the distinction
between isothermal and adiabatic compression is beyond the scope of
the present method of volume measurement. Finally, since the sub-
stance is in the form of «n extremely fine (capillary) filament, the condi-
tions are exceptionally favorable to isothermal expansion, for the excess
of heat of the thread is at once imparted to the thick walls of the cap-
illary tube. For this reason the discrepancy is not of such serious
moment as would otherwise be the ease. Hence 1 made my observa-
tions by varying pressure from 20 atmospheres to the maximum and
theu from the maximum back to 20 atmospheres, with only such allow-
ance of time as was necessary for observation at the successive stages
of pressure.
Near the critical temperature only is the distinction between isother-
mal and adiabatic decidedly larger than the errors of volume measure-
ment.
The chief reliance was placed ou the constancy of the fiducial zero.
The volume increments must be identical, no matter whether they are
observed during the pressure increasing or during the pressure-de-
creasing march of the measurements.
14. Thermal expansion. — My measurements of thermal expansion are
incidental; but they are necessary for the coordination of results.
Without a bulb tube such measurements are not very accurate, and the
inaccuracy is much increased by the breaking oft* of the ends of the
mercury thread whenever the substance operated on solidifies. In
passing from one constant temperature to another an exchange of boil-
ing tubes is to be made, and it is almost impossible to keep the sub-
stance in the capillary tube fused during the whole of the time for
readjustments. On solidification the substances contract as much as 10
per cent. The mercury thread is therefore forced into the vacuities in
the axis of the solid thread. After fusing again, it will be found that
the lower column of mercury has broken into distinct little pieces,
sometimes in great number, alternating with little threads of the sub-
stance. All of these must be measured, an operation which is not only
excessively tedious, but makes the expansion measurement very inac-
curate. For the same reason no correction need be added for the ex-.
pansion of the glass. The error thus introduced is usually small, and not
greater than 2 or 3 per cent in unfavorable cases of low temperature.
See Tables 5 et se^. At high temperatures such a correction would be
arbitrary, for the reason given in § 11. In these cases, however, it is
probably altogether negligible, particularly so near the critical tem-
perature.
1 It is interesting to note thai continued pressurt* weakens gla*s gradually, but without any apparent
change of volume. The conditions of rupture may not be reached till ufter the lapse of much time.
The ttil*>ti uaed must l>c of well aunealed glass. Any temper strain ia sure to cause rupture at rela-
Uvely low pressure*.
28 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [bull. 92.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.
15. Explanation. — My first results were obtained with capillary tubes,
the middle part of which had to be blown out into a bulb. Around
this a jacket of solder was cast and the whole contained in a brass tube.
I found, however, that breakage took place from pressures of only 200
atmospheres, that corrections for glass expansion could not be esti-
mated, and that the adjustment of the bath for constant temperature
was unsatisfactory. I will therefore omit the data obtained, as they only
corroborate the following results. Having thus found that compressi-
bility would be measurea"ble in cylindrical tubes, my next experiments
wrere made in somewhat wider and thicker tubes than those discussed
in §6. They have an advantage inasmuch as a filamentary thermo-
couple can be drawn through the tube without vitiating the volume
measurement; but they broke under 300 atmospheres and were not
conveniently thin for the thermal bath. These results are also rejected
here, but will be cited in § 42, where the direct observations of contrac-
tion on cooling under pressure are exhibited. Finally 1 made use of the
thermometer capillaries already described, § 0. In the earlier work
(naphthalene, monochlor acetic acid), I did not introduce the upper thread
of mercury, sealing the tube with a solid cold thread of the substance of
the sample. This introduces arbitrary errors at the point where solid
and fused substances meet; for on increasing pressures some of the
liquid will be converted into solid, thus decreasing the length of the
column. The reverse takes place on removing pressures. Nor is it
possible to measure the length of thread of substance accurately, since
the point of meeting of solid and liquid rises as the heating continues
or when the stationary distribution of temperature is interfered with.
Hence the facility of charging the tube is not compatible with accuracy
of measurement, and I give these results only because many subse-
quent trials made to repeat them failed through accidents.
The bulk of the following experiments were made as detailed in § 0.
Throughout the following tables L is the length of the thread of sub-
stance, at the temperature #; v/V, the corresponding volume decre-
ment due to the acting pressure^. Finally, ft is the mean compressi-
bility between p0, the initial pressure, and the pressure given. Values
marked observed and calculated and other information in the tables
will be discussed below, §34 et seq.
16. Ethvr. — My results for ether are given in Table 4. Manipula-
tions were made exceedingly difficult because of some sulphur present
in the liquid. This at once attacks the mercury and destroys the cohe-
sion of the thread. Above 100°, the thermal expansion increases enor
mously, so that 1 found it necessary to operate with two threads, the
long one for low temperature and the short one for 310°. The tubes
were filled by the U-tube method, $ 7.
For the reasons given the initial pressure could not be kept constant,
U. 6. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
BULLETIN NO. 92 PL III
100
100
Fio. 1. Relative isothermals of ether. p«,=100 atmospheres, 0©=29°
Fig. 2. Relative isopiestics of ether. pw=100 atmospheres, 0o=2Q°.
BARDS.]
COMPRESSIBILITY OF ETHER.
29
the tubes not being long enough. Hence Table 5 has been computed,
in which all data are reduced to the uniform initial pressure, j*„ = X00
atmospheres.
Table 6 finally shows the corresponding exx)ansion data. It may be
noticed that, supposing the given conditions to continue, ether would
cease to expand at 1,100 atmospheres. These results are graphically
repeated in PI. in, Fig. 1, of which the curves are isothermal volume
decrements referred to unit of volume, at the temperature given on the
curve, and at the inital pressure^,, = 100 atmospheres. In PI. in, Fig.
2, I have similarly given the isopiestic volume increments referred to
unit of volume* at 20° and at the pressure given on the curve.
The two rows of results for KPxr/T, given in tables 4, 7, et seq.,
were obtained during the pressure-increasing and the pressure- decreas-
ing series of the experiments. This has already been explained in § 13.
Table 4. — Compressibility of ether. Direct measurements, li. P., 34°; critical tern'
pcruture, 105°,
yXlO'
on
134
291
41 8
538
/5X10*
M«*aii
0 • 10"
0 to 400
atmort-
phores.
172
102
151
142
15. V
64*
lC8«-« !
100° .
218"-
1773
20
100
20<»
300
400
00
201
39-7
57- 1
710
f 10
00
100
30-0
\ 200
6.V8
300
87 8
I 400
1005
0-0
19-7
4 10
56-8
71-9
00
35 4
61-9
p75
105-5
248
203
189
396
34 4
302
272
f 50
0
KM)
80
150
122
200
148 1
2")0»
109 '
300
180
350
200 j
I 4<W
•Ml '
.11 ,
0
80
148
180
1.600
1,220
990
845
745
667
605
SHORT FIBER, L«-.-.V34««.
0
287
382
431
463
484
502
5. 740
3, 820
2. 870
2. 3?0
1.9<0
l,6c0
30
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[HULL. 02.
Taiilk 5. — Compi'CKfiihitity of vth*ir, nfvrral to lm* utino*pherc*.
i)h»vTWi\.
0.L
2IP
14-37""
65°
15-18'"
100^
185*
310°
*14'50c"
/3 - 10*
Com
piltril.
Uiff..- 10*
t
. .< 10>
\
-■ 103
i».'.io« : t>,,x io«
loo
00
2(i0 :
1.V6
3(H) :
28 9
400 '
408
loo ;
200 I
BOO
400
100
200 '
300 ;
400 i
1(H)
200
300
400
100
200
:h)o
400
00
20-7
377
528
00
30-5
530
f M ^ •
I
o-o :.
74 1 :
115 5
143-.")
156
145
136
207
189
176
305
268
241
00
154
289
400
00
20-5
37*
52-8
00 .,
290 j
53-4 I
728 !
, 0.L,
•0 .
— 1 .
165
194
- 1
db -o
226
2*2 :
- 0
— 6
343
497 '
741
Of I
478
O-o :
715 26
1147 8
145 6 . —21
1.005 : 10,060
0
382
462
502
3, 820
2.310
2. 5H)
0 i.
383 j
46(1
5o3
S«M'Oinl t«;iiu])k'.
I
•»
-T
31.250 !
Table 6. — Thermal expansion of dim- ,-Xlol, refrrred to 20°
At m. — •
100.
200.
300.
400.
! I
&-.
20-
0
<>
0
0
«.V'
57
51
IN
13
100= |
131 ,
111
103
93
185" |
397
315
274
246
310
1,770
733
f»28 ;
435
COMIM'TKD VALl'ES y-..ln (l - fH« /») T *• Sep* 41.
0=
I
65*
.; iw
! : 1*5 :
I 310-
9
— 5
— (5
T»9
50
45
136
112
100
3*9
305
266
1,750
809
690
4
40
89
232
502
17. Alcohol. — The alcohol used was not free from water, though
commercially absolute. Table 7 contains the observations made for
compressibility. The initial pressure had again to be changed at high
temperatures. Hence 1 have computed Table S, in which the initial
pressure is uniformly 150 atmospheres. The corresponding values of
thermal expansion are given in Table 0. Of the charts, VI. iv, Figs. 1
and 2, the former arc isothermal decrements, each referred to unit of
volume at the initial pressure, 150 atmospheres, and at the temperature
marked on the curve. Similarly the isopiestics, Fig. 2, are referred to
uuitof volume at 3cP ami at the pressure on the curve. T1m» results.
X). 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
BULLETIN NO. 02 PL. IV
40O
250
350
Fio. 1. Relative isothermals of alcohol. po=150 atmospheres, 0o=28°
Fio. 2. Relative isopiestics of alcohol. p0=150 atmospheres, 0O=28-
32
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BCIX. 92.
Tajh.k 9. — Thermal espunxion oj alcohol, x 10\ ff erred to ~S°.
Atm. —
130
200
300
400
i
r 28c
0
0
0
0
050
35
35
i ni
30
0 =
11MP
87
82
' . 7M
73
185-
220
217
1!C>
178
{ :no^
1,290
820
555
447
18. Palmitic avid. — The data are given in Tables 10 and 11, on a plan
uniform with the above. Owing to accidents, two threads were observed ;
the first between oV>° and 185°, and the second between <m° and '310°.
At 65° solidification set in at 100 atmospheres. The necessary result is
distortion of the curvature of the loci. Much difficulty was encountered
because of breaks in the mercury thread. Hence- the circumflexure in
the isopiestics is probably an error of observation (Of. PI. v).
Tablk 10. — Compressibility of palmitic avid, CirJT.ijO... Melting point, (& -'; boiling
point, .7«"(7J.
L,6
«3?
Olwrvoil.
yX \G* y \ 10 »
I
Coniinitod.
0N 106 .-
Diff. X 10\ d X 106 t»0 \ 10«
! rxl0, i
20 ! 00 ;
100 72
10 te ! 3<»o , 22'8 I
1(KP
171C"
(
i
185°
18-50™
t400
20
104)
200
3«M>
400
20
1(H)
2(M) j
300 I
4(H) ;
311
00
81
10 9
255
333
00
7-2 I
153
23- 1
311
IN)
85
82
82
l
00 '
8-1 '
10-3
ar»:>
333
101
93
91
88
00
0-0
12 1
12-1
203
203
372
:ii-8
48 2
477
151 |
140 <
131 :
127 .
-00 I 00
7-1 1 —O'l
15 3 ;
230 ;
SO'l ■
91
O'O
7-8.
100
25-4 ,
12-1
25 5
37*5
485
* Including tin' low»*r .s»'ri«*n for 05 "\
1 Solidifying.
93
-01
1"
—»-l
1. .
-t-02
1
00
+o-a
—0-3
1
102
104
-1-41-1
-f-o-i
i
I *•
o-0
00
i
100
165
—(••2
00
-04
SECOND SAMPLE.
i
05
1403,m
..if
310^
17*54' "
20
Kid
200
3O0
400
20
UK)
200
:um) '
400
00
0-5
15 1
j2-n
295
0-0
234
474
00-3
826
00
00
15 1
205
84
84
HI
78
0-0
23-7
47-5
072
838
0 0
-f-0-3
-+-(••4
— O'l
-03
330
351
RA It I**.]
COMPKESSIBILITY OF ALCOHOL.
31
aie more satisfactory than ether, because a .single thread only was used.
In constructing Tables 5 and S 1 had to sacrifice some observations.
But it seemed better to do this than to reach the lower initial pressuie
by more or less arbitrary hypotheses. The two sets of data (§ 16) are
given side by side.
Table 7. — Compressibility of alcohol. Boiling point, 7s< ; vrilical temperature, 230^.
I
p
r
U * i
p
20
100
j.xlO1
r.<io3
0X10*
i
o-o ,
9.7
00
89
958'm
4>7o t
116
200
186
17H
101
*' 1
300
400
271
26.0 .
95
Ml
33-6
9(1
'
20
o-o
00
993*"'
IB-'
100
200
300
94
2<V2
:u :>
9-6 1
20- 6
30-8
118
113
111
400
40-0
30-5 ,
104
!
20
20i»
00 1
151
00
143
10-49""
loos- i
184
"00
28 4 1
29 1
KM)
atio
420
416
150
1
400
529
531
i
140
20
1(H)
00
359
oo
35-3
i
12-25""
180°
445
200
07- 1
00- «
372
300
911
90-3 |
324
,
400
1100
1100
290
I J 50
0
0 ,
2U0
212
208
4.200
21-75"-
250
289 i
291 |
2,000
3ioc )
3i«0
334 ■
333
2, 220
1
350
;»>;{
364 1
1.820
,
400
380 1
385
1.530
Tablk S.—Comjmssibility of alcohol, referred to 1*0 atmosphere*.
OliMerved.
*,L
28''
8- 15""
65'
9-78- •*
I
150
200
300
400
150
2(H)
301)
4(H)'
i f 150 '
100° I 200
1027"" \) 300
400
185^
11-02'"
150
21)0
300
400
150
310* I 200
21 -75™ , \ 300
I 400
f "
21
S :u
0X1O1
• -;*.• io»
0-0 '.
43
127
202 ,
O'O .
55
16 4
251
00 .
8-4
2115
331
0(»
160 !
411
01-2 '
0
211
335
80 '
K5
81
110
109
100
144
132
320
274
245
384
4. 200
Toin-
|>llt(Ml.
r '
yXlOS
00
4-n ,
126
202
00 :
5-6 '
100 I
25-5 I
00 l
7 6
215 i
340
0-0 :
15-4
40-9
61-8
Diff. X10V
.i
•0
•o
•I 1
0
•o
— 1
r 4
— •4
•0
•8
, -1
— •9
•0
•6
• -2
-•5
*
V
89
ioi
i
i
—
— - — -
115
136
■
i
158 :
i
201
1
331
598
219
330
;:s5
- 8
;)
— 1
13,8m) ',.
32
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 92.
Tablk 9. — Thermal expansion oj alcohol, J', x 10\ rrfirrid to 2S°.
Atm. —
150
200
300
4C0
f 28*
0
0
0
0
(UP
35
3.r> j
1 31
30
0=
\ 10<>o
1 18TP
87
82
. 78
73
221)
217
li'5
178
{ 310°
1,290
820
555
447
18. Palmitic acid. — The data are given in Tables 10 and 11, on a plan
uniform with the above. Owing to accidents, two threads were observed :
the first between 65° and 185°, and the second between <>5° and 310°.
At 65° solidification set in at 400 atmospheres. The necessary result is
distortion of the curvature of the loci. M uch difficulty was encountered
because of breaks iu the mercury thread. Hence the circuinhVxure in
the isopiestics is probably an error of observation (Cf. PI. v).
Tablk 10. — Comprc98ibility of palmitic, acid, CinHnjOj.. Milting point, C>2'--; boiling
point, :io&-\
L, $
Ohiwrved.
Computed.
i 0X1O6
nitr. y. io1 a x io6 d0 x io«
v m i v
-y X 103 Y 10*
Including the lower aeries for C5°.
t Solidifying.
SECOND SAMPLE.
05°
I
3 loo
1754e»
20
100
200
300
400
20
100
200 j
:uk) !
400
00
fin
l.Vl
220
205
00
234
474
00-3
82-6
0-0
•j:;-7
475
07-2
83-8
00
-f0-3
+0-4
-01
-03
330
351
B A 111*3 ]
COMPUKSSIDILITY OF PAKA-TOLUIDINE.
33
Table 11. — Thermal expansion of palmitic acid, yX 103 referred to 65°.
Aim. =
20 i
100
200
300
400
i
i
1
f fi.V
i
0.
0
0
0
0
i
$ =
100?
20
25
24
23
24
18.V
107
101
93
91
87
i
[ 31<r
199
179
159
145
133
19. Fara-toluiiline. — The following data, Tables 1 2 and 13, and the dia-
grams, PI. vi, were obtained for toluidine. A feature of these results is
the circumflexure of the isopiestic increments in the undereooled part,
of their course. This is probably not an error, since it recurs again
under similar conditions, in case of thymol, § 25. It may be noted that
if contraction due to cooling under pressure continued at the same rate
as shown in Table 13, there would be no volume change at 1,400 atmos-
pheres. I found that to solidify the undereooled liquid as much as 500
atmospheres were necessary.
Tablk 12. — Compressibility of par a-tol nidi n<\ C7II7XII... Moiling point, 108°; melting
point, 43- .
0, L
Observed.
! P V
Y> 10' . v>: io*
1 ■ 2*">
14 Ur-
05
n-73'"-
100
15 02 ■■
f
I 1X.V !
I 16 30-
20
100
2 Ml
400
20
KM)
INK 1
3IN)
400
20
100
200
31)0
400
20
100
2-H)
300
400
0 0
4 3
10-0
15-M
200
0-0
110
17-1
J- 5
00
0-3
1 4 5
2.1-0
00
110
22*
334
42 4
(10
40
100
1.V6
209
00
55
11-9
17-4
235
1
o-o
0 3
145
22 3
293
00
109
22 8
33.4
422
310^>
19-ttV- '
20 j
100
200 1
300 >
400
00
290
50 1
70 2
92-7
0-0
29-4
?52*0
75-7
92*5
0X1O«
> 1
1
1
! 56
50
50
55
.Computed.:
'l)iff. ■/ W\ c>xl0« j d0Xlu«
- ~ ■< W I
69 l
65
02 1
02
79
HI
79
77
137
127
119
112
I
365
300
271
243
0.0
40
10-2
l.>.»
20 5
7 I
±00 .
—o-i ;
—0-2 -.
+0-2 j.
+0-2 I.
I
00
53
11-7
177
23-4
1
. 0-0
+0-2
* 00
-j-0-1
o-.)
6K
147
21 1
288
0-0
100
22 5
33 1
431
00
—0-5
—0-2
+ 0-4
00
40.4
-I-0?
A
+ 03
0-3
270
54*5
70-3
94.5
00
4-20
+20 '
—00 .
—0-2 '
50 !
68
87
138
* Liquid, undercoolod. Solidifies under 500 atmospheres.
Bull. 92 3
60
09
88
142
I
1
392
l«>o
1
) COMPUKSKIKHJTY OF PAttA-TOLUIDINE. 33
Tajjlk 11.— Thermal erjmmiOH of palmitic acid, ,'- X Jff1 rtfrrred to H5°.
19. Partt-tnluitVme.— TIu'feUowinffdatai.TableKl^md 13, nndtlu' dia-
grams, 1*1, vi, were obtained for toluidine. A feature of these nwulta U
Hie rirciiuifluxiitv »f the fsoph'stie iiierements in the undereooled jmrt
of their course. Thin is probably not an cnvr, much it recurs again
under similar conditions, in case of thymol. $ 25. It may be noted that
if ixin tract ion due to cooling under pressure continued at tin; same rate
as shown in Table 13. there would be no volume change at 1,400 atmos-
pheres. I found that to solidify the uudereooled liquid as mueh as 50U
atmospheres were necessary.
K Vl.—CoMprtiMitUy of pnra-lolHhViie, C:II,NH;. /toiling i
; melting
In i . -vi
■ " i ;::;. a: S= s- >: ::::
.,,„ I lou - ao-o I km ans 27-n , -t-jn
,aar" Mil 7*S ' 75-7 271 M -»0
- Mqnlil, uiidercuiilBii.
babus.] COMPRESSIBILITY OF CAPRINIC AND BENZOIC ACIDS,
35
21. Caprinic arid. — Tables 10 and 17, and Plate Yin, contain the re-
sults lor capriuic acid. The thermal expansion is irregular, probably
due to motion of the thread in the tube, so that virtually two different
threads were observed. The substance has a low melting point, 30°.
Undercooled to 25° I found that it solidified at 31)0 atmospheres pressure.
Table 16. — Compressibility of eaprinic acid, CioHsoOj. Melting xmnt, $(P; boiling
pointt ;>6^.
Observed.
X 103
80° : f
(Under- !
cooled.) ,
15-91"" !
20
1C0
200
300
400
o-o
41)
13-4
195
255
n «
ir a 10»
00
5-7
i /3M0*
| Com-
]»uted.
I»ifl". X lOV «*:• 10*
i f
65° i
14-39"" .
100°
16- 85""
20
KH)
200
3(K)
400
20
100
200
300
400
00
73
10-1
230
314
00
85
191
291
3<>8
12 9
19-8
258
00
7-0
159
23-9
31-1
00
91
20- 1
28-9
368
66
73
08
v x ioj
.
00
0-0
59
— 0 ti
129
-1 0-3
19-5
, 0-2
257
00
90
89
84
82
I
00
7-3
16-0
23-8
31-3
00
—01
00
00
00
!
1
00
90
00
—0-2
iio
109
195
I 0-1
; 104
29 1
—01
1 97
I
378
-1-0-2
lS5n
18-30"»
1
1
1
r 20
00
00
•
100
15-3
15-1
^ 200
31-2
31 1
i | 300
45-4
455
I
t 400
574
57- 1
190 ;
173 |
103 .
151 I
00
149
31-2
45 2
577
00
-i 0-3
o-o
-|0.3
—04
Fti
'o *•
10«
76
95
97
119
121
200
207
V
Table 17. — Thermal expansion of eaprinic acid, y x 103, referred (f S(P
Atm.—
i
i
20
100
200
300
400
6--
f 3(P j
! »K° i
IMP
(. IKS'-1 '
0
30
59
151
0
28
55
139
0
28
52
129
0
26
49
120
0
25
47
113
22. Benzoic arid. — In view of the high melting point only a single
series of measurements was made. Table 18 contains the results.
Table 18. — Compressibility of benzoic acid, C7IIi,0> Melting point, 121°; boiling
point, M9^.
185> i
11 W ■
I
Observed. j
1 0X1O§
v . \ v
VX10* yXlO*
20
100
200
300
400
00
11-4
223
32-8
421
0-0
11*4
■ 33- 1
42-5
142
121
118 I
112 ,
Com-
puted.
00
10-5
22-3
33-2
42-9
IDiff. X 10'
00
4 0-9
-01
—0-2
—0-6
d X 10«
138
d0 X 10«
141
3G
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[bull. 02.
23. Paraffin. — T made many measurements with paraffin, of which
the following digest, Tables 10 and 20, probably contains the best re-
sults. At 04° solidification set in at 400 atmospheres. This is well
seen in PI. ix. Supposing the conditions to hold indefinitely, there
would be no contraction on cooling under a pressure of 1,200 atmos-
pheres.
Taiilk 19. — Comjtrt'ssibUily of paraffin . Melting point, 60°.
L,6
Obnorved.
\
64°
15-80»»
100°
10-28'"
20
100
200
:ioo
400
20
100
200
rtoo
400
.X 10»
00
0-8
HO
230
(*)
ou
H-5
18-5
270
:»5-0
l
X 10»
00
05 |
149 i
23 8
(500) !
I
oo ;
8-!> I
1*7 '
27-7
35-8
185°
17.57cm
310O
19-70*"
20
100
200
300
400
I
20 j
100 ,
200
<J00 ,
400 '
00
13-8
27-9
41 2
52-3
00
20-8
51-9
724
899
00
13-8 I
28-2
41-4 i
32-0
I
00 ..
20-2 ,
52- 1
71-8 j
800 ,
('oTiiputi'd.
/3.' 10»
r
V
l»ilf. < W, a : 1W
fiQ x 10*
81
(140)
10*
0 0
14s j
—o-o
-01
- 01
M
100
103
99
94
172
150
14?
13f
331
2*9 j
257 !
236 I
00
8\>
18-5 '
274 ,
35 8 :
00
13-3
281
41-1
52-7
00
20-0 j
51-7 i
727
903
—00 :.
0-0 !
:»•>,.
I 0-2 .
-01 ..
o-o .
I 0-5
00 '.
i 0-2
—05 I.
00 !.
1
j 0*5 '
-I 0-3 !.
Ill .
178 i
306
—0-6 j,
—00 .
* Solidify iuff.
Table 20. — Thermal expansion of paraffin, y x 10\ referred to 0V/°.
89
111
184
392 '
At
1
in. —
1
20 !
00
26-4 j
108-0 '
241 0
1
100 1
00 1
24 1
ItWO
2100 ;
1
200 j
1
1
00
23- 1 '
920 .
190-5
1
300 ;
i
400
B--
1
= 64
1(H)
185
310 |
r
00 |
22-0 ,
,s7-8 :
1H1M1
1
00
221
838
107-0
24. Fnrther results for paraffin are given in Table 21 and the chart,
PL X. In this case* the capillary tube was closed above by fusion, and
the parllian introduced in vacuo. Solidification takes place at 0f>° under
500 atmospheres. The divers columns r/ V were obtained in separate
experiments on different days.
BARl '*.)
COMPRESSIBILITY OF ALCOHOL.
31
aie more satisfactory than ether, because a .single, thread only was used.
In constructing Tables f> and 8 I had to sacrifice some observations.
But it seemed better to do this than to reach the lower initial pressuie
by more or less arbitrary hypotheses. The two sets of data (§ 16) are
given side by side.
Table 1.— Compressibility of alcohol. Boiling point, ?/?•■; critical temperature, 23(P.
1
i
r
r
--- ,
«>70 "i
P
20
100
rxl0'
rxlo* ,
0X10*
0-0
9.7
00
8-9
no
200
18-0
178
101
"
300
4fM»
27- 1
2«.0
95
,
81-1
:w-«
90
90:i'»
03^
20 '
100 '
0()
94
00 !
96 .
118
2in) ,
20-2
20-6 I
11 :t
300
31 -5
:io-H !
111
400
400
104
i
20
20H
:*oo
0-0
l.V! j
28-4
00 ,
14-:!
29 1
10-49""
100?
184
1A0
:iiio
42-0 '
416 ,
150
'
400
52i> ,
i
140
12-iV*
180=>
[ 2fi
100
00
:i.vo
00 '
:?.v 3 .
445
200
07 1
<M0 i
372
300
911
90-3 .
324
4<»()
1100
1100 '
290
i
150
200
0
212 ,
0 i
208
4.200
21 -75«» ,
250
289
291 !
2, 900
',W< ' i
:j«h)
334
:t:*3 1
2, 220
350
:mki
:i«4 ,
1,820
400
380 ,
385
1,530
Tabi/k S. — Compressibility of alcohol, referred to JoO atmospheres.
$,L
Observed.
i y < 103
I
150
2s--' ! 200
9- 1>« * 300
j 400
f 150
O.V; j i»«K»
9- 78"" . j :jo:i
I 400
f 150
I 200
100°
10-27c* ) 300
I 400
1H.V
11-02 «
21 •75'«
150
2<M)
300
400
150
200
:tou
400
00
43
127
202
0-0 .
55 •
18-4
25- 1 ,
O'O
H-l
21-6
331
0-0 i
1H-0
411 ;
01 2 i
0
211
335
304
0X1O1
, Com- I i
' piltiMl. , |
JHff. XIOV
r " I
\
80
H5
81
110
109
100
108
144
132
320
274
245
4. 200
2. 22 »
1. 530
0-0
43
120
20-2
00
50
100
25-5
00
70
215
340
00
15-4
40-0
01-8
i
•0
0
;• 1
•o '
0
— 1
- -4 ,
— 4
•0
1 -8
-i I '
— •9
i
0
. •*>
-0
t>
*0
i
1
89
101 '
115 -
136
;
_ ._(.
— —
158 ,
20*1
- ■ - -
331
598
219
33. »
385
— 8 13.880
\ 5
- 1
32
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[DULL. 92.
Tablk 1). — Thermal expansion oj alcohol, x jo\ referral to 2SD.
!a»ih. =-- !
1
150
200
300
4<:0
1
r 28r>
0
0
«'
i
0
fcv>
35
:r» j
ai
30
e— ■
v KKT--
87
82
. 7X
73
185>
229
217
l!'5
178
t 310=>
1,290
820
555
447
18. Palmitic acid. — The data are given in Tables 10 and 11, on a plan
uuiform with the above. Owing to accidents, two threads were observed ;
the first between (>5° and 185°, and the second between 05° ami 310°.
At 05° solidification set in at 400 atmospheres. The necessary result is
distortion of the curvature of the loci. Much difficulty was encountered
because of breaks iu the mercury thread. Hence the circumtlexure iu
the isopiestktt is probably an error of observation (Cf. Fl. v).
Tablk 10. — Compressibility of palmitic and, (•■rtH.-uO... Melting point, *\2-; boiling
point, 3~tOJ .
L%B
16- 72*™
100°
17-16- -
Obwrved.
y « 10' y 10*
-.« i
00
72
15-u
228
311
00
81
10 0
255
33-3
00
81
103
35-5
333
0-0
12-1
2«;:t
37*
477
Computctl.
- - 0 X 10*
00
72
00
15-3
85
23- 1
82
311
82
1 v- > 103
*o-o
7'1
101
93
91
8S
151
140
134
127
I
o-o
121
25 5
::7-."»
485
* Including th« lowor »«*ri<»8 for CS^.
1.V3
230
SO-1
00
78
IK'tt ,
25-4
33-2
-fO-3
-03
-1-01
+ 0-1
102
00
III)
—0 2 '
00
-0-4
100
niir. x io*»
1>>'
106
d# X 10*
00
—01
01
93
- 01
—01
-J 02
t Solidifying.
104
ic:
SECOND SAMPLE.
05 5
1463""
r.ao ■ I
310? '■
17'54"»
20
100
200
too
400
20
100
200
300
400
00
G-5
151
295
0*0
23-4
47 4
«0-3
82tJ
bmos.] COMPRESSIBILITY OP PARAFFIN AND OF THYMOL.
37
Tarlk 21. — Compressibility of paraffin. Melting point, 55° .
*,L
1*5"
18'9"«
V
V
V
V
p
00
■•« A 103
-v> X10»
y .-. 10'
jS X 10*
o
00
00
171
00
181
100
176 178
176
200
31-8
322
32-2
32-4
161
300
450
453
45-8
45-7
151
400
56-1 j 550
564
56-9
141
500
671
(*)
134
Computed,
,7 X 10'
00
17-2
31-9
45-2
56-8
674
*0X 10*
180
100°
IT-IK"
i <
0
100 1
200 I
300 I
400 ,
500 '.
00
11-4
220
31 0
30-2
00
11-4
00
11-4
00
11-4
114
21-8
21-7
21-5
109
31 0
30-6
306
102
39 2
39*4
38-9
98
4(59
46*9
94
00
11-2
21-4
307
39-3
47-2
118
6:V>
170"°
0
100
200
300
400
•500
0-0
103
lx-6
20-3
t34'0
800
i
oo i
9-9 i
181 i
20-2 i.
343 i
00
100
18-4
00
9-8
18-4
100
92
87
86
(100)
00
9-5
18-4
266
100
* Tube breaks.
t Solidifying, solid at 500 atinoHpheres.
25. Thymol. — Tubles 22 and 23 and the accompanying PI. xi, give
full account of the behavior of thymol. Like toluidine, § 11), thymol ad-
mits of considerable undercooling, and the isopiestie iacreinents show
eircumflexure in this region. (See Fig. 2, at a.) Supposiug all con-
ditions to hold, no volume change would ensue on cooling under 1,200
atmospheres pressure.
Tablk 22. — Compressibility of thymol, CmlluO. Melting point, 5S°; boiling point, 2$S°.
6, L
i
*28' '
U'67,ro '
64°
15,29rm '
r
100°
15-78'-
Observed.
r m ; v
y X lO3 ' y <
10»
0 x io«
20
100
200
300
400 i
i
20 '
100 I
200 I
300 '
400 !
00
00 i
5-5
5-3 !
10-9
110
170
170
21-8
217
o-o j
5-6 j
12*4 I
19-6 I
25-5 '
00
5-4
12-3
199
24-5
67
oi
61
57 l
Computed.
i
.. Diff. X10»
yXHP
^X 10*
69 I
69 j
70 j
66
f 20
100
00
7*6
00
7-5
94
\ 200
16-2
16-2
90
300
24*4
24*2
86 j
I 400
80-7
30-9
80 |
1
00
51
111
1C-7
22-1
+0-3
—01
+0-3
—0-4
I
o-o
5-7
12-6
190
25*1
00
74
160
23-9
314
—0-2
—0-2
+P-7
—01
+01
+ 0-2
+ 0-4
—0-6
65
d„X 10«
74
96
66
75
97
* Liquid undercoolcd.
38
TflE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[HULL. 92.
Table 22.— Compressibility of thymol, C|0H,4O— Continued.
B,L
V
20
100
200
300
400
OliHerv«r«l.
r r
v ■' 10* ,- < UP
185°
1705"»
00
123
261
380
48'3
00
122
259
37-8
48-5
310°
196»-
20
100
■ 200
400
. 300
o-o
330
61-1
83-6
1020
00
320
60-5
836
1010
0 v 10*
Compu I«-(l.
v
V
Diff. X 103
i>X 10* ! t»ftv10«
153
144
135
127
407
338
299
267
' 10s
!
00
122 '
258 ,
00
+02
4 «*1
—0-4
161
1 .
166
1
378
48-8 1
1
1
I
00
•
31
61
40-2
+ 0-1
—01
— 0'2
448
487
84
....
103
ANOTHER SAMPLE.
425 .
347 .
205 |.
209 j.
1?
Table 23.— Thermal expansion of thymol, y x 10*, rvfenrd to 28°
280
100°
185°
310°
20
100
200
300
400
i
42
43
41
39
39
TO
73
71
08
65
162
154
145
138
13i)
329
293
• 263
239
220
26. In §§2C to 29 results are given for a variety of substances. In
view of the high melting points, only two series for ejich were feasible.
At 310° azobenzol decomposes. The results were rejected. The use
of this colored substance pointed out an irremediable error, due to the
adhesion of a film of substauce to the glass, between the mercury and
the walls of the tube. In case of compression, the advancing thread of
mercury therefore moves on a cushion, as it were.
Table 24. — Compressibility of monobrom camphor, C,0Hi6l*rO. Melting point, ?CC;
boiling point, 274-.
9,L
V
Obst*
r
v^.10"
r
rvert.
1 r
0\ 10»
Coiiipnttil.
V
0-0
6-6
143
214
i
Diff. x 10*
i
0ft
0-0
-0-2
40-1
00
4 0-4
- -0*2
—03
#X10«
tfoXlO8
i 20
00
1(KP J 100
1403" ! 200
1 1 3(M>
6-6 KG
141 141
215 ' 215
K*'
78
83
85
1
1 '
f 20
..
1 i
i
00
U-H
20-0
297
00
99
. 19-9
299
00
95
20-2
30- 1
185° :
14-80*-
100
200
123
111
106
123
126
R\RI'.H.|
VARIOUS DATA FOR COMPRESSIBILITY.
39
Tabu: i?5. — Thermal expansion of monobrom camphor, y x 10*, re/erred to t00°<
1 Atm.=
20
100'
200
•B00
«
C 100O
\ 185>
.;
$=
0 55 j 0*51
1
0-40
040
Taiilk 2Cy.—Comp)'esHibi1ity of a-naphthol, Ci0H8O. Melting point, 94°; boiling point,
279°.
Observed.
V
.X 10"
f 20
15-07- I ,JU0 '
loV4 ' :ioo
400 I
o-o :
0-7 i
14 3
21-3 j
28* «
00
60
10-7
Hil
205
0X10*
00
0-8
144
216
284
72
58
57
54
85
80
77
75
.a_
Com-
puted.
._ . _
V
-FX10'
Diff. X 10'
*X10«
tf0Xl9«
00
4-9
100
161
21-3
00
+09
—01
—01
—0*8
62
62
00
66
14-4
216
28-4
00
+0-2
00
—01
-i o-i
■
85
87
1
" 1
Table 27. — Thrrmai expansion of a-naphthol, y x MP, referred to 100°.
Atm. -
'=|{
20
100
200
300
400
10(P
0
0
0
0
0
185"
58
57
54
51
40
Tabi/e 28. — Compressibility of azohenzol, CuHioN„>. Boiling point, 293°; melting point,
6<P.
Ol»H«M'V«'d.
O, L
V
100° , ;
10-20* •" : i
1*3°
I7'40m
-• \ 10*
2o ! (I'll
I'M) «"."»
2oo i:i*2
.'{00 , 20-3
400 20-4
20 00
100 | 10-1
200 | 21-2
:;oo 31 Mi
4UU 41-1
~ iDiff. \ 101
tf X 10« ! *D X 10«
40
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[hull. 92.
?•
Table 29.— Expansion of azobenzol, ■„ XlO3, referred to 10CP
Atrn.=
e—
20
0
74
]00
0
71
200
300
400
C 100*
\ 185^
0
66
1
0 , 0
64 ' 61
1
29. Table 30. — Compatibility of ranill hie, C#H»0*, Melting point, 80°; boiling point,
285°.
Observed.
.X 10'
00
41
9-5
161
XlO*
00 I
71
1.V5 I
12-7 j
0.0
3-9
90
15-6
o-o
72
15-9
•>.>.7
0X10*
Computed.
00
46
0-9
Diff. X 10»
I
1 o-o
—00
—03
+ 0-9
00
4 01
—04
&AW'
tfoXlO6
50
53
W
58
57 ' 15*0
1
1
00
71
154
231
90
H7
81
9*2 !
I
93
1
Table 31.- -Expannion of ranilline, y X 108, referred to KHP.
Atm.=:
20
100
200
o
65
300
e^=
C 100°
\ 185°
0
71
67
0
64
30. Naphthalene. — The results of the following two tables were ob-
tained without an upper mercury thread, and are therefore affected
by the error discussed in § 15. They contain many points of special
interest, however, and, in view of the long threads (2/ = 20r,u), I think
the discrepancy in question slight. It will be seen that at 100° naph-
thalin solidifies at 000 atmospheres. Monochlor acetic acid did not
solidify outright. The compressibility observed for the solid column I
believe to be due to the presence of an excess of water of crystalliza-
tion in the hygroscopic acid. Compressibility here is a solution phe-
nomenon, and the excessively large value of ft is thus explicable. The
same phenomenon will be observed below, Chapter m, in case of sili-
cated water.
A few other substances (phenanthrene, sodic acetate) were tried, but
without obtaining publishable results.
i
/
^
j>
/■
X
Tig. Z,
r -i
/
.1
b
$/
/
^
//
z
/
A
// $r
//
Tigl
V
At'ntnplia
m
■arum.] NAPHTHALENE AND CHLORAfKTir ACID. 41
Table 32. — Compnuuibility of naphWialeue. Melting point, S(P; boil 'hit/ point, tlo°.
• Olmcrvctl.
L,0
21-2*""
185 ' ;
I
I
50
150
2!H)
350
450
,.^ io» ! ~
13-2 ,
24-3
:«-7 '
432
/3 X 10«
20-8""
50
150
250
350
4.70
I
21-
ioo 3 ;
i
21-7™
lOO*
50
150
250
350
450
550
50 !
:juu
400
5«H)
*fl00
: 10' !
I
0 0 '.
125
243
:«-7
42 4
Computed.
X 10'
129
112 ;
100
o-o
hi
21 4
:jo- i
37S
ill
107
101
94
00
125 '
23-8
;u o
43-4
00
10-9
20 8
ai-o
384
00
8-5
173
251
323
i
00
8-3
10-8
24-6
82-3
39- 1
84
K5
83
81
78
00
8-9
172
24-9
31-9
:w-8
1
1
tf X 10« | d0 X 10*
1
1
1
133 , 14i
i
i
i
■
•
I
115 ' 121
1
i
i
93 ' 97
o-o
20-7
295
30i»
525
'I
83
84
82
90
So] ill.
31. Table 33. — Compressibility of monochlor-avetic aeid. Melting point, 62°; boiling
point, 188°.
6%L
Olmorvcil.
i *
185*
222-
I
■ j
50
150
250
350
450
(HP
20-3-
i
l
*5<P
178'-
50
150
250
350
450
550
50
150
250
350
450
10*
00
14-9
25-2
300
440
00
74
13-8
203 ,
"7 i
7 '.
* \ 10»
2->
30-
01)
100
17 0
214
24 2
fiy io«
o-o
7-4
13-8
200
25-2
149
120
120
112
Compute.
r X 10'
00
13-3
252
300
45-7
74
09
08
04
01
0, X 10*
00
6-9
13-6
198
257
312
* Column solid.
100
85
71
61
142
72
42 THE COMPRESS! HI MTY OF LIQT11>£. |m:i.uO-.
METHOD OF niSCUfiPIOX.
32. PIhh pitrxue/l. — I shall endeavor to discuss tin' above data, in the
following way: Having given certain relations between volume and
pressure obtaining at any given temperature, let a close- fit ting fiinc.
tion be investigated, sueh that tor tlio saaie pressures the calculated
values of volume decrement must eventually he greater than the ob-
served values will be. Let another function be investigated, sueh that
tor the same pressures the calculated values of volume decrement must
eventually be less than the observed values can be. The actual data
must therefore lie within the band or pathway included between the
two functions in question. In othor words, the couple of functions maps
out an isothermal zone, as it were.
Now, suppose it is possible (the proof will be given by trial) to so
adjust the two functions that throughout the interval of observation
they both fall within tint limits of error, then it is probable that any
property which is simultaneously predicted by both functions may con-
fidently he. assumed as the property of the unknown isothermal. So
long, therefore, as the two functions do not diverge seriously, there is
here given a judicious method of extrapolation, by which relations be-
yond the limits of experiment may tie apprehended.
33. Quadratic tf>mttantt. — Sow, in order to arrive at the probable
nature of such functions, it is expedient to pass parabolas through the
observations. The ordinary vertical pa ml ml a is clearly inapplicable.
It predicts a maximum, and is therefore incompatible with the nature
of the locus to be found. Nevertheless, the zero compressibility may
thus be deduced with some certainty, and, moreover, from the relation
of the two constants, additional inferences may be gleaned.
In Table 34 I have entered the two constants in question, respectively
denoted by m and II, supposing that
yt= HPv/V=mp — -nj)',
where i/g is the volume decrement at the pressure p, under conditions
of constant temperature f>. The table further contains I (oiling and
melting points ( It. P. niul M. P., respectively), as well as the total ther-
mal expansion IJ, from W = 0° to the value of t> cited, when p'= u.
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
70\
BULLETIN NO. 92 PL. X
/QO ZOO 3°° +00
Relative isothermals of paraffin. j?q=0, Ao=65.
coo
*
\
BABU8.1
QUADRATIC CONSTANTS.
43
Table 34. — Quadratic constants which reproduce the isothermal decrements.
Sutatanco.
Palmitic acid :
B. 1\, 350
. 1 1«°
M.P., 62o
j i 100-
! I to0
10* X m. , 10* X *t. 10* A E.
315
161
100
88
287 i
93 |
30 !
25
109
107
20
0
Para-tolnidhn»:
11. P., 198*
M.P., 43o
raioj.
1*5 >|
100°
fl.V|
28"Ji
387
404
141
81
81
0
69
25
50
3
Suhntanco.
9
10»x»». 10«X»Jl0»xJff.
Monourom cam* '
phor : I
H. P.. 274* ; { 18Ti<>!
M. P., 763 ' ) 100-j
120
85
80
28
55
0
Diphenvliuninp:
I*. P., 3103
M. P., 54°
Caiirinic acid:
J J. P.. 270*
M.P., 30°
Benzoic aHd :
II. P., 249°
M. P., 121Cl
Paraffin**:
M.P., 55^
:i48
158
63
42
0
235
93
12
0
aNaphthol:
B. P.. 280° e 1850
M. P.. 94" ' \ 100°
85
70
29
50
58
0
Azobenzol
B. IV 293^- J 18-1
M.P., 08° i 100 ■•■
127
80
--
151 |l
59
30
0
Vanillino: 1
B. P.. 2Ki- C 185*1 92
m. p., 89-= ' i mh 47
31 0'
i8:p
100°,
65^:
Alcohol
B. P., 78°
I
3 10 5: 3, 280
185-'
100'
28*
341
178
111
87
210 !
100 I
24;
0
Thymol:
" B. P.. 233-"
M.P., 53*
f.'JlO'
I 185--'!
1 1003
(15-1
{ 28-.
435
159
97
69
67
484
85
40
2
26
329
162
70
42
0
Ether:
(310?! 3,583
185^
B.P.,340 P^
{ 29
1-/0
340
224
107
6, 307
992
340
170
107
1, 770
397
131
57
0
COMPRESSIBILITY INCREASING INVERSELY AS THE PRESSURE BINO-
MIAL.
34. Transition to exponential constants. — There are two points of view
from which the data of Table 34 are important:
(1 ) Compressibility m increases at a rapidly accelerated rate with tem-
perature, caet. par. (2) Compressibility m and the datum for curvature
n are intimately related. This points out that a fundamental relation
for ye and p will probably exist independently of the material operated
upon. § 13. The quantity E serves for orientations only, since it is not
a coefficient.
It is necessary to look at these points more in detail. In ease of
alcohol and ether at 310°, quadratic constants are impossible: for the
maximum would either lie within the field of observation, or the obser-
vations would have to be grossly slighted. This is to some extent true
for ether at 185°. The alcohol and ether data in Table 34 are therefore
inserted merely for comparison.
Rejecting these exceptional cases, it appears, if the dependence of n
on m be considered separately for each substance as well as collectively
44 THE COMPHESSIIUUTY OF UQl'lDS. rnri.i-.92.
for all, that the quantities vary nearly linearly with each other. Sup-
pose 2n = />(-/» — a).
To return to the above equation,
y = mp — np2 ( 1 )
orrf*/rfi> = m(l-^/)" (2)
replace w by S and 2n/m by ^, for the sake of distinction. Then inas-
much as (1) applies more accurately in proportion nsp is small, equa-
tion 2 may be put
<ly/dp = S/l+<*p (3)
whence
y=ln(l + ap)*/* (4)
This equation has an advantage over the equation (I): it does not
predict a maximum. It is, therefore, compatible with the character of
the isothermals in the above tables. Furthermore, in view of its sim-
plicity, and of the fact that generally y = <x> when p= oo, it may be
taken as the lower limit of the isothermal ribband described in § 32.
For it is clear that when jj = oo, r/Fcan not be greater than unity.
In passing I may insert a few remarks on the relation of con-
stants. Since S = m and 2n/m = a, it follows that a = b(m — a)/m and
S/a-=m2/b(m — a.) Hence approximate values for the constants in (4)
may be derived from Table 34. From an inspection of this table 1 was
moreover led to infer that at the melting point, compressibility is constant
and independent of pressure. In other words, since 1/3 = \/a — a/ab,
Sr= a would be the criterion of fusion. Subsequent results did not sub-
stantiate this surmise, § 38. Another similar notion that the resistance
to compression is equal to the incipient resistance to extension even in
liquids, and that therefore 1/3 must have a constant value at the boil-
ing point independent of substance, is not warranted by the experi-
ments made. Such a relation was suggested by the experiments of
Kahlbaum1 corroborated byO. Schumann,2 according to which the boil-
ing point corresponding to a given pressure is higher than the tem-
perature of the same vapor tension, ltamsay and Young,3 who tested
these experiments, do not corroborate them. They effectually substan-
tiate Uegnault's law according to which vapor tensions, whether ob-
tained by the static or the dynamic method, arc identical.
. 35. Proportion of the exponential equation. — It will facilitate discus-
sion if certain salient properties of equation (4) are grouped together
here. I may state that, a- priori, the occurrence of y=10ar/F= x for
i> = a>, is not a fatal objection to its application; for the use of the
l Kulilbauin: Chtun. Her., vol. 18, 1885, p. 3146. * Raniany anil Young: Chem. Uer., vol. 18, 1885,
* O. Schumann: Chem. Bor., vol. 18, 1885, p 2085. p. 2855; vol. 19, 1880, p. 09.
^
/X^
J>
7/
/
r
tit,:
" 7
1
/
T
/
/
y
/
A
*s p-
y*
/.
//A
6
Fim
w
K^
RARUS.J
EXPONENTIAL CONSTANTS.
45
equation ceases at the point of solidification by i>ressure; therefore, at
some finite value of p, as far as which the equation y = ln(l + apyia
mayfaithfully represent the volume changes (decrements) observed.
For this reason I originally accepted this equation with the assurance
of its ]>ossessing a value beyond that of defining an arbitrary limit of
the isothermal band.
Suppose for a given substance
and, simultaneously,
y0=^(l + «v>j>o)*o/ao
(5)
(0)
where pt and p are any two consecutive, intervals of pressure. Then
(7)
Hence if
a =
"<>
*0
« , „ and 3 = ,- — -•—
(8)
equation (7) may be put
y=&t(l+nrp)*'-
(*)
Thus from the observations y1 made along any arc of the whole curve,
between pn ami p, it is at once possible to obtain the constants of the
whole curve referred to the origin at 0 atmosphere, by equations (8) or
the equivalent equations:
"•=T--aj; aml % = i^m
• •
• • ' • (9)
so that the reductions are simple. Equations (9) suggest an important
consequence: when <rp0>l, both <r0 and 50 become imaginary. Now it
is a matter for curious remark that this takes place in case of ether
and alcohol near or above the critical temperature. Hence I inferred
v
that the compressibility of liquids d .r 'frp=z — 5/(1 + ap) changes
form and passes into the compressibility of gases
d
v
V
'dp
1
through an imaginary expression.
In such a consideration the condition for critical temperature would
bej> = l/«\
46 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [uull.92.
Wkeiii* is small, equation (4) becomes
?/ = ~i>-4"~2>2+ ,
which is shown t<» be capable of further simplification in the next section.
The expression for compressibility
d(\^)/dp = S/(l + ai>)
has a counterpart which is applicable for thermal expansion, viz,
<'(k)aw=t/(1-/w),
as will be shown in § 41.
Finally, the change ofjp, when regarded as the function of the radius
p of any unit sphere within the compressed liquid, is of interest. Let
p be expressed by /(p), where p in the uncompressed liquid is unity.
Then
l-p:' = //t(l + */(p))*/*
1/ ail-f)/d \
This equation shows the nature of the inadequacy of (4); for if p de-
1/ •/* \
crease indefinitely, f(p) eventually becomes ( e — 1 ). In the next
paragraph a/B is found to be nearly 9. Hence the limit in question is
82!H)/*r. In the cases where equation (4) applies this vfilue is some-
where between 106 and 107 atmospheres. Hence the interval within
which equation (4) may apply satisfactorily is reasonably large.
36. Exponential constants computed. — After the suggestion contained
in § .'54 approximate values for the exponential constants in the equa-
tion v/ r=/w(l + «/))* a are easily derived.1 The constants thus ob-
tained are very crude, and the calculated results show a wide margin
of error. Hence, starting with these, I computed the accurate values
by a method of gradual approximation, finally selecting such values of
S and a as reduced the errors to a reasonably small limit. This com-
putation is exceedingly tedious and unsatisfactory at best, because
pairs of values of S and <r, differing very widely from each other, are
often found to satisfy the equation about equally well. Nevertheless,
it was necessary to avoid auy scheme of selection other than the cri-
terion of errors specified, the object being to obtain a set of constants
independent of any ulterior purposes or considerations.
The results are given in Table .'55, in which the first column contains
the boiling point (B. P.), melting point (M. P.), of the divers substances
1 Kcfm-nci* to y is couvriilciitly dropped hcrr. Tho constants rrfer to y.
O. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
BULLETIN NO. 92 PL. XII
4-
E, ether.
AL, alcohol.
J^r, para/Ylne \
tt, palrrtittc acut.
I?, cUphenyl amtrve*.
Ab, cLZobenzoL.
J3C,rrhOTLobrx>rrv Camphor
C, caprinlc ajcixt.
T?ittJiz/rrvoL.
7b, tolxvLcUrve para,.
v, vartzlburve.
Jf, oL~-naph£oL.
29, bertzotc avtaZ.
200 300 400
Relation of pressure coefficient and compressibility.
BARU8.]
EXPONENTIAL CONSTANTS.
47
as well as the inititil pressure P0? for which 5, the zero compressibility
and a, the pressure coefficient, apply at the temperature 6. From these
I pass to B0 and a(), which hold for the initial pressure 0 atmosphere, by
equations 9, § 35. The table also contains the reciprocal of compressi-
bility l/£, or the resistance* to compression which obtains under each
of the given conditions. Finally, the value of 50 /»<,, with a coefficient
2*3, by aid of which the computation is reduced from naperian to com-
mon logarithms, is inserted in the last column. At the end of the table
I have added the mean datum %/al)y derived from all the values of the
table, with its probable error. A chart (PL xn) accompanies the table.
Table 35. — Exponential constant* which reproduce the isothermal decrement* — Direct
computations.
Substance.
Palmitic acid:
B.p.:«o*.
M. P..62° .
IV- 20 ---
i <
er
310°
185"
6JP
t»>. 10«
aX!0»
1/*
332 I
160 '
104 |
89 i
305
150
100
0-80
3. 010 i
0, 250 I
0,010 '
11.240 !
i»n*10«
353
165
106
DO
aoXlO8 I l/tf0
325
1-55
102
081
I
2,830
6, 0C0
9, 030
11,060
310^
421
450
2.370
463
185"
145
1-70
0,900
150
100°
82
0-40
12. 200
80
65°
68
050
14,600
76
{ 28=-
5i
0 30
173, 000
61
405
1-76
0-43
0-56
032
2,160 I
6,670 I
11,240 !
13,250 '
16, 530
Diplienvlamine :
B. P\.310<>...
M.P.,54- ...
r0—0
1
310°
185^
BMP
65°
Cuprinio arid : | f 185=
B. P.. 270 s | J 100°
M. 1\.:«P :i «r»°
7*o--- 20 4 30^
216
113
08
62
201
114
02
77
200
1-20 i
050 '
o:;o !
4, 630
8.850
14.710
16.130 i
l
216
200
4,630
113
1-20
8,850
68
0-50
14, 710
62
030
16, 130
100
1 00
0-70
070
l
-;» •
4,070
8,770
10, 870
13,000
209
1-98
4,780
116
1 02
8, 620
03
071
10, "50
78
071
12, 820
Br n/oic acid :
B. P..249-3
M.P..121
Paraffin :
M.P..55©
IV- 20...
r mo*
J 185-
'■A
BMP
6;V>
Thviiml:
'B.P.,233".
M.P..5.P .
/'„ 20....
j (310*
| I 185*
WO*
65 ■">
28-"'
I
362
ISO
113
89
466
103
100
74
65
320 !
1-80 |
1-120'
0-80 !
i
4-66
1*60
1-20
0-70
000
2.760
5,500
8, K50
11,210
2.150 i
6. 135 I
10, (.00 '
13.510 J
15,380 ,
387
3-42
187
1-87
116
115
91
0-81
2,580 I
5,350 I
H,«20 j
11,050 J
514 '
108 '
103 ,
75 i
00 l
514
1-65
A. *m*
0-71
0-61
1.050
5, 050
0,710
13,300
15, 150
Mow*l>r<mt cam- ' )
phor: I
B.P.,274^ \
M.P..7«> i I
I\,-:20 ...IJ
I
185«
BMP
121
82
l
100
050
8, 260
12, 200
124
83
1-02
051
8 060
12,050
215
196
473
315
441
248
217
311
474
243
263
303
252
260
231
232
256
230
234
101
243
2-18
270
370
Xaphthol:
B.P.,280°.
M.P..1W*.
IV -.20....
185^
100O
86
63
080
0-70
12.500
14, 200
87
64
0-81 11.400 1
0-71 ' 15. 030 i
i I
246
207
48
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL- 92'
Table 35. — Exponential vonattwt*, etc. — Continued.
Sulwtanre.
Vanilline:
B. P.,2853.
;»0=--2tt....
6
i *.<\lfl , a"- 10* ■ I'd 0O *' 1«" ' agXlO' ! l/t>0
18."°
f 100°
90
.ri9
090 : 10,420
o:>o
10, 050
as !
GO ,
002
0-51
10.200
16,700
!2-:i*" v io'
tt0
235
271
l
Azolwnsol:
li.P.,2KP ; 1 185°
M.P.,68* I [ 100°
2»,— 20
A lcohol :
Jl. P.,78°.
i».--I50..
! r sio* j
. •; ioo°
.1 05* I
,1 :w^ !
Kther:
H.P..3.V>
Po-^100
310*
1 KiP
100*
65*
130
80
15,000
351 '
1G4 i
110
«8 '
31.800
1, 130 '
:mii ,
225
107 '
I
1-20 7,090 !
0*80 ' 12.500 I
81
1-23
0X1
7.520
12, 350
I
250
I
noon
300
2'tHI
1-20
000
07 ,
2. 850
0. 100 i
8. 020
11,300 I
(*)
830
234 ,
112
07 .
280-0
814 |
<*>
120
885
C>
8-H
2.770 j
583
20
4,440
281
10
5,900 |
UK)
c>
9- 29
280
140
000
(*)■
O
013
2 f>0
101
I
i
(*)
1.200
4, 270
7,040
10, 310
n
1.720
3. 5M
5, 020
247
207
189
•»•!;{
330
2G1 •
217 !
218 i
250 ]
240
Equation fniln. indicating transition into jmhoouh atuto.
»•
•oo
Mean 2-3 - = -2575± 83
(say).
37. Mean exponential con-stanttt derived. — The tabulated constants for
ether and alcohol above 185° substantiates the remarks made in § 35
relative to> the limit of application if the equation r/ V = ln (1 + ap)*/*.
The critical temperatures of these substances' are 10.")° and 234°, re-
spectively. Hence ether shows an imaginary #,> as low as 185°, and
both substances do so at 310°.
The point of special interest relative to this table follows from a con-
sideration of tin* last column 2-3S„/<*o» hi Fig- 21, where these results
are given graphically (S a,s abscissa, a as ordinate), their signification
fully appears. To obtain a figure of reasonable dimensions for ether
aud alcohol, I have divided large pairs of S and <x, each by the same
r-oiivciiicnt number, as is indicated in the figure. This does not change
their ratio. Looking at these results as a whole, and taking the enor-
mous rang*1 of variation fully into consideration, it appears beyond
question that S» and a are not only closely related, but that this rela-
tion is probably linear. The computation of Table 35 was an entirely
independent procedure, and I could easily have obtained data more
nearly in keeping with the mean ratio $/<* had I entered upon the
work with anv bias.
Hence 1 am justified in considering the equation given at the end of
Table 35;
r/r=///(l + <)S/>),fU
as applicable to the whole series of organic substances examined. With
• Uniii*ry: 1W. Roy. Soc., London, vol. 31. 1880, p. 194; Unniiny, ibid, vol. 30, 1880, p. 484; and
othvrH. (T. Laudolt and IloernstoiiiH Utbliw, 1. o.
5
Vol
\ j
/
'
-
■ 'i-
J
/
I
I
/
T
t
??
\
1
/
1 ^
V
1 E
1 /
/
\
.
-*
1 1
/
;
1 j 1
53
'■5'
s.
i
1
i
I
*
1
rr
i
BABUS.]
MEAN EXPONENTIAL CONSTANTS.
.49
this as a point of departure, I made a recalculation of 3 and have in-
serted the results in Table 36. Naphthalin and monochlor acetic acid
are added.
Tablk 36. — Mean exponential constants r/V=. In (1 -f 93p) i.
Substance.
i_
0 ' 6 X 10« d0 X 10s 1/d.
Suhntancc.
0 j*.<10*'*0> 10<: ]/*„
I ( 20^> 105i 194 j 6,061 Paraffin, other ( 65°
Ether: I 65°' 226 j 2*2 ! 4,425 , wimple*: ' / 10;P
TV=l00atm.. \{ HHP 343 i 407 2.915, p0—ii ■ ( 1KP
15. P. ^34° ...! I 185° 1.005 i 10,060 . 995 i ,
tlOO
186
310° 34,250
(')
292
10.000
8.470
5.380
I
Alcohol:
/i0— 150 atm.
B.r.u=78'^..
' 28°.
653.
100°
185^>
89 !
115 i
158 i
331
3 UP 13,830
101
130
201
598
<")
11.240
8, 700
6. 330
3, 020
722
Thvmol:
>o = 20
M. P. -5P ..•
B. P. i-KB--1..'
28°
64^
ioo°;
lfi-,
;• •
310-
65!
74 ,
96 ,
161 |
448 I
66 ! 15, 150
75 ! 13.330
97 ' 10,310
166 6.020
487 • 2.050
Palmitic acid:
;ft::20. ..
3
65*,
j UMP
f. P. ■--«*>...' | 1KP.
B. P. ^--3500.. I t31(P
f '
l
28"
6.T1
Paratoluidine:
;'«-2"' i
M. P.r_r43° ..'
B.P.-198->..
185- •'
310°
Diphenvlamin**: , | 65°
i*,,=0 ! imp
M.P.-54'... ! IfcV
B.P.=310°.. |31(P
91
102
160
330
59
08
87
138
.392
65
69
110
213
93 10,750
104 9.010
105 6. 060
351 285
Monohroiu cam- i
]>hor: '
;>«-- 20
M. P.^-76J .. /1QV
W.P.-2740.. )l
) 100
83
123
85
11.760
126 I 7,940
60
09
K8
142
16,670 ,i
14.490 .,
11.360 i
7. 040
a-Xaphthol : i
ft p"' -OP" "*Sw>
B. P. -z 280 • . .' ( l^°
62
85
62 16. 130
87 1 1. 490
422 i 2, 370
Azobeir/ol
65 ' 15, .380
00 . 14. 490
9,090
4,690
110
213
B. P.-.sarp..1)1 -
Caprinic arid :
y\7p. = MP '.'.''
B. P. = 270°...
Benzoic acid :
S7l».=ll2i<>! S
B. P. =249*.. )
30^>,
65
UMP,
185J
76
95
119
200
76
97
121
207
13, 160
10.310
8. 260
4,830
Vanillin :
M.P. = 8U°!
.i
185-
138
141
I'
'!
7,090 !!
RP. = 2H5^..
; Kaphthal in:
& -50
.P.=r8!P.
B.P.=215J
? IOO'i
J lHS'l
S100°|
153°,
185°,
79
131
80
134
12.500 !
7,460 '
1
1
58
92
58
03
1
i
17.210
10,750 ;
■
93
115
133
97
121
141
i
i
10.310 I
8. 200 '
7,090 ;
Paraffin :
oa=ai ..
M.P. = 55
fip.
HA ;
f89 ;
11.240
ukp,
111 '
114 ,
8. 770
1*5°
178 '
184 i
5. 430
3HP
:t66
392 ,
2, 550
t Monochlor ace-
tic acid:
l>o -0
M. P. =02"'...
B. P.= 1H*P..
) 65*
J 185V
72
142
13.800
7.040
* Results of an older method. In ether and alcohol tho reciprocals of ^ are taken instead of l/d9.
t IHhc repaiicy in thdbe result* due to »olidi Heat ion.
' Iniajcinar;".
Availing myself of these constants, I coui]Hited the values of v/V
given in Tables 4 to 33. By consulting the differences between observed
and calculated, it will be seen that the errors are as a rule within the
range of accuracy specified in the critical paragraphs 9 to 15.
38. Subsidiary reunite. — Certain subsidiary results of Table 36 are to
be mentioned. If l/£, the resistance to compression, be constructed as
a fuuetion of temperature, #, it will be seen that, except in the extreme
cases of alcohol and ether, 1/5 decreases nearly proportional to 0. This
rate of decrease is nearly the same for all substances examined.
la Table 37 I have given the approximate values of 3" at melting
Bull. 02 1
50
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 92.
points, M. P., and at boiling points, IS. P. No perspicuous relation is
discernible, thus substantiating the inferences already drawn in §.'U.
It appears that compressibility is a quantity depending on other causes
than the stability of molecular groups.
Table 37. — Compr&HihilUy at melting and at boiling points.
Substance.
M. P. i da > 10*
Palmitic acid —
Tnluidinc
Diphenylainine . .
Capiinic acid —
Paraflhi
Thyn-.ol
Ilrom. camphor ..
a-Xnphtol
VaiiilliiK1
AzoIm nzol
Naphthalene
Chliir ncrti:' acid.
Alcohol (i>,c„)
Kthcr (i>l(u)
G2°
43
54
:to
.15
53
70
04
K0
<;*
H>
02
»it '
i
03
«2
(M)
7«
83
70 .
7(5 ,
m - I
C.-) I
00 '
72 ,
B.P.
i0xio*
108
:iio
270
(290)
100
213
233
274
240
2>'0
2S5
203
215
1*8
78
34
(170)
J 45
130
170
39. Tsothcrmals computed. — With these results in hand I am able to
reach the chief issue of the present paper, viz., the construction of the
actual i-nthernv.ils for the substances in hand. The computation being
somewhat laborious, it will scarcely be fruitful to consider those sub-
stances in which the heat expansion could not be accurately measured.
§ 14. The data to be discussed are notably alcohol, ether, paraffin,
thymol, para-toluidine, and diphenylamiue.
To recapitulate: The volume decrement,
*/V=ln(l + Q$p)V*
(10)
refers in all cases to unit of volume at the temperature tt of the isother-
mal and under the initial pressure P0. The compressed volume is there
fore.
l_fa(l + 9Sj))i/9
and if in consequence- of the observed thermal expansion at P0, the vol-
ume at 0 be V$ the actual isothermal is obviously
r#J, = f>#(l-to(l + 9S|i)»/*) (11)
referred to the initial temperature 0n. It is to be observed that ?\> is
directly measured, and that, therefore, the only hypothesis occurring
in equation (11) is equation (10).
In Tables 38 to 43, I have given Vep computed conformably with
equations (11) for pressure as high as 1,500 atmospheres and for the
temperatures of observation. A chart accompanies each table, in
which pressures, p, are given as abscissa* volumes c6p as ordinates.
From these charts. Plates xiit to xviii, the conditions subject to which
temperature and pressure must vary in order that Vep may remain con-
stant are at once given by drawing horizontals. ITence, to each of the
Tables 38 to 43 I have a supplement, in which values of (i and p for
f ~
i
i
i
BABU8.]
IS0THERMAL8 OF ETHER AND ALCOHOL.
51
v$p = const, are inscribed. These supplementary tables indicate the
nature of the isometrics. Y^ will be computed in the next sectiou.
Table 38. — Isothermals of ether, re/erred to unit of volume at 28° and 100 atmosphere*.
p
i
V 1 Y -
1 V
V
V V
* dO. ! V p9.
V<>9.
. -
V
2i
FM.
*310°
18
50
100O
650
}0
0
100
200
300
400
600
600
700
800
900
1.0(H)
1.100
1,400
1,600
!
1
(t)
* " "
277
1-70
1-50
1-38
1-29
i*T5
l- 12
Im-8
1-04
l-oi
0 03
0K8
(t)
1-397
1-208
1-236
1-193
1159
1132
1 100
1088
1-OCO
1053
1039
1001
0-983
i-i.ii
1-006
1070
1050
1033
1020
1008
own
o-roi
0083
0 976
0-902
0-955
1131
1007
1071
1049
1030
1014
1000
0-986
0-975
0.904
0-955
0-929
0-914
1057
1035
1017
1002
0-988
0977
0-967
0-958
0351
0-944
0-937
0-922
0914
1057
1035
1017
1001
0-987
0-974
0-903
0-953
0*944
0.935
0927
0-904
0-893
1000
0-984
0 971
0 959
0-949
0-939
0-931
0923
0-917
0-910
0-905
0-890
0-882
1000
0-984
0071
0059
0048
0938
0-929
0-921
0-913
0-900
0-899
0-881
0-870
Special measurement made later, t Equation fails.
britical conditions of constant volume*
9
Ap.
Volume.
28
65
100
185
0
310
600
1,300
100
Rate --0-12° per atmosphere.
Table 39. — Tsothermals of alcohol t referred to unit of volume at 28° and 150 atmospheres.
0
150
250
350
450
550
f.50
750
85)
050
1,050
1.150
1.450
1.650
0)
2-29
1-6,3
147
1-37
1-29
1-24
1-229
119
110
112
1-09
106
100
0-96
1193
1165
1143
1125
1111
1098
1088
1079
1071
1-064
1-047
1038
1-229 I 1087
1
1
1
1-
1-
193
105
142
122
105
1089
1-075
1003
1051
1041
1013
0-997
1-070
1056
1 043
1032
1022
1013
1005
0-998
0991
0985
0-969
0-960
087
071
057
014
0(3
1 -022
1013
loot
0905
0-988
0080
0-901
0-949
1035
1-024
1013
1001
0995
0-987
0-980
0074
0-968
0 962
0-956
0-942
0-934
1035
1-024
1014
1004.
0090
0088
0080
0-973
0-966
0 960
0 954
0-938
0-928
1000
0-991
0-983
0-975
0968
0-962
0-956
0-951
0-945
0-940
0035
0-923
0916
100)
0-901
0-983
0-976
0069
0%3
0-956
0-951
0045
0940
0 935
0-921
0912
Critical conditions of constant volume.
A;>. Volume.
28 ,
65 -
100 ,
185
l
0
300
740 '.
1,470 !.
10
Kate =0- 12° per atmosphere.
52
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 92.
Table 40. — Isothermal* of paraffin, referred to unit volume at 6SC and to atmospheres.
p
V
v
v
>••
&6,
V !
V j
i
y
V
Mi
31
0°
1-241
185°
1
1 108 1 1108
100°
65°
»
1-241
■
1026 i
1026
1000
1000
120
1.201
1-202
1000
1-090
1015 |
1015
0-991
0991
220
1171
1171
1074
1074
1005
1005
0-983
0-981
320
1147
1146
1-060
1000
0 998 j
0-996
0 975
0-975
420
1129
1125
1045
1-047
0-988 !
0-988
i 0-969
0*968
520
1113
1107
1037
io:ie
0*980 '
0*980
0*962
0-962
620
noi
1091
1-027
1-025
0073 '■
0-973
0-955
0-956
720
1091
1076
1018
1016
0-967 ;
0-966
0-951
0050
•20
1081
1-063
1011
1007
0-960 :
0*959
0-946
0-945
920
1-074
1051
1-0Q3 1
0-999
0-955
0-953
0-941
0*939
1,020
1067
1040
0*997
0*991
0-949
0*947
0-936
0-935
1,320
1051
1012
0-982
0 970
0*935
0*931
i 0*924
0921
1,520
1043
0-995
0*973
0-958
0-928 !
0-922
1 0-916
1
0-912
Critical conditions of constant volume.
$
Aj>.
Volume.
65
100
185
310
o
250
1*00
880
1.430
*
Bate = 0*13° per atiuonpliere.
TABLE 41. — Isothermals of diphtnulamine, referred to unit volume at G/P and 0 atmos-
phere*.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
1.300
1,500
M*.
*#.
810°
•235
1-
•211
1-
191
1-
173
1*
159
1-
146
1-
134
1-
124
1-
116
1-
107
1-
100
1-
•082
1*
073
1-
•235
•211
191
173
157
143
•130
119
108
•098
089
•064
050
TM. I Yii9..
I860
1093
1081
1071
1001
052
044
034
•030
023
017
012
0-997
0989
1-
1-
1
1*
I*
I-
1-
1093
1082
1071
1061
1-053
1044
1036
1029
1022
1016
1010
0993
0-983
M.
100°
1012
1005
0-999
0-993
0-987
0-982
0-977
0-970
0967
0-983
0-059
0918
0941
1012
1-006
0-900
0 993
0-9K8
0-982
0-976
0-972
0967
0-982
0-958
0-945
0-938
m#.
d#.
65°
1000
0-994
0*987
0-981
0-976
0-971
0966
0962
0 957
0954
0-950
0-938
0932
1000
0991
0988
Oi'82
0 977
0-971
0967
0-962
0-957
0-953
0-949
0*937
0-930
Critical conditions of constant volume.
*
Ap.
Volume.
65
100
185
o
190
1.200
100
*"
Sate =0-09° per atmosphere,
BAM78.]
IS0THERMAL8 'OF TOLUIDINE AND THYMOL.
53
Tablk 42. — Isothermal* of paratoluidine, referred to unit volume at £8° and SO atmos-
phere*.
p
V
31
v 1
v0». \
1
V
rd#.
V
V*S.
V
V0*.
y 0
TOB.
1
t
0° '
1
18
1158
50
1000
i
1-063 1 1*063 ■
65©
•
280
20
1*348
1-348 :
1158
1042
1042
1000
1*000
120
1-301
1-303
1143
1*143
1051
1054
1035
1-035
0*990
0*994
220
1-267
1-268
1*129
1130
1046
1046
1*029
1028
0-989
0-989
32J
1-241
1-240
M17
1117
1039
10-.J8
1*022
1022
0 983
09*3
0*978
420
1-220
1-216
1106
1106
1031
1030
1016
1017
0-978
520
1-204
1196
1*096
1096
1025
1023
1011
1011
0 073
Q#3
020
1190
1178
1087
1087
1019 ,
1017
10li
l-ooo
1006
0968
Q/IB9
720
1-179
1-162
1079
1078
1013 ,
1001
1001
0964
0*965
820
1160
1*147 1
1071
1069
1*007
1-005
0-996
01>90
0900
0960
920
lltft)
1134 ;
1065
1062
1002 ,
1000
0*992
0992
0954
0-956
1.020
1154
M22
1058
1055 '
0*997
0*994
0*987
0 987
0 952
0*952
1, 320 i
1*136
1090 1
1*042
1035
0*984
0*979
0076
0074
0-942
0*941
1.520
1
1127
1 072 |
1
1032
1*023
0*977
1
0-970
0*909
0-967
0-936
0*934
Critical conditions of constant volume.
Aj>.
Volume.
28 ! ( — 650) ■
65 I 25 1 104
100 i 270 !
185 I 1.200 I
310 I (1,850)
_ ' _ _ _
Rate = 0-10° per atmosphere.
Tablk 43. — Isothermal* of thymol, referred to unit volume at £8° and SO atmospheres.
p
*31
100 j
18
V
•
10
rOB.
0©
V
6!
V*S,
V
V*S.
5°
>o
2(
1000
1°
1-000
20
1*329
1
1*329 !
1*162
1162
1076
1'076
1042
1042
120
1-277
1*279
1145
1*145
1*060
1066
1035
1035
0904
0-994
220
1-240
1*242 |
1-129'
1129
, 1057
1057.
! 1028
1028
0-987
0088
320
1-212
1-212 ,
1116
1116
1048
1*049
1021
1*021
0-981
0-982
420
1192
1188 ,
1104
1103
1040
1041
1015
1015
0976
0-977
520
1175
1467 .
1-093
1*092
1*033
1033
1010
1009
0-971
0-972
620
1162
1*148 !
1084
1081
1026
1026
1004
1003
0-965
0-967
720 -
1 151
1*131
1*075
1072
1-020
1*020
0-909
0*998
0-961
0*962
820 |
1142
1116 |
1067
1064
1014
1013
0994
0-993
0956
0*957
920 ,
1134
1103 •
1060
1-055
1*008
1007
0-989
0-988
0952
0-953
1,020 .
1127
1091 ;
1053
1047
1003
1002
0-985
0-983
0*948
. 0*949
1,320
1111
1059 I
1037
1026
0-989
0-986
0*973
0-970
0937
1 0-937
1,520 <
1
1103
1-040;
1
1027
1014
0*981
0*977
0*966
0*961
0-931
1
, 0*930
* Special experiment, made later.
Critical conditions of constant volume.
Volume.
28 j ( — 620) 1
65 I 40 1
100 ' 410 ;
185 I 1.090 ;
310 ' 1,500
104
Bate =0-10° per Atmosphere.
54 THE COMPKl->SIHILITY OF LIQUIDS. [dull.92.
40. Lsitmetrics. — From the importance of the subject it is necessary nt
peruse the Tables 3S to 43 somewhat more in detail than was done io
earlier work. In ease of alcohol (Table 39) the curves for 28° to 185°,
PI. xni, are a family of like properties; the curve for ,310°, however,
intersects these in the region of high pressures (1,501) atmospheres).
Here, therefore, is additional corroboration of the remarks made in § 35,
that above the critical temperature equation (10) is not applicable.
The case may bo more serious. It is also supposable that the 310° is
only an accentuated expression of the shortcomings of equation (4) in
general. 1 call to mind that this equation has only been used as the
upper numerical limit of the isothermal band, for volume decrements;
hence a lower limit for volumes. See next section.
The chief result of the present table is given by the supplementas
tables: for r^,= 7^,50= 1, 0 and p as far as 185° are linear functionl
of each other. This is well shown in PI. xm, Fig. 2, and Pi. xix below.
The rate of change is one-tenth degree 0. per atmosphere.
Results of the same kind hold for ether, Table 38, PI. xiv, although
the high temperature discrepancy conformably with the lower critical
temperature is somewhat more pronounced. The rate of variation of
0 and p for V*p=. r2H.,n:, = 1 is here 0-12° O. per atmosphere. This also
is clearlv shown in PI. xm.
In case of paraffin, Table 10, which is the first substance solid at
ordinary temperatures V$p — Jrwl20 = l also shows a somewhat larger
variation of H and p, the rate being 0*133 O. per atmosphere. A notable
peculiarity of these curves is the occurrence of a discrepancy at 310°
similar to that of ether and alcohol, but much less pronounced.
For thymol Table 43, PI. xvm and xix, the results obtained resem-
ble those for paraffin, but the agreement is not so good. The rate is
0*11° C. per atmosphere, when V$p = TT65|2,)= 1*04. Toluidine Table 42,
PI. xvn, shows the rate 0*10 per atmosphere, when Vep-= VG.vl2o=l'04.
For diphenylamine finally. Table 41, and Pis. xvi and xix, the rate is
0*09° (.<. per atmosphere. In most of the solid substances the expan-
sion difficulties, 4 14, render the results inaccurate particularly in cases
where two or more distinct threads were observed.
But taking the results a,s a whole (0° to 18."i°), it follows with consid-
erable certainty, 1 think, that if temperature and pressure vary linearly
with eavh other at the mean rate of about (hit (J. per atmosphere, there will
be no ehanye of rolume. Changes of state of aggregation are excluded
from the considerations.
More rigorously this is expressed thus: If with the observed thermal
expansion, compressibility be supposed to increase inversely as the
first power of the pressure binominal (l/<r + />), then temperature ami
pressure must vary linearly to maintain constancy of volume.
In PI. xix the chief isometrics have been grouped together for com-
parison. The linear march between 0^ and 185- is well shown by ether,
alcohol, and paraffin. For toluidine and thymol the irregularities are
babob.] THERMODYNAMIC SURFACE THERMAL EXPANSION. 55
in an opposite sense, and for thymol the distribution of points is actually
zigzag as far as 3HP. Hence a march of errors can not be said to be
discernible. The break in the undercooled region a, like the break
between 185° and 310°, is marked. The latter will be specially dis-
cussed in the final paragraph of this chapter in connection with direct
data.
The thermodynamic signification of the above results has already
been suggested, § 2. It follows, therefore, so far as the present work
(§40) goes, that the thermodynamic surface Yep will probably possess
oblique symmetry as shown in PI. xx. This curve is generated by mov-
ing the initial section r/>, parallel to itself, but in the oblique direction, so
that ten units of pressure may be passed for each unit of temperature.
In this motion the left-hand branch of the curve which issues from the
plane #, v would rapidly run up to infinity, so that the surface is every-
where bounded on the left by an oblique infinite plane. This points
out a recurrence of the insufficiency of equation (4) already adverted
to in § 35. From an inspection of this surface it is, therefore, not possi-
ble to deduce the corresponding expression for thermal expansion.
The cause of this difficulty is probably to be referred to the fact that
the ratio of 6 and p is not independent of V$p. Hence, in moving the
initial section parallel to itself, the curve must be conceived to expand in
its own plaue in such a way that the oblique horizontal lines described
by the consecutive points of the initial curve are not all parallel. In
PI. xx, therefore, 1, 5=3, 7; 2, 6=4, 8; b, e=d, g; etc. But 1, 3, 2, 4,
b, d, etc., are not parallel.
DIGRESSION ON THERMAL EXPANSION.
41. Exponential equation proposed. — Before proceeding to the compu-
tations of the next paragraph, it is convenient to insert a digression here
relative, to thermal expansion. I made many computations, but the
results are much more inaccurate and the equations less satisfactory
than was the case with compression. Expansion occurs at a rapidly
accelerated rate with temperature, t, in case of low pressures.
Hence the equation
di -1-flt (11)
whence
y=l*{l-fit) (12)
suggests itself. The first difficulty is the choice of an initial tempera-
ture, so that the two equations will be put
KO/<7^T/(1-^(e-60iuwly/r=/'K1~^(^60
-T*
56
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OP LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 92.
Aii application of this equation to the data for ether is given in Table
44, and the difference between observed and calculated inserted above
in Table 5. dp is the pressure increment, the initial pressure being
KM) atmospheres. The table is one of double entry, so that 3- has also
been inserted.
Table 44.— Expansion and compression constants of ether.
t
29°
Aj>:
-0.
Ap
T X 10'.
ax 10*.
165
tX 10«.
1,824
1.530
65°
1. H24
220
1.530
100°
1,824
:i43
1,530
m*
1,824
1.005
1.530
310°
1,824
«4, 250
1,530
* A 10«.
165
226
343
1.005
34,250
Ap— 200.
I
^ = 800.
T\10«.
axio*.
txio«. ! axio*.
1,3X0
1,380
1,380
1,380
1,380
165
226
2)43
I
1,005 |
34,250 •
1.240
1,240
1.240
1.240
1,240
165
226
343
1, 005
34,250
/- \l/9
yp=ln{l+9SpJ
yt=/w Ci_2t(*-6))~ (nearly).
6 = 34o
It Is seen that the change of r with pressure is less curvilinear and
not nearly so rapid as the change of either 5 or l/»f> with temperature.
The curve ( y ) itself, though fitting the extreme results very well, docs
so less nearly for the moderate expansions under 400 atmospheres, as
the expansion under these conditions becomes more rapidly linear than
the curve predicates.
Making the final step in these considerations, I supposed that the
discrepancies in question might be remedied by a more general form.
v/V=ln
(l+ap)W
(l-jnt-vy
whence
and
a p«rp=^/(i+«p)+(*-»)JJ|/(i-/»(«-»))
«>-r/(l-/«)+,! £/(!+„)
But these relations are too complicated to be fruitfully discussed here.
42. Observed contraction* due to cooling under pressure. — To corrob-
orate the above results as a whole, I will also insert a series of direct
BARc».i CONTRACTION DUE TO COOLING UNDER PRESSURE. 57
measurements on the contraction of substances, cooling under pressure.
Experiments of this kind are difficult. The strain resulting from the
continued application of high pressure produces much breakage, either
of the parts of the apparatus or of the capillary tul)es. It is clear that
in method pursued the fiducial volume must be constantly redetermined.
I therefore made the experiments at high pressures, alternate with low-
pressure experiments, keeping the same interval of pressure and the
same thermal environment throughout the series. In Table 45 the
results were obtained with a relatively wide capillary, so that the fila-
mentary platinum / platinum-indium thermo-couple could be drawn
through the tube, with its junction in the substance. This insures ac-
curacy of thermal measurement; but tubes of this kind can not with-
stand high pressures. Hence, in subsequent experiments, Tables 46
to 50, the filamentary couple was wrapped around the outside of the
capillary in the thermal bath. Temperatures here merely subserve the
jmrpose of coordinating the high and low pressure results. In all the
experiments leaks were carefully guarded against and unsatisfactory
attempts rejected.
In the tables P is the acting pressure, L the observed length of
column, and rp/ V the volume contraction per unit of volume due to P.
p
Temperature 6 is given in arbitrary thermoelectric degrees, and y are
the successive volume decrements due to cooling. A chart accom-
panies each table. Oooling took place between 185° and 100°, care
being taken that at the higher temperature the parts of the tube had
been equally heated throughout before the ebullition of the vapor bath
was stopped*
58 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [buu-91
Table 45.— Contraction due to cooling uniltr prctture. Paraffin (firtt sample).
•
;.>,„.
|
-. 1 ',.«>
J>=lNntn.
j
3
1
I
«
iit'i 5
!
P^lSOat.n.
Is-SW.
1
3 1 14
t aa
"l4 , 14- J
0* ju
82 ' 331
£ Si
i— 2S*-.
j
!J S
is ! 5-:i
US 1 . 12-4
St , 20-0
Table 4G.-
c.
rartiond
ri 'o Mutiny N*
'■"""•"•■
ftmtf* f«™,
T 'maple).
'
-" X10"
1
•
;.,.< j
• j y >. IIP
£ xlO>=»7'0
,1
115
174
HO
13-1
67-8
1
P-=Outm. !
721
' 0
24
714
i\ t;
:i'l 0
::■] :i
■0-1
72-3
r--4uoHtw. 1
/,. isir-. '
1
0 57 + 00
19 i 10
Jll 14-7
Wis ' 3H- 1
Oli-l i 8S-S
J =Odtm.
00
1
J' =40(1 ulm.
-^ XHP-57111
r 0 ni ui.
L — We:
P = WD aim.
I, .= 1 *•«■-.
^ MO>=57 0
L7!U
1
1
w-s
babto] CONTRACTION DUE TO COOLING UNDER PRESSURE.
59
Table 47. — Contraction due to cooling under pressure. Paraffin (third nample).
i
•
v !
-yM0» !
0
-I •< .0' '
9
( o
0
f o
00
( o
i
oo !
00
13
01
20
1-9
18
*00
43
24
52
3-8 *
58
4-3
P = 400atm. \
98
70 i
P = 500atm. !
109
90
P=600atiu. i
l-'O
9 1
L — 21-3'-. i
J 178
1266
13-2 i
21 1 i
192
{277
14-7 '
20-9
L— 20-8'-. |
Vp ^ |
200
I 270
140
20-2
f X 10»=529 !
348
27-7 :
!£ X10J=627 j
327
251 i
-^X 10*= 72-4 1 335
255
433
33 8
y i
392
300 |
1
405
30-3
504
40 0 :
458
346 ,
450
34-2
603
48-3 ,
507
384
515
38 0
j '
!
[558
426
^570
42-8
f o
I
00 |
14
o-5 ;
' 0
00
' 0
00
48
5.3
15
10 !
P— 20ntm.
15
2-2
Pi=20atm. j
103
107
51
60 ! £-22-5"».
I 5a
i 145
58
L = 22-5»-.
1178
182
1 P=20atm.
105
178 - VP V ,«H A
156
vp «. « •
1:w6
3M
L — 22-5«". !
J 240
^313
253 j •«• X10» = 0 j
235
253
y X 10» = 0
378
37-8 :
VP ...yv« A
333
320
33-3
456
526
46*2 ■
538 ,
y X10» = 0
375
440
39 0 i
45- 0
I
623
63 6 1
500
511 ;
7» = 600atm.
*
1
[555
57-8 1 £ — 20-8«".
ii „
0
\ 13
0-0
20
r ©
00 !
j, ^ X10» = 72-4
(**>
18
68
1-0
. 5-6 1
' 0
32
00 •
3-8 1
1
i
128
103 '
85
8"0 1
P=400atm. i
202
164 :
P=500atra.
148
11-8 :
L — 21 -3«. j
{314
244 j
Xr = 21-1«-.
217
175
-*?X10»=52'9 !
410
324 !
Vp _„, __ _
1290
227
513
41 3 ;
y X10*=62'7
351
275
567
45- 1 1
415
32-7
622
500 1
480
37-9
1662
54-4
1
* Tube slip
[545
«•«
i
■ (»).
**Tu
ibe breaks.
Rates of contraction.
p
AS
500
A
V
V
Xl0»
20
511
400
500
411
500
500
38-7
600
500
37-7
THE rOMPKESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS,
* :
P-:- 200 »(m.
£ - 18-3— .
"£ X 10»=M-7
170
ii-
P=2D*tm.
£ = 18-8"-.
i •!
1
il
[52S ,
I s
J'-KJOBtni. Jjji;
1 = 178-. J_, !
:i<W:
ils
Taiilk 40.
— CoHfra^luMi due (u cooling
*dtr preimre. Naphthalene.
!•
y X 101 |
■y XlO» i
■
r*""]
|f £
£
«
00 !
V— 400 Dim.
L - 30-4".
•«'n ! P=20itm.
Kl
ia-2 /'^4™»tiu. IHi
30* £=2o:i— . | | 04
13-3
24 i
1 877
is-i ;
B7H
*"* . 1'*"
MB
M
a:
«
s
P=20nttu.
£=11-1-.
s
Iri J^S?."!™- lint
31;j» yxW>=37 j **•
:ia-4
IHX
(IS
M
[•!
::;:: |
H
£=20-4—. ' jjjjjj
»1 Lsell-l**. i
41'-
1)1
^ x io>=s7 1 1 Jjw
3»-4
Si
tan
07O |
Kelatitp rutrt (tut
ial).
P.
-V
'. X 10»
20
«|
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
BULLETIN NO. 02 PL. XIX
1500
IOOO
500
50O
500
IOOO
50O
500
500
* ioo* 2001 aSo1"
Isometrics of ether, alcohol, paraffin, diphenylamine, toluidine, and thymol compared.
■ARtm.1 COOLING UNDER PRESSURE — HYPERBOLIC CONSTANTS. 61
Table 50. — Contraction due to cooling under pressure monocklor acetic acid.
/'=2O0atiu.
£=20-7*-.
• P=20atm.
/»=200 aim.
L =20*7'-
\i
0
10
50
100
168
238
310
366
427
480
528
0
18
53
108
192 :
256 i
318 i
377 !
503 |
528 i
598 I
0
27
72
134 ,
208 i
277 i
342 '
400 i
462 '
548 !
574 I
v x j- !|
0-
1-
7-
13-
21
29-
38-6
44-9
52-2
58-5
648
•0
•9
•2
•5
•3
5
0
1
7
15
25
33
41
49
66
69-9
78-4
00
2*9
8-2
155
24-6
32
40
46-9
54-6
66-2
68-6
si!
P=400 a tin.
Z,=20-3*».
P=20atm.
£=21-2'-.
P=400 atm.
L=20'3«".
0
29
166
266
336
402
466 ;
516 i
556 .
603
041
0
13
48
104
168
248
316
368
431
483
538
I
0 i
35 I
'75 !
145 '
217 '
295 <
370
403
460
520
X10*
00
3-4
17-8
29-6
374
44*3
52-3
58-6
63 9
600
74-9
0
1
7
14
23
32
41
48.2
56.1
63-2
70-8
00
3-5
7-
15
23
32
40
44
51
58
T= 600 atm.
L = 19-9^-
P=20atm.
I»=2M'».
P=600 atm.
L= .
0
20
70
195
265
335
405
453
500
545
00
20
81
21-1
29-6
37-2
45 2
50-3
553
60 9
P.
A*
AyX10»
20
200
400
600
500
500
500
500
64-8
59-8
58-5
54-5
These data very fully corroborate each other and the statements of
the above §§ 23, 30, 31,- 35 aud 41. Contraction under pressure when
referred to unit of volume at the initial (high) temperature, decreases
at a rapid rate with pressure. In case of paraffin, were the observed
conditions to hold indefinitely, contraction would altogether cease at
a pressure less than 2,000 atmospheres. This follows in a less pro-
nounced degree for naphthalene and chloracetic acid. The lines of
cooling for the same low pressure are parallel.
COMPRESSIBILITY INCREASING INVERSELY AS THE SECOND POWER
OP THE PRESSURE BINOMINAL.
43. Properties of the hyperbolic equation. — The expression v/V=ln
(1 + ap) *'«, as utilized in § 39, furnishes a family of curves which must
iu their ultimate contours necessarily fall below the corresponding iso-
thermals of the substance under discussion. It is the object of the
C)2 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [bull- 92.
present section to investigate a similar family, the ultimate contours of
which must be above the actual isothermals. This may be done by
assuming
d-if
_T_ /* m
dp~{l + vp)* K i
whence by integration
*'r=d% «
In this case when ^ = 00, (r/F)^, = /i/r, or, as will be seen in the
following tables, (v/ F)#>=» = 2/9. In the actual case, v/ V, though it can
not be greater than 1, will in all probability eventually exceed 2/9.
The method of discussion to be adopted is similar to that in the fore-
going section.
Suppose in the first place that
yo=/<oiV(i + *#(>)
and
Then
y' = //0 (pn+p)/(l+v{Po+)).
or if
/* = //0/(l + r0Po)2 and v = v0 (1 + v0p0) . • . . (3)
there results
V = /<P/(1 + v$),
which is identical with the form (1). Hence if p0 and p are consecutive
pressure intervals between 0 and p+Po, then the constants obtained
from observation within the interval # may be reduced to those apply-
ing for the whole interval by equations (3), or the equivalent expres-
sions
fjn*=/u/l — vp0* v0=y/l—rp<f (4)
44. Presumptive character of the isometrics. — According to Mendeleef,
Thorpe, and Kiicker (I. c.) the volume of liquids in case of thermal ex-
pansion may be represented by
F#=1/(1-JW) (5)
where pressure is constant. Here V$ is the actnal volume, 6 the
temperature and k the specific constant. Introducing equation (1)
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
BULLETIN NO. 92 PL. XX
f h.
Ap/a6=1o
Thermodynamic surface.
BARFS.)
HYPERBOLIC CONSTANTS.
63
and denoting by V the volume for the pressure p and temperature 0, 1
obtain
V =
l + {r-J*)P
wliich for pressures and temperatures not too great may be put
7 = * + (*-£>*
l-lcO + vp'
If therefore F= Fc:= constant,
1-FC , k(1-Fc)-/i
"=-Tl- + "
frV,
• • •
(6)
so that in ca-se of constant volume temperature varies linearly with
pressure, small intervals of variation presupposed. The rigorous de-
duction of (1) and (5) is
lrFc /i p
"--■ lcVc : ~fcVc\ + rp l'>
which is linear in proportion as vp is small compared with 1. In § 40
it has been shown that the relation of 6 to p is probably linear through-
out a much greater interval. Hence it follows that equation (1) is
insufficient for large pressures.
Regarding equation (5) it follows that if 60 and 6 be two consecutive
intervals of temperature, the former measured from zero, and if
FM = l/(l-fc0^), T"# = l/(l -*,(*+*))>
and
then
V,=
fC = flfo/1 — KoUqj
Equation (8) with the exception of the corrective member fc*0o&/(l — lm0)
has the same form as (5). Hence the observations maybe referred to
any convenient temperature as a point of departure.
45. Hyperbolic constants computed. — Applying equation (1) § 43 to the
observations in §§ 16, 17, 19, 20, 23, 25, which are the most complete
in hand, I obtained the constants given in Tabic 51. It is clear that
v must be some function of // ; but the observations are too crude to indi-
cate the precise nature of this function. If v be plotted as dependen t on
/i, the points are seen to group themselves about a straight line passing
through the origin. Again if the ratios vfn be found, the consecutive
results show no discernible march or grouping. Hence I have assumed
the ratio as constant, and have added its mean value in the table.
.FVWflWVmrtK*
64
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 92.
The ether and the alcohol points for 310° are not amenable to this method
of treatment, and the discrepancy is somewhat apparent in the ethei
point for 185°. h\ ease of alcohol the relation of constants is irregular,
showing unusually large errors of observation.
Table 51. — Hyperbolic comlant* which reproduce the hothermal decrement*. Direct
computation.
9/Y--np il + vp).
Temp.
Temp.
M 10*
i
rX 10«
i
i
Temp. p y 10*
*X10:
•
n « 10*
v \ 10*
20°
Ether.
28°
Tolii
dine.
i
65°
Paraffin.
851 1(11
1000
830
50-5
58
<tt°
238-2
1.028
05°
700
413
100°
111-5
475
100°
3529
1.573
100*
81*4
110
185°
1S| 5
845
185°
1.027 C
», 870
185°
1456
801
310°
:;t»H i
1.510
*310°
10, 842 0
18,400
310° I 4011
1,730
:
inol.
1
i
■
Th\
Alcohol.
Diphenylamine.
1
- _ _ . . -
— ■ ■ ■ — ■
■
| 28"
678
465
28°
870 243
65° 613
162
! 05°
00-5
157
65°
111 5 276
100° : 00-3
285
IMP
09-3
553
100°
181-7 ! 1.630
185° : 11 14
613
185°
162 5
715
185°
3482 I 1,755
310°
214-6
889
310°
465-2
2.000
*3io°
7,5530 15.770
i
i
■ expanni
on.
* Exceptional valuea duo to pari
ial adiabatic
M
eaii ratio - -
= 4-5.
46. Mean hyperbolic constants derived. — The next table, 52, contains
the values ot /* obtained by accepting the equation v = 4*5 //, derived
at the end of the last table. The exceptional alcohol and ether points
have been rejected. In general it will be seen that the diagram of ^
and v is not so smooth as was Plate xn, in §37, for a and 5. This
shows, I think, that the equation of the last section is more in keeping
with the character of the observations made, than is the equation of
this section.
Tablk 52. — Mean hyperbolic contttanU.
v r=-
(1 4 4-5M>)
Substance.
n • 10" Sulmtance.
29" 167
65° 229 !
Ether { 100° 354 ToluWIine-para: ■!
"""■ 1.221 ,
*18.!P
I 310°
I
Alcohol .
f 28° 89 : ( 65°
65° i 115 ->. , i • J 10O=>
100° 103 ^M»^«*ylaM"M \ iK5=
185° i 340 : 1 310°
310°
J
fi v 101 Substance.
Paraffin.
f 28°
59
«5°
00
1('0°
8i
1>J.V-
141
| SICK-*
412
64
69
112
216
: ( 65°
! J KMP
;) 185°
] 1310^
28°
o
I | 65;
69 Thymol '■ < lo:>° :
112 : I 185°
I I 310°
* Equation begins to fail.
10*
88
112
181
382
66
73 .
97
162
481
U. S. GEOLOGICAL 8URVEY
BULLETIN NO. 92 PL. XXI
Contraction on cooling. Paraffin.
babui.] ISOTHERM ALS AND ISOMETRICS. 65
47. — The isothermal band. — Making use of the constants in Table 52,
I calculated the actual isothermals in the way suggested in §31). The
expansions are directly observed, and the only hypothesis introduced
is equation 1, § 43. The results so obtained are inserted in Tables 38
to 43, where V^ are the actual volumes obtained by the hyperbolic
equation § 43, and V& refer to the exponential equation, §35. These
two quantities, constituting the upper and lower limit of the isothermal
band, are to be discussed together somewhat in detail.
In case of ether the divergence or width of the band at 1,000 atmos-
pheres is about 0-4% at 28°, 1% at 65°, and \% at 100°. At 185° the
divergence would be 8%, but the hyperbola here begins to fail. Better
accordance could here be obtained as far as 185° by introducing
v = 0-0003 + J-J-ji, as found from Table 31 ; but in consequence of the labor
already spent I desisted from this additional trial. My purposes are
sufficiently answered by the above computation. Constructing the
relations (isometrics) for p and o when rc = l, it will be seen that
whereas in the case of the exponential formula the straight line is
predicted even as far as 185° and 1,300 atmospheres, this is not thcrcase
for the hyperbolic form. Divergence from the linear curve begins very
appreciable at 100° and 600 atmospheres.
Tn case of alcohol the conformity of results is better throughout.
At 1,000 atmospheres the curves for 28° do not diverge; at 6o° the
divergence is 0-2%; at 100°, 0-3%; at 185° 2%. Putting Ve = l, it
appears that whereas the exponential relation holds linearly as far
as 1S5° and 1,500 atmospheres, the hyperbolic equation holds only
as far as 100° and 700 atmospheres.
Divergence in case of para HI n at 1,000 atmospheres is 0*1% at 65°;
0-2% at 1 (MP ; 0-7% at 185°; 0% at 310°. As far as 1*5° and 000 atmos
pheres both isometrics are linear. At 310° both fail, but on opposite
sides of the isometric. The agreement of the exponential is preferable
throughout.
The observations for diphenylamine are less satisfactory, partly be-
cause of the choice of 0 atmospheres as initial pressure, partly because
of some error in the expansion data. At 1,000 atmospheres the diver-
gence of curves is 0-1% at 05^ ; 0-1 % at 100°; 0-2% at 185°; 1% at
310°. The interesting feature of these results is the fact that the
isometrics seem to retain their linear character as far as 310°.
In case of thymol the divergence at 1,000 atmospheres is 0*1% at
28°; 0-2% at 05°; 0-1% at 100°; 0-0% at 185°; 3% at 310°. Irregu-
larities in expansion have also distorted these results.
Finally, in case of para-toluidine the divergence at 1,000 atmospheres
at 28° is nil; at 65°, nil; at 100°, 0-3%; at 185°, 0-3%; at 310°, 3%.
48. Conclusion. — Summarizing these results, it appears that the ex-
ponential t).' V=7w(l +«p)*/« is more in keeping with the general
character of the isothermals discussed thau is the hyperbolic- form
v/V=ppl(l+>p). Both equations fail at 310°. It is diflicult to assign
Bull. 92 5
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
66
— ^ -r.KWUjHLITT OF LIQUIDS. f.cu.M.
»ver, in rtoiS"! '"V,^ C""U,"rv ""*" «<"■
<W ...«(„„•«., actually d«,«i,,«*» .„„ ,,S, b ,* "' ,„- n 1 '
ureas might irai It fro,,, ,i„-,,„s,„„,.j. „f tnoinratiin. in tl„. l,oili,,»
s*. iau. "" "x1"t„,";;;, ^"",' f,™"'•r", .«««"£
i • i *i + . »o reason to suspect inconstancv
havior was such that i i*;.:- - \ IIM,,,,,3'
To interpret these discrepancies I resolved to ?"^f '^^itjJli'U^nro-
ments for ether, a case in which the high temperature break is most
pronounced. Finding a tube which was strong enough to resist 1.000
atmospheres at 310°, I obtained the following example, Table f>3, of
f similar results. The volumes are all referred to unit of volume
length ot thread L is now only l*»ocm, the low temperature isothermal
can not be accurately given. The tube broke^in my linal endeavors to
repeat the experiments, in such a way to exclude adiabatic conditions.
Table 53.— Isothermal* of ether. Direct measurement. Q = '3QQ:; L = 600*m.
p
Volume.
Volume.
; p
i
atm.
Volume.
atm.
■
loo
330
312
, 400
1-43
200. .. .
1-83
1-76
1 TiOO....
l-M
300....
1-5C
1-52
■ 000
1-28
VoluilH*
1-41
1-32
1-20
I,
'■ /-;
atm.
/on. .
*oo. .
IKK)..
VoluniH.
Volume.
1 24
111)
1-16
1-23
1-Jtt
116
0=22°; X = 1'85".
It follows from this table that the 300° point of the ether isometric
may be looked for in the region of 2,000 atmospheres. Hence the ob-
served results substantiate the computed isometric for ether given
in Plate xiv, which predicts the corresponding point at about 2,1:00
atmospheres. Nevertheless it can not be too carefully noted that if
the isometrics for volumes 1*2, 1*3, 1*4 •• • be constructed (1S5° and
310° being now available) the break between 185° and 310° remains in
full force, quite in conformity with the other data (alcohol, paraffin,
hq nj >rj hcj 08
*■* t? *+ T
q a o o
• ■ •
*. « u m
r s
3 2 o
° 2
3 a
i
$ a
c -
3 g.
B =■
r» -<
3 *
8 s
8 »
•a
5>3
° 2
B B
*» ~>
l|
5*5
c c
3 3
i $
c c
2 n
S » 3
ft- a. 3
ir
£♦ r* ©
| 3 g
•e ^ :T
ST =* s
P i &
3*
BARCT.1 ISOTHERMALS AND ISOMETRICS. 67
etc.). The full explanation of the occurrences here met with is of ex-
ceedingly great imj>ortance in its geological bearing and will there-
fore be made the subject of my subsequent work. Curved isometrics
lead to certain interesting conditions of maximum volume.
The chief observational discrepancy encountered in these results
is the expansion error in case of substances which solidify between ob-
servations at different temperatures. Hence the effect of different
volumes on the slope of the isometrics can not be satisfactorily dis-
cussed. Since compression measurements retain their value independ-
ent of the. thermal expansions and since the method pursued is such that
all necessary measurement for thermal expansion can be made at at-
mospheric pressure, the difficulties may easily be rectified. By using
a thermometer tube the purely thermal data can be supplied with any
desired degree of accuracy. This I conceive to be the advantage of the
mode of investigation set forth in the present paper.
Among the important results of the above tables is the fact that
compressibility moves on the even tenor of its way quite independent
of normal boiling points and melting points, provided of course the
conditions are not such that boiling and melting can actually occur.
For this reason compressibility is particularly adapted for exploring
the nature of the environment of the molecule in its relations to tem-
perature, i. e. for exhibiting the character of the thermal changes of
the molecular fields of force.
49. The above work, though confined to relatively low ranges of
pressure, was believed to have a more general value for reasons such
as these: Instead of tracing the isothermals of a single substance
throughout enormous ranges of pressure, similarly comparable results
may possibly be obtained by examining different substances, conceived
to exist in as widely different thermal states as possible. For in such a
case, inasmuch as the actual or total pressure is the sum of the pressures
applied externally and the internal pressure, the total pressure in
question virtually varies enormously. This calls to mind the remarks
made in §§ &"> and 4.* relative to observations confined to limited parts
of an isothermal.
Finally, the work of the present paper may be looked at from quite a
different point of view. Suppose, for instance, I regard the linear iso-
metric proposed by Ramsey and Young (loc. cit.) as an established fact.
Then the chief result of the present work, viz, that the exponential
equation (2) if applied to the observed changes of volume predicts a
linear isometric throughout an enormous range of pressure, affords
favorable evidence of the probable truth of the exponential equation
in question. In other words, it is probable that along any isothermal
compressibility increases inversely as pressure augmented by a con-
stant. The interpretation of this constant can not now be given.
OHAPTEE
ISTRODI'CTORY.
60l Purponeg of the irorl: — In the endeavor to obtain data for the re-
lation between melting point and pressure, a question which in its
higher phases is of extreme geological importance, the difficulties of
the general problem make it advisable to begin with material which
can easily be operated on. Mercury suggests itself at once. It** melt-
ing point is very low, at temperatures where most resinous cements,
marine glue for instance, are practically rigid. This greatly facilitates
the construction of high -pressure apparatus, and the experiments
therefore become of a less formidable character. The molecular
structure of the metal is relatively simple, which is another advantage.
Apart from practical considerations the behavior of any substance, of
definite character has its own intrinsic importance and must contrib-
ute essentially to a general diagram of the fusion phenomena in ques-
tion.
Again, mercury in common with many other metals (K, Na, Sn, etc)
shows a marked increase of electrical resistance on passing from the
solid to the liquid condition. Indeed the resistance of the liquid may be
from two to five times that of the solid metal, as the researches of
Matt end, Matthiessen, Siemens, I-.de la Hive, Cailletct audllouty, ' 0. .
L. Weber,1 Grnninach,3 and others show. The change of resistance in
question may therefore be expediently selected as n criterion nf '/union,
a principle which may l>e used, cautiously of course, in the cases
of metals and even of some solid electrolytes. The conductivity of
glass, for instance, increases at a phenomenally rapid rate while the
solid passes through the viscous stages into fluidity (Huff, Bectz, Gray,
Fousscreaii, Perry, and others'). From all this it follows that the some-
what cumbersome problem of welting point mill preminre may in many
instances lie translated into ctrrtrinil rwixtanve and jirrnsure, a form in
Ifjalllrii-t Mil Hunt J" : <-'. IE., vol. MM. ISK5. ji. 1 !:■«.
»r\L.Wobi-r: Whil. Ann., vol. 2.'.. Ism, p. »j:,: iliiil.. virt. :i7, l*H». )i, 5*7; ilii.l.. vnl.3*. 1«S0, r~227.
•(iruliiHiii-li: WIhI.Aiih.. vril,;i:i. nam. ],.7li4i ililil..vi>].3tl.].»i<l.i>.SS7: iltiil.. vul. 37. 1S8S. p. SOU.
•Td.; Ill mi Inn- i« given iu mj |n.(mt uii htn.-WM.-il gl:us (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 37, 1SS0. (>]). S)», 340).
ba»us.1 BIBLIOGRAPHY — METHOD OF WORK. 69
which it is much better adapted. for experimental attack. This indi-
cates the general trend of my present work.
The present chapter shows this method to be feasible. I uieasurd
the efieet of pressure on the conductivity of mercury at ordinary tem-
peratures, the results of which work afford a sufficient preliminary test.
51. Literature. — The effect of pressure on the conductivity of liquid
metals is not well known. ( -hwolson ' operated on solid metals, obtain-
ing results of #01% (copper and brass) to *1% (lead), per 100 atmos-
pheres. These data are too small to be of practical use of the kind
above in view, except in the case of lead perhaps. They are too easily
distorted by the thermal effect of compression. Compared with my
results for liquid mercury they suggest that distinctions between the
solid and the liquid states may perhaps be feasible in a scale of com-
pressibility. R. Lenz,2 operating on mercury, found a diminution of re-
sistance of 2% per 100 atmospheres, proportional to the pressure of 1 to
60 atmospheres, a very favorably large result quite in keeping with
my purposes. E. Pfeiffer,3 using Caillctet's pump, communicates a
method for the measurement of electrolytic resistance under pressure,
and data for an aqueous solution of 0O2. J. W. Clarke4 eleeti'olyzed
dilute sulphuric acid in a closed space. L. Graetz5, taking a some-
what different line of departure, endeavors to arrive at the effect of
pressure on the resistance of solid salts.
Foussereau'j discovered some remarkable effects of long continued
high pressure (175 atmospheres) on the conductivity of metallic chlo-
rides (Fe, Al) in very dilute solution. The effect of pressure on the
resistance of carbon, which lies beyond the present work, has been
studied by Mendenhall1 and others.
This practically closes the list of more or less closely allied researches.
The results of Ii. Lenz seem, therefore, to be the only special data in
hand. Again, a study of the combined effect of temperature near the
melting point of a metal and the superincumbent pressure has never
been made.
SIMPLE METHODS AND RESULTS.
52. CuiUetefa tubes thmribed. — My first experiments were made with
Cailletct's oxygen tubes, into the small end of which a platinum ter-
minal was either fused or cemented with marine glue. The tubes
themselves proved to be badly annealed and unexpectedly fragile
when subjected to high pressure. 1 therefore took Prof, l&ood's pre-
caution of annealing them at 450°, until traces of polarization disap-
peared. For this purpose it was convenient to cover the glass with
1 C hwolson : CutYh Ifrnortoriiini, vol. 14, 1«78, p. 20. 27. lluililsitttT, vol. 5. 18*1, p. 449.
*K. Li'im: ItHbliitlcr, vol. «. ]*«. p. rt;c\ Origiual (Stuttgart, 1882) not accessible.
•IMVilR-r: Wiiil. Ann., vol. 23. 1884. p. 62"i.
«Obirk«': Phil. Mug. ("»), vol. 20. 1883. p. 433.
•(irai-ty.: Wiwl. Aim., vol. 20, 18*0. p. yi4.
* FoiinKfivim : C. K.. vol. 104, 18*7, p. 1161.
T MeuuYuhall: Am. Jour. Sci., 3d boi., vol. 24. 1882, p. 43.
70
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 92.
asbestus, surround this with a piece of iron gaspipc also covered with
asbestus, and then expose it in a combustion furnace, Fletcher's being
preferable. In spite of all precautionary preparation, I found the tubes
in hand (external diameter 2p2 = k8*m9 internal diameter 2/*i=0-17c,M)
to be incapable of withstanding more than 200 atmospheres internal
pressure. In future experiments it will therefore be necessary to take
advantage of smaller diameters.
Instead of platinum, amalgamated zinc terminals were used in case
of the zinc sulphate solutions.
53 Electrical apparatus. — The tubes were made part of a Wheat-
stone bridge of which the corresponding branch was a suitable rheo-
stat X. Ifa/b=x/Kj and if 1 know the deflections of the galvanome-
ter for any increment to, I can at once compute the quantity fiR pro-
duced by a given pressure. For in the case of like deflections,
dx/x = fiR/R. By this simple and convenient method I obtained the
data of Table 54, by alternately increasing ami decreasing the pressure
by increments of 25 atmospheres each. In Table 54, fip is the incre-
ment of pressure in atmospheres, practically in megadynes per square
centimeter, since the Bourdon gauge (§0, 10) used is neither absolute
nor very sensitive. fiR/R is the corresponding increment of resistance
for each op. By adding to fiR/R the correction firtr due to the expan-
sion of the glass tube (the method of computing fir. r will presently be
shown, §55) I obtain the final column fiRxi /i'0, or the resistance effect
of the hydrostatic pressure p. I may state that my galvanometer, in
case of mercury, was sensitive enough to show deflections of 21|,,n read-
able to 0-01cm per 100 atmospheres.
54. Preliminary data. — The initial pressure in the following table is
25 atmospheres, insuring fixed positions of parts, and absence of small
air bubbles. Commercial mercury was used.
Table 54. — Kffevt of eoinpremtiov on the resivtance of mi-rcury, and of zinc sulphatt
solution.
[Caillete.t tulKW: IiitiTUttl diumeter, 008£"; external diameter. o-ttO'"'".]
Commercial meirurv.
I
! Concentrated solution, sulphate /.ine..
6p.
10 ;v | 10*;.
bit/ It. ' 6r/r.
10' ■•
ip.
W1 ' , in« lo»
6 It /It. I ir.'r. i iltjltv
Attn. !
! I j Attn.
_...1-1 | _xei I ...w» (|) 40 i
50 ' — 2-S | — 0-2 i — "JO ! 70
U;>
2-7
100
i»li . . . .
— 4-:i
- 5-5
- o-:t
—o-4
—o-5
— ill) ci)'.i6
-5 0 !
- 0-:! I - L'Ti
40 i ~ o:i ' — :i 7
- 2 5 -0 2 2-3
1 i
It can not be said that the effect of gaseous polarization in case ol
zinc sulphate is thus eliminated. 1 was not surprised, therefore, to find
these results less regular than in case of mercury. In the mean of t wi:
series of measurements with pressure increasing and pressure decreas-
ing, respectively, the thermal eflcct of compression may be considered
BAKC8.1 CORRECTIONS FOR VOLUME OF GLASS TUBE. 71
eliminated, provided the observer waits long enough between series
and observations. During these intervals of waiting the assistant
easily keeps the pressure constant by moving the screw injector of the
Cailletet pump.
55. Correction for volume changes of tube. — Allowance may be made
for the volume changes of the tube as follows: If r be the resistance,
<r the specific resistance of a column of length ?, section q and volume
r, then
r=<rl/q = (rl2jv; dr/r = 291/1— dv/v •••(!)
In case of internal pressure and a long cylindrical tube1
where p is the hydrostatic pressure applied, nx and p2 the radii internal
and external of the tube, 1/k the compressibility, n the rigidity of the
glass. Again, nearly enough,
'W=Jtt?PP (3)
where /* is Young's modulus. Hence
Pi2 (2 1 of- 1 >
&r/r=p -5- — r \ "7— "2 -J ... (4)
in which equation, in case of capillary tubes, the last term is alone of
interest. Everett's (loc. cit.) values for flint glass, this being the sub-
stance of my tubes, are
Jt = 4«lx 10" ; n = 2-4 x 10n fi = 60 x 10" atm. = 106.
Introducing these into equation (4), the values or/r given in Table
54 follow.
In addition to the gauge inaccuracies, the resistances of the mercury
column of the Cailletet tube is too small for fine measurements. The
galvanometer deflection is more or less fluctuating. Hence I have
rounded oft" the data in Table 54. The resistance of the zinc sulphate
column in such a tube is about 20,000 ohms. Having no sufficiently
sensitive telephone or dynamometer, I made galvanometer measure-
ments, though these are less well adapted for electrolytic work. Other
technical difficulties are to be passed over here.
56. Preliminary result stated. — The interesting result of table 54 is
tliis: Both in the case of mercury (metal) and of zinc sulphate solution
(electrolyte*), the electrical effect of compression without change of
temperature is a decrement of specific resistance, proportional to
pressure. Relatively speaking the order of this decrement in the two
» Tttit, loc. cit.
72
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL.M.
cases is not very different, being less tlian one-half per cent per 100
atmospheres. The greater coefficient foil ml for zinc sulphate may he
too large, because of the condensation of the polarization gases during
compression.
PIEZOMETElt METHODS AND KESI'LTS.
57. Tubular pilomotor donoribvd. — After these encouraging results I
resolved to repeat the mercury experiment with greater accuracy. I
availed myself for this purpose ot a change of method, by which much
greater pressure could be applied to filamentary capillary tubes, simil-
taneously within and without. The apparatus used is practically a
tubular piezometer of steel, the dimensions of which are necessarily
slender. Filamentary tubes and metallic vessels insure greater con-
stancy of temperature. In a thick glass tube the temperature of the
mercury thread can not be certainly known.
The piezometer is shown in 1*1. XXVI. Here ddd • • • is the steel tube
screwed below into a flange Fl\ by which it is attached to the Cailletet
pump. Cf. § 5. The mercury to be compressed is contained in a glass
tube aofh\ the lower part of of which is drawn out into a very line
capillary. The lower end communicates with another -glass tube/,
carrying a platinum capillary tube bent book -shaped, A\ Above, the
platinum wire ac (one electrode) has been inserted into the wide part a
of the tube and extends down as far as r, where it is in contact with
the mercury. The top is closed with a thread of marine glue, which
secures the platinum wire in place. To introduce the mercury into the
capillary tube aok, it is withdrawn from the apparatus and tilled in a
suitable way by aid of a mercury air pump. A layer of marine glue
gg holds the tube in place. The perforated screw />, through which
the platinum wire a passes without contact, closes the tube. Leakage
is prevented by putting in //, when hot, and dipping it in liquid marine
glue before inserting. Alter these adjust incuts are made the steel tube
ddd • • is inverted and mercury hhh • • • poured in from below. A pro-
longation ec, ending below in a hook, is screwed to ddd • • •, so that
when the tube is in position again it remains tilled with mercury. The
air pump may also be carefully used to make this tilling. To facilitate
the adjustment various other appliances are necessary. I omit them
here, as they easily suggest themselves to the physicist. Klectric cur-
rent enters on the outside of the iron trough, $ 5, ami passes via h into
Ar and the mercury /; thence through the capillary mercury thread c/.
and the platinum wire va back to the battery.
Let me add that the end a of the tube aok is much stronger and ot
finer bore than has been shown in the figure. It will be noticed that
fk is a reservoir, permitting contractions of the inclosed mercury dur-
ing compression. When d liferent low temperatures are necessary for
observations, the whole length of steel tube ddd • • • is to be jacketed
with an appropriate thermal bath.
j
t
BABUt.]
RESISTANCE OF MERCURY UNDER PRESSURE.
73
58. Remits. — Most of the data of Table 55 were obtained at about 20°.
In ease of the work detailed in the last column, however, I surrounded
the tube with a cold-water jacket, in this way guarding against thermal
errors, p denotes the hydrostatic pressure, S Rd/R0 the corresponding
corrected decrement of resistance. Correction is easy in this case, be-
ing simply 2>/Hj where n is the- rigidity of the glass. The table also
gives ft, the resistance in ohms of the divers mercury threads whose
approximate length is / and mean radius />,. The mean external diame-
ter of the filamentary tubes is p2. Experiments (1) and (4) were made
with the same glass tube differently adjusted. Experiments (5), (0),
(7), (8) with two other tubes. The last three experiments are the most
complete of the series, pressure having been increased from zero to the
maximum (300 to 500 atmospheres), and then again decreased from the
maximum to zero. The mean of these pairs of data appears in the
table. Again, (0) is obtained with a small Bourdon gauge (0 to 300
atmospheres, cf. § 9), (7) and (8) with a large Bourdon gauge (0 to
1,000 atmospheres). Hence the agreement of data (0), (7), (8), is an
excellent check on the gauges used, as well as a warrant for the validity
of the results. This appears clearly in PI. xxvn, thus substantiating
certain remarks made in Chapter I, § 9.
Table 55. — Effect of isothermal compression on the electric resistance of mercury. Pie-
zometer method.
ip
Aim.
15...
40...
10* X
5A'„ 11
*(1)
— U-63
—1-50
i i<r» »
i
(2)
-0
— 1
40
29
- I
65. ...i
00 I
Itrcak.
1 -2-o:»
115. . 1
i —3.47
140 '
1 Hiv:ik.
165 '
MO ' '
215 '
1140
■j«r» i
2H0
315.... ■'
R=
i
lflw !
15' ■ I
•00 Vm '
•OIF- !
lHo
15""
•005™
ores no change of resistance was ob-
* Average tem|ieratnr«', serif* (1) \o series (7) is 18-.
t Average temperature, series (H). is G°. At 6/> = 350 atmosph
servable «luiiiig0 minutes of waiting.
In PI. xxvn, all these data are constructed graphically. The divers
series of observations are numbered as in Table f>.">, and together they
make up a diagonal line running quite across the chart. It is seen
that the distribution of points differs quite as much for one aud the
same tube ((3), (2), (4), (1)), as it docs for different tubes ((1) to (4),
(5), (G) to (8)). As a rule the deviations are errors largely avoidable.
I will omit a discussion, and merely refer to the good agreement of the
final series (6) to (8) already mentioned.
74 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [hull. 91
DEDUCTIONS.
58. Purely thermal variation of resintanee. — Accepting Grassi's1 value
for the compressibility of mercury, «fx 10 u per atmosphere, which is a
fair mean of the data of Collation and Sturm, and of Oersted, the chart
easily enables me to pass from dR/R as a function- of p, to dR/R as
a function of tfr/r, where v is the symbol of volume. Again from the
known electrical temperature, coefficient3 of mercury (0-0008 at ordinary
temperatures), and the known coefficient of expansion (0*00018), it is
easy to construct dR'/R' as a function of dr/r, when the cause of the
simultaneous variation is change- of temperature. Hence the chart
contains two lines, showing the values of »R/ R corresponding to the
same volume decrement dv/v* when the causes of variation are tem-
perature alone, and pressure alone, respectively. Curiously enough,
—dR/R^dR'/R', an important result, which 1 shall presently interpret.
The chart also contains the corresponding data for solution of zinc
sulphate. fiR/Ri* in the region of negative oR; dR'/R', however, in the
region of positive* »R. Numerically dR'/R' is very large in comparison
with dR/Jt, besides having the opposite sign.
The line extending through the chart is very nearly straight. Com-
patibly with the accuracy of measurement it may, therefore, be inferred
that the ratio of the quantity dR R todc/i\ or to pressure, is constant
throughout an interval of about 500 atmospheres. Hence the conclu-
sions, § 50, drawn from Table 54, are materially substantiated by Table
55. The chart expresses approximate relations which may be put suc-
cinctly as follows:
By subjecting commercial mercury to pressures between 10 and 400
atmospheres isothermally, — dR/R = .;50 x 10 ~6 dp, where dR/R is the
decrement of specific electrical resistance if, corresponding to the
pressure increment dp. If r be the symbol of volume, then dr/r=:
3xl0-8 op. Hence dR/R = IQdr/r.
If 0 be the symbol of temperature, the results which apply isopiestic-
ally at ordinary temperatures and pressures are dR'/R* =z8i)i)xll)~6 HO;
#7ryr = 180x 10-6'M. Hence dR1, A" = 4-4 dv/r, where R' refers to
electrical resistance considered in its thermal relations.
59. Again, by subjecting a concentrated solution of zinc sulphate to
pressures between 10 and 150 atmospheres, isothermally. — dR/R=.
50 x 10 "6 dp. The other relations corresponding to the above must be
estimated :
- dr/r = ~>i) x 10-° dp; -,?/t>'//?'^_o-4 dO; and tfr/r = 200 do.
The chief magnitudes are here of different order and even of sign from
I Tin11 newer value* of Tait and of Ama<rat (loc. cit.) would not essentially modify the at at ••incuts of
th<> text.
* Tin* nuhseript* zero, which wore used above, to accentuate the corrected values »f R etc., axe heue«-
forth conveniently dropped.
I I niade a sjiecial measurement of this coefficient for the mercury used.
m e?
Apparatus (or compressing m
iiARcs.] ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AXD PRESSURE. 75
4
those applying to mercury. Therefore, this estimate is sufficient for the
following inferences:
The chart shows at once that to bring the compression loci into coinci-
dence with the thermal loci, the former must be rotated around the
origin in a direction contrary to the hands of a watch. The angle of
rotation is much greater for zinc sulphate solution than it is for mercury.
Hence, as before, both in the case of the metal and of the electrolyte,
the effect of isothermal compression is a decrement of resistance pro-
portional to pressure, and by deduction, the immediate electrical effect
of rise of temperature, dR'/R' — AR.R, is a decrement of specific resist-
anew* both in the case of the metal (II g), awl of the electrolyte (ZnS04-f Aq).
This points out an inherent similarity between the metallic and
the electrolytic conduction.
60. Comparison with J. J. Thomson's equation. — In J. J. Thomson's1
expression for specific resistance Z? = * = (IxfifK )(q Imx), suppose, to fix
the ideas that ti, 7C, and q are constant, whereas, w, the number of
molecules splitting up per unit of volume, per unit of time, and #, the
distance passed over by the partial molecule moving at a mean velocity
c, during the interval of freedom t, are regarded as variable. Clearly x
can not be independent of m. Taking active molecules alone into con-
sideration, supposing them to be symmetrically distributed and to move
parallel to eaeh other, x = 3 \fl/mt. Hence
R = (2r:t3q/K)j?/c.
This is in accord with the above data. Reduction of volume <1v/v,
isothermally by pressure diminishes x only. Reduction of volume
isopiestically, by cooling, diminishes both x and c. Hence the greater
diminution of R in the former instance (pressure). Finally, by partial
differentiation under the given wmditUms dR/dm^—fixpq/SK)3 ^t/mK
From this it may be conjectured (conjectured because t and m are not
independent of each other) that the effect of R on an additional num-
ber of molecules splitting up, decreases rapidly with the total number
m splitting up; i. e., that the numeric of the immediate electrical effect
of temperature, ?>R' iR — ftRjR, is smaller for the metal than for the
electrolyte. This also is in accord with the above data.
61. Zero of resistance. — In connection with these results it is well to
note in passing, that, supposing the laws to hold indefinitely, the zero
of resistance would be reached only after compressing mercury with a
force of 33,000 atmospheres; but that it would be reached considera-
bly before the zero of volume.
62. Electrical pressure measurement. — It follows, furthermore, from
the above measurements, that the variation of the resistance of mercury
is sufficiently marked, and bears a sufficiently simple relation to the
superincumbent pressure, to suggest the use of this principle for
pressure measurement.
1 J. J. Thomson: Application of dynamics, etc., London, Macmillan, 1888, p. 299.
76 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [bull.
63. Measurement of melting point and pressure. — Curiously enou;
the results of Leu z (loc. eit.) for mercury arc much larger than mil
Working between 0 ami 00 atmospheres, and upon pure mercury fill
into a piezometer tube by Weinhohl's vacuum apparatus, Lenz foui
a resistance decrement of *<>-% per atmosphere at zero degree ecu
grade. This is considerably larger than my result, '00.">% per atmi
phere, at 18°. It is impossible to detect the cause of the ditferem
Lenz's work was done in a way which from the description accessil
to me is faultlessly precise, and my own experiments were so fi
quently repeated that 1 can not believe them in error. Possibly slig
changes of composition may effect a large difference- of compressibilit
and my mercury was not quite pure. It is useless to speculate \
the causes of difference here. They are now of secondary interei
This part of the work can easily be perfected in any measure. T
point of importance at present follows more emphatically from Len:
large datum than from my smaller result. It is clear that in the usn
course of mv work I mav anticipate electrical variations of resistan
due to pressure to the extent of several per cent; but a resistance <;
crement, nU/K, of this value, whenever methods of differential coi
pari sou are available, is virtually a very large quantity, capable
being followed with great accuracy. It is interesting to note, inoreov*
that the numerical value of oft/ It in question is over ten times as lar;
as the coiTcs]M>ndiitg volume decrement, or/r, and that the elastic
dimensional discrepancy is even in most unfavorable cases not abo
10% of the total decrement.
Hence I may confidently infer that the method sketched in the pr<
ent chapter is sufficiently sensitive to throw much light on expe
mental questions relative* to the continuity of the solid and liqu
states. Prof. J. Willard < iibhs (loc. cit.), by constructing entropy enerj
and volume in the direction of three rectangular axes, has devised <
ceedingly beautiful geometric methods for the general study of conti
uous changes of physical state. Prof. Poynting1 has discussed t
subject with especial reference to the transition solid -liquid. Amoi
others Amagat (loc. cit.) is searching for the lower critical tempcratui
Apart from these suggestive contributions, our knowledge of what a
tnally takes place in liquid matter is meager in the extreme. Hen
any general method capable of elucidating the unknown topography
the thermodynamic surface of liquids deserves most painstaking scr
tiny. The advantage of the above resistance method over the ordiua
optic and other similar methods lies in the fact that in the above ca
the character of the fusion is described step by step. This is a mu
broader criterion than a merelv arbitral* v fusion test.2
64. Conclusion. — In conclusion I may advert to the fact that a stiu
of fusion phenomena in the manner indicated is destined to throw mu
>l'uyiitin£: lMiil. Mutf. (R>. vol. 12, 1**1, \>.'.i±
1 AiioMht available im-thoi] for ibrtiriUinj; tin- di-un-*' of fuxion is givvu by the volume changu
the welt lug puiut. Uutli of tlicae 1 hope at ail early ilutr to apply.
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
BULLETIN NO. 92 PL. XXVII
400
-.007
«^008
-010
10"* Sv#/v^ 1200X10*
-.Oil
400
Chart showing the relations between corresponding values of the increments of specific resistance,
hydrostatic pressure, and volume compression in case of mercury and a concentrated solution of
zinc sulphate.
BAniTB.] FUSION AND ^SOLUTION. 77
light on obscure points in physical chemistry. The molecular mechan-
ism through which energy is potential! zed during fusion can not on the
basis of any atomistic theory even be rationally conjectured. Retarded
solidification, supersaturation, and allied phenomena point to occur-
rences at the melting point the signification of which is much under-
estimated. Recent minute researches into the nature of solution should
not blind us to the fact that questions which apparently lie much
nearer home, viz, the underlying molecular causes of change of phys-
ical state of aggregation, are as yet unsatisfactorily fathomed.
r -
CHAPTEE III.
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF WATER ABOVE ioo° AND ITS SOLVENT
ACTION ON GLASS.
INTRODUCTION.
65. Behavior of water. — When temperature rises the compressibility
of water continually decreases until about (50° is reached. After this,
temperature increasing further, the compressibility of water increases.
It was my original purpose to supplement these results by determining
the compressibility of water between 100° and 310°, but I did not get
higher than 185°. At this temperature, and obviously much below it,
water attacks ordinary glass so rapidly as to make the measurements
in glass tubes worthless.
66. Literature — Compressibility of water. — The peculiar behavior in
question has attracted many physicists. Grassi1 was the first to find
that the compressibility (ft) of water decreases with temperature, being
50/106 at 0° and 44/106 at 53°. lie also observed the compressibility of
solutions to be less than that of water. AmauryandDescanips2 substan-
tiate the latter result, but they only observe at a single temperature,
15°, at which £ = 40/10*. In CailletetV experiments, extended as far
as 700 atmosx)heres,only a single temperature is given (0 = 4/5/10°), and
the same is true of Buchanan's4 results. After this the subject was
vigorously attacked by Tait5 and his pupils, at first particularly with
reference to the depression of the temperature of maximum density of
water6 produced by pressure. In further experiments Tait7 studies
the thermal relations of the compressibility of water. Further results
are due to Pagliani and Palazzo,8 working with mixtures of water and
alcohol, but more directly to Pagliani and Vicentini.9 The last ob-
1 GrflHai : Ann. do ch. et de phyn. (3), vol. 31, 1851, p. 437. Cf. Wertkeim : Ann. ch. et phys. (3), vol. 23,
1848, p. 434.
■ Amaury and DescampB : C. R., vol. 68, 1860, p. 1564.
• Cailletet: C. R., vol. 75, 1872. p. 77.
4 Buchanan : Nature, vol. 17. 1878, p. 439.
• Tait : Proc. Koy. Soc. Ed., vol. 11, 1881, p. 204. Marshall, Smith, and Omond : Ibid., vol. 11, 1882, pp.
620, 800. Tait : Ibid., p. 813 ; ibid., vol. 12, 1882-'83, p. 226 ; ibid., vol. 13. 1884-'85, p. 2.
• The probability of such an occurrence had been inferred by Puscbl and by Van der Waals. Cf .
Grimaldi, loo. cit.
7 Tait: rroc. Roy. Soc. Kdinh., vol. 12, 1882-'83,p.45; ibid., p. 223; ibid., 1883-84, p. 757.
• Pagliani and Palazzo: Bciblattcr, vol. 8, 18K4. pJTOS.
• Pagliani and Tioentini: Beiblatter, vol. 8, 18*4. pp. 270, 704 ; Journal d. Phyo. (2). vol. 30, 1883, p, 4G1.
78
BAKC8.] METHOD OF RESEARCH. 79
servers corroborate Grassfs work, and find that water shows a mini-
mum compressibility at i'<\°. Grimaldi1 critically reviews the maxi-
mum-density experiments of Puschl, of Van der Waals,4 of Marshall,
Smith and Omond, and of Tait. Amagat,3 applying a new method of
pressure measurement, " a pistons librcs,'' oj derates with pressures as
high as 3,000 atmospheres and at temperatures between 0° and o0°.
He shows that the peculiarities of the- behavior of water vanish at high
pressures and increasing temperatures (interval, 0° to 50°), corrobor-
ating Grassi. Tait,4 in a iinal paper, summarizes much of his work,
and begins a series of experiments showing that the effect of solution
is analogous to an increase of internal pressure.
67. Literature, tiolrent action of -water. — From this brief summary it
appears that results anticipating the contents of the present paper are
not at hand. There is another class of experiments relating to the ex-
pansion of water compressed in glass tubes, to which I must advert.
The experiments of Waterston"' are probably the most complete and
carried as far as .'>00°, although for very high temperatures T)aubr<kvs6
experiments relative to the action of water on hot glass are to be cited.
METHOD OF MEASUREMENT AND RESULTS.
68. ApparatuH. — The- apparatus used in the present work is the
arrangement already described, § 5 to It. Pressures are applied by aid
of CaiUetet's large pump. The thread of water is inclosed in a capil-
lary tube between two threads of mercury, and the distance apart of
the two inner menisci, measured by Grunow's cathetomcter. The tube,
suitably closed above, is exposed in a vapor bath (boiling tube). At
185° (aniline), the thread of water soon loses its transparency, becom-
ing white and cloudy. This makes the observation difficult. Fortu-
nately the siliceous water is translucent. By placing a very bright
screen behind it, the demarkation between water and mercury remains
sufficiently sharp for measurement. After the action has continued for
some time, say an hour, the column is solid at high pressure (300 atmos-
pheres), though it is probably only partially so at 20 atmospheres. The
result is that threads of mercury break off during advance and retro-
gression of the column. Further measurement is therefore not feas-
ible. Toward the close of the experiment, moreover, the mercury
thread advances inclosed by walls of semisolid siliceous water. The
thread is, therefore, of smaller diameter, and the measurement corre-
spondingly inaccurate.
In obtaining these data I followed the customary plan of increasing
pressure from zero to the maximum, then decreasing it from the maxi-
1 Gnmaldi : Beiltliittrr. vol. 10. 1880, p. 3.18.
* Cf. Van d<r Wnals: Hrililattrr, vol. 1, 1877, p. 511.
« Ainagat: C. It., vol. 103, 1886. p. 420 : ibid., vol. KM, 1*87, p. 1 150; ibid., vol. 105. 1887, p. 1120.
« Tait: Challongor Itcporla, vol.2, part 1, 1888.
* Watomton ; Phil. Mai;.. (4) v»l. 20. 180.1. p. 1HJ. Joum. t\v. PIi.vm. 2 (2) nil. 8. l .<•{». p. 1Q1.
* Duubrtiu: Kludco ttyiilhut. de geologic oxpur., 1WU, Duiiud edit. 1870, p. 154 ct scq.
il^fj.'
80
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[nru..91
mum to zero, and taking the mean of the volume changes correspond
ing to a given pressure. When water does not attack glass, the liducia
mark (pressure zero) at tin* beginning of the series is regained at the
end. When water attacks glass there is considerable shifting.
Boiled distilled water was used, and the glass is common lead glass
69. Low temperature data. — In Table ."Wi I have given some results foi
low temperature compression of water. The data are not very sharp
owing to the fact that 1 did not succeed in sealing the thread of watei
with its end threads of mercury faultlessly. 1 think 1 detected motioi
of the whole system, which, however, is to some extent eliminated bj
the method of experiment. The results serve a purpose in introducing;
the subsequent high temperature experiments. At 400 atmospheres the
tube broke. L and 0 denote the length of the column of water and its
temperature, vj V is the observed amount of volume reduction pei
unit of volume, due to the burden of j^. Finally, ,3 = (r,< Y)( I p) denote*
the mean compressibility between j? = 0and the pressure correspond
ing. In view of the irregularities, it did not seem worth while to com
pute compressibility by more rigorous methods, and the last columi
simply gives the mean value of ,3.
Table 56. — ComprestibiWy of watrr at hue temperature*.
L,B
atm. ,
,u I 300
I 400
/XlU*
0-0
v
yXHP
III)
p' lu 0 to 400 aim.
99*«
643
10- U«
10<P
0 I
100 ;
200 '
300
400
0
100
200
;too
"400
5.8
3 2
95
n-7
134
12-3
156
10- 1
i
00
00
43
42
10-4
01
Ifi'J
12 0
19 2
o-o
00
fl-G
fil
11-1
11-9
15-11
10-4
200
192
* TuIm*
break t*.
4x !,
43 .
40 .
46
42
40
MS
r»7
49
:>7
m
49
r>0
These results eontain a mere corroboration of the work of carliei
observers. The initial compressibility decreases between 28° and 04°
after which it increases to HMP. Cf. f ll\
70. Hltjh temperature data. — In the next table (57) the first experi
ments proper of this paper are described. The symbols used are tin
same as those in §-i, an additional datum, the time, t, of the observa
tions having been added. The first series of data were obtained at 28°
and are similar to those of Table .">(>. The4 next 7 sei ies for 1S3° an
new. Unfortunately I did not observe when ebullition commenced. s<
that the first dates are not available. After closing the experiment, 1
BARU8.]
COMPRESSIBILITY OF HOT WATER.
81
noticed that a filament of the upper thread of mercury had run down
into the core of the silicated water below it. This means that the ac-
tion had eroded its way between the mercury and glass. In this
r£spe<;t the observations are uncertain.
Table 57. — Compressibility of water at higher temperatures.
v > |i
yylO* I 0X10* i X,*, t
atm.
28°
18'44«"
20
100
200
300
400
00
35
94
13-4
185
44
52
48
49
atm.
i
185=»
10-57""
20
100
200
300
400
r>ao» | 0X1O*
00
I
i
185*
20-45""
185^
2010"»
185°
19-94'»
20 !
100 !
200 :
300 '
400
20 '
100 '
200 '
300 '
400 '
20
100 j
200 ,
300 i
400 >
i
00
67
14-4
21-1
203
I
84 ,
80 j.
75 f
77 ,•
I
185°
18-92r«"
ll'-OS*
0
8
17
27
34
0-0
81
183
27-9
383
109
95
08
91
il
101 '
102
100 '
101 '
185°
18-42r»
I0h 10"
185*-'
17- 78'»
11* 20»
20
100
200
300
400
20 '
100
200
300 j
400 |
I
20 ;
100 ,
200 ;
3(H)
MOO ,
0-3
110
2:)0
114
327
117
428
113
0*0
11-7
146
259
144
3ft 7
142
55'5
146
00
301
167
440
159
602
158
00
150
188
317
176
56 2
20J
718
189
* Solid 8ino<< thread** bivak off here. Compressibility still inorwirfiutf.
71. Discussion of time results. — To discuss these results I first plotted
v/ Fas a function of jp? thus obtaining a series of curves of somewhat
irregular contour, the character of which is, however, obvious. This
will be more accurately observed (PL xxviii, Fig. 2) by plotting .? as a
function of the length L of the column, since the time data are imper-
fect. The result is striking. It shows a mean increment of ,3 of about
60/10° per centimeter of decrement of length of column. Toward the
end of the experiment the values of ft increase much faster; but here
they are uncertain because of solidification. The total observed decre-
ment of L is therefore (20*1-17'8)/20"1, or more than 11%. Since the
column at the moment when ebullition started must have been much,
longer, it follows that the combined volume of pure water and solid glass
shrinks more than 11%, in virtue of the solution of glass in water up
to the point of solidification at 185°. By plotting length L as a func-
tion of time (PL xxviii, Fig. 1) the data, though incomplete, show that
the volume contraction took place at the rate of 11 per cent per 40 min-
utes; that is (say), 0'3% per minute. The column therefore soon con-
tracts to a smaller length than the original column at 28°. This is an
enormously rapid rate; for were it possible for such action to be indefi-
nitely prolonged the column would be quite swallowed up in 5 hours.
Hence it appears improbable that the action of water on glass will be
unaccompanied by heat phenomena. (See below, § 74.)
jJulLOS 0
82
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[BULL. 02.
72. High-temperature measurement repeated. — From the importance
of these results I resolved to repeat them with greater precautions.
Table 58 contains the results given on the plan of Tables Zo and 50.
The first series holds for 24°; the remaining 9 series for 185°. Time
is given in minutes, dated from the period when ebullition had fairly
commenced. The experiment therefore lasted about one hour. A sub-
sidiary table, 59, contains the essential results (time, temperature 0,
volume decrement (fl/V)? compressibility /5) of Table 58. The course
of the experiment was very satisfactory.
Table 58. — Compressibility of water.
20
I
00
100
129 j
200
293
300
4(5 1
■f-xio*
o-o
11-7
249
380
/3\10«
i
140
i:i8
139
101
163 \
105 '
00
14-7
32-8
520
184
182
180
00
183
394
005
C Th rends broken off: mens-
< nrPTiinit nmviiain; nili-
( ceouH wati-r. solid.
* Commenced boiling at 0", say.
Table 59. — Contraction and compressibility of siljcated water. Referred to water at
24° and SO atmospheres.
$
yX10*
0XlO«
Time
24°
185°
± 0
+103
44
77
18-
185°
+ 86
97
25-
185°
+ 75
112
30"
185°
+ 60
125
35-
185°
+ 44
141
40-
185°
+ 27
163
45-
185°
+ 07
184
50-
185°
— 15
221
55-
185 =>
— 29
60-
73. Discussion of these results. — The discussion of this table can be
made on the lines followed in case of the other (§ 71). Note at the
outset that after 5om have elapsed since exposure to 185° the turbid
babot.] COMPRESSIBILITY OP HOT WATER. 83
column is not so long as the original cold clear column at 24°. The
hot compressibility after 55m has increased to five times the cold
compressibility and more thau three times the original hot compressi-
bility. Some allowance must, however, be made for the finer advancing
thread of mercury, as explained in § C8. If v/ V be plotted as a function
ofjp, a series of curves is obtained as shown in PI. xxix, Fig. 1. Con-
sidering the difficulties of measurement, they are satisfactorily regular.
Temperature and time have been inscribed on each curve. As usual,
compressibility decreases with pressure. In Table 59 (v/V) is really
the ratio of increment of length to the original length at IMP, due to
thermal expansion with concomitant chemical action. It is not the
ratio of volumes of solution, because the radius of the tube widens in
proportion as solution proceeds. Nevertheless, the datum suffices for
the present purposes. Let ft be represented in its dependence on
{v/V). The plotted curve is a line of remarkable regularity, as showTn
in PI. XXIX, Fig. 12. It follows from the chart that ,3 increases 11/106
for each per cent of volume decrease of water undergoing silicification.
This is about 75/1 06 per centimeter of decrement of length, thus agree-
ing substantially with the former results. Again .v/V decreases 13%
for the interval of observation of 42 minutes; that is, say, 18% during
the whole hour of exposure, or 0*3% per minute, again agreeing with
the above result § 71. See PI. xxix, Fig. 3.
The regularity of the present results enables me to draw a further
inference. Suppose the line for ft, v/V to be prolonged as far sis
t»/F== 150/1 03, which holds for time = 0. Since in this case the water
is pure, the datum for £ is the normal compressibility of water at 185°.
Making the prolongation (see PI. xxix, Fig. 3), I find ,3 = 30/106 nearly.
This is, of course, too small a result, and shows that the time at
which chemical action began is not well indicated. But since /9189 can
not be greater than 70/1 06, the compressibility of water above 100° con-
tinues to increase at an exceptionally slow rate, about one-fourth as
slow as paraffin, for instance (PI. xxix, Fig. 4). This indicates excep-
tional stability of the water molecule.
74. Conclusion. — Now what is the underlying cause of this action?
Clearly, I think, an instability of the glass molecules at 185°, much
rather than anv instability of the water molecule. This is in accord-
ance with the evidence I obtained from the study of the electrolytic
conduction of stressed glass,1 and corresjKuids also to the viscosity of
glass at the stated temperature. At 185° the cohesive affinities of the
water are sufficient to disintegrate the glass molecule.
The increase of ,3 with time must be due to solution of silicate. In-
deed it would be difficult to devise an experiment in which the effect
of continued solution can be so well discerned as is possible in the
present incidental results. Curiously enough the effect of solution is
here an increment of compressibility, whereas in most other cases (cf.
1 Jiams: Am. Jouru. Sci., vol. 37, 1809, p. 350,
84
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS.
[bull. 02.
literature, § tftf ) it is a decrement of compressibility. I leave this with-
out comment, believing, however, that the silicate is in unstable equi-
librium with its water when pressure is small, and that the compressi-
bilities measured are solution effects. The possible? occurrence of lag
here (though I did not search for it) is obscured by the contraction of
the silicated column of water. At all events, we have here a case of
solidification by pressure from solution, analogous to solidification by
pressure from fusion.
Finally, I may advert to the far-reaching geological importance of
these results. In so far as the solvent action of hot water is accom-
pauied by a contraction of the original bulk of silicate and water, it is
presumably accompanied by the evolution of heat. Hence, if water at a
temperature above 200° and under a pressure sufficient to keep it liquid
be so circumstanced that the heat produced can not easily escape, the
arrangement in question is virtually a -furnace; and since such condi-
tions are necessarily met with in the upper layers of the earth's crust,
it follows that the observed thermal gradient (i. e., the increase of tem-
perature in depth below the earth's surface) will be steeper than a
gradient which would result purely from the normal distribution of
terrestrial heat. In other words, the observed rate of increase of tem-
perature with depth is too large, since it contains the effects of a
chemical phenomenon superimposed on the pure phenomenon of heat
conduction.
CHAPTER IV.
THE SOLUTION OF VULCANIZED INDIA RUBBER.
75. In my work1 on the solubility of glass in water, chapter in, I
showed that in proportion as the state of dissociation, or the molecular
instability of glass is increased with rise of temperature, the solvent
action of water also increases at an enormously rapid rate; that inas-
much as the solution takes place between a solid and a liquid, sufficient
pressure must be applied to keep the fluid in the liquid state whenever
the vapor tension at the temperature in question exceeds the atmos-
pheric pressure. Thus, at 100° C. the action of liquid water on glass is
nearly negligible, whereas at 180° solution occurs at so rapid a rate
that the capillary tubes may become filled with solid bydrated silicate
in place of water in an hour. Here, however, at least 10 atmospheres
must be applied to keep the water in the liquid state essential to
speedy reaction.
T6. The present application. — Having attempted to apply the same
principle to the actual solution of vulcanized India rubber I obtained
confirmatory results at once. To my knowledge this material has not
heretofore been thoroughly dissolved in a volatile reagent, or in any
reagent by which it is speedily and copiously taken into solution, and
from which it may be speedily and easily obtained. It follows by
analogy from § 75 that the rubber must be heated hot enough to be in
a state of dissociation, i. e., that the coherence of the solid rubber-sul-
phur molecule must show an instability in relation to whatever solvent
may be used. It follows, moreover, that to facilitate reaction the system
of rubber and solvent is to be kept under a pressure sufficient to in-
sure the liquid state of the solveut. It follows obviously that this
temperature must not be so high, caet. par., as to change the useful
character of the rubber deposited from solution. Hence I act on vul-
canized India rubber at the lowest convenient temperature facilitating
the solvent action, and at a pressure necessarily exceeding the vapor
tension of the solvent at the given temperature. Whatever other favor-
able action pressure may exert, such, for instance, as forcing the fluid
into the physical pores of the rubber by a principle akin to Henry's
'Am. Jonr. S<i., vol 38, 1889, p. 408. The paper was publittked in full in the February number of the
.Jour Sci., 1891.
85
^^oasaa
86 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [bull. 92.
law, is clear gain. In my machine1 it is rather more convenient to act
under 100 or 200 atmospheres than at lower pressures. Hence I did
not scruple to use pressures as large as this.
77. Solution in carbon dinulphidt* — I will state here that the samph»s
of vulcanized rubber acted on were live in number and of the character
detailed as follows. By elastic 1 mean stretchable or extensible, with
resumption of the original form when the pull ceases:
(a) Very elastic sheet rubber, usually non-pigmented and translucent
in thin films, brownish in color. Used for rubber bands, for bellows,
for chemical rubber tubing, etc.
(b) Less elastic and harder rubber, pigmented gray, opaque. Largely
used for rubber tubing, sheeting, etc.
(c) Non-elastic pigmented rubber, used for low-class rubber tubing
and low-class merchandise in general.
(d) Ebonite.
(e) Same as <?, rotted by age and exposure.
From experiments made at 100° and 100° C, it appears that elastic
sheet rubber (a) is not fully soluble in liquid carbon disulphide in a
reasonable time, if at all. It is quite soluble at 1S50 and soluble to a
remarkable degree and at a remarkably rapid rate at 210°. Hence the
pressure under which solution takes place is here necessarily greater
than 15 atmospheres, and need never exceed M) or 40 atmospheres.
Inasmuch as carlmn disulphide thus unites with rubber in any propor-
tions clear brown solutions of any degree of viscosity may be obtained.
On diluting such solutions with void CR* the solvent is at first greedily
absorbed, but the final complete dilute solution (without agitation)
takes place very slowly, Hence it is well to complete- the process for
any desirable degree of solution at the high temperature. Finally, by
exposing any of the solutions to air the carbon disulphide evaporates
and the dissolved vulcanized India rubber is regained without sacri-
fice of its original non-viscid quality so far as 1 can judge from labora-
tory experiments. Similarly fissured sheet rubber (c) which has be-
come useless for practical purposes by age, is quite as soluble in OS*
at 200°, so far at least, as the uudccnmposcd parts are concerned.
Again, elastic gray rubber (6) dissolves completely to a gray liquid
in which the pigment is suspended. The concentrated solution hard-
ens at once on exposure to air, to a rubber of nearly the original
qualities (b). In treating rubbers of this class a difficulty is sometimes
•See Pme. Am. Academy, vol. 25. Ik&i. p. JKi. or Phil. Mag.. October. Ifc'.K), p. :W8. My method of
work was simple: (Uass tulie* lO*1 or 1^" long and •Ji*" or •41"" in diameter, closed at one end and
drawn out to a capillary canal with (wo or three enlargements at the other, wen- tilled with a charge
of vulcanized rubber and solvent, and then introduced into the steel piezometer tube. I made use of
the temperature* of boiling turpentine MttO >. uaptlialiuc (illo7), anliue (1P."» .). and diphcnylamiue(3]0°).
To separate, the charge from the oil of the piezometer which tr.inMtiits pressure. I tirst employed a
thread of mercury inserted into the capillary camil. Finding, however. £ ftl, that the metal acted on
the charge I replaced it with much advantage by a thread of water. Charges were usually introduced
in the ratio of one part, by volume, rubber to three or more of solvent, unless more concentrated solu-
tions were desired. About 1'* to 2rc were obtained per heating. I made considerably over 150 experi-
ments, most of them at 200° and 100 atmospheres to 4J00 atmospheres.
BABU8.] SOLUTION IN VOLATILE OILS. 87
encountered in consequence of their action on the hot CS2. Gas is
often evolved, and I was therefore at first inclined to attribute this
effect to the pigments. For example, at 200° such a reaction as
CS* + 2ZnO = 2ZnS + (-02 .might be surmised, but I shall disprove
this in §§ 89, 1K3 by direct tests. Samples of gray non-elastic rubber (c)
can be partially de-vulcanized and softened iu CS2 at 200°. They do
not easily dissolve, however. Gas is often evolved. Little advantage
is gained by treating with CS2 at 300°, in which case much of the lub-
ber is converted into a granular state, probably due to decomposition.
Commercial ebonite (d) at 200° is at first partially devulcanized, and
eventually dissolves in excess of the solvent. The partially devulcan-
ized ebonite is elastic on drying, but finally hardens further to a tough
solid having a leathery quality. The solution leaves a glossy black
stain with much sulphur apparent after evaporating. Gases are usu-
ally evolved. As a whole, my experiments show that excess of sulphur
is first removed by the solvent, after which the vulcanized rubber
itself passes into solution. Cf. § 89, where similar experiments are given.
78. /Solution in liojtids of the paraffin xerieft. — Both the fresh (a) and
the rotten (e) clastic sheet rubber dissolve easily in liquid mineral oils
at 200°. The pressure necessary will of course vary with the boiling
point of the oil used. It may be as high as 50 atmospheres in some of
the very volatile gasolines. Commercial gasoline is a good solvent of
the elastic rubbers (a and e ). The most concentrated solutions, how-
ever, appear to be less thick than in § 77. On exposure to air gasoline
evaporates, leaving a residue which gradually hardens. The gray
rubbers (b and c) dissolve with less facility.
Petroleum1 dissolves the rubbers a and e very easily. The solutions,
however, only harden after much time, and probably only in thin films.
79. Solution in turpentine. — In ease of a, complete solution is at
once effected at 200°, forming a viscid sirup-like liquid. It seems to
dry in thin films, after long exposure, thus possibly indicating a differ-
ence in the product obtained by dissolving rubber suddenly, out of
contact with air, and by dissolving it more or less in contact with air
by long-continued digestion. The latter mixtures are permanently
sticky. Special experiments made at 1C0° C. showed that no reason-
ably speedy solution takes place in liquid turpentine, thus corroborat-
ing the inferences and experiments of §§ 75-77. Gray rubber is acted
on with greater difficulty. The solution leaves a white glossy stain,
which hardens. Pressure need not exceed o atmospheres.
80. Solution in chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. — Elastic sheet
rubber (a) dissolves at once in the liquid chloroform at 200°. Pressure
1 Looking up the literature of the subject, I found that John J. Montgomery, of Kruitland, California
(cf. Letter* Patent No. 'J08.189, November, 1«84, United Stub* Patent Office), described a process for
the solution of \ ulrnnized rubber. If is statements of tin? temperature and pressure necessary are sub-
stantially correct, and he makes use of a petroleum oil boiling at about- 20<P O. The oil is subse-
quently driven otf by injections of steam. This is the nearest approach to a case of an available
solution (a solution which does not remain permanently sticky) which I have found. It will be seen
that the essential peculiarity of the above methods is the solution in volatile solvents.
88 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [bdll.«.
must exceed 15 atmospheres and need never be larger than 25 or 30
atmospheres. Solutions of any degree of viscosity seem to be obtain-
able. They dry at once on cxi>osure to air, leaving a hard residue.
Rubber dissolved in this way turns darker in color, and the elasticity
is in part sacrificed, so far as I can judge.1 • Gray rubber is attacked
with decomposition of the solvent and evolution of gas. Although
at 200° a simple reaction like 3ZnO + 2CHC13 = 3ZnCl, + H20 + 2CO
might be suspected, I believe the gas to be obtained in the way set
forth in § SO.
81. Solution in aniline. — Solution in the liquid at 200° takes place at
once in case of rubbers like a. Pressure need not exceed a few atmos-
pheres. Thin films, apparently dry after long exposure.
82. Solution in animal oil*. — Neither in the case of sperm oil or of
lard oil at 200° was the sample (a) dissolved on removing from the
press. Both, however, disintegrated on standing to a quasi-solution,
often with slow evolution of gas.
83. Treatment with glycerine. — At 200° no solution occurs. Glycolic
alcohols were not examined. ( -f. $ 86.
84. iSolution in benzol and higher aromatic hydrocarbons. — The elastic
sheet rubber (a) dissolves at once in the liquid at 200°. Pressure must
exceed 7 atmospheres, but need never be higher than 30 atmospheres.
The solution exposed to air hardens at once. Solution of gray rubber
is more difficult.
Solution of elastic- rubber (a) in toluol at 200° takes place with great
ease. The liquid dries slowly. Pressures of less than 10 atmospheres
suffice.
85. Solution in ethylie and higher ethers. — Elastic sheet rubber (a)
dissolves at once in ethylie ether at 200°. Pressure must exceed 25
atmospheres, but need not be greater than 40 or 50 atmospheres. The
solution hardens immediately on exposure to air. Gray rubber is at-
taclfed with difficulty.
86. Treatment with alcohols. — At 200° india rubber (a) is not dis-
solved in methyl or ethyl alcohol, and only slightly so in amyl alcohoL
In the latter case the sample shows some change, toward a pasty con-
sistency.
87. Treatment with Ketones. — India rubber (a) treated with acetone at
200° is converted into a sticky paste, from which it hardens at once
on exposure to air. Pressure must exceed 15 atmospheres, but need
not be greater than 30 or 40 atmospheres.
88. Treatment with water and mineral acids. — In no case was there a
trace of true solution at 200°. Pressure must exceed 7 atmospheres,
but need not be greater than 15 atmospheres. Water probably enters
the physical pores of the rubber (a); at least this substance becomes
superficially rough and warty on drying at 200° in steam after being
treated with water at "200°. It does not melt (§ 92). Strong hy-
1 Such aii effect would bo produced, for instance, by the presence of sulphur in tbe chloroform.
»aw».] VULCANIZATION — MIXED GUMS. 89
drochiorie acid has no obvious effect, while strong sulphuric! acid
(diluted with twice its bulk of water) seems only to char the rubber.
Treating the gray rubber (b) with HC1, I found its solubility in CS2,
C6U6, and gasolene to have decreased. The quality of the rubber has
therefore been injured, so far as its solubility is concerned.
89. Treatment for vulcanization. — Liquid ebonite. — Ammonium poly-
sulphide acting on elastic gray rubber much above 200° converts it
externally into a chocolate-like friable skin, covering a mushy gray
core. This disintegrates in CS2 to a brown solution and a gray gran-
ular precipitate. The solution hardened on exposure to air, to decom-
posed rubber.
Ammonium polysulphide at 185° or 200° does not change the appear-
ance of the same rubber markedly; but the sample has lost ita elasticity
and shows a semiplastic leathery consistency. This I believe to be due
to further vulcanization induced by the polysulphide. If now this sam-
ple be treated with liquid CS2 at 200°, the solvent is decomposed with
evolution of much gas and the rubber restored to its original elastic qual-
ity. It is interesting to note that gas is liberated throughout the mass
of rubber, so that the sample when taken out of the tube has the form
of an enormously inflated cellular sack, which issues from the glass tube
explosively, but soon collapses on exposure to air. As a whole the
present results agree with the behavior found for ebonite in § 77. In
both cases it is possible to pass from the more vulcanized india rub-
bers to a less vulcanized product.
It will be shown below that the gas evolved is due to double decom-
position of water and OSa (§ 93).
More interesting is the direct vulcanization of rubber solution to
liquid ebonite by aid of a sulphur solution. In case of elastic rubber (a)
this begins at 100°, but is more complete at 1S5° and 200°. In case of
pure nonvuleanized rubber dissolved in CS2 scarcely any change in flesh-
color is observed at 100° and the sulphur crystallizes out in needles on
exposure. At 185° and 200°, however, the charge turns black, show-
ing complete vulcanization. If equal parts of vulcanized rubber (a)
and sulphur be acted on, the product after heating to 200° is not dis-
solved nor soluble until the excess of sulphur is removed by washing
(§§ 77, 89). Gas is often evolved (§§ 91, 93). In proportion as less sul-
phur relatively to the rubber is used, the product becomes more soluble
aud less gas is evolved. By adding about 20 or 25 % of dissolved sul-
phur to the vulcanized rubber (a) I obtained serviceable solutions of
ebonite on treating at 200° either in CS2 alone or in mixtures (§ 90) of
this with gasoline or benzol, etc. In most cases these harden very
quickly to a jet-black enamel. With less sulphur the color is brown in
thin films.
90. Solution in mixtures of solvents, and solution of mixed gums. — By
acting on vulcanized rubber with mixed solvents of the above kind, I
obtained equally satisfactory results. All the rubbers mentioned
90 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OK LIQUIDS. [bill. 92.
(a to e), ebonite excepted, pass into true solutions by aid of such treat-
ment. Thus the gray elastic rubber (b) dissolves at once in a mixture
of OS2 and gasoline; and the gray nonelastic rubber (c) dissolves with
like ease in mixtures of OS* with gasoline, or with benzol, or with ether,
etc.; or of benzol and toluol; or, less easily, in mixtures of gasoline
and benzol. Ebonite is partially devulcanized, and would probably be
dissolved in large excess of solvent. No gas was evolved in any case,
and this constituted an advantage of this method, § 93. In all cases
the solution hardens at once on exposure to air, yielding the rubber
if the solution be shaken, or a purer residue if the sediment be removed
by subsidence and decantation.
Equally feasible is the solution of mixed gums, at 200°. Thus I
made liquid mixtures of vulcanized rubber and gutta-percha in OS*,
which hardended at once on exposure to air; liquid mixtures of rubber
and shellac dissolved in CS2, hardening more slowly; liquid mixtures of
vulcanized rubber and rosin in CS2, and in gasoline, which dried only
in thiu films after much time, etc.
91. Direct de vulcanization. — When by aid of any of the above methods
a true solution of vulcanized rubber is obtainable, direct devulcauiza-
tiou may be attempted by mixing the charge with some sulphur ab-
sorbent. Preferably such material should be chosen, which at 200°
reacts neither on the rubber nor the solvent. Metallic filings do not
appear to be available at high temperature. Treating ebonite with
OS2, gasoline, or benzol to which copper filings had been added, I
found the charge after exposing to 200° to be disintegrated, while an
enormous amount of gas was evolved. Scarcely any solvent remained
in the liquid tube. From direct experiments made on copper and on
sulphur in carbon disulphide at 200°, I inferred that these reactions
are insufficient to account for the gas evolved, although copper is super-
ficially coated with sulphide. The gas must, therefore, be produced
either at the expense- of the rubber or of the reagent in presence of
ebonite, and since all the solvents used behave alike, probably out of the
rubber. Steel is scarcely attacked1. 1 mention this, since the identifi-
cation of the gas may throw some clew on the chemical character of the
rubber. Decomposition frequently sets in on exposure of a highly
vulcanized solution at ordinary room temperatures, whereas at 0° and
under slight pressures (1 or 2 atmospheres) the gas remains in com-
bination.
92. Fuxiun of impregnated rubber. — If vulcanized India rubber bo
impregnated or saturated by digesting it with the cold reagent or sol-
vent for a suitable time (a few minutes to many hours), the swollen
mass not only shows a relatively low melting point, but it remains
liquid after cooling, provided, of course, the solvent is not allowed to
1 Fortunately, therefore, ateel apparatus is available. An Interesting question occurs Ihto, as to
what heroines of the carbon in the carte where mercury, sodium, copper, etc. are attacked by hot OS*
under pressure, and not by cold CS*.
babub.] FUSION OF IMPREGNATED RUBBER. 91
escape. This is an observation of practical importance, since the retorts
can thus be charged with solid or dry rubber, a minimum of solvent be
sacrificed in treating, or by evaporation, and concentrated solutions be
obtained often fit to be worked at once. The rubber so melted hardens
on exposure to its original quality. Finally, the pressure necessary in
this place is the smallest possible, and may be even below the data
above given for the divers solvents.
Experiments jnay be cited as follows: Noninipregnated vulcanized
rubbers (samples a to e) do not melt if exposed in a closed tube to 210°.
Only in a case of very slightly vulcanized pure rubber gum is there a
trace of fusion perceptible at the edges, and here it may even be due to a
stain of dirt (oil) accidentally deposited there. Gray rubber with a
superficial film of exuded sulphur turns black, due to the formation of a
film of ebonite.
All the samples of rubber (a to e) fuse at 210° when previously sat-
urated, or nearly so, with cold carbon disulphide and exposed in a
close-fitting closed glass tube. If the pressure be lowered by a capillary
hole at one end of the closed glass tube, or if the tube be only partially
filled and the empty end kept cool, the solvent is merely distilled off,
and no fusion takes place. Whereas at 1(50° fusion scarcely occurs,
melting seems to be complete at 175°. There is, therefore, an approxi-
mate coincidence of temperature in the present and in the above para-
graphs. Similar results are obtained with benzol, with gasoliue, and
higher petroleum oils, etc. Fusion is absent or only incipient at 100°,
and more than complete at 210°, provided only the solvent used be not
too volatile. The gray rubbers (/>, v) fuse to a more viscous or pasty mass
than the gum rubbers (a), the consistency of the clear cold solution in
the latter case being about that of treacle. In geueral the occurrences
of this paragraph resembles the fusion of a salt in its water of crystal-
lization, with this exception, that impregnated vulcanized rubber after
fusion retains a consistence which is liquid relatively to the original
impregnated charge.
The analogy with starch or gluten solutions is much more perfect.
All of these substances swell up when submerged in the solvent. To
effect solution or quasi solution, temperature must be raised to below
100° in the former cases, ami considerable above 150° in case of
rubber. Thus the only real difference iu the process is an apparent
one; for starch, the solvent water is still a liquid at the solution tem-
perature, whereas for rubber the usual solvents, under atmospheric
pressures are vaporized at the solution temperature. It is interesting
to note that a similarly detailed analogy iu the thermodynamic behav-
ior of rubber and of soft gelatins has recently been pursued at length
by Bjeruken1. Under sufficient longitudinal stress, both these sub-
stances contract on heating, and they are, therefore, heated on further
extension, as was proved by Thomson. Bjeruken concludes that water
1 Bjernkon.
92 THE COMPRESSIBILITY OF LIQUIDS. [bull. 92.
in the gelatins occurs as water and is not in a state of solution or
combination.
To account for the behavior of rubber toward solvents, I have sup-
posed coherence to be due to cohesive affinities, forces capable of being
saturated like the ordinary chemical affinities, but of smaller intensity
and probably greater number. If, therefore, rubber is impregnated with
the solvent, a part of the cohesive affinities of the rubber combines with
similar affinities of the solvent, and the result is so decided a decrease of
the tenacity of the sample that it may now be triturated. If the
impregnated material is to be liquid, the residual cohesive affinities of.
the rubber must be withdrawn from action. This may be done by heat
(dissociation). The liquid thus obtained I do. not conceive to be a true
solution, i. e., one in which the division of solid has reached a definite
molecule, but rather consisting of a suspension of excessively small
rubber particles in the solvent. Conditions under which this takes
place I have already discussed elsewhere', and the probable size of the
ultimate particles is thfire indicated. Hence on cooling the solution
need not at once become solid again. Diffusion, if occurring at all, is
now an excessively slow process, deuce the aggregation of particles
takes plai'e gradually, until at length the whole body forms one coherent
mass. In other words, all rubber solutions coagulate, and the solid
structure in this case is probably that of a network or sponge holding
solvent in its interstices.
If the coagulated solution be again heated (under pressure) a thin
viscid liquid is again obtained which in its turn coagulates, etc. deuce
even if the original rubber be chemically different from the dissolved
product (polymerization) my reasoning would hold for the coagulated
material.
Finally, I may add that the rubber deposited from any of the above
solutions presents a curious ease of slowly reacting elasticity. If a
thread (say lI,,m in diameter) be twisted and then let go on a frictionlpss
surface, it will squirm like a live worm for some minutes after. If it be
stretched, the original length is regained with visible slowness. The
internal changes probably take place along lines of very nearly neutral
equilibrium.
93. Behavior of reagents and aolventm. — Owing to the frequent occurrence
of gaseous products in the above experiments I made special investiga-
tions on the decomposition of the reagents. Benzole and gasoline were
found stable at 210°, and often above this temperature, whether mixed
with water or with sulphur. Cf. § 05. Carbon disulphide, however, in
addition to relatively slight decompositions noted in § 91, is decomposed
by sodium .and by mercury at 210°, although it remains stable in pres-
ence of bright steel or of sulphur. It is also stable in presence of zinc
white (rubber pigment) at 210°. Violent double decomposition, how-
ever, occurs at this temperature in mixtures of water and CS2, with the
1 Baruu; Am. Jour., Sci., vol. 37, 1889, pp. 126-128.
ram*.] 8UMMARY SOLUTION OF CARBON AND OF WOOD. 93
evolution of much gas, presumably 2II2S and C02. Thus it appears
that a thread of mercury to shut oft' the experimental tubes § 76 is
generally objectionable, as is also a thread of water in case of CS.2.
For this reason, moreover, the absence of gaseous reaction in case of
mixed solvents, § 00, is to be attributed to the fact that CS2 and water
are not immediately in contact but separated by layers of benzole or
gasoline.
An interesting question is suggested here, as to whether it be possi-
ble to express affinity on a scale of temperatures. For instance, let it
be required to determine the affinity of a metal for sulphur. At ordi-
nary temperatures not even sodium decomposes carbon disulphide,
whereas such decomposition occurs in case of maliy metals if the tem-
perature be sufficiently high. Hence the temperature at which such
decomposition definitely sets in (for copper sooner than for iron, etc.)
is to some extent a reciprocal expression of the affinity of the given
metal for sulphur, bearing always in mind that the stability of the
solid metallic molecule also enters into the consideration. Thus the
arbitrary reagent OS2, in its relations to all the metals to be examined,
fulfills a similar purpose to an arbitrary spring balance in measuring
gravitational forces. Cf. § 1)5.
94. Summary of the results. — In the above paragraphs I have there-
fore indicated a method by aid of which vulcanized india rubber of any
quality or character whatever, as well as the undeconrposed or re-
claimable part of rubber waste, may be dissolved or liquefied in a
reasonably short time1, and into solutions of any desirable degree of
viscosity or diluteness — into solutions, moreover, from which india
rubber may be regained on evaporation of the solvent. I have also indi-
cated methods for passing from dissolved vulcanized rubber toward pure
rubber, though 1 see little use for such a step.
I have elsewhere described divers forms of apparatus by which any
of the above operations may be carried out on a large scale. They are
of no interest here, but I mention them since it is only from such ex-
periments that a full insight into the quality of the rubber deposited
from any given solution may be obtained. Throughout my work the
constancy of the dissociation temperature has been a marked feature.
Thus, in the case of CS2, of turpentine, of the vulcanization of dissolved
pure rubber, etc., no action took place below lf>0°. It may be noted
lhat even this temperature is higher than where vulcanization is
effected in the dry way, where 110° to 140° are deemed sufficient.
Moreover, solution of vulcanized rubber takes place at 185°, quite as
easily under 700 atmospheres as under the minimum admissible — say 20
atmospheres.
95. Presumable conditions regarding the solution of carbon, etc. — From
the above paragraphs I inferred that the difficulty encountered in dis-
solving carbon is probably attributable to the relatively high dissociation
'Practically at once, if the material is iiot too bulky.
94
THE COMPRESSIBILITY OP LIQUIDS.
l&ULL. 92.
temperature of the solid carbon molecule. I made many experiments
to test this view, in all of which I failed to obtain solution even at low
red heat and GOO atmospheres. My work thus corroborates the nega-
tive results of Hannay1 on the direct solution of carbon. My experi-
ments were made with gasoline, water, chloroform, benzole, and carbon
disuiphide, usually at 500° and 500 atmospheres. In case of gasoline
I went as far as low red heat and <>00 atmospheres. In most cases the
reagents were decomposed (particularly carbon disuiphide, benzoic,
chloroform) to gaseous products, while the carbon remained unaltered.
Decomposition by metals if they yielded carbon (copper corroded by
OS2 and gasoline acted on by palladium) showed sooty deposits only.
It appears therefore.that the dissociation temperature of the amorphous
carbon molecule must be looked for in the region of red heat.
In conclusion, I may state that experiments were also made with
wood. This material swells up in water, and the inference is, com-
patibly with the above text, § 92, that if the temperature be sufficiently
raised woody tissue must pass into solution. Many tests made upon
cellulose in this way showed that the material is decomposed before
solution sets in. The phenomena seems to be an ordinary dry dis-
tillation in spite of the presence1 of water under pressure. This is
unfortunate, for if it were possible to dissolve wood, our forests would
be digestible. At least, any such successful process must contribute
essentially to the food products of the race.
hannay: Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 8», 1880, p. 188; Cliem. News, vol. 41, 1880, p. 106. Cf. ITannay and
Hogarth: Chem. News, vol. 41, 1880, p. 103; Mallet and Hannay: Nature, vol. 22, 1880, p. 192.
INDEX.
Page.
Acid*, effect of. on rnblxjr 88
Adiabatics 26
Affinity, lneaaurement of 93
Alcohol, compressibility of 'M
Alcohols, effect of, on rubber 88
Aniline dissolves rubber 88
Azobenzol, compressibility of 39
Benzoic acid, compressibility of 35
Benzol dissolves India rubber 88
Bibliography of compressibility 17
Bibliography of heat expansion 19
Bibliography of eond notion under pressure 68, 69
Bibliography of compressibility of water. 78
Bjornken, thermal lw-havior of gelatin ... 91
Brom camphor, compressibility of 38
Cailletet force pump 20
Caprinic acid, compressibility of 35
Carbon, solution of 93
Carbon disulphide dissolves rubber 86
Carbon tetrachloride dissolves rubber ... 87
Chloracetic. acid, compressibility of 41
Chloroform dissolves rubber 87
( Compressibility, bibliography of 17
Compressibility, data for 28-41
Compressibility at melting and boiling
points 50
Compressibility of water 78, 80. 82
Compression, quadratic constants for 42
Compression, exponential constants for.. 43
Compression, hyperbolic constants for ... 61
Compression equations compared 6f>
Contraction, thermal, under pressure 56
Contraction due to aqueous solution 81. 82
Cooling under pressure 56
T>e vulcanization 90
Piphenylamine, compressibility of 34
Ebonite, liquid 89
Eltonitc. devulcanizat ion of 90
Ether, compressibility of 28, 66
Ethers dissolve rubber 88
Expansion duo to heat, bibliography of. . . 19
Ex]M>ucntial constants for compression.. 43,44
Exponential constants, mean values for.. 49
Fitzgerald, work of » 20
Force pump of Cailletet 20
.Fusion of impregnated rubl>er 90
Gauges for pressure measurement 23
I
Tage.
Gihbs, J. AV.t work of 20
Glycerine, effects of, on rubber 88
Gums, mixed, solution of 89
II eat evolve! in aqueous solution 81. 84
Hyperbolic constants for compression .. . 01
Hyperbolic constants for compression,
mean \ alues of 64
India rubber, solution of 85
India rubber dissolved in carbon disul-
phide .86
India rubl>er dissolved in turpentine,
chloroform, etc 87
India rublicr dissolved in petroleum 87
India rubber dissolved in aniline, benzol,
toluol, ether, nc-etone 88
India rubber treated with oils, glycerine,
alcohols, acids 88
Isometrics computed 62,50,54
Isothermal* 26
Isothermal* computed 50.54
Isothermal band 65
Ketones dissolve rubber 88
King. ( 'larence. aids research 15
Levy, work of 20
Melting point and pressure 76
Mendeleef. expansion formula 62
Mercury, resistance under pressure 70, 73
Montgomery, J. J., discovery of 87
Naphthalene, compressibility of. 40
Xaphthol, compressibility of. 39
Oils, effect of, on rubber 88
Piezometer 20, 72
Pressure, measurement of 23. 75
Pressure binomial 43,01
Pressure, effect of, on thermal contraction 56
Pressure, effect of, on electric conduction. 68
Palmitic acid, compressibility of w*
Paraffin, compressibility of 36
Paraffin oils dissolve rubber 87
Poynting, views of 7tj
Quadratic constants for compression 42
Kamsay, work of 20
Resistance, purely thermal variation of. . 74
Kttckcr expansion formula 62
Solution of carbon 93
Solution of India rnbber 85
Solution of rubber, theory of 91
99
96
INDEX.
Page.
Solution of glass by water 79,83
Solution of wood 93
Solvent* for rublxir, behavior of 92
Solvents, mixed, for rubber 80
Tait'scorreetion for piczometric expansion 25. 71
Thermal expaiiHiou 27
Thermal expansion, data for 28-11
Thermal expansion, equation for 55
Thomson. J . .T ., e<] nation of 75
Thorpe, expansion formula 62
Thymol, compressibility of. 37
Page.
Tolnidine. romproaaibililty of 33
Tubes for measurin g compression 21
Tui pentine dissolves rubl>er 87
Vanillin, compressibility of. 40
Vapor bath 23
Volume changes of glass tubes 25, 71
V tile auiuit ion 89, 90
Water, compressibility of 82, 80, 78
Wood, Holut ion of 93
Young, work of 20
Zinc sulphate, resistance under pressure. 70
•
LIBRARY CATALOGUE SUPS.
United States. Department of the interior. ( U. 8. geological surrey).
Department of the interior | — | Bulletin | of the | United
States | geological survey | no. 93 | [Seal of the department] |
Washington | government printing office | 1892
X Stroud title: United States geological survey | J. W. Powell,
* director | — | Some inner tH of special interest | from | Floris-
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Z and other points in the | Tertiaries of Colorado and Utah | by |
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Washington | government printing office | 1892
8°. 35 pp. 3 pi.
[UxtTKD States. Department of the interior. (U. 8. geological survey).
Bulletin 93].
e
I
8
United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | — |
- Some insects of special iuterest | from | Florissant, Colorado |
and other points in the | Tertiaries of Colorado and Utah | by |
Samuel Hubbard Scudder | [Vignette] |
Washington | government printiug office | 1892
£ 8°. 35 pp. 3 pi.
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E Bulletin 03 J.
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^ „ „ Washington, d. g,
WASHmOTON, I>* C, SepUmtor, 1899.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BULLETIN
UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
No. 9 3
WASHINGTON
QOTKBNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1892
CNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR
SOME INSECTS OF SPECIAL INTEREST
FLORISSANT, COLORADO
AND OTHER POINTS IN THE
TERTIARIES OF COLORADO AND UTAH
SAMUEL HUBBAltD SOUDDEli
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
CONTENTS.
• Pago.
Letter of transmittal 9
Introduction 11
Genera and species 12
Neuroptera — Odonata 12
TrichociiemiB Selys 12
Trichocnemis aliona 12
Stenogompbus, gen. nov .• 13
►StenogoraphiiH carletoni 14
Heniiptera — Cicadida* 15
Cicada Linne 15
Cicada grand iosa 15
Coleoptera — Byrrlrida? 16
Nosotetocua, gen. nov 16
Noftotetocua marcovi 17
Coleoptera — Carabida< 17
Carabitca Heer 17
Carabites exanimus 17
1 )ij)tera— (Estridjr 18
Palflpstrus, gen. nov 18
Pabnstras oligocnms 19
Diptera — Mycetopbilida* 19
Myoetophafitina* *. 19
Mycetopbretus, gen. nov 20
Mycetophwtns intermedins 20
Lepidoptera — Nyinpbalid;e 20
Liby theina^ 20
Barbarotbca, gen. nov 21
Barbarotbea florissanti 23
Hymenoptera — Tenthredinida* 24
A toons, gen. nov 24
Atocus defesmiH 25
">
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plate I, Figi 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Plate II, Fig. 1.
2,3.
4.
5,6.
Plate III, Figs. 1-5.
I*agfc
StenogompluiH carletoni 30
TrichooiR'inia aliena 30
Cicada grand iosa 30
Carabites exanimus 30
Atocus defessus 30
PaUestrus oligoceims 32
Nosotetocus marcovi 32
Pal<estriis oligocenus 32
Mycetopha*tii8 intermedins 32
Harharothea florissanti 34
7.
LKTTKR OF TRANSMITTAL.
ITnitkd States Geological Survey.
Division of Fossil Insects,
Cambridge,xMas8.) July 24, 1891.
Sir : I send herewith a paper upon. Tertiary insects for publication
as a bulletin of the Survey. The reasons for forwarding it will be fouud
in the brief introductory remarks.
Very respectfully,
Samuel n. Scudder,
Paleontologist.
Hon. J. W. Powell,
• Director.
9
SOME INSECTS OF SPECIAL INTEREST FROM FLORISSANT AND
OTHER POINTS IN THE TERTIARIES OF COLORADO AND UTAH.
By Samuel H. Scfdder.
INTRODUCTION.
The following pages describe the characteristics of a few Oligoesne
insects of different orders which, from some peculiarity, have been
thought worthy of special study out of serial course, and which would
have long to remaiu unnoticed if they were to await treatment with
their immediate allies. Several, indeed, belong to groups already
reported on in my Tertiary Insects and elsewhere, and are really on that
account the more worthy of notice, as their relation to those already
made known can be discussed. Thus the Trichocncmis is interesting
as the representative of a type hitherto known, both in the present and
past epochs as exclusively gerontogeic; the Stenogomphus as the first
of the Gomphina found fossil in this country; the Cicada not only for
its great size, but for its being the first member of its family known
from American rocks, and it was remarked in my Tertiary Insects
(p. 239) as a singular thing that we should have found none; the but-
terfly is of exceptional interest as belonging to a waning type which
must have flourished remarkably in Oligocene times if the figures drawn
from the few known fossil butterflies are to be regarded as having any
weight at all. These all belong to groups already elaborated. The
two Coleoptera are interesting, one from its suggestion of the need of
reexamination of allied European Tertiary forms, the other from its
remarkable structure. The two Diptera surprise us by their departure
from the modern types to which they are most nearly allied, and the
existence of one of them proves that bot-flies awaited the appearance
on the globe of their most cherished victims among the ruminants.
And finally the Hymenopterou described below, besides its curious
alliance to oriental forms, well illustrates how perfectly preserved arc
the numerous and varied Tenthredinidre entombed at Florissant,
whereas all previously described fossils of this family have been exceed-
ingly imperfect and unsatisfactory.
11
GENERA AND SPECIES.
NEUROPTERA— ODONATA.
TRICHOCNEMIS Selys.
TRICHOCNEMIS ALIENA.
PI. 1, fitf. 2.
Nearly allied to the recent T. didynia Selys, but easily distinguished
from it by the origin of the subnodal, which, arises in the nodus itself,
from the number of posteubitals, which is eleven instead of seventeen,
and from the color of the pterostigma, which is pallid, heavily mar-
gined with blackish brown.
Length, 20 millimeters.
The interest attaching to this species is its close alliance to species
found in the East Indies and its belonging to a legion, Platycnemis,
which is now found only in the Old World, most of its members, indeed,
in the tropics. That it belongs in this legion is plain from the
origin .of the median and subnodal sectors, the former at a point
immediately before the nodus (bending strongly upward at its base),
from the elongated and regular quadrilateral, from the short ptero-
stigma which surmounts parts of two cellules, but is only equal in length
to one, from the entire absence of supplementary sectors, and from the
length, straightness, and simplicity of the lower sector of the triangle,
which terminates well beyond the middle of the wing. The entire
margin of the wing, the length of the lower sector of the triangle, and
the relative brevity* of the upper side of the quadrilateral, which is
about three-fifths as long as that of the lower side, show that it must be
referred to Trichocnemis, and that it falls about midway between
the subgenera Hemicnemis and Trichocnemis, having close relation to
H. cyanoptt from the Seychelles and T. didyma from Thibet and Dar-
jeeling by the points of origin of the median and subnodal sectors.
Of further interest is the fact that the legion is already known in the
European tertiaries, one species (a mere fragment and referred here
with some doubt) in amber, the other, Platycnemis iearus, from the
Aquitanian of Rott, and that the latter species is so closely allied to
our Florissant form as indubitably to fall in the same genus, so that it
should be known henceforth as Trichocnemis icarus; here also the sub-
nodal arises from the nodus itself; both the median and subnodal have
the same abrupt upward curve at the base, and the form of the quadri-
12
scuddkh.] NEUROPTERA— ODONATA. 13
lateral is nearly identical ; the number of postcubitals is thirteen. I do
not recall any so close relationship between the insects of the Rhenish
basin and those of our Oligocene beds.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen. No. 1060, U., S. Geological
Survey.
STENOGOMPHUS («xrev<k, Gomphus, nom. gen.) gen. nov.
Upper side of the triangle a little louger than the interior, scarcely
shorter than the exterior, which is bent; both inner and outer triangles
subequiangular and subequal, each divided into three or four cells by
cross veins uniting at the center; hypertrigonal space without trans-
versals; median space with a single cross nervule, the space itself ex-
ceptionally narrow apically, diminishing gradually in width from the
middle outward and in no way bent where the lower limb of the inner
triangle strikes it; sectors Qf the arculus arising from the same point
and continuing as one stem more than half way to the apex of the me-
dian space ; three complete rows of cellules, following the triangle as far
as below the nodus.
These characters are not combined in any known genus of Gom-
phoides, to which legion of Gompliina, on account of its aborted mem-
branule, it belongs. From the equality of the two triangles, the length
of the upper margin of each, and the exceptional straightness of the
postcostal nervure, the upper broad extension of the two triangles gives
a peculiar facies to the wing, somewhat as if it were a hind wing, which
the empty hypertrigonal space, the three complete series of cellules fol-
lowing the discoidal triangle, and the small number of postcubitals
intensify.
It is interesting as being the first discovery of fossil Gomphina in
America, and as showing an alliance with the existing New World rather
than the Old World types. It seems, on the whole, to be most nearly
related to Gomphoides and Progomphus, but differs distinctly from
the latter in the origin of the sectors arising from the arculus,
from Gomphoides in the free hypertrigonal space, the greater length of
the upper side of the triangle, and from both in the straightness of the
post-costal vein, and in having three instead of two complete series of
cellules beyond the triangle, a character which does not appear to have
been found in this legion, but which occurs in Gacus, a subgenus in the
neighboring gerontogeic legion Linden ia.1
There appear to be some other peculiarities about it which future
comparisons may show to have some special interest. In all recent
species of the legion I have seen, one of the cross nervules in the space
between the nodal and subnodal sectors is heavier than the others and
oblique, but is placed at very varying distances beyond the nodus,
always, however, separated from it by from one to three cellules ; in
1 See further ulwrvntiona under the Mpeciea #S. carktoni.
14 INTERESTING TERTIARY INSECTS. [bull.*!.
Stcnogoniphus alone is it in direct continuation of the curved base of
the nodal sector, and thus forms an integral part of the system or acces-
sory alliance of heavy veins which depend from and form a part of the
nodus. Again, the subnodal nervure in all living Gomphina I have
seen does not arise directly from the principal sector, but from a bent
cross ncrvule connecting the principal and median sector, or it may be
said to be united to the median sector close to its own base bv an ob-
lique transversal, while in Stenogoniphus its origin is direct, the con-
nection witli the median being not yet gaiued. Add to this that the
sectors arising from the arculns, the principal and the short sectors,
not only arise from one point, but seem to be entirely blended for a dis-
tance from the arculus nearly equal to the length of the latter, and we
find a series of characteristics of no little interest. The last feature
seems to be found, but to a less extent, in GomphoUles bifa#ciatay and still
less in 0. brevipeSj in both of which, however, the veins do not blend
until past the extreme base, while in Stenogomphus they have but a
single* origin. Besides, the number of postcubitals is exceptionally
small, these varying in the entire legion from eight to seventeen, and
averaging twelve, though in Gomphoides proper, to which Stenogom-
phus is most nearly allied, the average is ten; in Stenogomphus there
are but seveu.
STENOGOMPHUS CARLETONI.
Tl. 1, Fig. 1.
A single fore wing and part of its reverse are all that are known of
this dragon fly. The wing is hyaline or very faintly infumated beyond
the nodus; the reticulation is testaceous, the principal sector and the
main veins above it, with the costal margin, ferruginous, deepening into
blackish when bordering the ferrugineo-testaeeous pterostigma. This
latter is subequal, about four and a half times longer than broad,
surmounts less than three unequal cellules, its inner bordering vein
subcontinuous with the cross ncrvule below; twelve antecubitals, seven
postcubitals; both triangles subequilateral with crowfoot division into
three cells, the upi>er outer angle of the discoidal triangle perhaps some-
times severed by a cross vein to form a minute fourth cell ; outer margin
of same triangle slightly bent above, scarcely more than a tenth longer
than the upper margin, which in its turn is scarcely more than a tenth
longer than the inner margin; of the borders of the inner triangle the
lower is the longer, the others subequal.
Length, 31) millimeters; breadth, 8*7 millimeters.
The living species to which this is most nearly allied is unquestionably
Gomphoidex xtUjmata Say sp., found in Texas. To this conclusion both
Baron de Selys and Dr. llagen, to whom I sent sketches of the neura-
tion, arrived independently, and Baron de Selys kindly pointed out some
peculiarities of that species, which, in view of the structure of Sten-
ogomphus, have special interest. One of the two specimens ( & and 9 )
*
'scuDDKB.] HEMIPTERA CICADIDJE. 15
in his possession has the hypertrigonal si>ace free on one fore wing but
not on the other; while on another is found, also on one wing but not on
the opposite, the beginning of a series of five or six very small pentag-
onal cellules between the two rows of tetragonal ones following the
discoidal triangle. By the kindness of Dr. Hagen, Mr. Uhler, and Mr.
Calvert, I am able to report regarding the structure of fifteen other
specimens of this species; in all without exception on both wings there
are next the triangle first three cellules (as figured in de Selys's Mon-
ographic des Gomphines), then two series to a point between the origin
of the median nervure and the nodus, increasing to a greater number
below the nodus; but in the number of transversals in the hypertrig-
onal space there is some variation; in all but two specimens the wings
are alike on the two sides and show either one or two transversals in
this space; but one male has three transversals on the left, two on the
right side; and one female one transversal on the left, two on the right.
Curiously enough these asymmetrical individuals are from the same lot
.as those in Baron de Selys's collection, viz, the specimens collected by
General (then Captain) Pope on the Pecos river, Texas, in the extreme
western part of the State, at the time of the Mexican boundary survey;
while all the others but two were collected by Aaron in the extreme
southern part of the State, between Laredo, 100 miles inland, on the
Kio Grande, and Corpus Christi, on the Gulf coast. The last two are in
Mr. Uhler's collection.
Crest of Roan Mountains, Colorado, found by Mr. Carloton E. Davis,
of my party, in 1889. One specimen, Nos. 1146 and 1185, U. S. Geo-
logical Survey.
HEMIPTERA— CICADID^E.
CICADA L1NN15.
CICADA GRANDIOSA.
PI. 1, Fig. 3.
A single hind wing, showing the complete neuratjon, except a frag-
ment of the tip, is all that remains; besides indicating a species of
very large size, as large as the largest known American forms in North
or Central America, and having also unusual breadth, it differs from
them much more than almost any of the genera of Cicadidie do from
each other, and therefore indicates a distinct genus. The neuration in
general agrees with that given for Fidicina and Cicada by Distant in
the Biologia Centrali-Americana, or for that of an Ea$t Indian species of
Fidicina by Walker (Cat. Brit. Mus., Homopt., PI. 1, Fig. 2), but differs
from them all in an unusual peculiarity, the great length of the apical
cells, the transverse interlocking of the veins occurring much nearer
the middle of the wing than usual; moreover, the upper ulnar vein
when it forks (just before its union with the lowest radial) does so by
16 INTERESTING TERTIARY INSECTS. [bull. 03.
throwing off an inferior branch- from about the center of the wing,
while the upper branch, united to the lowest radial, scarcely diverges
from the original path of the main stem; and finally, the lower ulnar,
when it has run a little more than half its course parallel and close to
the sutura clavi, suddenly bends slightly upward and terminates on
the outer margin much nearer to the upper radial vein than to the su-
tura clavi; no trace of the membrane can be seen beyond the marginal
vein; the veins are very delicate and the wing immaculate.
Length of fragment, 25 millimeters; probable length of venation in
hiud wings, 2(>*5 millimeters; breadth, 10*5 millimeters; probable ex-
panse of fore wings, 115 millimeters.
This is much larger than any of the tertiary Cicadidro of Europe,
none of which have the hind wing preserved.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 1850, U. S. Geological Sur-
vey.
COLEOPTERA— BYRRHID^.
NOSOTETOCUS (vfaot, rixno) gen. nov.
But a single genus, Nosodendron Latr., has hitherto been recognized
in the Nosodendrime, a. subfamily distinguished from other Byrrhidre
by its prominent head, which is not retracted as in the other subfami-
lies. In the tertiaries of Colorado, however, and perhaps in those of
Europe as well, a genus of Byrrhidfe is found in which the head is as
prominent as in Nosodendron, but differs from it very distinctly in the
character ot the antennae, which in Nosodendrou have a distinct and
sharply delimited club formed by the abrupt expansion of the three
last joints. In the extinct genus, which from its relation to Noso-
dendron we call Nosotetocus, the autenme enlarge with great regular-
ity, no one joint being greatly larger than the preceding, and the apical
joints being considerably less than twice as broad as the narrowest
joints of the stem. In other respects it agrees very closely with No-
sodendron, the form of the head being similar, the antenna) composed
of eleven joints, of which the second is longer than the others, and
all, excepting perhaps the basal joint, which can not easily be seen,
are gently obconic, perhaps depressed. The prothorax is short aud
the 8cutellum small. The legs are moderately stout, the tibhe appa-
rently of similar width throughout.
Three species, differiug considerably, are found at Florissant, and it
would appear probable from the figures and descriptions of the three
species which have been referred to Byrrhus from the European ter-
tiaries that they also belonged here. They all appear to have non-
retracted heads, and in the case of oue, B. examinatus Heyd., the
antennas have the same construction as in Nosotetocus. A reexami-
nation of the specimens is desirable, as it would be interesting to know
if Nosotetocus preceded Nosoriendron in Europe as well as in America,
Only one of our species is described here.
acuDDKB. J COLEOPTERA-*- CARABIDiE. 1 7
NOSOTETOCUS MARGOVI.
PI. 2, Figs. 2, 3.
Form obovate, about half as loug again as broad, the head projecting
distinctly beyond the frout and breaking the regularity of the form, the
curve being emarginate on the anterior sides of the prothorax. The
head is comparatively narrow, being scarcely transverse, very regularly
rounded and scarcely produced in front. The antenna) are consider-
ably longer than half the width of the body, the apical joint, which is
largest and slightly produced at tip, nearly twice as broad as the nar-
rowest part of the stem. The elytra are distinctly though feebly striate
and the stria* faintly punctured.
Length, 5*25 millimeters; breadth, 3 millimeters; breadth of head,
1-5 millimeters; length of antennae, 2 millimeters.
Named for the geologist, Prof. Jules Marcou, of Cambridge.
Florissant, one specimen, No. 110.
COLEOPTERA- CARABIDyE.
CARABITB8 HEER.
CARABITES EXANIMUS.
PL 1, Fig. 4.
• •
The surface of the elytra is smooth but for the sharp, slender, rather
deeply impressed, straight striaB, showing feeble signs of scattered del-
icate punctures, hardly enlarging the width of the striae and very ob-
scure. The second stria terminates at the base just as it bends outward
opposite the tip of the seutellum, while the third runs into the fourth,
and there is no basal stria; the second and fourth are roundly united
apically around the tip of the third, and are joined to the united fifth
and sixth by a short spur; the first and tenth are united at the very
tip of the elytra.
Length of elytron, 9 millimeters; middle width of one, 3 millimeters.
Finding it impossible definitely to place this beetle, which is repre-
sented only by the elytra, but these in excellent preservation, 1 put it
temporarily in a maga^iue genus to indicate its general affinities,
for its general aspect is that of a large carabid, which the inferior
plica of the outer margin strongly confirms; but there is not a sign
of dorsal punctures or fovea?, except a minute puncture at the oblique
base of the third stria, and even no ocellate punctures between the
ninth and tenth striae. Of all the tribes possessing such an inferior
plica, it seems to agree best with the Pterostichini, but there are here
nine perfectly and equally distinct and equidistant striae besides a
tenth marginal stria. The elytra are slender, with a distinct emargi-
nation at the tip of the inferior plica and with narrowed base and well-
Bull. 93 2
18 INTERESTING TERTIARY INSECTS. [bull. 93.
rounded humeri ; the first and third stria* are deflected outward at
their base by the tolerably large triangular seutellum.
From the lowest beds on the immediate bank of the White River,
Utah, about 5 miles from the Colorado line. One specimen, Nos. 024
and 620, U. S. Geological Survey.'
DIPTERA— CESTRID^.
The (Estridse of the present day live in their early stages beneath
the skin or in the glands or cavities of various Mammalia, hardly any
of the terrestrial groups being free from their attacks; they principally
pursue, however, the Perissodactyla, Rumiuantia, and llodeutia, and
of these the ruminants are by far the most subject to them, and par-
ticularly the Cervidae and Bovime. Now, neither of these dominant
families appears to have existed in Oligocene times, when the insect
described below flourished, and they have reached their present dif-
ferentiation and predominance quite despite the attacks of this insect
family which was awaiting their advent into the world. Perhaps Pa-
l(Bstrus sought the Tylopoda of the time as its victims.
PALCESTRUS (izdlat, oUrpu-) gen. nov.
A genus of (Estridje remarkable for the very striking course of the
fourth longitudinal vein, which finds no counterpart in living (Estridre
so far as I can find. Nor, indeed, can I discover anything of the sort
among the calyptrate Muscaria. The only species known is of the lar-
gest size, rivaling the largest known living forms, with wings of a
rather slender form and immaculate. The costal vein is finely and
densely bristled, the costal cell of somewhat unusual width, partly
from the rather short auxiliary vein which terminates well before the
middle of the wing; the first three longitudinal veins terminate at
nearly equidistant intervals in the apical fourth of the wiug, the sec-
ond and third, as normally, with upturned tips; the third longitudinal
vein arises from the second at slightly less than a third way from the
base; the fourth, instead of running in a straight or gently Hexed
course, perhaps bent, at the middle transverse vein, is profoundly
affected by that vein, which is extremely short and lies about as far
beyond, as the origin of the third longitudinal vein before, the tip of
the auxiliary vein; in passing toward this middle transverse vein the
fourth longitudinal vein runs parallel and near to the straight fifth lon-
gitudinal vein as far as the middle of the wing, and then curves strongly
upward to strike the transverse vein at a wide angle, is there bent at
right angles with itself, and passes in a nearly straight course subpar-
allel to the fifth longitudinal until it meets the hinder transverse vein,
when it is again bent, this time upward but at a very broad angle, and
reaches the margin just beyond the third longitudinal vein, thus leav-
ing the first posterior cell (barely) open; the anterior basal trans-
w wddbb. j DIPTERA M YCETOPHIMD JS. 1 9
verse vein is directly opposite the origin of the third longitudinal vein 5
the posterior, strongly arcuate, is situated a little within it; the filth
longitudinal vein terminates just beyond the hinder transverse vein,
not reaching the margin. The legs are not very long, the femora
remarkably stout, the tibiae straight, the tarsi of the same length as
the tibia?.
This genus seems to be most nearly allied to Hypodenna, which is
found all over the world and attacks various kinds of cattle, but espec-
ially Cervidre, but the whole course of 'the fourth longitudinal vein is
materially different.1
A single species is known, from Florissant.
PALCESTRUS OLIGOCENUS.
PI. 2, Figs. 1, 4.
The single imperfect specimen that has been found has been so fully
described under the genus that little is left to be said. The remains
consist of the rotund thorax, the wings, excepting the membranous
hind margin, the hind legs and the middle femora; the teguhc are ob-
scure, but appear to be normal. The wing is hyaline. The basal
joint of the abdomen seems to be represented by a detached piece beside
a leg, perhaps a fore leg; if so, it is of great size relatively to the tho-
rax, the hinder margin being broader than the thorax; it is blackish
brown like the thorax, with the hind margin lighter. The legs, and
especially the femora, are delicately bristled; the til we are scarcely in
"the least enlarged in the middle, and the tarsi are about two-thirds as
stout as the tibia?.-
Length of wing, 16 millimeters; breadth of thorax, 7 millimeters; of
base of first abdominal segment, 5*5 millimeters; of apex of same, 8
millimeters; length of hind femora, 4*75 millimeters; tibia?, 5 millime-
ters; tarsi, o millimeters.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, Nos. 13703 and L4086.
DIPTERA— MYCETOPHILID^E.
Subfamily MYCETOPHvETIN^E.
This new group is remarkable for combining in the neuration of the
wing characters which are found only in distinct groups among living
forms. It may be defined as follows : The vena media arises at the base
of the wing from the vena postiea, but is apparently also united by a
cross vein close to its base with the radius. The transverse mediau
vein elongate, very oblique. The humeral cell very slightly enlarged
in the middle. The brachial vein present and very much elongated,
'It 11147 °* rwnnrkwd, an a precaution to younger ntudents, that in all the figures of Hypodenna,
apd, indned, many ot-hor gunt»ra in Brancr'a Monographic der Oeatriden, a single vein in made to do.
duty fur both, first anc\ second longitudinal Y"iiiK.
20 INTERESTING TERTIARY INSECTS. [bull. 93.
both cubital cells open and elongate. The lower discoi<Uil vein origi-
nating in the vena postica, but also connected at its base by a cross
vein with the veua media, a cross vein which does not exist in the other
groups of Myeetophihche. The vena axillaris complete.
This group seems to stand between the Mycetobinie and Sciophilinte.
MYCETOPELETUS (/^?, rnrda,) gen. now
Wings with the form of those of Sciophila, the auxiliary vein termi-
nating in the margin a little beyond the middle of the wing and a little
beyond the base of the brachial vein; the marginal vein extending to
or almost to the tip of the wing where the cubital meets it; the fourth
posterior cell arises as far back as the inner cubital cell ; the third pos-
terior is divided into two, a basal and an apical, the latter as long as
the fourth posterior; the axillary is also divided into two, an anterior
and a posterior, the former much the narrower aud narrowing apically.
Legs long and slender, the fore femora considerably longer than the
thorax, the tibias longer than the femora, both abundantly spinous.
Abdomen eight-jointed.
At leatet one species occurs at Florissant.
MYCETOPH^ETUS INTERMEDIUS.
PI. 2, Fig. 5.
Head and thorax dark, the abdomen much lighter, the legs nearly
or quite as dark throughout as the thorax ; winga hyaline, but faintly
fuliginous in the upper half, especially beyond the middle. The bra-
chial vein arises shortly beyond the transverse median vein, and in
its basal half runs parallel to, and close beside, the cubital, but after
wards diverges a little from it and strikes the margin a little nearer the
radius. The second posterior cell is long — nearly as long as the hinder
cubital cell and broad from the base. The abdomen is slender and
tapering.
Length of body, 7*5 millimeters; wing, 5-5 millimeters; femora, 2
millimeters.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, Nos. 5937 and 7391.
LEPIDOPTERA-NYMPHALIDyE.
Subfamily LIBYTHEINyE.
In my paper on the fossil butterflies of Florissant, published in the
Eighth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, I described an
interesting form under the name of Prolibythea, and called attention to
the strangeness of the occurrence, in a fossil state, of a butterfly be-
longing to the subfamily Libytheina?. Indeed, it may be acknowledged
RttTDDBR! LEPTnopTERA — NYMPHALIDjE. 21
to be much the most interesting of any of the fossil butterflies yet dis-
covered; for when we recall the fact that among existing butterflies
the Libytheiuft are by far the most poverty-stricken subfamily known,
the occurrence, among the extremely few (less than twenty) fossil but-
terflies that have been found in any part of the world, of one belonging
to this subfamily has a special significance. The existing members are
only about a dozen at the most, and, curiously enough, are scattered
at the four quarters of the globe. No other subfamily has anywhere
nearly so restricted a representation, the Acneiiue, which perhaps come
nearest to them in this respect, numbering at least ten times as many,
while the numerical proportion of the Libytheime to the total number
of known butterflies is not far from 1 to 1,000. How much more signifi-
cant this is, and how much more clearly it proves the living Libytheime
to be remnant^of a waning type, as 1 have called them,1 is shown
by the occurrence in the beds of Florissant of still another member of
this restricted subfamily, so that the Libytheime now form more than
10 per cent of fossil butterflies, instead of one-tenth of one per cent, as
among living forms. I am indebted to Mr. S. II. Loug, of Florissant,
Colorado, for the opportunity of studying the most interesting speci-
men here described.
As will be seen, it is most nearly related to the fossil species pre-
viously found in the same beds, Prolibythea luigahunda. It is of pre-
cisely the same large size, has the same relatively short palpi, some-
what similar antenna1, a similar but not so marked costal lobe at the
extremity of the hind wings, and a neuration agreeing very closely
with it; so closely, indeed, that it would be regarded by many as a
member of the same genus. It differs strikingly, however, in the
greater breadth of the wings and in the structure of the antenme and
palpi, and in most of its points shows closer affinities with the Euro-
pean Libythea than with the African Dichora, instead of the opposite,
as iu Prolibythea. These and other distinctions seem to be sufficient to
warrant its generic separation from previous known fossils, and I ac-
cordingly describe it under the following name:
BAKBAKOTIIEA tfdpfiapo*, Ola) gen. now
Antenme slender, the club so gradually incrassated as to be difficult
to determine its origin, composed of about one-fourth of the total num-
ber of joiuts, but little more than one-fourth the length of the whole
antenna, and less than twice as broad as the stalk, terminating very
abruptly, a single joint, or at most two, being concerned in its apical
diminution in size; the whole antenna scarcely more than three- fifths
the length of the wing. The apical joint of the palpi not more than
three times longer than broad, only a little more than two-thirds the
length of the second joint. Fore wings a little more than one-half as
»S*e Unit. X. Kngl., i:7."»9.
22 INTERESTING TERTIARY INSECTS. I bull. 93.
long again as broad, subtriangular, the costal margin regularly and
gently arched; the apical margin produced in the upper half of the
wing, roundly and not at all prominently angulated at the tip of the
lowest subcostal nervule, the last two superior subcostal nervules orig-
inating far apart, the outer at a little more than midway between the
tip of the cell and the apex of the wing; the third about midway
between the second and fourth. Hind wing of very nearly equal length
and breadth, the costal margin as in Prolibythea, but with less pro-
nounced apical lobe, the outer border very regularly arcuate and
crenulate, not at all produced in the subcostal region, the lowest median
nervure widely distant from the submedian and terminating in a dis-
tinct but rounded lobe; cell closed by a transverse vein, which strikes
the median barely beyond its last furcation.
Of the pattern of the wings little can be made oft, but the under
surface of the fore wings would appear to be almost uniformly dark,
with no oblique patch depending from the costal margin, excepting
such as is indicated by a narrow, very oblique, darker, abbreviated bar
just beyond the apex of the cell. The hind wing would appear to have
been darker beneath than the fore wing, showing large patches of a
deeper tint outside the cell on either side, in the basal third of the
wing.
In the general proportion of the wings Barbarotbea would appear to
be more nearly related to Libythea than to any other of the genera of
Libytheinoe, living or fossil, but in the possession of a tail or lobe to
the lowest median nervule of the hind wings and of a rounded angula-
tion at the lowest inferior subcostal nervule of the fore wing, it ap-
proaches more nearly the African Dichora. Possibly it may be found
in both these respects, as it certainly is in the former, closer to Pro-
libythea, since the actual outline of the fore wing in that genus is
partly conjectural, the only specimen having a broken tip; but the
absence of the falcation so prominent in all recent Libytheinte will be
remarked. In the origin of the outer superior subcostal nervules it
also approaches more closely Dichora than any other genera, unless it
be again Prolibythea. In the form of the hind wing it is unique; the
costal lobe, however, closely resembles that of Prolibythea, but the
extreme breadth of the wing as related to its length separates it widely
from that and from all other genera of Libytheiuce. In the structure
of the antenna4 it seems to stand midway between Libythea and Pro-
libythea, having the sleuder form and brief club of Prolibythea, but
the abrupter tip and slighter distinction between club and stalk,
which belongs to Libythea. In the brevity of the apical joint of the
palpus, howrever, we find a marked departure from the ordinary con-
dition of things in Libytheinie, since here only, in "this subfamily, is the
apical joint, though relatively longer than in most butterflies, shorter
than the middle joint.
acuDDEKj hEPIDOPTERA — NYMPHALID^E. 23
BARBAROTHEA FLORISSANTI.
PI. 3, Figs. 1-5.
The single specimen which has been found shows the side view of a
butterfly remarkably well preserved, better preserved, indeed, than any
known, with the sole exception of Prodryas, from the same beds. But,
unfortunately, it is somewhat confused by the mixture of veins and
markings of the underlying wings, the margins of which do not alto-
gether coincide. Moreover, the stone upon which it chances to be pre-
served is of much more irregular surface than was the case with Pro-
dryas, rendering many points obscure which one would wish to see.
Thus, though the form of the scales, at least upon the fringe, can be
determined, no striatiou is visible, and where the wings have slipped
past each other to a slight extent, the relation of the uervures to the
margin can not always be determined with perfect accuracy. Both of
the antenme are preserved, one perfectly, as also are the palpi, the
drooping tongue and part of the legs. The length of the body is only
faintly and probably indicated by the discoloration of the surface.
The lore wings, the outline of which where overlapped by the hind
wing is not everywhere altogether clear, have the costal margin very
regularly and gently convex, falling, however, with greater rapidity
ust before the apex. The outer margin is slightly produced in the sub-
costal region in a broad swelling between the tip of the subcostal
nervule and of the uppermost median nervule; below this the outer
margin is not clear. In the hind wing the costal margin is altogether
as in Prolibythea rat/abunrta, except that the apical lobe is less pro-
nounced: there is no such emargination of the outer border at the ex-
tremity of the costo-subcostal interspace, the outline between the tips
of the costal nervure and the lowest median nervule being almost the
segment of a circle, apart from the slight and regular crenulation of
the wing; this crenulation is most marked in the lobe next the anal
angle, and is everywhere produced by the slight projection of- the tips
of all the nervules ; but the tip of the lowest submedian nervule appears
to terminate in an emargination and not a projection of the border.
The sketch of (he neuration (Fig. 1) represents the wing precisely as
it appears upon the stone, but as a vein is plainly seen running to the
tip of the prominent lobe below this, it is perfectly plain that here the
nervure of one wing and the border of another underlying it are de-
lineated. It seems, however, nearly impossible to distribute the two
quite properly from the specimen, and it has accordingly been drawn
in this way to call attention to this point in future specimens that may
be obtained. The markings of the wing, as stated above, under the
generic description, are altogether obscure, with v$ry slight exceptions,
but it is impossible to mark definitely the limits of the various darker
clouds; they are best shown by reference to the plate. The antenm©
are composed of about forty-four joints, of which eleven or twelve form
24 INTERESTING TKUTtAHY INSECTS. r»ru..te.
a very slightly enlarged club, which is only a little more than half as
broad again as the stalk. The whole club shows the separation of the
naked surface from that covered by the scales in a very remarkable
manner, as is shown best in Fig. 3, where it is most enlarged; and this
drawing also shows equally well the three slender carina), extending
not only upon the club, but upon the stalk as well, certainly through-
out its whole apical half, and probably throughout the whole; the
joints of the club are neatly half as broad again as long, while the pro-
portions of those of the stalk are reversed to almost exactly the same
degree. The basal and middle joints of the palpi are furnished abund-
antly with moderately long, stiff, projecting hairs, which are directed
forward, while on the apical joint these are entirely absent, excepting
at the extreme base, or better may be descril>ed as entirely recumbent.
It would appear to be somewhat doubtful which of the legs are repre-
sented upon the stone. One pair is shown, one of them imi>erfectly,
the other almost complete, which would be regarded as the front pair but
for their excessive length. They are simple and normal in structure
throughout and abundantly and almost equally clothed with fine and
crowded spines upon the under surface throughout the tibia and tarsi.
The dark portion seen between the base of these legs and the tip of
the slender, racier brief tongue can not be regarded as a pair of legs,
but only as the clothing of the chest.
Length of body (doubtful), including the palpi, 20 millimeters; last
joint of palpi, 2*5 millimeters; middle joint, 3*25 millimeters; antenme,
12 millimeters; club of same, 3*5 millimeters; width of stalk, 0*25 milli-
meters; of club, 0-4 millimeter; length of tongue, 5 millimeters; length
of fore wing, 28*5 millimeters; breadth of fore wing, 16*5 millimeters;
expanse (estimated), til millimeters; length of hind wing, 22 milli-
meters; breadth, 21*5 millimeters; length of (middle?) tibiae and tarsi,
<>-5 millimeters.
Florissant. One specimen; S.H.Long.
HYMENOPTERA-TENTHREDINID^.
ATOOUS {Sroxos) gen. now
In its slender parallel-sided form this genus has all the aspect of a
Sirex, but not only is there no extension of the prothorax, but the
large head is closely appressed to the thorax. The head is large,
rounded subtriangular, broadest posteriorly. The ocelli are appar-
ently only two in number, rather large, situated just at the inner base
of the antenna?; these are fourteen-jointed, the first joint very large,
twice as stout as, and very much longer than the succeeding, which are
simple, longer than broad, and continually diminish in size. Wings
with two marginal cells, separated almost beneath the middle of the
stigma; four submarginal cells, the first small and nearly circular, the
remainder widening and enlarging outwardly, and excepting the apical
*em>nER.] HYMEKOPTKRA — TKNTHREDIKIDAS. 25
much longer than broad; first discoidal cell hexagonal, about as long
as broad, and but little larger than the first submarginal cell; second
discoidal cell of exceptional shape, being oblique and much higher
than long, its inner margin beneath the middle of the first discoidal
cell, while the third brachial cellule thus made of unusual length is
partially or completely divided into two nearly equal parts by a spuri-
ous veinlet from the vein above, somewhat as in Oephaleia.
Except for the simple antenna* this curious genus seems to have
some relationship to the oriental Tarpa, and 1 can not find anything
nearer to it unless it be CephaleJa. It is a striking form.
A single species occurs at Florissant.
ATOCUS DEFESSUS.
PI. 1, Fig. 5.
The whole body is uniformly dark, the wings without markings ex-
cept the fuseo-fuliginous stigma; the antenna* are about half as long
again as the width of the head, and beyond the first joint taper so as
to be about half as broad at apex as at second joint ; the outer is about
twice as long as the inner marginal cell which lies wholly beneath the
stigma, and is about as broad at base as at apex; the first submar-
ginal cell on the other hand lies almost wholly before the stigma, and
lias as much an appearance of belonging to the marginal as to the sub-
marginal series; the cross veins at the outer sides of the first sub-
marginal and first and second discoidal cells form a pretty regular zig-
zag across the middle of the wing.
Length of body, 10*5 millimeters; antenna?, .'>#25 millimeters; fore
wings, 7*5 millimeters.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 11983.
PLATES.
27
.^;.t
■ ■ .*
PLATE T.
29
■ ".• ' .fSi»F
I
fc
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Fig. 1. Stenogomphns carlotonij J.
2. Trichoenemis aliena; J.
3. Cicada grandiosa; j!
4. Carabites cxaniimiR; f
5. Atocus defensus; antenna, much enlarged.
6. Atocus defensus, complete; f.
30
PLATE II.
HI
EXPLANATION OF PLATE 11-
Fig. 1. Palcpstnig oligocenus, body and wings; f.
2. Nortotetocns mareovi ; f .
3. The same, the antenna' further enlarged ; V*.
4. Palo?8tru« oligocenus, basal joint of abdomen and leg; }.
5. Myeetophmtusintcruiedius; f.
32
«&'
*y
A-k
s?fA- \
F^5^t^
<w\
ij^YV^
•
PLATE III.
Bull. 93 3
33
EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.
Fig. 1. Barbarothea florissanti, outline and neuration in the position in which it
is preserved; f.
2. The same, its general appearance on the stone ; \.
3. The same, right antenna, much enlarged; f .
4. The same, sketch of head and appendages except wings, enlarged ; f.
5. The same, the neuration, as far as preserved, that of each wing sepa-
rated; i.
34
INDEX.
Page.
Acrnine 21
aliena, Trlchocnemls 12
Atocus 24
Atocus defessus 25
Barbarothea 21
Barbarothea florrlssanti 28
Byrrhlds 16
Byrrhus exanlmatus 10
Cacus 18
Carabido .17
Carabltes 17
Carabltes exanimus 17
carletonl, Stenogomphus 14
Cephalela 25
Cicada 15
Cicada grandlosa 15
ClcadldsB 15
Coleoptera 16
defessus, Atocus 25
Dichora 21,22
Dlptera 18
exanlmus. Carabltes 17
Ftdiclna 15
florl88antl, Barbarothea 23
Gomphlna 13
Gompholdes 18
Gompholdes blfasciata 1*
brevlpes 14
stigmata 14
grandlosa, Cicada 15
Hemicnemls cyanops 12
Hemlptera 15
Hymenoptera 24
Eypoderma 19
Lepidoptera 20
Llbythea 21,22
Paga
Llbythelnc 20
Llndenla 18
• marcovi, Nosotetocus ^ 17
Muscaria .. 18
Myeetobln© .v. 20
Mycetophaetinae 19
Mycetopheetus 20
Mycetophetus intermedlus 20
Myoetophllida 19
Neuroptera 12
Nosodendron 18
Nosotetocus 16
Nosotetocus marcovi 17
Nymphallde .i 20
Odonata 12
CEstrldee '. 18
oligocenus, Paloestrus 19
Paloestrus 18
Paloestrus oligocenus 19
Platycnemis.., 12
Platycnemis Icarus 12
Prodryas 28
Progomphus 18
Prolibythea 20,22
Proliby thea vagabunda 21,23
Pterostlchini 17
Sciophila 20
Sciophillnse 20
Sirex 24
Stenogomphus 13
Stenogomphus carletonl 14
Tarpa 25
TenthredinidflB 24
Trlchocnemls 12
Trlchocnemls aliena 12
learns 12
35
1 «
f.
. LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIPS.
United Stats*. Department of lis Interior. ( V. S. geological iitrrey).
Department of the Interior | — | Bulletin | of the | United
States | geological survey | no. 91 J [Seal of the department] |
Washington | government printing oGBce | 1892
Second title: United States geological iorsej | J. W. Powell,
director | — | The | meobanUtn of solid viscosity | .by | Carl
Barn* | [Vignette] [
Washington | government printing office | 1893
«°. 131pp.
Barns (Carl).
United States geological enrvey | J. W. Powell, director | — ]
! The | mechanism of solid viscosity [ by | Carl Barns | [VI-
! gnette] |
i Washington | government printing office 1 1893
I f. 138 pp.
7, B. getlegUat nirety).
S United States geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | — |
The | mechanism of solid viscosity | by | Carl Bams | [Vi-
gnette] |
j; Washington | government printing office | 1882
S 8°. 138 pp,
~ [n.fmD Srins. D^artwunt tf Uu iaUriar. (ff. 8. fUffUl turrtfi.
3 Bnllstin MJ.
I
ADVERTISEMENT.
[Bulletin Sii.w.1
The publleationa of tbe L'nital Statua Geological Survey arc leaned in accordance will] (be nUtute-
approved March 3, 1"78. which declares that —
"The publications or the Geological Survey iliall consist at the annual report uf operat Inon, geological
anil economic maps illustrating the resources und ulasaiileation of tin- land*, and reports upon general
and economic geology and paleontology. The annual report of operation" of the Geological Survey
■ hull accompany thu annual report of Che Secretary of the Interior. All special memoirs and report*
of said Surrey shall be iasued in uniform quartu series if deemed noces«ary by Che Director, but other-
and for BAleat the price of publication; and all literary and cartographic, material* received in exchange
ahull be the property of the United States and form a part of the library of the organisation; and tht>
money reuniting from the nale of such publication! shall be covered Into tbe Treasury of the United
Statw."
On July 7, 18e2, tbe following Joint resolution, referring to all Government publication*, win passed
"That whenever at
ANNUAL REPORTS.
II. decor,
tapp.
I Report of IheUniW State* Geological Sur
iunry report describing plan of organiHtio;
nal Report of the United States Geological
a pi.
by Clarence Sing. 1860.
rey, WeO-'Sl, by J. W. F
dogical Surrey, lBSl-'ffi, by J. W. P
ologieal Surrey, 1882- '83, by J. W. V
III. Third Annual Report of the United States <
is*, xrlii, jot pp. HT pi. and maps.
IV. Fourth Annual lleportof the United States
b'c-. inii. I~( pp. 85 pi. and map".
V. Fifth Annnal Report of tbe Unltul Statu* Geological Survey, lSSJ-'i* b
e-. xxxri, -MWpp. Us pi. and nwp*.
VI. Sixth Annual Report, of the United States Ucologicul Survey, 18*4- eJ. 1
j=. xxix. J70 pp. «."] pi. and niapa.
VII. Seventh Animal Heport of the United States Geological .Survey, l(mS->6,
:mp|i. .1 pi.
VIII. Eighth .1
in u.i 1 Report of the L'nitnl State
xli pp. .'11 pi. and nmpa: 1 p. 1
IX. .Ninth Am
ml Ifaiwrt uf the United Slut.-*
X, Tenth Ann
al Iteporl of the United Stale*
ip. Upl.undmur.Sj rill lap
XI. Eleventh.
initial Repurt uflhc United State
•p. Ml pL ami innpH \ ix. 351 pp
XII. Twelfth.
inillal [h-nnrtaf the 1'uited Stilti
..,!.._.
■ey, 1-SJ.-V!), by J. \Y. Powell,
ley, loSB-'W), hy J. XT. Powell.
MOXOiillAl'MS,
I. laik.- Ihinn.-ville. hy drove Karl Gilbert. Iwm. 1-. *
II. Tertiary Hi-lory ..f the Grand i.'iifleii lli-lricl, -villi al
l*fl!. 4'. ilv. all pp. l:!pl.awlat1aso<24shcctsi„Ii,,. 1
III. r!o.>h.gV"l'ili.(.'oiH|tuek I.iale and the Washoe Distri.
•=>. xv, l2Spp. i pi. anil alia- of 21 -heel* folio. Price ill
IV. {.'oiuat.i.'k Mining au.l Miners, hy Kliut I.onl. li-sa.
V. The Copper- Hearing Korku of Lafcu S11n.ri.1r, hv Kola
IS J. SO pi. and i.iai-H. I'rii e *l.n:..
■ of the Older Mcsoh
xi, 111 p|
xttJO.
II ADVERTISEMENT.
VII. Silver- Lead Deposit! of Eureka, Nevada, by Joseph Story Curtis. 1884. 49. sill, MO pp. 16
pi. Price $1.20.
Vffl. Paleontology of the Eureka District, by Charles Doolittle Waloott. 1884. 4°. xili, 898 pp.
841. 24 pi. Price $1.10.
IX. Brachlopoda and Lamollibranchiata of the Raritan Clays and Greenland Marls of New Jersey,
by Robert P. Whitfield. 1885. 4<>. xx, 338 pp. 95 pi. 1 map. Price $1.15.
X. Dinocerata. A Monograph of an Extinct Order of Gigantic Mammals, by Othniel Charles Marsh.
1886. 40. xvili,243pp. 561. 56 pi. Price $2.70.
XI. Geological History of Lake Lahontan, a Quaternary Lake of Northwestern Nevada, by Israel
Cook Russell. 1885. 4°. xiv, 288 pp. 46 pi. and maps. Price $1.75.
XII. Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, Colorado, with atlas, by Samuel Franklin Emmons.
1886. 43. xxix, 770 pp. 45 pi. and atlas of 85 sheets folio. Price $8.40.
XIIL Geology of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope, with atlas, by George F. Becker.
1888. 4°. xix, 486 pp. 7 pi. aud atlas of 14 ahects folio. Price $2.00.
XIV. Fossil Fishes and Fossil Plants of the Triangle Rocks of New Jersey and the Connecticut Val-
ley, by John S. Newberry. 1888. 49. xiv, 152 pp. 26 pi. Price $1.00.
XV. The Potomac or Younger Mcsozoio Flora, by William Morris Fontaine. 1889. 4°. xiv, 877
pp. 180 pi. Tux! and plates bound separately. Price $2.50.
XVI. The P.i loo zoic Fished of North America, by John Strong Newberry. 1889. 4°. 840 pp. 53 pL
Price $1.00.
XVII. The Flora of the Dakota Group, a posthumous work, by Leo Lesqnerenx. Edited by F. BL
Knowltou. 1891. 40. 400 pp. 66 pi. Price $1.10.
XVIII. Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda of the Raritan Clays and Greensand Marls of New Jersey,
by Robert P. Whittl.ld. 1*>1. 4°. 402 pp. 50 pi. Price $1.00.
In press -.
XIX. Tin* Penokec Iron-IV-ariug Series of Northern Wisconsin and Michigan, by Roland D. Irving
and (.'. R. Van His*.
XX. Geology of the Eureka District, Nevada, with atlas, by Arnold Hague. 1*92. 4°. 419 pp. 8 pL
In preparation:
XXI. The Tertiary Rhynohophorous Colooptera of North America, by Samuel Hubbard Scndder.
XXII. A Manual of Topographic Methods, by ITenry Gannett, chief topographer.
XXIII. <.m-o1i»k> of the Green Mountains in Massachusetts, by Raphael Pumpelly, J. £. Wolff,
T. Nelson Dale, and Rayard T. Putnam.
— Mollusca and Crustacea of the Miocene Formations of New Jersey, by R. P. Whitfield-
— Sauropoda, by O. C Marsh.
— Stegosauria, by O. C Marsh.
— Rrontothoridie, by O. C. Marsh.
— Report on the Denver Conl Basin, by S. F. Emmons.
— Report on Silver Cliff and 'IVn-Mile Mining Districts, Colora«lo, by S. F. Emmons.
— The Glacial Lake AguHsiz, by Warren Upham.
BULLETINS.
1. On Hyporatlume- Andi-site and on Triclinic Pyroxene in Augitic Rocks, by Whitman Cross, with a
Geological Sketch of Buft'alu Pi aks. Colorado, by S.F. Emmons. 1883. 83. 42 pp. 2 pi. Price 10 cents.
2. Gold and Silver Conversion Table*, giving the coining values of troy ounces of fine metal, etc., com
puted by Albert Williams, jr. l&H. eP. 8 pp. Price 5 cent a.
8. On the Fossdl Kaunas of the Upper Devonian, along the meridian of 76s 30\ from Tompkins County,
New York, to Bradford County. Pennsylvania, by Henry S. Williams. 1884. 8°. 38 pp. Price 5 cents.
4. On Meao/oie 1'WiiIs, b\ Chains A. White. 1881. 8°. 'AG pp. 9 pi. Price 5 cents.
5. A Di -tionnry of Altitudes in the Uuited States, compiled by Henry Gannett. 1881. 8°. 325 pp.
Price 2u cenia.
6. Elevations iu th.- Dominion of Canada, by J. W. Sjienccr. 1884. 8°. 43 pp. Price 5 cents.
7. Mapoteoa Geoh^ica Auifrieaua. A Catalogue of Geological Map* of America (North and South),
17f»2-l*^81, in geographic and chruuologic order, by Jules Marco 11 aud John Relkunp Marcou. 1884.
8°. 181 pp. Price 10 cents.
8. On Secou lary Kulargtin-ntH of Miui-ral Fragments in Certain Rocks, by R. 1). Irving and C. R.
Van I1W. 1884. 8". M? pp. fi id. Prh-e 1«» cents.
y. A report of work dom- in the Washington I.almratory during the fiscal year 18S.V84. F. W. Clarke,
chiif •-heiuist. T. M.Chat;ir»l. aisUtant chi-uii«t. 1384. 83. 40 pp. Price 5 cents.
10. « >u the Cambrian Kaunas -»t X-itii America. Preliminary studies, by Charles Doolittle Walcott.
1884. ^. 74 pp. M pi. Prk«- :• c.iits.
11. M11 tin' MuaJiMiary aud Recent Mollusca of the Great Hasiu; with Inscriptions of New Forms,
by R. K.P.'jW'ir'h (.'all. Introduced by a sketch of tho Quaternary Lakes of the Great lUtsin, by G. K.
Gilbert. 1881. *;. 66 pp. 0 pi. Price ft d-nts.
12. A Crystal Ifgraphic Stud} of the Thinolitu of Lake Lahontan, by Edward S. Dana. 1884. 8°.
34 pp. 3 pi Prire ."» cent a.
13. Bouudat i*-* of the United States aud of the several States and Territories, with a Historical
Sketch of the lomtoiial Changes, by Henry Gannett. 1835. 8°. 13 o pp. Pries 10 cc-uts.
ADVERTISEMENT. IH
14. The Kectrlcal and Maguetlo Properties af the Iron-Carbnrota, by Carl Barn* and Ylnoent
Stronhiu. 1885. 9°. IBB pp. Price 15 cants.
If. On theMejuuoiomiiCeiiMolEPilenntologjdf Califorai*, bjChailea A.WhlU. 1885. 8". Mpp.
10. On the Higher Devonian Faunas or Ontario County, Haw York, by John M. Clarke. IBM. 8°.
Wpp. a pi, Price S oenta.
IT. On the Development af Cry stallliatlan In the Igneous Rooks of Waehoe, Nevada, with note* on
the Geology af the Metric*, by Arnold Hague aid Joaepb F. Iddlnge. 1888. 8". at pp. Price 3
' II. On Marino Eocene, Freah watotr Mfooane, and other Fossil Mollueca of Western North America,
by Charles A. White. 138S. 6°. Mpp. s pi. Price Scents.
ID. Hots* on the Stratigraphy of California, by George F. Becker. 188S. S=. SB pp. Prtoe 5 oeiita.
30. Contributions to the Mineralogy of the Rocky Monntalna, by Whitman Croaa and W. F. Hula-
brand. 1885. »°. 114 pp. Ipl. Pries 10 oenta.
SI. The Lignites of the Great Sioux Reservation. A Report on the Region between the Grand and
Horeau Ki vera, Dakota, by Bailey Wlllla. 1385. a*. II pp. B pi. Prim B cent*.
32. On Hew Cretaceous Foaalla from California, by Charlee A. White. 1885. B°. SB pp. I pL
Price 6 cants.
23. Obaerrattona on the Junction between the Eastern Sandstone and the Keweenaw Series on Ksv
weenaw Point, Lake Superior, by R, D. Irving and T, C. Chamberlln. 1886. 8°. 134 pp. IT pL
Price IB cent*.
24. Llat of Marine Molluscs, comprising the Qustenary Foaalla and recent forma from American
Localities between Cape Hatteras and Cape Roqoe, Including tbe Bennndaa, by William Haaly DalL
leSJ. Bo. 830 pp. Price 25 oenta.
25. Tlia Present Teohnical Condition of the Steel Indnatry of the United States, by Phinaae Barnes.
1885. S°. 8S pp. Price 10 oenta.
20. Copper Smelting, by Henry M. Howe. 18S5. 8°. 107 pp. Price 10 oenta.
27. Report of wurk done In the Division or Chemistry and Physios, mainly during the Oaaal yeer
1884-'85. 1888. 8°. SO pp. Price 10 oenta.
28. The G;tbbros and Associated Hornblende Rocks ooenrring In the neighborhood or Baltimore,
Mil., by George Huntington Williams. 1886. 8°. 78 pp. 4 pi. Price 10 cent*.
20. On the Froah waior Invertebrate* of tbe North American Jurassic, by Charlee A. White. 1888.
go. 41pp. 4 pi. Price 5 cents.
80. Second Contribution to the Studies on the Cambrian Faunas of North America, by Charles Doo-
little Walcott. 1880. S°. BBS pp. S3 pi. Price 3S cents.
31. Systematic Review of oar Present Knowledge of FossU Inesota, inolnding MyrUpods and Arach-
nids, by Samuel Hobbard Scndder. 18BS. 8°. 128 pp. Price 15 cents.
32. Lists and Analyses of tbe Mineral Springs of the United Ststos; a Preliminary Study, by Albert
C. Peale. IB80. 8°. 235 pp. Price 20 cents.
83. Notes on the Geology of Northern California, by J. S. Dlller. 1838. B°. 28 pp. Price S oenta.
84. Ou the relation of the Laramie Molluscaa Fauna to that of the ancceediDg Fresh-water Eocene
and other group-, by Charles A. White. 1880. IP. Mpp. 5 pi. Price 10 cents.
85. Physical Projrertiiia of the Iruu -Carburets, by Carl Bams and Vincent Stroubal. 1888. 8°. S3
pp. Price 10 cent*.
80. Subsidence or Fine Solid Pprtlclca In Liquids, by Carl Barus. 1888. 8°. 58 pp. Price 10 oenta.
ST. Types of the Laramie Flora, by Lester F. Ward. 1887. 8°. 854 pp. B7 pi. Price 25 cents.
88. Poridotlto of Elliott County. Kentucky, by J. S. Dillcr. 1887. 8°. 31pp. Ipl. Prices cents.
81. The Upper Reaches and LVilaa of the Glacial Lake Agassis, by Warren Upham. 1887. 8°. ' 84
pp. 1 pi. Price 10 cents.
40. Changes in Elver Courses In Washington Territory due to Glaciatlon, by Bailey Willis. 1887.
I*. 10 pp. 4 pi. 1'rico 6 oenta.
41. On tbe Fossil Faunas of the Upper Devonian— the Genesee Section, New .York, by Henry 8.
Williams. 1887. 3'. 121pp. 4 pi. Price IS cents.
43. Reporter work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
18B5-'8fl. F. W. Clarke, chief chemist. 1687. 8°. 153 pp. Ipl. Price 15 cents.
43. Tertiary and Cretaceous Strata of the Tuscaloosa, Tomblgbee, and Alabama Rivers, by Eugene
A. Smith and Lawrence 0. Johnaon. 1887. 3°. 188 pp. 21 pi. Price IS oenta.
44. Bibliography of North American Geology for 1388, by Nelson H. Darton. 1387. 8°. 35 pp.
Prtoe fl oenta.
45. Tbe Present Condition or Knowledge of the Geology of Toias, by Robert T. Hill. 1S8T. 8°. 84
pp. Price lu route.
48. Nature and Origin of Deposits of Phosphate of Lime, by H. A. F. Penrose, Jr., with an Intro-
duction by N. S. Shslor. 1888. 8°. 143 pp. Pries IB oenta.
47. Analyses of Waters of the Yellowstone National Park, with an Account uf the Methods of
Analysis employed, by Frank Austin Goooh and James Edward Whitfield. 1888. S->. 84 pp. Price
10 oenta.
. 8°. 88 pp.
IV
ADVERTISEMENT.
49. Latitudes and Longitudes of Certain Point* in Missouri, Kantian, and New Mexico, by Rolwrt
Simpson Woodward. 1*89. ti'\ l:t3 pp. Price 15 cent*.
50. Formulas ami Tables to facilitate the Construction ami Use of Maps, by Roltert Simpson Wood-
ward. 1889. 8°. 124 pp. Price la cents.
51. Ou Invertebrate Fossils from tin* Pacitic. Coast, by Charles Abiutbar White, 1889. b°. 102 pp.
14 pi. Price 15 cent*.
52. Subaerial IVcay of Hocks and Origin of tint lied Color of Certain Formations, by Israel Cook
Russell. 1889. *"•. 05 pp. 5 pi. Price 10 cent*.
Xi. The Geology of Nant ticket, by Nathaniel Southgate Shalcr. 1889. 8°. 55 pp. 10 pi. Price 10
cents.
54. On the Thcrmo-Klectric Measurement of High Tciii|s'ratures. by Carl Barns. ls89. 8-. 313 pp.
inch 1 pi. 11 pi. Pric«j 25 cents.
55. Report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics, mainly during the fiscal year
1880-'87. Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, chief chemist. l*8i». 8\ DO pp. Price. 10 cents.
50. Fossil Wood and Lignite of the Potomac Formation, by Frank Hall Know Iton. 1SX9. 8^. 72 pp.
7 pi. Price 10 cents.
57. A Geological Reconnaissance in Southwestern Kansas, by Koliert Hay. 1*90. tp. 49 pp. 2 pi.
Price 5 cents.
58. The. (tlacial Lfniuidary in Western Pennsylvania. Ohio. Kenlucky, Indiana, and Illinois, by fleorge
Frederick Wright, with an introduction by Thomas Chrowder Clianiberlin. 18iH). 8\ 112 pp. iucl.
1 pi. « pi. Price 15 cents.
59. The llahbrosand .Associated Rock* in Delaware, by Frederick IV Chester. 1890. 8D. 45 pp.
1 pi. Price Hi cents.
00. Report of work done in the. Division of Chemistry and Physic*, mainly during the fiscal year
1887-88. F. W. Clarke, chief chemist. 1*W. A-1. 174 pp. Price 15 cents.
61. Contributions to the Mineralogy of the Pacilie dust, by William Harlow Melville and Waldemar
Lindgren. lf*s*». 8 . 40 pp. :i pi. Price 5 cents.
02. The lireensioiie Si hist Areas of t lie Menominee and Marquette Regions of Michigan: a contri
bution to the subject of dynamic mctamorphism in eruptive rocks, by tteorgc Iliuitington Williams:
with an introduction by Roland Oner Irving. 18iH». s\ 241pp. 10 pi. Price ;>n eeuts.
63. A Hibliograpliy of Paleozoic Crustacea from 10'.»-: to ls>"9. including a list of North American
species and a *> si i-matic arrangement of geiii*ra. by Anthony W. Vogdes. 18VH». 83. 177 pp. Price
15 cents.
04. A report of work done in the Division of Chemistry ami Physics, mainly during the llscal year
R&K-'.*f). F. W. f'larkc. chief i-hcmM. l.»l*o. a*, tin pp. Price lo cent. <•.
05. Stratigraphy of the Pdtumiiioiis f\.al Field ol Pennsylvania, Ohio, ami West Virginia, by Israel
C. While 18M1. 8. 211! pp. 11 pi. Pi ice -jo cent*.
00. On .1 (! roup of Volcanic Rinks fioin 1 1n- Tcwan Mountains. New Mexico, and on the occurrence
of Primary Quai'lz in ci-rtaiu r..iialt-s. by .In^cpli Paxsoii hiding*. l-'.'«». s'-. :U pp. Price 5 cents.
07. The Relations of the Tim pi of the Newark System in the New Jersey Region, by NcUou Horatio
D.iiton. Js'io. s\ >2 pp. Price lo ci -nls.
08. Kartli-iu.iki-s in California in l^'.i b\ .Lime F.dwaid Kceli-r. l.»JHi. •»■'. j.'i pp. Price 5 ci-hts.
0!*. A '.'la-sci| and Annotated Rihlio^r.iidiv of Foi.til lust ■ is. hv S..*nucl Hubbard Si-udder. Isyo.
8" . I'M pp. Pri« e 1" cents.
7". Repoit on Asiiniioinii al Work of I .-■*•.» .ml |»'>", by Roln-rt ^iiiipson Woodward. l>'jn. ? . 7'.» pp.
Plice l"l ii Ills.
ri. Index loihe Known Fo-edl In-« el* <»[ ibc World, including M\ ri,i|>oiU and Ara> In-i'li by Samuel
Illl'm.i'-ii S. ilibbT. I-'.M. r . 7 14 p|>. l'l>i ."<' « i nis.
7.. \ll-l M.'.i ^ bet'.M'i-ll I. .ike "Sip-' nil' .Hid ili" lioikl "\f aillltT |»I1- b\* W.'"'i!i I' |>l:.llil. ls'Jl. 83.
'-'..'.! |'|'. l'l .' '■ -' ' ' '•!'! -.
".:;. Ti;> V :^i <"-i'v ol ^■Oid- \t\ «'.ni II ■*.'!. a". \'.\. 1 . .» | • i ■. «"■ |«l. I'ip ■• 1." cents.
74. T'li. \[:ii*:.U of N'oi'ii f " •- ■>l:*i ■. :-v F* -.1. -.el: \.i_;- .ir,<i;.'i:V !-»l. - . I !*.» up. Price 15
cent -.
,."i. I!>'mi[.Im: \" •■ : : Xsu'iii hi «i- ••'.._■, r>: ; --7 i-» ! --'.' ih.-'i-i..* b;, \.-!- n ;i><r.:ii<> h.irtou. 1S91.
i? '. IT- |'p. P- 1- • I '• ' ■ pi -.
Tit. A ! 'i< ! :■ i .::■• "'■' \'ii:ii<i *|i:- I " ■ : r i - i >'iii-..«i i*i •■ili; :■ «•: • «-* «• ■ * 1 1; " - -. I bv II- -ivy lianuett,
clll'-i !"|"'_','::l,i. '■'■ '"'.'I. "". ■'- •"■ o.i l'li-.»- ." lis.
77. lb- I ■ n -m !•■ nuiiiii and ii--. Mi sii.-i.-. |;.|.--.ii |-.i>..U ; > v Ch.iiles A. Wl.'to. 1>'.»1. S'\ 51 pp.
4 pi. l'l i> ■ 1*' "i nis.
7*. \ ■< P"- 1 .»J 'work dmie IhiIh' JMvj . i»n ■>.' • I t i ■ i i - 1 • ■ ;nni Ph\ -p -. maiii'.v d-irii'^ t!ie tUrjil year
lt-i» '.<•'. C. \\". rlarke. i iile:'c'.M Llist. '-'.U. » . i::l |ip. I'li*- ]', ei-llts.
7:». A Lale Volc.-inii- Kr'iiiiiuii in Ni»rt:»- "si « ••'.'•■•iiia .md it* Peculiar Lava, by J. S. I'iller. l-f»l. 8°.
3H pp. 17 pi. Pro i In cenis.
w». Coiii l.ij i m ji.ipcrs— l»iv«uii;iii .iinl < rbniiii'.jnii,. by Henry Shaler Williams. lslM. S-. 271* pp.
Pri. i "jn i eiits.
.-1. Corn Iaii.m papers— Cambrian, by Charles lKmliltle W;ilc«>tt. 1891. 83. 447 pp. 3 pi. Price
25 cents.
.sell. 1S02.
8°.
344 pp.
IS pi.
,ics. mainly dnrinj
1 reals.
Dirton. 1891. S=
; the fiscal ysar
. SB pp. Price
ADVERTISEMENT. V
12. Conflation papers— Cretaosoue. hy Charles A. White. 1*91. 8s. 273 pp. 3 pi. Pries 20 cents.
83. Correlation papers— Eocene, by William Bullock Clark. 1801. 8'. 173 pp. 2 pL Price IS on la.
84. Correlation papers— Neocene, by W. H. Dili and G. D. Hani*. 1891. 8°. 340 pp. 3 pi. Price
£5 rents.
85. Correlation paper*— The Newark System, by Israel Cook i
Price as*enla.
•0. A report of work done in the Division of Chemistry and Ph
1890 '91. F.W.Clnrke.chlef chemist 1892. go. T7 pp. Price
91. Record of North American Geology for 1890, by Nelson Hurst
10 cents.
92. The Compressibility of Liqnids, by Carl Barns. 1893. 8„. 98pp. 59 pi. Price. 10 cents.
S3. Some Inserts or special Interest from Florissant, Colorado, and other points in the Tertlariea of
Colorado and Ctah. by Samuel Hubbard Sondder. 1892. 8°. 35 pp. 3 pi. Price 5 cents.
91. The Mechanism of Solid Viscosity, by Carl Barns. 1891. 8°. 138 pp. Priee 15 cents.
05. Earthquakes in California In 1890 and 1891, by Edward Singleton Holden. 1892. 8°. 31 pp.
Price 5 cenls.
98. The Volome Thermodynamics of Liquids, by Cart Barns. 1892. 8°. 100 pp. Price 10 cents.
80. Correlation papers— Archenn and Algonkian, by C. R. Tan Hiss.
97. The Mesotoic Kehinojlennataof the United States, by W.B.Clark.
98. Carboniferous Flora— Outlying Coal Basins of Southwestern Missouri, by David While.
99. Record of North American Geology Tor 1891, by Nelson Horatio Ibirton.
100. Bibliography and Index or the publication! or the TJ. S. Geological Survey, 1879-1892, by P. C.
Coal Field, by Samuel Hnbbard Srudrier.
North American Mesoioic Inverlebrata, by C. B. Boyle.
■oua Fusion and Ebullition. Chiefly In Relation to Pressure, by
y W. B. Weed, with,
its Invertebrate Fanna, by T. W. Stanton*
no, by T. C. Chaiuberlin.
y Rocks on Pigeon Point, Minnesota, and their contact phenom-
ena, by It". S. Bayley.
— The Trap Dikes of Lake Champlain Valley and tho Eastern Adlrondacks, by J. T. Kemp.
— The Moraines or the Missouri Cotosn, anil their attendant deposits, by James Edward Todd.
— A Bibliography of Paleobotany, by David White.
STATISTICAL PAPERS.
MlneralResourco-ioftheUnite.lStntes,lB«i,byAlbertWilllams,jr. 1883. »°. xvll, 813 pp. Price
Mineral Resources of the United State-., t*83 and 1884, by Albert Williams, jr. 18*5. So. niv, 1018
pp. rrieeWrenls.
Minora] Re*.urces of the Unitcl Stat,-*, MUG. Division of Miuing Statistics and Technology. 1888.
f". vii. S7il,ip. Pries 4(J rents.
Mineral ll.j-.iir.f.ul ' (lie. Tutted SUUe«,lSSa1. by David T. Day. 1887. *". tHi. 813pp. Pries SH cents.
Minerid lief. .urres of t]iel.'nitedSiaie»,lft.'7. by David T.Day. 1888. V. vii,8'!2pp. PrlceSosrnls.
Miiierjllt.-s,.iirc*softli*DnitedSlates.l8S«,li)-naviaT.Dij-. 1890. 83. vil.nMpp, Price 50 cents.
Mineral lieimircca of the United States, 1*88 and 1800, by David T.Day. 1802. 8°. vlil, 071 pp.
Trice all rents.
Survey jlmulii bo aildrossed
101.
Insert f
anna of tbe Rhode 1.
102.
sgll* and BibHograpl
103.
High T.
Carl Barns.
104.
(Haciati
nnof IheYellowaton
105.
TLo I.a
* on Flu
ra, by F. II. Knowhi
100.
The Col
orodo Formation and
In props m tier
Ion pspers-Plelatoc
—
The Bri
iplive and Sediments
Ions Is deposited 1
lrafts.orport.so
payable to the Li
nth
ing
111 DlBICTIlR OF TO
V.vitbd Statu
WiBHUiaTtiM, D. C, A'owmJer, Ml,
/.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BULLETIN
UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
No. 94
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1892
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR
THE
MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY
OABL BA.EI7S
WASHINGTON
GOVBBNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
CONTENTS.
Letter of transmittal .- 13
Preface 15
Chapter I. Tensile, drawn, and other strums In their beariug on Mai well's
theory of viscosity 17
Introductory 17
Apparatus . 18
Data for drawn wires 18
Data for stretched wires 21
Inferences 28
Chapter II. The two species of molecular brruk-up which promote viscous
deformation SO
Introductory... 30
Motional annealing defined 30
Strain, electric resistance, and viscosity 31
Temper, electric resistance, and viscosity 31.
Data relative to temper, electric resistance, and vlscosi ty 31
Discussion of results . . 33
Data for cyclic twisting S3
Discussion of results of cyclic twisting 37
The marked feature 37
Analogy with thermal annealing 38
Chapter III. The effect of mechanics) strain on the carbnration of steel 40
Introductory 40
Drowne's experiments .. .. 40
The present method 40
Method of experiment 41
Besnlts obtained. 41
Tables 42
Discussion 44
Inconsistency of the results 14
Errors of the method 45
Temperature 45
Concentration of acid 45
Solution in air and in hydrogen 45
Hate of solution 46
Structural deuoity 48
Summary 48
Osmond's a and ,3 iron 47
Chapter IV. The effeot or strain on the rate of solution of steel 48
Introductory 48
Method 48
Tables 40
6 CONTENTS.
Pace.
Chapter IV. The effect of strain on the rate of solution of steel — Continued.
Discussion 57
Incidental errors 57
Effect of surface 58
Effect of diffusion 58
Wires originally soft 59
Wires annealed .•. 60
Relation to Drowne's inferences 61
Summary 61
Chapter V. The hydroelectric effect of changes of molecular configuration. 63
Introductory % 63
Apparatus 63
Experiments 64
Zero method 64
Results for iron 64
Discussion of results 66
Data for divers metals 66
Effects classified 69
Discussion of errors : 70
Variable capacity : 70
Single wires 72
Summary 72
Chapter VI. Secular annealing of cold hard stct'l 74
Introductory 74
Results for homogeneity of rods 75
Mass constants of rods 76
Electrical constants of rods 77
Summary 79
Chapter VII. The viscosity of electrolyzing glass 80
Apparatus 80
Results 81
Inferences 82
Chapter VIII. The electrical resistance of stressed glass 85
Introductory .^ 85
Apparatus 85
Experiments 86
Data for 350° 80-
Data for 100° 86
Data for 185° 88
Results of twisting 89
Differential apparatus 89
Results for torsion « 91
Character of traction effects 91
Results for traction at 190° 91
Discussion of these results 92
Traction at 100° 94
Further results at 100° 95
Dimensional change due to torsion 96
Effect of temperature 96
Traction at 360° 97
Summary 98
Degree of molecular instability of glass 99
Chapter IX. The energy potentialized in permanent changes of molecular
configuration 101
Introductory 101
CONTENTS. 7
Chapter IX. Tlie energy potential! zed in permanent changes of molecular
conn g u rat ion — Contiu ued .
Apparatus 101
Results 103
Discussion of errors 104
Successive stretching 105
Results of impro\ed method" 106
Summary 107
Chapter X. The chemical equilibrium of solids in it* relation to pressure
and to temperature . 109
Earlier researches 109
Apparatus 110
Compressor 110
Vapor baths 110
Insulation 110
The resistance tnhn Ill
Arrangement for butting insular ion 113
Digression 113
Resistance tmasiirenient 114
Galvanometer 114
Other adjustments 114
Observations 114
Tables explained 114
Remarks on the table 116
Electromotive force. 116
Remarks on the table 116
Pressure coefficient of sperm nil 117
Pressure coefficient «l" g:pmliti>* 117
Pressnre coefficient of petroleum 118
Pressure coefficient of t bin machine oil 120
Pressure coefficient of thick machine oil. 122
. Digest 123
Deductions ■. , 124
Effect of pressure 124
Temporary and prrmunnut effects 124
Chart 125
Pressure and chemical equilibrium 125
Effect of temperature. - 125
Molecular effects of stress 125
Hysteresis 126
Magnetic hysteresis 127
Mechanism of viscosity 128
Electrical effects of u-olotroptc stress 130
Unavoidable errors 130
Polarization 130
Insnlulors 130
Shifting Isothermal plunes 130
Electromotive force 131
Short-circuiting 132
Electromotive force and pressure 132
Graphic: rep re sen tut ion 133
Electric instability of liyih-w-urbon »''■< . .- 184
Conclusion . 13F>
Index 137
~-M
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. 1. Apparatus for comparing viscous deformations 19
2. Time variation of viscous deformation in case of soft steel trans-
formed by temper, drawn strain, traction, and torsion, respec-
tively 28
3. Withdrawn.
4. Apparatus for measuring the hydroelectric effect of stretching 64
5. Apparatus for testing the viscosity of electrolyzing glass 81
6. Apparatus for testing the viscosity of electrolyzing glass 82
7. Apparatus for testing the viscosity of stressed glass 86
8. Apparatus for testing the viscosity of stressed glass 88
9. Apparatus for testing the viscosity of stressed glass 88
10. Apparatus for testing the viscosity of stressed glass 200° 90
11. Apparatus for testing the viscosity of stressed glass 100° 90
12. Apparatus available at 360° 97
13. Apparatus for measuring the thermal effect of stretching 102
14. Tube for measuring the pressure increments of the electric resist-
ance of glass 110
15. Diagram of resistance tube in place Ill
16. Improved form of resistance tube 112
17. Arrangement for measuring the pressure increments of the electric re-
sistance of liquid insulators 113
18. Pressure coefficient and temperature for sperm oil and for glass 117
19. Pressure coefficient and temperature for gasoline 118
20. Pressure coefficient and temperature for petroleum and for glass 120
21. Pressure coefficient and temperature for thin mineral machine oil
and for glass 122
22. Pressure coefficient and temperature for thick mineral machine oil
and for glass 124
23. Diagram 131
nj ( Charts showing the oscillation of the electric conductivity of
< glass and of viscous hydrocarbon oil 133
9
#
I
-j .
1
\
i
i
•TABLES.
. Viscosity of hard-drawn steel wire compared with soft.
:. Viscosity of hard-drawn steel wire compared with soft .
i. Viscosity of hard-drawn steel wire compared with soft. .
>.' YIbcohb effect of moderate traction -
i. Digest for hard and soft wires
i. Viscous effeet of cyclic traction
J. Viscous effect of motional annealing
!. Electrical effect of motional annealing
1. Viscous deformation in casoof cyclic twisting
). Graphitic carbon in soft and indrawn steel
I. Solution of soft steel
i. Solntion of drawn steel, i
1. Solution of soft steel '.
t. Solution of drawn steel
i. Solution of drawn steel
5. Solution of tempered and soft steels
7. Digest for originally soft wires
i. Digest for wires annealed in air
9. Digest for hard wires
). Hydroelectric effect of tensile strain, iron
i. Hydroelectric effect of tensile strain, German silver
!. Hydroelectric effect of tensile strain, brass
i. Hydroelectric effect of tensile strain, copper
1. Hydroelectric effect of tensile strain, iron
>. Hydroelectric effect of stretching, brass
1. Hydroelectric effect of stretching, iron
J. Hydroelectric effect of stretching, miscellaneous
3. Digest
D. Digest
3. Longitudinal uniformity of temper
1. Mass constants of glass- hard steel rods
I. Specific resistance of glass-hard steel rods
it. Specific resistance of gloss-hard steel rods
t. Viscosity of electrolyzing glass -
5. Viscosity of electrolyzing glass
6. Viscosity of electrolyzing glass '.
7. Resistance of glass across the lines of strt'BS
3. Resistance of stressed glass at lOO"'
9. Resistance of stressed glass at ISO5
0. Resistance of stretched glass at 100°
1. Resistance of stressed glass at 100°
2. Longitudinal extension of the tubes
3. Resistance of stretched glass at 360°
12 TABLES.
Pa**
Table 44. Eifergy potentialized in tensile strains '. 103
45. Variation of density of stretched wire 104
46. Successive stretching : 106
47. Energy potentialized in tensile strains 107
48. Apparent effect of pressure on" resistance of glass 115
49. Apparent effect of pressure on electromotive force 116
50. The insulation and pressure coefficient of sperm oil 118
51. Behavior of gasoline under pressure . . -• 119
52. Insulation and pressure coefficient of petroleum 119
53. Insulation of pressure coefficient of thin mineral machine oil 121
54. Pressure coefficient of glass surrounded by mineral machine oil 121
55. Insulation of pressure coefficient of sticky mineral machine oil 123
56. Breakdown of resistance in case of oils examined " 123
57. Breakdown of resistance in case of glass 123
58. Allowance for increments of electromotive force ' 132
59. Bate of thermal variation of pressure coefficient 134
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Department of the Interior,
TJ. S. Geological Survey,
Division op Chemistry,
Washington, D. ft, August 31y 1891.
Sir: I transmit herewith a manuscript by Dr. Carl Barus entitled
"The Mechanism of Solid Viscosity," with the request that it be pub-
lished as a bulletin of the Survey. It represents work done in the
physical laboratory.
Very respectfully,
F. W. Clarke,
Chief Ohemirt*
Hon. J. W. Powell,
Director.
13
PREFACE.
In the following pages I have brought together such of my experi-
ments on the viscosity of solids as have an immediate bearing on the
molecular mechanism by which viscous motion in solids is promoted.
The bulletin is therefore a continuation of the previous publication
(Bulletin 73), in which the phenomenon of viscosity was considered
more particularly with reference to its physical manifestations. Most
of the chapters of the present work are short, and a preliminary survey
of the work done can be expeditiously made by consulting the table of
contents*
C. B.
15
i!
i
3
I
if
i!
i-
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
By Cabl Barus.
OHAPTBE I.
TENSILE, DRAWN, AND OTHER STRAINS IN THEIR BEARING ON
MAXWELL'S THEORY OF VISCOSITY.
INTRODUCTORY.
1. It is known that the effect of drawing metallic wires through
a draw-plate is a marked decrease of the viscosity of ther originally soft
metal. The diminution increases with the intensity of strain imparted.
It is not so well known that the viscous effect of a tensile strain applied
in any degree to the same originally soft metal is after straining almost
nil in comparison. Kohlrausch1 and his pupils, Streintz2 and others,
more recently and in extensive researches Mr. Herbert Tomlinson,3
have occupied themselves with these phenomena. The results of these
observers are in general accord, and agree well enough with my work
that special publication of new data might appear superfluous. Never-
theless, as steel has been but sparingly dealt with, and as results fitting
at once into my diagrams are essential to my purpose, I have found it
desirable to communicate them. Apart from these considerations the
observations which I need must be made with minute reference to Max-
well's theory. In this respect the earlier work is seriously lacking.
The striking difference in the permanent viscous effect produced by
the action of the two strains is particularly surprising, because the
strains are imparted by mechanical processes not altogether dissimilar.
The action of wire-pulling, however, accompanied as it is by surface
compression as well as longitudinal extension, is conducive to the per-
manent retention of high-strain intensities, because it imparts to the
wire an arched structure. In steel, at least, there is a dense shell sur-
rounding an unusually rare core in such a way that the density of the
1 Kohlrausch 'a original and fundamental researches are given in my earlier papers. Here I need
refer only to Schroeder, Wied. Ann., vol. 28, 1886, p. 854
* Streintz, Pogg. Ann., vol. 153, 1874, pp. 395, 396, 411.
* H. Tomlinson, Phil. Trans., 1886, voL 2, pp. 801 to 837. The variety of strains and metals examined
in this paper give it aniquo value as regards the sahjeot of the present section.
Bull. 94 2 17
18 THE MKCHAXISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. [bull.W.
whole mass is materially lessened.1 Conditions favorable to the reten-
tion of high-strain intensities are also conditions favorable to the
occurrence of molecular instability. Hence the marked loss of vis-
cosity of a drawn wire, as compared, caet. par., with a soft wire. This
premised, it appears that in the case of a wire hardened by simple trac-
tion the strain retained after traction is of insufficient intensity to be
accompanied by marked molecular instability. More rigorously : if the
wire during traction has experienced a strain S, which strain after jthe
tensile stress is withdrawn diminishes to S' (8>S/), then the wire need
exhibit no change of viscous quality. For in the above cases of ther-
mal annealing and torsional motional annealing (§§ 2, 9), the greater
tensile strain S, supposing its action sufficiently prolonged, has wiped
out all motional instability for strains S'<S; so it follows here that to
evoke viscous deformation by aid of tensile strains, the wire must be
examined during traction, and preferably under conditions of strain
near the limit of rupture.
APPARATUS.
2. The apparatus used in these experiments is shown in Fig. 1, in
which ab and id are the two steel wires to be counter-twisted. The
system is fastened above and below to two massive torsion-circles, A
and B, respectively. The inner ends of the wires are joined by a strong
brass rod bc7 carrying a symmetrical circular platform near the lower
end, on which the lead scale-weights 0 C C", etc. (4 kilos, to 5 kilos,
each) may be supported. In order to facilitate quick work, the con-
necting rod be is provided with a pair of cross- vanes, D, D', submerged
in the water contained in an annular trough, fgihf'g'i'h'. Finally, the
mirror m adjustably attached to the rod be (readings by telescope and
scale) indicates the difference of viscous motion of the two wires in
consequence of a fixed rate of twist stored between A and B. I may-
add that the rod be can easily be chosen light enough, comxuitibly with
strength, to introduce no viscous effect of its own.
DATA FOB DRAWN WIRES.
3. The data to test the above are given in the following tables, of
which Nos. 1, 2, 3 exhibit the behavior of some drawn steel wires. In
each case the comparison is made with my steel normal No. 15 (the
lower wire in Fig. 1, An. 450° and twisted to permanent viscous quali-
ties). The drawn wire in Table 1 is in the moderately resilient bright
commercial state, very soft to the file. The wire in Table 2 has been
drawn down from a larger diameter and the same state of hardness to
an extreme of brittle resilience. The wire of Table 3 finally was first
softened by heating to redness in air and then drawn down to brittle
resilience. Dimensions are given in the tables, p being the radius and I
1 Cf. Bunmeistor: Dissert., Wttrsborg, 1883.
BiBin.] COMPARISON OF TORSIONAL DEFORMATIONS. 19
and V the lengths of the wires. L = I + V, The impressed rate of twiBt
in radians is given under r. The observed permanent torsion is %(<p+<p%
6 and e' are the temperatures of the drawn and normal wires respec-
"V
£
Fig. 1 Apparatus for oompartng viscous deformation ».
lively. The former is constant, the latter (!>') at first 30°, and then
100°; so that the examination is made at two temperatures, in order
to compare corresponding viscous effects of the drawn strain and of
temper. As will be more fully shown below, § 5, r + 2(? + y'(=2»/£,
and (if — <p ')/t is the viscous deformation indicated by the mirror, per
unit of length of system, per unit of r. It must be borne in mind (cf.
§13) that(y — f')h is a function of r, for which reason the same rate of
twist is applied to the wires throughout; applied, moreover, positively
and negatively for each value of 0'. Finally, after testing the wire in
the drawn state, it was softened by heating to redness in air and again
tested. In this case viscous motion at the mirror nearly ceases, thus
affording an excellent check on the validity of the experiments.
20
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 04,
Table 1. — Yucouity of hard-drawn steel wire compared with soft.
2p = 082 cm. ; L =1+1' = 30 cm. + 30 cm.
Wire drawn moderately resilient.
j
Same wire annealed at red heat in air.
0
9'
2(*+*')
Time.
h. tn.
0
. ..J
T
2(*+*')
Time.
- - - x io»
T
m
h. tn.
, 30
+ •1041
1 36
30 i +1034
3 08
30
38
■00
30 ;
10
+ •00
39
108
■
11
10
44
3-33
13
•07
•H 0037
48
4-43 !
16
•10
+ -0014
20
14
30
— •0989
1 51
30
— 1019
3 22
1
30
53
— 00
30
24
+ •00
i
54
—101
i
25
•00
56
—235
27
•03
i
59
—3-58
30
•07
. _-0058
63 j —461 :
— •0028
1 34
07
i
100 ! t 0989
2 24 '•
: 100 I + -1047
4 00
30 ■
26
00
30 ;
02
.. -oo
•
27
2-83 ;
03
•33
29
6-53
05
•78
32
1023
08
1-31
+ 0058
36
13 60 :
+ •0000
12
1-44
100 ! — 09J1
2 39 1 !
100 ! — -1004
4 13
i
i
30
41 ! -oo '
30 |
15
— 00 "
42
303
i
16
— •33
44
707
■
18
— •88
— •0116
47
10-77 |
— •0043
21
1-65
Mjj^HI UM 1 1 . r:
VISCOSITY OV DRAWS STEEL.
Table 2. — Vitcoiilg of hard-draw* ttfel mitt compared with toft.
3,= 083 Cm. i L=(+i' = 3O,--i-.+30cm.
Wire drawn fie= 13 cm. to -08 cm.)
very reaUlent.
Same wire annealed at red heat in air.
»<
2I4-++-)
Tt-ne.
tfxM-
*■
«•+♦•>
Time.
fci'xu.
BO
+-oo»
+ -0OST
\.m.
S S3
H
65
ST
60
63
« 80
-00
4'3T
1010
' 19-«
SO
30
— 1010
— 0038
1 33
84
3t
IT
40
44
--00
— ■13
— IT
— -30
30
SO
— •0331
032
IS
37
40
44
—WW
—20*88
30
+ 1034
+ ■0014
1 45
47
48
si
57
+ -00
■is
. *ii
100
so
+ -O010
+ ■011)1
6 52
M
M
8S
M
58-7
10-80
27-30
M-50
30-08
ioo
to
— -101)
01
06
11
— -00
— -47
— -11
—1-38
100
— -dots
— -0175
n
— -00
—30-40
Ace
22
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 94.
Table 3. — Viscosity of hard-drawn steel wire compared with soft.
2p = -082; lz=l'=zcm. i B=9' 30°. Wire drawn (2p=*13 to 08 cm.) very resilient.
t
I
f
«
i
t
f
(2*+*')
Time.
10»X($— ?)/r
2(*+*')
Time.
10'X(*-*)/T
h. tn»
h. tn.
+ •099
3 40
+ •099
5 17
■
41
•00
18
•00
42
8*77
19
2-83
43
639
20
4-44
44
8-30
21
6-80
46
9-80
22
0-80
46
1110
23
7-70
+ •006
47
12-20
24
8-40
+ •006
25
910
— 099
502
— 099
5 35
04
— -00
36
— 00
05
— 2-70 !
37
—2-35
06
— 4-65 i
38
—3-77
07
— 606 J
40
—5-80
08
— 7-35 |
— 006-
45
—890
•
09
— 8-40 !
+ 099
5 46
10
— 9-30
47
•00
— 090
12
—1090
48
49
50
52
210
336
4-30
6*3
•
+ •006
56
770
In Table 4 I give results for the viscous effect of moderate values of
teusile strain on a plan identical with the above. The pull on the
strained wire (the normal being No. 15) is indicated in the first column
in kilogrames. The maximum pull which these wires will bear was
computed to be between 30 kilos, and 50 kilos. It was found to be 45
kilos, in some cases experimentally. Inasmuch as I here apply 8-4
kilos., the pull applied is 17 per cent to 25 per cent of the load producing
rupture.
VISCOSITY OP STRETCHED STEEt.
Tablr 4. — VUooui effect of moderate traction.
ateelwlre. 2? = 083nm.; J=I'=aOom.; 8=»'=30°; t=-1<».
23
Pull.
Kilo*.
Tlmo.
io»x (*-♦')/»
Poll.
Time.
I0*X «-*')/»
*.«.
Jutoj.
A.m.
0
G 13
4-8
BS9
IB
■on
B.01
■00
IT
■o:i
03
■07
10
M
— ■07
24
11
10
— -IS
39
'17
23
— ■27
2-4
SB
030
•IS
07
S-4
31
TOO
— ■40
■oo
40
■23
■ SI
— ■27
43
■33
n av
— 07
4K
-2T
•40
58
The results of Tables 1, 2, and 3 clearly shew the marked influence
of the drawn strain in effecting diminution of viscosity. Wires drawn
only moderately resilient are of the Name low order of viscosity as glass-
hard wires. Again, if the vires are drawn very resilient the reduction ,
of the viscosity of the originally soft; wire is enormous. To eliminate
the effect of different degrees of softness, I also drew down a wire after
beating in air (Table 3). The results are in accord with Tables 1
aud 2.
Some insight into these results is expeditiously obtained by con-
structing tangents at like time-points of the curves. This is approxi-
mately done iu the small summary following (Table 5), by subtracting
the values of (p — </>')/r for the beginning and end of the second rainuto
after twisting. Similar values for stretched wire are given in the last
two columns, kg. denoting the load.
Tablr 5.—Diije*i for the hard and soft wlrt* in Tahiti 1,2, 3, and 4.
B
'
Dr
™,
Soft.
*
Uranni
Soft.
44_
vx»
•*=*,». ;
ft*~-*'XW
i ^~ >. 10"
W
+1.
[-M
10 \
30
+ ■10
4-37
W
»
■10
—1-01
2- S3
— -00 |
2
~+z
—(■72
— 10
■47
100
-*
-"
-*!
100
_«
-Ml
24
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[bull. 94.
Table 5. — Digest for the hard and soft wires in Tables lf 2, 3t and 4 — Continued.
$
T
Drawn.
kg-
• Stretched.
1
A— r--XlO*
T
A? — 2-yi<ji I
T 1
1
30
30
30
30
30
+ •10
— •10
+ 10
— •10
+ •10
+2-62
—2-70
+1-61
—1-42
+1-26
0
24
4-8
8-4
!
•10
10
•10
•10
+ 03
+ •06 i
+ •07 !
Prom this table the small effect of traction in case of loads below
25 per cent of the breaking stress is specially manifest; an effect negli-
gible in comparison with the diminution of viscosity due to the drawn
strain. For the sake of orientation I may assume that corresponding
values of &(<p — ^')/t for glass-hardness would at 30° be about 1/103 to
2/103 — that is, about equal to this quantity in the case of a moderately
resilient wire. In general, the results for the drawn strain both at 30°
and at 100° corroborate and accentuate the results already obtained
for temper1, so that the further discussion can be made as in my earlier
papers, and may be waived here. I add only that the effect of drawing
incase of steel is a decrease of the density of the soft metal; for in-
stance,
A. B. C.
, 7-78 7-72 . 7-68
, 7-72 7-64 7-64
, 7-80 7-73
Bods.
Originally soft . . .
Drawn very resilient .
Softened after drawing
It appears that in this respect also the drawn strain and temper are
similar.
DATA FOR STRETCHED WIRES.
4, Returning to the case of simple traction, the changes of sign of
(<P~4P')/t suggesting increase of viscosity for loads slightly greater than
5 kilos., indicate that here, as in the case of motional annealing due to
torsion, the initial effects are an increase of viscosity. Nevertheless,
the obscurely small viscous variations due to traction do not admit of
interpretation, unless supplemented by data for very much larger loads.
Again, it is desirable and quite feasible, by aid of the apparatus dis-
cussed above, to operate cyclically; in which case the results must be
such as to bear on the lag-quality of solids under stress.
In the following table (6) I have therefore inserted some data for
larger pulls. Traction increases successively as far as 90 per cent of
the breaking stress. It will be superfluous to give more than a few
typical examples; and the tables can be further abbreviated, because in
the stress-decreasing phase of the cycles the viscous effect of loads P
1 Phil. Mug., 5th. ser., vol. 26, 1888, p. 205 et seq., cf. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. No. 73, Chap, m, 1891.
VISCOSITY OF CYCLICALLY STRETCHED STEEL.
25
below the maximum employed is nil. § 1, and therefore sufficiently
given by the final load zero. To retain a fixed rate of torsion, r, it is
necessary to twist the wires anew after each of the larger loads; in
other wmi'ds, to bring back the same scale-division into the telescope at
the outset of each experiment. Otherwise the torsion seriously de-
creases in consequence of the rapid viscous deformation of the loaded
wire.
Table 6, — VUooa* effect of ojclie traetio*.
Satiated. 2p=081cBtitimBler»; I=I' = -30"centimetm.
p
•
Time.
*=^xio.
V
TW.
*=*X1P
Eg.
Had.
A.m.
Bad.
X,.
Rod.
A. At.
Rod.
0
— ■10
]] 31
0
+ ■18
io n
33
+ -00
»
■oo
40
+2-10
si
-oo
61
4335
80
14
■00
■18
B
— 10
11 62
is
S3
60
M
+ -a
+ ■«
+ '63
s
18
+ 13
io u
62
-00
■as
55
■03
— 10
" n
«
+ 13
10 50
S3
— -87
U
■00
■05
■08
27
— ■10
13S1
87
— -00
— ■37
68
■12
37
+ ■13
11 00
30
— 10
37
-■48
10
10
-oo
-46
18
104
■00
100
3-37
4 01
12 30
4U
53
—104
—263
30
+ 13
11 20
21
24
17
12 53
»
00
78
■00
— 2H
—507
-002
40
+ 13
11 31
40
1 23
23
31
27
30
IMIJilt
-1760
—2120
M
as
41
a-ti
' 4 -84
7-68
0
+ ■13
11 42
10
n
';
— zoo
— 390
~
45
B0
60
■00
■00
■00
+ 18
12 01
04
— 13
(*)
1 51
62
■00
a 30
+ '30
+1-10
IS
-■»
26
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[bull. 94.
Tablk 6. — Viscous effect of cyclic traction — Continued.
Soft steel. 2p =. *081 centimeters ; 1=1' =30 centimeters.
p
T
Time.
^3lZxl0»
P
T
Timo.
^"T^-xio*
Kij.
Had.
h. m.
7?o<7.
Kg.
Rud.
h. tn.
Had.
20
nii
12 14
1 38
+ •13
12 45
15
00
47
00
V
•00
50
1-53
•
•or> ;
•
53
267
24
07
50
379
2«
09
,
IK)
5-21
29
-f- -Hi
12 30
..
I 42
+ •13
1 01
31
•00 |
01
00
33
•u ;
i
07
91
36
•25
1
10
HO
40
•33
i
l
13
10-8
44
•44
i
1
17
2T>1
,
i «
'ire breaks at P-
--, 40 kg.
In adding the successive loads care was taken to avoid vibration
and jarring; but without special machinery it is impossible to protect
the system completely against it. To this cause I attribute certain
irregularities of sequence which these and others of my results exhibit.
Their general significance is none the less definite. The effect of trac-
tion is diminution of viscosity, increasing at an accelerated rate in pro-
portion as stress approaches the limit of rupture. Indeed, by sutli-
ciently increasing stress, viscosity may be diminished in any degree
whatever. The singularly curious feature of these experiments is this :
that with the removal of load the viscous effect of traction almost en-
tirely vanishes. It is in this respect that the present experiments bear
directly on the truth of Maxwell's theory; for it is only during the
interval within which conditions favorable to molecular break-up are
forcibly maintained that the wires exhibit a low order of viscosity of a
sufficiently marked degree to compare with the viscous effect of drawn
strains and of temper, where instabilities are structurally retained.
It follows, in general, that slight applications of mechanical treatment
(twisting, traction, etc.), inasmuch as they decrease in number the
motionally unstable configurations of the soft wire, increase viscosity
(motional annealing). If this treatment is intensified beyond a critical
stage — in other words, if stress is increased sufficiently beyond the limits
of resilience and toward the limits of rupture — then viscosity is again
seriously decreased. For the action of stress has now become such as
to introduce its own specific instability, whereby viscous deformation
is again promoted.
INFERENCES.
5. Having thus substantiated the remarks of § 1, and shown that the
accordant results of the earlier observers and my own are such as fol-
mkn.] VISCOSITY OP. STRAINED STEEL. 27
low naturally from Maxwell's theory, it is expedient to Rive a graphic
representation of the more important differential data {i. e., differences
between strained and soft metal for each case of stress) in hand. In
figure 2 the viscous deformation (? — •?')/-) produced by the action of
a fixed rate of twist r, is represented as ordinate, time as abscissa.
The material is steel, the originally soft state of which has been trans-
formed by temper (glass-hardness), drawn strain (wire-plate), tensile
strain, and torsion respectively. Curves are given for intense values
and for moderate values of stress. The nature of the problem pre-
cludes greater definiteness as to stress data. In case of traction in-
nnitesimally below the point of rupture, for instance, viscous deforma-
tion would occur with such extreme rapidity that its diagrammatic
representation would be a vertical line-
Again, in case of traction of sufficiently small value, the curve would
be a horizontal line coinciding with "soft," or even a curve below it
(motional annealing). In a measure this is true of the other strains;
and I have therefore expediently inserted the values for deformations
actually found.
The general outcome of the present paper is this, that the effect of
strain of whatever kind, applied in sufficient intensity to homogeneous
soft steel, is marked diminution of viscosity. Again, inasmuch as the
underlying cause of viscous deformation is the occurrence of unstable
configurations the number of which is being reduced in the course of
viscous motion, Maxwell's theory naturally suggests the applicability
of exponential equations for the description of the time relations of
such motion. From another point of view it appears that the loss of
viscosity experienced by a given metal, under action of a given kind
of strain, may not inappropriately be used as a measure of its intensity.
Finally, the curious observation, that in all the cases given loss of vis-
cosity has taken place simultaneously with increase of hardness, is ozic
of the suggestive results of the experiments made.
Quite recently Auerbach,1 in applying a method for the absolute
evaluation of hardness due to Hertz, has shown that hardness and
elasticity are associated quantities, i. e., quantities between the cor-
responding variations of which a close agreement is maintained irre-
spective of the body operated on. Hence the above results show a
fundamental distinction between viscosity and elasticity.
From experiments made on the behavior of iron in passing through
the temperature of recalescence Osmond1 was led to conclude that
all the phenomena of hardness are due to a second or £ variety
of iron. This ft iron may be formed from ordinary or « iron, either
spontaneously by heating above a certain high temperature, below
which, however, it is unstable and passes back to a. iron on cooling
' Auerbach : Wied. Ann., vol. 13. 1891. p. 61. Other refetencr* am there given.
"Otmon.l: Annaled dp.s Mine.. July-Anglint, 1888. "Introduction," and riwwtww. Cf. Bull. IT. B.
28 THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. (uru-.M
except under certain conditions, or ,s iron may be formed artificially
by the action of pressure of any kind applied below the critical tern-
12
/
d
f
to
if
a
■■?/
a
I
/
7
o
%.
4
V
6
i
E
5
1
{0-
^
4
1
! /
\
<*^
*0>
■t0&
3
/
/
*0&
%
//
'A
^
MjSSi
/,
'//
0
k>
s
7^-
K)tf)
perature in question. The presence of carbon (steel) and rapid cooling
is specially favorable to the production of £ iron, and the presence of
babi»i QSMOND'S THEORY OF HABDNE88. 29
this substance manifests Itself in the resulting hardness of the metal.
Now it is to be observed that the above observation on the similarity
of viscous effects of all kinds of strain, whether tempered -or mechan-
ically applied, is in harmony with Osmond's theory. Again, the ac-
knowledged instability of ,3 iron at ordinary temperatures supplies the
requisite unstable configurations in virtue of which, following Max-
well's theory, viscosity is reduced. This theory of Osmond, however,
either proves too much or it is a suggestive working hypothesis relative
to the behavior of other metals. For the results of Streinte, Tomlin-
son, and myself, cited above, show that in most if not all metals vis-
cosity is reduced by the presence of marked intensity of mechanical
strains. Certainly metals are capable of being hardened by traction,
the draw plate, torsion, etc., although no phenomenon corresponding
to Gore's phenomenon in iron has been observed. Osmond's theory of
a change of molecule of iron by mechanical action therefore calls for
experiments relative to the definite discovery of the a and j? varieties of
metals other than' iron, nickel, and a few more, before the standpoint
taken can be maintained.
An important inquiry is thus suggested which would lead ulteriorly
' to a test of Osmond's theory: It is to be found whether the maximum
of drawn strain which the wire of a given metal can retain is (c;et.
par.) a function of the viscosity of the metal; or whether the strain re-
tained is largely independent of viscosity and subject to other condi-
tions. In the last case retention would be conditioned by a chemical
mechanism, and Osmond's theory would therefore be substantiated at
once.
I may state in concluding that Osmond's views are not wholly new,
having been suggested in their general bearings in a remarkable ther-
moelectric investigation by F. Braun.1
IF. ll.i»ull : Phil. 111*. (S), vol. 18,1885, p. 503, { 8.
im*
CHATTER II.
THE TWO SPECIES OF MOLECULAR BREAK-UP WHICH PROMOTE
VISCOUS DEFORMATION.
INTRODUCTORY.
6. Following the argument which underlies Maxwell's theory of solid
viscosity experimentally, I was obliged to take cognizance of two causes
which promote viscous deformation in solids.1 For any structure will
give way under impressed conditions of stress, as a whole or in part,
because either the cements or the bricks are insufficiently strong to with-
stand it. Similarly the underlying cause of viscous motion is either
such structural change in which groups of molecules pass. without loss
of identity from an initial to a final configuration, or it is a break-up
superinduced by the disintegration of one or more molecules of each
group. Whichever the change may be, it must, from the nature of the
problem in general, be distributed uniformly throughout the mass of
the solid (<i 14). Even without stress the said change may result from
secular subsidence. Moreover it is conceivable that nu>lecular disinte-
gration may occur in such a way as to elude detection.
Now I have since been able to prove experimentally that in glass-
hard steel a change of the viscous quality may be obtained as the result
of at least two distinct kinds of structural change, probably as the re-
sult of the two kinds of break-up in question. The present chapter pur-
poses to show this by aid of the phenomena of accommodation, or mo-
tional annealing, as they may be called more uniformly in keeping
with the following work.
MOTIONAL ANNEALING DEFINED.
7. The term annealing or tempering, in its most general sense, refers
to a process by which strained solid structure, whether maintained by
mechanical or chemical causes, is changed to isotropic structure. In
viscosity, inasmuch as strained structure is ultimately accompanied by
molecular instability, annealing is a process by which viscosity is in-
creased; and from this point of view annealing need have no direct
reference to exposure to temperature. Hence I hove designated by the
term motional annealing all such forced molecular motion to and fro, in
virtue of which the molecules of a thoroughly soft solid are brought into
new relations to each other, to the effect that viscosity is increased at
SO
» Phil. Mag., November, 1888.
babus.] VISCOSITY AND ELECTRIC RESISTANCE OT STEEL. 31
the expense of the motionally less stable configurations of the soft
solid. There may appear to be some incongruity in the term, inasmuch
as the solid motionally acted on always experiences strain ; it is not the
strain, however, but the increment of viscosity of the solid, to which
the term refers.1
Again, in order that a solid may be motionally annealed the mechan-
ical treatment (torsion, traction, etc.) must be applied below a certain
critical limit of iutensity. Otherwise tins treatment introduces its own
specific instability; and in proportion as stress is indefinitely increased
the viscosity of the solid may now be reduced in any measure. Fur-
ther justification of the term is to be given in §§ 11, 14. At present it is
more expedient to indicate the points of crucial difference between mo-
tional annealing and thermal annealing in their effect on steel in the
glass-hard state.
STRAIN, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE, AND VISCOSITY.
8. When glass-hard steel is annealed at 100° the effect is a decided
increase of viscosity amounting to almost one-half of the total viscous
interval, hard-soft.2 This marked increment of viscosity is accompa-
nied by an equally striking electrical effect.3 For it has been shown
that the specific resistance of hard steel diminishes as much as 15 per
cent as the result of annealing at 100°. Finally, since the electrical
effect is a sufficient indication of the changes of volume (decrement)
and of carburation, it appears conclusively that the underlying cause
of the increase of viscosity here in question is a disintegration of the
unstable carbide molecule of steel.
TEMPER, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE, AND VISCOSITY.
9. Again, an increment of the viscosity of glass-hard steel compara-
ble in magnitude with that of annealing at 100° may be obtained with-
out heat. It is merely necessary, for instance, to apply to the glass-
hard wire large enough rates of twist, a sufficient number of times
alternately, in opposite directions. This method of increasing viscosity
has no electrical concomitant comparable with the electrical effect of
§ 8. Hence the underlying cause of the observed increase of viscosity
in this case is probably not a disintegration of the carbide molecule of
steel, or, at least, a disintegration quite unlike that of the foregoing
instance.
DATA RELATIVE TO TEMPER, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE, AND VISCOSITY.
16. In the following tables (7 and 8) I give the data necessary to
substantiate § 9. The method4 of experiment being identical with the
» Phil. Mag., 5th ser., vol. 26. 1888, pp. 199 to 203.
* Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 33. 1887, p. 26 ; Phil. Mag., 5th ser., vol. 26, 1888, p. 188, et seq.
* Boll. U. S. Geological Survey, No. 14, p. 49, 1885.
* Phil. Mag., 5th nor., vol. 26, 1888, pp. 189 to 191. The use of differential methods premises that the
viscous deformations qf all the wires to be compared are similar time functions. That this is the oaee
mutt fee Yeri4ed preliminarily by some absolute method*
32
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BUM* 94.
one described in verifying § 8, 1 need only to call to mind here that my
normal steel wire (maximum viscosity) and the fresh glass-hard wire
(minimum viscosity) were countertwisted ; that the ends of the vertical
system were fixed, and a mirror-index placed near the middle, at the
junction of the two wires.1 Cf. Fig. 1, § 3. Table 1 contains the results
for viscosity, both wires being at the same temperature 0. The im-
pressed rate of twist is given in radians under t, and the permanent
torsion observed at the close of each experiment under 2(y> + <p '). Since
the lower end of the system was twisted 360°, r + 2(?> + p'), =2r/X,
where L is the length of the two wires. Finally, (<p — <p')/r is the vis-
cous motion at the index, per unit of t, per unit of Z, at the time speci-
fied. In other words, 2<p and 2? ' refer to the hard and the soft wires,
respectively, and denote angular viscous motion of one right section
relatively to another, when their distance apart is 1 cm. of length
of wire. {<p — <p')/r need not be independent of r. (§ 13.)
Table 7 indicates that the wires were twisted eight times alternately
in opposite directions. Before and after each series of viscous meas-
urements in Table 7 the resistance of the glass-hard wire was measured
by a special device utilizing Matthiessen and Hoskin's method. These
results are given in Table 8, where r, is the observed resistance in mi-
crohms, Ar, the variation from the final value, r, = 39500.
Tablb*7. — Viscous effect of motional annealing. Glass-hard steel,
0 = 29. L = 30 cm. + 30 cm. Diameter of wirea, 2p = -081 cm.
TwiBt
No.
T
2(4 + 4')
Time.
4-4' !
^^XIO*
i
Twist
No.
•
T
2(4 + 4')
Time.
4-4'
--■- X10»
T
h. fit.
1
h. m.
1.
+ 0992
2 25
i
5.
+ 1021
3 40
38
+ -00 ,
42
+ -00
32
•94 i
44
•68
35
1-99
I
i
47
1-38
38
2-79 ;
+ 0026
52
£19
+ 0055
— -0983
40
4-45 :
3 55
2.
2 40
i
6.
—■1018
51
— -00
57
— '00
53
—1-95
59
— -74
1
56
—3-97
62
—1-44
— -ooct
63
-5-93 ;
—•0029
67
4 09
—2 39
3.
+•1021
3 07
7.
+•1018
09
+ 00
11
«G0
11
101
13
•64
14
1-99
16
1-28
+ 0020
21
3 24
3-36 |
+ 0029
20
1-89
A.
—•1021
8.
—•1018
4 23
27
— -oo
25
— -00
29
— -91
27
— 64
32
—1-85
30
—1-28
— "0026
37
—306
— 0029
37
—232
I
I.
r
1 See Bull. U. S. GeoL Survey No. 73, 1891, pi. I, p. 54.
THE TWO RI3CD8 OF MOLECULAR BREAK-UP.
Tab Ms 8.— Elrrtriral effetl «/ motional aKHtalmg.
»
*. |
No.
«
:.r,
msm
+ so'
-■TO
3WW
+00
:io:;*(i
— lai
6.
+■!«
:!9r>:w
+MI
+ 00
H»57»
+ »|
8.
+-H8
WS10
+10
3U.V
— 70 |
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.
11. Tlie results of Table T am in excellent accord with my earlier
data; and tin- oscillatory march of the riiwoiut increment can be repre-
sented in tin* same way. If the tangents be constructed at the same
ti in iv i mint, in each of the curves of Table 7 there appears to be some
similarity between tlie march of these results ( _.{<P — f')/~) llll,l the cor-
responding inarch of r, in Table 8. But interpreted by the data of § 7,
this similarity is only qualitative in kind. In other words, whereas
the increment of viscosity due to successive alternations of twist is de-
cidedly greater than one-half of tlie increment, of viscoity due to
annealing glass- hard steel at 100°, it appears that the electrical effect
in the first instance (motional annealing) is practically negligible in
comparison with the electrical effect of thermal annealing. In Table 8
the total interval of variation of /■»■, is about one-half per cent of r,f on
tlie other hand, the variation of r, due to annealing at 100° ia from 10
]M*r cent upward. It follows that in glass-bard steel there are two
distinct ways in which viscosity may be appreciably increased, a result
corrolioratiiig ^ S, !t. Again, if the possibilities of viscous motion are
to be fully given, it is essential hi postulate groups of atoms, as well as
the somewhat less definite groups ol' molecules, both varying in degrees
of stability from point to point of the solid mass. Hcuce slight posi-
tional change of the elements of the atomic configuration!*, or of the
molecular eon figurations, due either to stress not exceeding a critical
value or to mere secular subsidence, must in general involve an aug-
mentation of the viscous quality.
DATA FOR fiVi
TWISTING.
12. Having arrived at this result I desire to inquire somewhat more
in detail into the viscous relations of the motional effect, j§ !l, 10. This
is attempted in Table 0, in which torsional stress is applied cyclically.
The, viscous behavior is studied at. each of these successive stages of
increase or decrease, as shown in the first column, r, of the table. As
before, the length of the system of two will's, L = /+ l'=:W cm.+ .tO
cm.; diameter, L'.. = <W1 cm. The final column, '" (?— <f '), being the
detorsiou from the beginning to the end of the first minute after
Bull, 0| 3
34
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[nor.L. 04.
twisting, may be taken aB an index of the rate of deformation. In the
tirst and second cycles twist is imparted positively; in the third cycle
negatively. To follow the sequence of observations it is sufficient to
consult the time column.
Viiceui de/urmatioa in eat
PIK3T CYCLE
dfcgclio twitting.
TwUt in™
■iiE. j!
Twlit
drcnsMlni;.
Jbtta of
Tin™.
<*-«V) XIV
t^KII
ai*-*')
XJ01
Rat* "f
Time.
(*-♦'):■ lu*
/10"
A. m.
-000
33
33
— 10
31
— 20
— 27
I IB
—1117
30
—130
h. >«.
■OOK
10 31
37
ISM
0
«
0
33
1
11
23
— 8
39
s
1-5
20
— 15
40
0
11
30
— 21
■017
10 41
19
»
■0
23
0
13
»
1-1
23
— 5
14
15
2-1
24
— 13
43
IB
3-1
25
— 17
«■
a
0
•O
17
- 0
1
48
11
1.5
IS
— 7
18
a
2-5
10
— 13
SO
37
38
20
— 13
'
SI
31
13
13
_ 7
54
"
13
87
0
07
0
5H
43
77
03
- N
-
00
100
11)
- 13
03
30
03
°
01
103
04
- 3
CYCLIC TWISTING.
Table 9. — FlMM* deformation in eate of cgolie ticitting — Continued.
FIBST CYCLE— Continued.
To- 1st latfiaulng.
Twist decreasing.
Rule of
t«l«t, T
Time.
<*_*•) <10«
^~XW
4W
Bate of
Time.
„_.,*„
M*V
,.„,
.
s
0
10
133
so
_ 0
12
0
f>
53
0
13
97
VB
S3
— 5
11
153
SI
H
— 5
15
307
■1
55
- 5
IT
100
3-G
47
IB
0
— 2
U
107
Sfl
IS
— 2
SO
237
B'3
50
- 1
31
I
«
0
33
117
3-7
13
+ 3
31
107
M
11
+ 1
»
203
8-3
15
+ 10
-0
3T
0
3 '9
38
+ 8
30
307
8'0
40
-t- 31
33
0
-o
33
107
41
7-1
n
Ml
B-fl
TOE MECHANISM OP SOLID VISCOSITY. (•du.U.
Tadlk 9. — I i'couB deformation in cote of cyclic drilling — Continued,
SECOND CYCLE.
Tivl,t Inmmlnf,
Time. (♦-♦'ivi"1 ^V^-*10*
W°
- 11 !
b«m.) CYCLIC TWISTING.
Taijlk 9. — n»ei>ut deformation in cate of cjrc?lc twisting— Continued.
l'HIBD CYCLE—TWIST IN OITOSITK DIRECTION.
37
TVi-l in
Twtut awmmaing.
147
0
™
M
B
-o
11T
3'1
nt
oo
fa
T'B
_
A(*^*'i: iuiPof
JV>;
DISCUSSION OP RESULTS OP CYCLIC TWISTING.
13. The math il feature. — The first result given by tliese data is ob-
tained by comparing q?—ip' and (>p~-tpf)/r, showing that the latter
quantity is riot independent of t. Nor can it be asserted that the
change of (tp— <f>')/r with increasing r is retarded. It follows that
comparable values of {q>—yt)/T are only obtained by keening r nearly
constant, as has been done in all my experiments.
38 THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. [dull. 94.
Again, the large variations of (<p— q>') in tlie direct or stress-increas-
ing phase of the cycles, as compared with the corresponding variations
in the retrograde or stress-decreasing phase of the cycles, together
with a repetition of the whole phenomenon on a smaller scale for suc-
ceeding cycles of the same sign, are features of these experiments.
When the sign of the twist is reversed, cycles which exceed the original
one in magnitude are obtained. These in their turn dwindle on repe-
tition of like signs of t. Finally, the influence of residual action in
case of retrograde cycles appears more clearly in proportion as stress
approaches zero. On the other hand, the circumflex contours of the
earlier retrograde curves (r decreasing from -105) is not a mere error
of observation, but results from superposition of direct and residual
phenomena. This is specially marked in the third cycle, where stress,
after r=*087, was applied in a zigzag way, viz:
rxl03 = 87, 70, 06, 87, 105, 00.
14. Analogy with thermal annealing. — The clue for the interpretation
of the above complex phenomena as a whole is suggested by the data
for A (<p— <p'). It then appears that the viscous behaviour of the wires
is intimately connected with the amount of permanent set imparted
duriug the period of action of stress. From this point of view the
phenomena become not only strikingly analogous to thermal annealing
in case of temper, but of special importance as regards their bearing
on Maxwell's theory. The following description l applies, mutatis mu-
tandis, to both classes of phenomena:
(1) The viscous deformation (annealing effect) of any stress (tem-
perature) acting on glass-hard steel increases gradually at a rate dimin-
ishing through infinite time; diminishing very slowly in case of low
stress (temperature); diminishing very rapidly at first and then again
slowly in case of high stress (temperature); so that the limit of per-
manent deformation is approached asymptotically.
(2) The ultimate viscous deformation (annealing effect) of any stress
r (temperature *), is independent of preexisting effects of the stress r'
(temperature V), and is not influenced by subsequent application of
stress r' (temperature /'), provided T>r' (/>*')• 'n case of incomplete
deformation (partial annealing) induced by stress t (temperature t),
this law applies more fully as the ultimate effect of r (t) is more nearly
reached. Again, the effect of r' succeeding r (t* succeeding /■) is more
nearly nil as the effect of r>r' (£>/') approaches completeness.
To discern the cause of this detailed analogy it is sufficient to call to
miud, (1) that in thermal annealing viscous deformation is produced by
thermal diminution of viscosity under conditions of the initially given
stress stored up in the tampered solid; in motional annealing by in-
crease of the mechanical stress applied from without under conditions
of initially given viscosity. Finally, (2) the configurations, molecular
1 Cf. Phil. Mag., 5th aer., vol. 26, 1888, p. 214.
ukm.j MOTIONAL AND THERMAL Atf?)EALiN<! COMPABfiD. 3d
or atomic, which just break up under the action of stress r or tempera-
ture t, respectively, are necessarily limited by a higher order of stabil-
ity, and are greater in number than those just surviving under less in-
tense conditions of stress or temperature. This is the crucial feature
of the analogy. However unlike the instabilities may be in the two
cases of motional and of thermal annealing, however unlike the treat-
ment to which they are here respectively subjected, its effect in modify-
ing the occurrence of instability is similar, and hence the similarity of
viscous results.
So far as I have observed, however, residual phenomena are absent
in thermal annealiug of glass-hard steel, and this is a point of differ-
ence between the break-up of atomic groups and molecular groups. The
former are not reconstructed. Again, in motional annealing for in-
creasing rates of twist, thick wires show viscous deformation at earlier
dates than thin wires. The break-up commences at the external sur-
face, where stress is most intense, and proceeds thence to the axis,
where stress is least. The history of motional annealing is therefore
essentially dependent on the dimensions of the deformed wire and varies
for different values of radius. I pointed out ' that in soft iron the limits
of torsional resilience were reached when the obliquity of the external
liber (shear) somewhat exceeds .003 radians. Finally, the ultimate an-
nealing effect (time = o=) of any temperature t acting on glass-hard
steel increases at a retarded rate with temperature, and practically
reaches the limit of variation below 350°. In case of motional anneal-
ing stress may be applied in any degree from without, and increasing
effects obtained limited only by the given degrees of resilience or of
brittlcness. Nevertheless, if the wire admits of permanent set, the
analogy pursued maybe pushed even to this extreme detail. For, just
as in the case of thermal annealing above 350°, no further marked
effects are produced, because the intensity of stored stress is invaria-
bly below the value of viscosity; so in case of motional annealing, when
stress surpasses the limits of resilience, farther increment of marked
consequence is no longer elastically retained.
'Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 31, 1887, p. 183.
Chapter hi.
THE EFFECT OF MECHANICAL STRAIN ON THE CARBURATION
OF STEEL.
INTRODUCTORY.
15. Drowntf* experiment*. — I shall, in this chapter, endeavor to discuss
the nature of some shortcomings of the present methods for the estima-
tion of uncombined carbon in addition to the subject matter of the
superscript. Among: earlier investigators Dr. Thomas Drowne1 has
made similar observation with reference to cast iron. The stimulus
of Drowne's work was a remark of Bell's, stating that white and gray
pig iron differ only in the magnitude of graphitic crystals contained,
which crystals are tine grained in white pig, and coarse grained in gray
pig. To disprove this assertion Drowne cast a sample of iron in a chill
mold,3 thus obtaining both the white and the gray variety. Analyses
showed that while these two parts of the same casting did not differ
much in total carbon, the free carbon in the gray iron was more than
twice as great in amount as the free carbon in the white iron. He thus
obtained strong evidence against Bell's statement. Drowne then pro-
ceeded to vary the method of treatment by varying the solvent and by
l>oiling. He infers that the carbide is not decomposed except by boil-
ing, and accentuates the crudeness of the analytical methods.
16. The present method '. — The above pages have clearly shown that
the underlying cause of viscous deformation is either a break-up of
atomic or of molecular configuration. The former phenomenon admits
of direct proof and does occur in glass-hard steel. The molecular break-
up is less easily verifiable, and can not be as clearly defined as the other.
1 have therefore been tempted to question whether, even in the case
of viscous deformation induced by mechanical strains, the underlying
break-up is a mere rearrangement of molecules. (Of. § 9.)
Among the more promising methods for deciding this question, the
plan adopted in the discussion of annealing phenomena' suggests itself.
An exceedingly intimate intermixture of carbon and iron is here pre-
sented. Indeed Matthiessen considered it a solidified solution or mix-
1 Drowne: Trana. Am. Inet. Mining Engineers, vol. :*, 1874-'7r». pp. 41-44.
* I may refer here to a Himilur experiment of Karat en 'h (EifU'uhuttoiikuiide, lid. 1, 3 Aufl., 1841. p. 581,
el *«*q.) from which the distinction between combined and uncouiMncd carbon was originally derived.
» HaruH : Bull. U. S. UcoL Survey, No. 73, Chap, ui, 189J.
40
tiABt'i.] METHOD AN*D HEHULTS. 4l
hires of these. Hence the possibility of chemical changes of configurn-
tion super induced by mechanical stress (wire-pulling, torsion, flexure,
traction, compression) applied from without, is favorably open to ex-
periment. Put in its simplest form, the problem is a deter in in at ion of
the variation of the amount of the uueoiubined carbon in steel, pro-
duced by stress; for it may be plausibly argued, I think, that such
disintegration of molecule as is here in question could hardly take
place without the accompaniment of acarburation effect.
METHOD OF EXPERIMENT.
17. The method of procedure, apart from its extreme tedium, is
sufficiently simple. A soft wire of proper length is cut into halves, one
of which is dissolved without further treatment, the other drawn down
to as small a diameter as feasible and also dissolved. The two sam-
ples are then tested for uncoinbined carbon. I used the customary
process described by Blair in its most complete form. The samples
were dissolved in cold dilute acid, then boiled, after which the carbon
was collected on Ciooeh's asbestos niter, duly washed with dilute HCIj
and hot water, KOH, alcohol and ether. It was thcreuiwn dried at a
temperature of at least KiO° for a sufficient- time, cooled in a desiccator,
and the difference in weight of the Gooch crucible before and after ig-
nition in oxygen estimated as carbon. This is not as accurate a pro-
cess us the regular combustion method usually prescribed. But it is
fiir more expeditious; and the errors made in weighing carbon directly
are of very much smaller moment than the solution and other errors
which I will printout below. Indeed the validity of the whole method
st a uds seriously in question, in a number of fundamental particulars:
and so long as these have not been surely cleared away, refinements
of carbon measurement arc obviously absurd.
RESULTS OBTAINED,
18. My results are given in the following Table II). To understand
them fully, introductory remarks as t<> the structure of the soft steel
used in each case are essential. In my first experiments (rods Xos. 1 and
!i for instance), 1 drew down the whole wire; then I softened one-half
of it after drawing, by annealing at red heat f» air. On dissolving, the
drawn wires were very much more intensely attacked than the freshly
softened wires; so that the beaker containing drawn wires is turbid
and black with carbon before the other hardly shows traces of carbon
precipitate. This result is exceedingly striking and uniform, and I at
first inferred that the effect of drawing is necessarily a transformation
of carbon in steel from the combined to the uncoinbined state. And yet
this conclusion, as I afterwards found, does not at all follow. The effect
of annealing at red heat on the carbon in the steel varies enormously
with the details of the method. In other words, steels of a given kind
and nominally sort, may nevertheless differ remarkably in internal strue-
42
THE MECHANISM OP SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. M.
tare. If we start with soft steel, annealed by the commercial method
of excessively slow cooling, and then draw the wires down, it can not
be assumed that the part of the drawn wire which is annealed at led
heat and cooled in air after drawing, is identical with the wire before
drawing. Indeed, siuce the rate of cooling increases as the diameter de-
creases, it follows that two wires annealed at red heat in air must differ
in degrees of softness and earburatiou even if all other conditions are
the same. I desire to emphasize this point for it indicates the first diffi-
culty with which I had to contend.
TABLES.
19. In the Table I have, therefore, inserted the treatment and tem-
per of the wire before drawing in the wire plate, as well as after draw-
ing. The radius p of the wire is also given for each case.
M is the mass of steel dissolved, in grammes. A larger amount would
have been desirable, but the rods of best Stubb's steel come in short
lengths (33cm),and as the drawing of each new length nearly doubles
the labor, I did not care to operate upon greater masses (M) of steel.
The carbon contaiued in the M grammes in question is given under m}
also in grammes, and the final columns contain the values of m / M.
Excepting numbers 27 and 28, the first thirty-four measurements were
made with a view to testing the steel; the next twenty -one (numbers
35 to 50) chiefly with a view toward testing the method. In the final
measurements, the ateel again is chiefly considered.
Table 10. — Graphitic carbon in soft and in drawn xtecl.
[S, annealed from red hoat, with very slow cooling (commercial). SA, heated to rcdncKM and cooled in
air. Gil, glass-hard. An, annealed at 500°. Dr, fresh drawn, usually from diameter- =2p = 0- 13*"
tol'p — 0-ii8 *.]
Before drawing.
Before dissolving.
Original condi-
tion.
Final condi-
tion.
S ...
S .
S ...
S ...
S ...
S ...
S..
S ..
GH
GH
S ...
s ..
GH
GH
GH
GH
l
S ..
s ..
s ..
s ..
s ..
s ..
SA
SA
SA
SA
S ..
SA
SA
SA
SA
SA
2p - 101 Condition. 2p \ 10 :
130
i:jn
130
i;to
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
Dr
SA
Dr
An. lh ....
Aii.l|'....
SA
Dr ,
SA
}} A .......
Dr
S
SA
SA
Dr
SA
Dr
*0
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
130
90
130
130
130
80
130
80
M
3-10
316
317
314
230
2-91
304
2-98
3-15
296
325
3-21
3*17
298
3-22
274
m < 10* jf 10J No.
to.] EFFECT OF STBA1N ON CAEBURATION. 43
Table 10. — Grapki tie carbon in soft and in drawn elect — Continued.
imm-iiIhI from nil he at, with very slon cooling (commrrciii]). SA, huntnd tu mdnna mid cooled
uir. UH, glass-bard. Ad, annealed at M0». Dr. fresh drawn, usual! y from diameter S3 tf =
13- tu Sp = 008—.]
Before drawing,
.-ni.dl r'liwl i..m-1I<
n-akr.
Efl Dul -I
Kd. rl.wk.ft
ItsaW. I..IH
no
s*
mi
w„
is
nci
r-..
'S
uniwi
:W"0
IICTI .. ..
8.vi„
I*
Htl
Is
Iir-i
IH 1
U
1111 . ..
!■•■•„
u
*
VM
S [J;::
solved In bulling arid, »p. gr., 115. 30% nCL.
■nlved In cold acid. ap.gr.. M5. 30% HCL.
solved In dilute cold aold, sii.gr., 107, 13?, HCL.
U Drawn dawn.
44
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
Taiii.e 10. — Graphitic iiirhoH in toft it ml dram tied — Conriuucil.
m! ■■ouilltiiin* hi Krli
t flask with Iliinxi] mlvf.
■f '"I
,-=0
DISCUSSION.
20. liwott*ixtenry of the reunite. — To obtain ti comprehensive survey
over tlits large number of data, it is expedient to lay them down graph-
ically. This can be done clearly by erecting perpendiculars equidis-
tant, on the same base tor each of the states S, 9A, GHSA, I>r,
Dr, SA, etc., and laying oft' the divers curbnration data in along the
vertical lines. Points belonging to the halves or other parts of the
same wire are then connected by a line with an arrow indicating the
direction of the operation. Thus, ri — l)r would denote that one half
id' the originally soft rod was drawn down, the remainder luring left in
the soft state.
Tt is well to commence with the roils Xos. 1 to 2-', all of these being
of the same kind of steel (diameter lttO"™}. It will be seen that the
drawn wires here lie within a relatively narrow zone., whereas the soft
wires arc widely scattered. The diagram is such as to suggest very
pointedly that the operation of drawing steel either precipitates or
dissolves carbon according as the amount of free carl Km in soft steel is
less or greater than the quantity needful for the drawn state. For-
tunately, however, J was induced to suspect an error in these data
notwithstanding their general consistency and number; for the be-
havior of the couple Xos. 1-1 and Hi. for instance, is anomalous. I may
remark in passing that Nos. 7 and S showed the marked difference of
rate of solution already relerred to in § 18 Nos. II. Ill, and due to the reso-
lution of carbon produced by annealing a thoroughly soft win' in air, etc.
Nevertheless so remarkable a result was not to be rashly enunciated,
and 1 therefore resolved to continue the experiments with steel of
BARca.l DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. 45
auotlier kind. Rods 23 to 30 were tested. The results hen? obtained
were such as wholly to vitiate the inferences drawn from the first lot.
At least the drawn samples now lie far apart, and away from the
earlier drawn group, whereas the soft rods are more nearly identical.
Hence it began to appear that the data in hand had no discernible
meaning at all; that the differences of the carburation positions of the
soft and drawn wire were the result of flaws in the method of chemical
treatment. These adverse views are substantiated by Nos. 27 and 28,
which were boiled during solution. The result is a sacrifice of all but
one fifth or less of the free carbon found after dissolving in cold acid.
A few additional experiments, Nos. 31 to 34, made with the first steel
wire, corroborate the remarks made relative to the deep-seated in-
sufficiency of the method.
21. Errors of the method. — Having been obliged to come to these un-
favorable conclusions I thought it desirable, in view of the importance
of the results to be reached, to make some attempt in perfecting the
method. The experiments 35 to 52 are made chiefly with this end in
view. The sources of error are unfortunately so complex as to make
the interpretation a problem of almost insuperable difficulty. There
are at least six such sources to be considered, viz, temperature; the
concentration of the solvent acid; the effect of solution in air, and in
hydrogen; the rate of solution; the variations of structural density of
the wire, etc.
22. Temperature. — Nos. 27 and 28, already given, and Nos. 40 and
46tf show that at 100° nearly all the free carbon is removed during
solution; and that this is the case moreover for acids of any reasonable
strength (1101, 12 % to 25 %). Hence, since the amount of free carbon
obtained rapidly diminishes (cart, par.) with increasing temperature,
it follows that data for two samples are not comparable unless the
temperature has remained constant throughout the whole interval of
solution for each. Particularly does this apply in case of differeut
weights.
23. Concentration of aeid. — The strength of acid used is an item of
even greater importance. This is shown by Nos. 35 to 45. In the first
group of experiments, Nos. 35 to 38, the effect of concentration in in-
creasing the amount office carbon is already apparent. Experiments
30, 40, 41, 42, however, show this more convincingly. In case of con-
centrated acid (No. 42) nearly all the carbon in steel is precipitated
during solution. In all such experiments, however, the time of solu-
tion is an essential consideration. I do not refer so iimch to the rate of
solution as to the time of exposure of the liquid to air or other gases.
In the present instance, No. 41, which dissolved very slowly in the
dilute aeid, has an exceptionally high position. To some extent the
same influence may be present in No. 42, which also dissolved very
slowly under the opposite conditions of very strong acid.
24. Solution in air and in hydrogen, — The large differences obtained
46
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 94.
for these two cases are shown in Nos. 43 to 45, and in most of the
experiments Nos. 49 to 62. The results here obtained are the most
important of the present section, inasmuch as they indicate the proba-
ble nature of the error of the method and the steps necessary to per-
fect it. Comparing Nos. 43 and 44, it appears that the solution in
hydrogen, i. e., in an Erlenmeyer flask provided with a Bunsen valVe,
is accompanied with a precipitation of less than one-half as much
carbon as separates out under the ordinary conditions of solution in a
covered beaker. If the acid be very dilute ( No. 45) so that solution
takes a very long time, then the effect of the Bunsen valve is nil,
because it is not sufficiently tight. It follows from these data that the
solution of soft steel is not generally a simple phenomenon ; that an
oxidizahle hydrocarbon or similar compound escapes, which in presence
of air or available oxygen deposits carbon by secondary decomposition.
This inference is conclusively substantiated by the beaker series, Nos.
40 to 52, as compared with the flask series (Bunsen valve), Nos. 53
to 56. When solution takes place in a covered beaker, the carbon
precipitate, besides being in larger amount, is different in character
from the flask precipitate. The latter is heavy and graphitic; the
former contain as very light suspended admixture, which it is difficult
to wash down in the Gooch crucible.
25. Rate of solution. — Whether the rate of solution has anv direct
influence on the carbon deposited, I am unable to affirm with certainty.
If it does, the effect is probably small ; for instance, solution in concen-
trated HC1 (No. 42) takes place relatively slowly, as does also solution in
dilute acid (41 ). But the large amount, of carbon found is probably due
to atmospheric influence. Nevertheless, in view of the large thermal
effect already pointed out, it can not be asserted that the rate of solu-
tion is a negligible factor.
26. Structural fa-unity. — In experiments Nos. 47 and 48 one sample
was drawn down and the other diminished in diameter by solution,
whereupon both were identically dissolved for analysis. There is no
difference in free carbon discernible. Inasmuch, however, as the drawn
strain is characterized by superficial condensation accompanied by core
dilatation, I was induced to ascribe the differences in the values of m
for rods Nos. 57 to 62 to some such cause; for here the experiments
were made in a way to take advantage of all refinements of research.
Yet the low value of No. 62 (corroborated) defies explanation. Had the
precipitate been too large it might have been ascribable to an imper-
fect valve.
27. Summary. — Summarizing the above, I conclude that such carbura-
tion differences as appear in the above data are to be looked upon as the
result of secondary decomposition. In the case of soft steel the solu-
tion in HC1 produces an unstable carbide which, under the influence of
an oxidizing agency, splits up with a deposition of carbon. The pre-
cipitate found in such cases is no indication at all of the carbon actually
bah™.] METHODS REVIEWED. 47
free in steel. So for as the above results go, the effect of mechanical
strain on the carbu ration of steel is not demonstrable; at least all
molecular disintegration superinduced by mecbanical means is negligi-
ble in comparison with the present errors of the method for estimating
free carbon. It might be inferred that the qualitative difference in
the carburatious of glass-hard and of soft steel is also to be suspected.
In this case, however, sharp distinction may be made as follows: In
ghiss hard steel it is impossible by any rational method of treatment
to obtain precipitation of free carbon out of the solution. In soft steel
it is equally impossible by the sann- rational method of treatment to
dissolve without a free-carbon deposit. For intermediate tempers
proportionate amounts are deposited (cf. Nos. 03 and 64, which close
the analyses).
Finally, to distinguish between the different kinds of carburation
empirically, two methods suggest themselves: Solution may be made
either in a current of hydrogen in hermetically-closed vessels, under
identical conditions of concentration (grammes 1IC1, per gramme water,
per gramme steel), and of temperature, etc., for all wires; or else in a
current of oxygen under the same identical conditions. In the former
case presumably only the free carbon in the steel is actually deposited.
In the latter case (oxidation) the free carbon is definitely incremented
by the deposition obtained from the oxidizable unstable carbide.
I took steps toward testing the first of these methods (solution in a
current of hydrogen), but have thus- far been prevented from pushing
the question decisively to an issue.
28. Osmond's a and ft iron. — If the difference between steel hardened
mechanically and the same steel soft is due to Osmond's a and fi iron
(ef. § 5), then the possibility of molecular change due to the mechanical
treatment is beyond the province of the present method. It is well to
bear this in mind. Carbon under certain conditions may be favorable
to the stability of (i iron, but it is not essential to its existence beyond
a certain relative quantity. In view of these considerations the exper-
iments of the next chapter are more pertinent to the subject of inquiry.
CHAPTER IV.
THE EFFECT OF STRAIN ON THE RATE OF SOLUTION OF STEEL.
INTRODUCTORY.
29. The difficulties encountered in the preceding section, in which
the effect of strain on carburation is directly put to test, suggested a
possible solution by indirect methods. It is well known that the effect
of mechanical treatment, for instance, of rolling, drawing, etc., is apt to
show itself in the structure of the metal when acted on by acids. The
liber of iron may thus be clearly exhibited; and even in cases of gal-
vanic solution the surface often becomes furrowed and marked in a
way indicative of delinite structure. It appears, therefore, that some
parts of the metal are more electropositive than others; audit does
not seem improbable that homogeneous and strained metal may be
distinguished by studying their respective rates of solution under
given conditions.
METHOD.
30. Solution experiments of this kind are given in the following
tables. The method of experiment is again simple. The weighed rods
of known length are placed in a small tray made of narrow strips of
hard rubber. Thus they can all be submerged or withdrawn from the
acid at the Name time. Some care was necessary as regards drying
the samples before weighing. Having taken them out of the solution
on the tray (this was 4!= shaped, with the wires placed across either
set of parallel bars or rubber strips are placed edge upward), the wires
were submerged in water and then dried in an air bath at 100°. The
bars of the tray were notched so as to avoid displacement of the wires.
As they could be carried together, it was not necessary to touch them
except with the forceps before weighing. This structure of the tray,
moreover, is such as to allow free circulation of acid. The essential
data to be noted are tins temperatures of the acid and the weight and
length of each rod before and after dipping. From this the radius for
each case may be calculated. Two series of experiments must be made
for each group of steel rods. It is first necessary to iind the consecu-
tive solution data in case of homogeneous wire gradually decreasing in
thickness; with these data the corresponding results for wire drawn
down from the original homogeneous wire may then be compared,
48
DATA FOR SOLUTION OF STEELS.
31. In Tiiblc 11 I give the results for three identical, nearly homoge-
tieous Bteel wires, about 5™ long and originally •127cm thick, submerged
in dilute add of a given kind, for consecutive intervals of time of one
hour each. Here o is the temperature of the acid; m the mass of the
rod in grammes, r the radius, and dr the consecutive decrement of
radius due to solution." The progress of the experiment may be followed
by consulting either M or r. Corrections are applied for the reduction
of length due to solution.
In Table 1- data are given for drawn steel, the thickness of the
individual wires varying between •V21"a aud '084em. They are all
drawn down from the same sample of soft steel, so that the larger
thicknesses are soft, the thinner wires very resilient and brittle. All
wires, Nos. I to 7, are submerged together; but variations of strength of
acid, time, and temperature arc the causes of differences of mass dis-
solved in successive solutions. From Table 11, however, the rates of
solution for different thicknesses of homogeneous wire are known,
llcuce the behavior of the drawn wires during each solution can be
tested. In Table 12, M', r', Jr' denote the mass, radius, and variation
of radius of the drawn wire, Jr' being simply the difference between -
consecutive values of r before and after solution. Jr may therefore
be interpolated from Table 11 by making the first term of Jr' and Jr
identical. The wires of each group are submerged and withdrawn
in like manner. In passing from group to group, however, a change
of acid is unavoidable.
lf-ia> jtvio"
r>; if <■:> IV
if MO" ir>'10»
S2-4 ' 32-4
32- 4
m i ins
407
63 -8 i 640
(MO,;
83-3 : 32-3
~Hm "
4« tee
407 1' 3
eii> i ttn
M'l
"32T
'*»■»
"»a"'
4M
427
ISW
69 3
M-4
»t 1
M
it
2-7 ;■
™
■m"
toT1 •
50
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
Tabus 12.— Solution of drawn iteel, originally S.
11- ■ 1(1'
ii-'ilO'
Jf'XlU'
if'.- tu>
Ar:. 10'
J J ■■ - HI'
ArxlU'
if' ..HI'
if'.' 1U'
ArjflO"
J/' ■ 10 1
ar-lu»
So. 1.
Ho, J.
ID'S
'",
3»
573
■y a
47-5
sot
43-3
iu:i
42 0
411
SI '4
21
378
S8-0
14
2-2
58-4
2-2
21
325
SI 5
l-»
111
314
M-3
2-8
m
U-5
219
3-0
2-7
302
2-1
SI
ia-2 41-1
2-4 | 2-5
3-8
137
1*8
3*7
580
104 ! 155
43-4 1 37-7
=! s
4-0
331
SS-4
2-fl
293
51-7
2-8
itt
3-5
28-9
79
S-8
CO
313
(3-4
H
so
2 1
IDS
428
3-2
2-3
no
I1S-S
2-5
~
w
3 8
3-1
280
2-2
238
40-7
ft
231
2*5
2-3
108
HI -7
28
25-2
5-1
31
18-7
i:
185
41-3
MS
4-e
32-1
50
S3
1
m
a*
w
130
34-5
M
0.2
8-7
1-1
h
M
n
4'5
87
HI
5 1!
8-2
H
23-7
5-1
0 8
B-5
—
- —
■Aim.]
SOLUTION OF SOFT STEEL.
51
Tables 13, 14, 15 and 16 are constructed on the same plan as Tables
11 and 12. The steel wires, however, are of different temper. Table 3
contains the normal experiments, the rods being submerged in hydro-
chloric acid of a given strength throughout during successive intervals
of two hours each. The rods are about 5™ long, and Nos. 1, 2, 3 aro
annealed at red heat in air from the soft state; Nos. 4, 5, 6, annealed at
red heat in air from the glass-hard state; No. 7 is glass-hard. 6, M, r,
etc., have the signification already given. In Table 14 five soft rods,
annealed at red heat in air, are tested. M', r\ Ar' are their solution
data, Ar is interpolated from Table 13 by making the first term of
Ar and Ar' identical. In Table 15 six glass-hard rods, annealed at red
heat in air, are tested. Notation as before. Abbreviations which refer
to temper and hardness are given in § 19 above.
Taiii.k 13. — Solution of soft (S A) tteel, fiorwnf experiment.
S-SA.
QH-8A
OH.
Jr
if
if
arMO».
if
M
irxlO'.
Jf
r.ltH
flr-10".
Jf
Ko.1.
Nu.2.
So. 3.
K...
No. 5.
No. 8.
No. 7.
-480
187
•488
■19!
•*B5
■401
•480
83 5
834
83-.
63-7
028
OS-5
ea-i
32'4
32-4
32-4
■ia-i
38-4
32.
32-4
■4SS
■152
132
•401
-402
MS
2:i
DM
nil
2 1
81-7
"•l
01 '7
"i!
M-t
32-4
32-4
32-4
32-4
324
324
'415
■112
■41 a
■425
■425
'428
441
58' 5
2-7
58-3
2-8
5H-3
1-8
BB-)
51-3
2-4
50 '3
2-4
00' ;i
18
28'7
287
287
28-7
28'7
28 T
287
'387
'383
sa-2
•385
-398
57-2
■300
'400
57' 5
*«i3
591
2.0
2-1
*°
2-1
21
18
1-2
29-4
»-4
29*
29'4
29-4
29-4
■ 294
■358
•354
356
'372
■3BB
-3T1
101
HI
64 0
HI
55-4
551
55-5
57-11
M
2-2
2-2
29*3
1-8
293
21
2 0
2»' :i
20-1
20-3
29-3
29-3
■328
'329
-337
'345
-341
-348
■T.U
620
2-3
Sl-8
2-2
S2-0
2-1
B3-4
20
530
2-1
53 -e
,.,
295
28-5
29-5
29-S
28-5
■:«i
•299
'318
-313
■320
■303
49-5
503
1-7
21
50-8
Sll
2-2
14
52
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[bull. 9-
Tablk 13. — Solution of $oft (S A) steel, normal experiment — Continued.
[l=5*«. a=7-7.]
. .
t
4
S-SA.
G FI-S A.
! GH.
$
3/
r- IP
Sr 10\
0
M
rAlrt»
Ar\10»
0
M
rxlfl*
No. 3. :
1
i *•.■ 10*
ArXlO1.
No. 4.
0
Jf
. r » 10*
ArMO*.
0
J/
r '■ 10*
Ar> 10*.
No. 6.
0
1 r - 10*
| ArM0\
| No. 7.
No. 1.
No. 2.
1 No. 5.
29-5
29-5
29-5
| 29-5
29-5
I 293
•271
•276 i
•293
•287
•297
•345
47-3
47-7 1
49-2
48-7
49-6
1 53-3
2-2
30-0
20
300 j
21
30-0
21
300
1-8
: i-5
300
| 300
-241
•245
•209
•261
•273
•326
447
450
470
46*4
47.5
519
26
2*7
1 2-2
23
21
1 1-4
300
300
300
30-0
300
30-0
•213
■218
•241
•233
•247
•306
41-8
424
44*5
437
451
j 50-2
2-9
26
2-5
27
24
1 1-7
i
300
30-0
300
300
300
1 30-0
i
•188
193
•218
•208
•223
| -287
304
39-9
42-4
41-4
42 9
1 486
2 4
25
21
23
300
22
300
1-6
'300
300
300 |
300
170
•174
•200
189
•205
•271
375
37-9
40-7
395
41*2 i
473
19
31-5
20
1-7
1-9
315
1-7
315
1 1-3
31-3
31-5
31-5
•146
•152
177
164
183
•250
34-7
355 ,
38*2
367
389
45*4
28
290
2-4 !
2-5
28
23
29*0
10
290
290
290
290
124
129
156
144
162
232
31-9
33- 1
35 9
34-4
366
438
2*8
28-3
2-4
23
2-3
23
283
1-6
283
28 3
283
283
107
112
•138
124
•144
•217
29 6
30-5
33*7
320
34*6
423
23
270
2-6
276
22
24
276
20
27-6 i
1-5
! 276
270
.089
094
•120
106
127 '
•202
270
27-8
31-5
295
323
408
28
2-7
22
25
23
1-5
270
270
270
270
270
j 270
•073
078
101
089
110 ,
187
•
2(5
25-4
29-2
271
30 1 '
39-2
25
24
i
2*3
24
,2 ,
1-6
SOLUTION OP STRAINED STEEL.
4. — Solution of drawn tltcl, originally S, changed to SA.
[1=4. 0™. *=7.7.]
w
arxlO"
Arxlo*
JT
r'MO»
ir'XlO"
afXIO"
arxllP
Ai-XlO"
No-L
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
No. 5.
63-4
-340
591
■264
521
-212
4«'8
■167
41-5
'381
62-7
■329
58-2
01
■321
57-5
oa
'310
57*0
OS
■251
50-8
0-7
-201
450
-188
44-3
1-1
0'9
153
39-8
1-7
■872
SIB
0-8
■368
ei-3
-242
0-8
88-5
-235
49-2
08
0-5
00
134
1*4
o-s
-359
00.8
o-s
D-B
307
50-3
07
0-6
-235
48-2
05
-119
41 '8
■121
35-3
.352
0-6
■340
598
»7
00
0-6
-215
47.2
0.5
■159
40-7
■107
00
■2B3
0-8
■271
21
1-4
•859
Sl-0
■223
4B-0
1*2
■1S3
433
-129
3-8
-110
2-8
i:
■094
81-2
2-2
-008
2S-S
1-7
22-3
'014
11.8
10-5
IS
1-S
■277
s:i-4
3'5
124
3-3
328
-DOS
28-1
41
204
83-0
■200
-048
22-5
3-0
1-7
54
THE MECHANISM Or SOLID VISCOSITY.
[bull. M.
Table 14. — Solution of drawn ntr?1, originally S, chanytd to iSA — Continued.
[1--4.U™. <i=7.7.]
Jr 1
*
.1/
J/
J/'
r1.- 10»
r' vlO*
r u»«
r' ' |o<
f.- 10*
A»J.> 10*
*!■'■ lo*
Ar lo » i
Ar' Hi'
Ar*> 10»
ir,v l«»s
Ar H>»
Ar - 10>
Ar. lo:;
Ar vlO«
Nu.l.
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
No. 5.
'J 16
•1X8
•093
•031
5i>'4
44.1
311
18o
1-6
2.1
2 6
45
1-6
17_..
1-8
1-9
•230
171
■1»7."j
016
4H-7
422
27 a
133
1-7
10
3.2
47
1-7
IS
H>
_.
•214
■l.iti
•W5H
409
40-2
2.Vu
18
20
2D
18
199
It)
•no
2.1
043
4.V:s
:ssi
1*1 - *
16
21
::.6
16
17(i
16
117
1-8
.020
—
12 6
.14-0
io:»
2-7
:»•:»
4-9
27
28
•14::
■HHtf
Iv8'3
298
41
4-8
41
•rj»
4.3
072
-
:it)5
27 3
20
20
21
SOLUTION Of STUAlXED STEEL. 55
TABLE 15.— Solution of drawn tleel, originally OH, ckanfod to SA.
B-3-S— to 10". t—m.y
SP
J r '■:' lu'
■3KI
IP
JP
JP
f < 10>
a r x lie
No.l.
a-
1/
vx io>
j r ■■ 10'
if X 10*
No. a.
Mo. 3.
51' 3
No. 5.
Nu.0.
500
■231
180
11 »
■:itw
82-B
Q3
B3-2
451
52-1
0-8
M
o-a
-J.17
11
■auo
17-2
oa
-105
180
IS
-187
«-j
00
0-7
00
05
»7
i-:t
571
n-7
-170
13-7
-till
0-8
-151
11
»
Id
'130
0'3
137
38-8
0-8
0'7
an ; ae-5
■JM j -Bug
SI "J
0-8
0-7
■235
5(1-5
0-7
0-8
«■] | KM j 100
ft 2i i n
-130
110
■ISO
111
31
-110
85-3
W
20
32 2
■Ml
321
30
20
ai-7 ; Di'i
Mi ]'7
it. !■:
-188
2-2
1-8
11-2
3(1
38 7
■180
381
1-8
28-0
Sl'D
Li
3-4
1-5
33-3
5-1
3-7
■081
2»-o
-055
251
0-8
1-0
■027
18-8
B'7
10
-038
213
18
'011
12'7
5 8
5G
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BrLL.94.
Table 15. — Solution of dnitrn htrcl, originally <rll, vhanycd to SA, — Continued.
[I 3-8"" to 4CK-. &=7-7.)
i" io»
r - m«
Jf
r ■ ID*
I Jf'
i- 10"
J/'
Jf
Ar' ■ 1H1 Ar' ■ HI' ! A#" ■ 10* A/- UP
Ar ■ 1U1 . Ar ■. 1U' ArvlO* Ar - 10*
i" 10* i' 10'
Ar ■ U>» ir ■ 10"
Ar •• 10* Ar ^ 10»
Nil 1. j No. 2.
No. a.
No. 4.
No. 5.
No. 0.
•244
•18:?
121
•«»
021
MM
440
an- 3
27 4
107
18
1-9
22
9m •*
46 !
1«
1-0
20
21
'
229
1«7
•io;>
040
008
48-ti
42-5
337
23-3
118
IT,
21
28
4 1
49
1-5
1-6
1-7 •
1 8
_ _• —
.
— —
•213
150
•090
•o:a
4«iil
40- 3
314 j
19 4
IT
22
2-3 :
•
39
1-7
1-8
■130
1-9 |
i
•074 ,
20
021
107
45- 1
3*-5
2s:»
15-4
18
1-H
29
40
1-8
1-8
20
■
•174 i
424
27
27
140
:w-i
4-:»
43
114
352
28
•085
30-3
4-9
4-5
053
240
45
30
028
18 8
52
J
SOLUTION OF TEMPERED STEEL.
57
Finally, iu table 16, solution comparison!) are made between glass-
hard and soft wires, in the way indicated for the preceding tables.
Kods Nos. 1 aud 2 are glass-hard; Nos. 3 and 4 soft; Nos. 5 and 6
annealed at low red heat in air; No. 7 annealed at very high red heat
in air. The time of submergence was 3 hours.
Table 18.— Solatia* of »ttel, an, 8, SA.
on.
s.
S-SA.
SA.
No. :i.
Nn.4.
No. 5.
Ho. 0.
Xa 7.
if .so» j/. i»'
Ji-ulO' '■ irVlO"
4*7 ; ail
Jr.- H>'
4f0
Jfxin»
JV.NV
M*I0'
jr\m»
■■ran
irMO>
J/~X]0>
205
187
1W
487
KI-4 i 491
835
411
■3-4
40-5
634
4x'l LW
445
ISO
477
105
461 | 36
IJ 1 . 10-.-.
2-3
39-8
11
02-7
401
63-0 ]
0-4 1
iT7 : i9«
387
107
489
101
475 J 28
U3-7 ! 402
57-7
37-8
021
308
62-5 1
0-4 ; OS
3-5
2'0
0-8
03
0-5
ion j iuj
144
4S3
ISO
4W 1
(B-3 | HBO
M
35-4
61-4
as- 3
62-2 j
« 1
463 : 189
35S
120
430
181
402 1
01 -7 W4
0-5 OS
481
51
32- B
28
60-4
1*0
38-7
01-7
IV. INS
301
OS
424
170
m j
IU-3 39-2
42-8
29 S
G0-4
383
61-2 |
44" 1KJ~
5-4
2-8
10
0-4
170
~~*a~ 1 —
140 1 -78
41!
W* : 388
36 9 , 20-8
5.4-0
27-7
"1
~"4B '"',_""lM
"»V'~
"~4M "
~7«5~
&J-4 385
.11-0 . 33-8
50 ] 30
57 -8
M
:;!
45
~~WT "
,;:. |
205
0-8
04
«l
DISCUSSION.
82. Incidental error*. — I may state at the outset that secondary
errors, such, for instance, as might be ascribed to passivity of steel, are
largely avoided. Care was taken to rub the rod with platinum at the
beginning of each solution. Nevertheless, it is not impossible, when
the rods were left to dry over night, at the close of a day's series of ex-
periments, that some retardation during the first stages of solution on
58
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 91.
the succeeding day may be appreciable. A serious difficulty is en-
countered because of the unavoidable change of the room temperature
during the successive solutions. In some instances I endeavored
partially to avoid this by making the solution in the cellar underneath
the laboratory. But even here the temperature is insufficiently con-
stant for fine work.
S3. Effect of surface. — As regards the plan of treating the above
results, it appears probable that the masses dissolved in case of a given
sample and given solvent, must be simply a function of radius and
time (correction being made, of course, for loss at the ends). If the
rate of solution be denoted by p, its value at the radius r must be
p r = — 6Vizrdr/2nr&t
where 6 is the density of the sample and dt the elementary time of solu-
tion, p therefore is the mass dissolved under the given condition of
form and solvents per unit of surface, per unit of time. Thus it appears
that the mean rate during the time t will be
{fpjt)/t or -(fi/t)!f(lr,
each taken between corresponding limits. In other words the mean
rate
HJ>'"=?(r'-r,)
where £*— tf,= J. If therefore t be chosen constant, rates of solution are
to each other $s
p'^r/— r/.
p~ r2 — n
It is, therefore, an apparently simple problem to deduce the relative
mean rate directly from the differences of radii — time, figure, and chem-
ical conditions remaining thesame. But from the data of the above tables
such simple relations do not at all appear. Indeed the corresponding
differences of mass dissolved are very much more nearly constant than
the corresponding differences of radii. In other words, in the case of
cylindrical figures of small radius, the mass dissolved is nearly inde-
pendent of radius; i. e., independent of the surface exposed to the action
of acid. The conditions are such that fixed masses of solid are trans-
ferred by solution to the liquid state, and in proportion as radius
diminishes the thickness of shell dissolved in given times rapidly in-
creases.
34. Effect of diffusion. — Without doubt the underlying cause of this
observation is a diffusion phenomenon. For instance, let c be the con-
centration at the surface of separation of solid and liquid, the radius
being r. Then cStnrdr is the amount of salt dissolved in the first
liquid shell. Kow, when this salt dissolved is transferred by diffusion
to a distance r' (*•'>*•), the concentration c' is necessarily smaller, for
c:lnrdr^=:&k2ir fdr\ or cr=c'r'. It follows at once that the difference of
concentration for a given value of dr increases at a rapid rate when the
radius approaches zero. On the other hand the rate of transference
DIGEST OP SOLUTION DATA.
59
of the solid material iuto the liquid state mnst depend on the rapidity
with which c diminishes in the direction of r. Hence the rate of solu-
tion will increase in proportion as smaller thicknesses of wire are en-
countered, inasmuch as the conditions favorable for the transporta-
tion of the dissolved metal are enhanced. This follows more rigorously
from Fick's law. Adapting Fourier's theory of heat conduction to
questions involving diffusion, Fick1 proposed dc/dt=x(Pc/da?, where
« is the concentration and x the diffusion constant. In other words,
the time rate at which concentration progresses is proportional to the
space rate of increase of the same quality. The trnth of this funda-
mental assumption was afterwards rigorously tested by H, F. Weber.1
Fick's equation, when de/dt=Q, or the diffusion has become stationary,
referred to polar coordinates is d*(ro)/dr'=0. Since o=0 for r= <j>,
this reduces to cr=c'r'.
The diffusion effect will necessarily be of smaller consequence when
solution takes place at very low rates ; for instance, iu the case of glass-
hard steel. It is also greatly modified, past recognition, perhaps, by
the escape of gases from the body undergoing solution. In this way
convective currents are set up accompanied by distributive effects very
much more rapid than the diffusion phenomenon. A further disturb-
ance is gravitational convection.
35. Wires originally soft. — Nevertheless, in discussing the above
results, it is advisable to consider the relative consecutive value of AM
for given comparable conditions of solution, quite as much as the rela-
tive values of Ar} or the consecutive rates. Inasmuch as there is a
striking tendency toward constant values of AM independent of r,
when r lies below a critical value, apparent in all my results, it is
probable that a law characteristic of the solution of Alimentary or
Bmall bodies is here expressed.
Turning first to Table 11, the following correlative values of r=(ra-f-
rj)i; p=rt — rt and AM=Mi—Mi are apparent. The variable pis iden-
tical with the rate, since the times and chemical conditions of solution
are constant.
Table 11.— Digett for originally toft trirtt.
xw Ira loi
58 55
37 i37
S2 l«
37 j„
46
37
3S
*o
36
13
a
2S
21
25
25
n
24
in
SI
21
AMxlO*= 130 39
The salient property of these data, is the rapid increase of rate en-
countered immediately after the superficial layer is dissolved off.
After this AM is nearly constant between r = .060Bni and r = .040°™,
whereupon it decreases rapidly. On the other hand p increases contin-
ually and at an accelerated rate. Irregularities of outline are doubtless
<;o
THE MECHANISM OP SOLID VISCOSITY.
[LULL. 94.
the effect of temperature. The distortion is greatest in the curve for
J AT. With these data the seven drawn rods of Table 12 are to be com-
pared. As before 2r' = r\ + r'2 and p1 = r'2 — r', tor each solution, and
Table 1L furnishes values of pin case of the normal rod, for every
value of rf. -By making the first term of each series identical a
corresponding series of Jr = pis obtained. It is expedient to repre-
sent fj and p' graphically as functions of r'. If this be done it ap-
pears that after the first shell is dissolved, the solution of drawn wire
takes place at greater rates than the solution of homogeneous wire of
the same radius. After dissolving seven shells the results show irreg-
ularities, easily accounted for inasmuch as the finer rods gradually be-
come of irregular shape and fissured. Again the results for JM may
be represented as a function of r', showing values, which as a rule, in-
crease as r ' decreases. From these data as a whole it follows that drawn
steel is cait. par. more easily soluble than homogeneous steel; again
after the superficial layers are removed the rate of solution increases
with the intensity of drawn strain or resilient properties of the wire.
36. Wire* anmaled. — Turning now to the results of Table 3, in which
the normal data for wires softened in air and for a glass-hard wire are
inserted, it is clear in the first place that as soon as the superficial
layers are removed the rate of solution increases. This result corrobo-
rates Table 11. Apart from this, however, the variations of rate of
solution and of the other data are here of a much smaller order than
was the case for Table 11. AM decreases with radius at a somewhat
more rapid rate than before, and hence p' = Jr' now increases at a
decidedly less rapid rate than in Table 11. This is shown in the follow-
ing summary for wires softened in air (i. e., S-SA and GH-SA).
Table 18. — Digest for xcircs annealed in air.
02 ICO
I I I I
58 56 ;54 1 52
10» y. r=..
In J y p' = .
lo* / * Jf =..-.. i M :)6 !27 27 J2$ '29 '19
50 146
44 142 40
38
21 2fi I 20 ' 21 21 21 2-2 24 j 2« , 2 3 1-8 2d
I
127
128 24
18
2*
35
2*4
22
33
23
17
30 , 28
24 24
II
17
It is also shown in the results for the glass-hard wire (G. 11.), identi-
cally submerged.
Taiilk 10. — l)i(j<st for hard trircs.
45 '43
I"1:- r - 03 »H GO 58 57 ':>."» 51 ."3 51 49 .48 40
Hi1 ■ p~- ' 14 1-H , 12 1-Ji ' 14 1-4 1-5 1-4 1*7' l(i 13 1-9 1*6 . 15
10* A .1/= ....22 20 18 19 !20 21 IS 19 '20 .19 ! 10 21 18 " 14 i 16 j 15
41 I 40
lo 10
With these data the values of tables 14 and lo arc to be compared
in a wav alreadv euiiuciafcd in ease of tables 11 and ll\ The data be-
ing constructed graphically, it again follows, almost without exception,
that both in tables 14 and lo the rates of solution of drawn wires are
greater than the similarly circumstanced rates for homogeneous wires.
■ahdb.] INFERENCES FROM SOLUTION DATA. 61
There also is a weight of evidence iu favor of the result that .solution
increases with the degree of resilience, i. e., the intensity of the drawn
strain. In other words, rate of solution increases as the (drawn) diame-
ter of the wire of each group diminishes, supposing as above that the
superficial layers of the wire have been removed. Finally, in Table 14,
dM also continually increases from larger to smaller diameters, for
each group, until the diameter of the rod has been considerably re-
duced. In Table 13, however, this result is not so pronounced, and
A2I remains nearly constant.
Summarizing the above results as a whole, it follows that the rate of
solution of drawn steel is greater than the rate of the same homogene-
ous metal similarly ci renin sta need. After the superficial layers (prob-
ably dense low-carbon steel) have been removed, the rat* of solution
increases with the intensity of drawn strain. To a smaller and less
definite extent this is true also of the masses dissolved in equal times,
in cases of resilience of different intensities, other things remaining the
same.
37. Relation to ])rovm&s inferences. — Table 16 finally has been drawn
up to show the enormous difference of rate of solution between glass-
hard and soft steels. Submergence being identical for all rods, it is
curious iu the first place to not© the difference of rate of Nos. 3 and 4,
both being very soft steel, as well as the high rates of solution of these
two rods as compared with the others. The special feature of these
experiments is the fact that rods annealed at red heat iu air dis-
solve quite as slowly as rods quenched glass hard; and this is particu-
larly the case when the rods are annealed at high-red heat, >"o. 7.
This observation calls to mind the inference of Dr. Drowne1, viz, that
"there is a limited range of temperature probably near the point of
solidification of the metal, within which the separation of carbon from
iron takes place, and that the amount of carbon separated in any given
instance is proportional to the time consumed by the pig iron in pass-
ing through the limited range of temperature." Now, as the rate of
solution increases directly with the free carbon in steel, cact. par., the
present data substantiate Dr. Drowue's reasoning.
38. Summary. — Perusing the above pages as a whole, they furnish
evidence favoring the opinion that the effect of strain on metallic struc-
ture is a reconstruction of the metallic molecule; but since the rate of
solution of the drawn metal is greater, it does uot follow that the re-
sults so obtained are due to the presence of fi iron iu a iron, unless it
be supposed that the negative character of the former relative to the
positive quality of a iron increases the rate of solution by local elec-
tric action. The corrugated and deeply fissured appearance of the
rods after the radius has been much reduced is in keeping with this
view. Indeed, an exceedingly curious action, which I frequently ob-
served, may be mentioned. It often happens that the solution at the
62 THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. [bull. 94.
ends of the rod, instead of rounding off the corners, eats its way de-
cidedly into the axis, so as to form a reentrant cone of some depth.
Again, if there be periodic distributions of density from the surface in-
ward, an inference which from earlier observations1 with glass-hard
rods does not seem improbable, the regularity of solution experiments
would be disturbed.
>Cf. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, A'o. 35, p. 38, 1886.
CHAPTER V.
INTRODUCTORY. ,
89. The hydroelectric method is usually regarded as the most delicate
criterion for testing changes of molecular constitution in metalB. Un-
fortunately its indications are, in the present instance, distorted by
polarization. Polarization, moreover, is apt to be much largerthan the
effect to be studied, so that the observer is obliged to resort to methods
of measurement in which a fair degree of constancy of the error in ques-
tion may be assured. From this it follows that unless the hydroelectric
foreesare as large as the interval "glass hard" to "soft," the effect of
strains which can not be applied without removing the wire or metal
from the hydroelectric bath is not observable. For in snch a case the
polarization varies with each immersion. Moreover, certain strains,
like the drawn strain, show different mechanical conditions at different
distances from the asis. Hence the hydroelectric constant of such a
rod, were it obtainable, would be a complex magnitude.
In magnetization, the hydroelectric effect of which has been dis-
covered by Keinseu1 and studied by Nichols', and more recently by
Rowland and Bell3, small hydroelectric effects (<,03 volts) can be de-
tected because the metal during Btraining remains in place. Among
other mechanical strains, traction, and perhaps torsion, admits of similar
application to a metallic wire in place.
APPARATUS.
40. Tn the annexed figure i I have shown the apparatus used, aac
and bb are consecutive pieces of a given kind of soft wire. Of these aa
is to be stretched, bb examined in the homogeneous state. Hence an
is fixed between two points, of which the lower is on the circumference
of an iron drum, />, which can be rotated by aid of the lever LL and
friction ally fixed in position after any rotation. Usually the arcs of
rotation of /> were 180°, and four or five such strains could be applied
to the wire consecutively before rupture ensued,
■Hnnwni Am. CheraIcnlJoiirul.nl. p. 1ST. IMI.
•Nlohflhti Am. Joor.SrJ.. mil, i>. m. 1-Mih ibid., nxxv. p. ant, L'T.
■ KowLind and llelh Phil. Meg. (5), XKvi, p. 1U5, 1SJ8.
64
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
Before and sifter each of these strains measurements of hydroelectric
state were made. For this purpose both wires are surrounded by glass
tubes AA and BB respectively, held together by aid of the little bloek
of wood r. These tubes were closed below with rubber eorks through
which the wires passed without leakage. The tubes were tilled either
with a concentrated solution of zinc, sulphate, or with distilled, water,
or other material which docs not act strongly on the metal. The elec-
trolytic connection bet ween A A and BB
is made by a siphon, 8, filled with the
. liquid of the tubes and closed at * with
a parchment septum. The upper ends
<if the wires b mid c were in connection
with the terminals of a Mascnrt elec-
trometer, or with tire properly adjusted
wires of an apparatus for a zero method.
After straining the wire aac to the
point of breakage, the apparatus was
reversed and bb now strained in the same
maimer. In this way the number of
distinct measurements tor eacb adjust-
ment could be doubled.
The wire being 54"" long and the
diameter of the drum about 1,7™ the
extension of wire per rotation of 180°
was approximately 2.6™, or 8L'L--~-Sfo
nearly. The amount differed slightly
when wires of different thicknesses were
used. The reduction of diameter of iron
wire before and after straining to break-
age is therefore considerable.
EXPERIMENTS.
41. Zero method. — In communicating
my results I will omit the data obtained
galvauically by the zero method. For
-i Hie polarization disturbances are here
of larger order than in electrometric
work, an annoyance which vitiates the
rewuing. greater delicacy of measurement. The
remark, however, is not superfluous that all the results were found to
curroboratc'thc electrometric data.
42. IttmtUxfar iron. — The hydroelectric effect of traction is charac-
terized by a temporary and a more or less permanent part. The tem-
porary part may lie given by observing the differences of potential at
the end of each minute after straining, as well as the throw of the needle
«sf
HYDKOELECTKIC EFFECT OF STliETCHIXG.
65
immediately after. The difference of potential which remained when
the temporary effect had subsided I called the permanent part. An
allowance of five minutes was usually regarded sufficient. Of course
thin assumption is arbitrary; but whatever errors are committed are of
like effect throughout the series. The value of the throw is expressed
in volts, as are the other data. In all I made about 7 series of this kind,
two of which are given in Tableau. The diameter of the iron wires be-
fore straining was 2p,=•08^>^l,1 ; after breaking Up, ='078™.
Taiilk 20.— Hgdrat lectric tgtct of tmtilf ttrain.
IRON WIJtK.
+ 11
+H
tl
III
IV
i.
in
| +o.
n
: i :
i
i, i
H
. : 1
! 0
"'
+ 3 ' !
+2
1
Kitpuilon. II, I L— 0,1 por pull.
Radial cuntractlou, lp/p<-in per pull.
Umd penniuieiit potential iiirrriutr -i-f-OW tuIu per pull.
The character of the data of tabic 20 is such as to indicate super-
imposed permanent and tcmjKirary effects. The former is distinctly
electropositive in all my results; negative differences of potential are
numerically decreased, positive differences increased. The increase of
electropositive quality takes place simultaneously with the increase of
length, at a rate which varies somewhat in the different experiments, but
the mean value of which is about .003 volts per pull of the extension
SLjL = 0-05. This is equivalent to a decrease of the wetted external
surface of the wire of about S per cent, provided there be no change of
volume. The measured value is less than this, for the circumference
before straining was found by aid of the micrometer to be 2tp, =. 27™
and after straining 2;rp, = ,24ri" as an aggregate of four pulls. This
corresponds to less than 3 per cent of diminution of the wetted surface
per pull.
The temporary effect is equally definite in character. Independently
of the value of the permanent effect, the former is at first invariably
negative, which quality is successively reduced, until finally the value,
having passed through zero, becomes positive. The intensity of the first
negative throw is strong; as a rule more so than the final positive throw.
Hull. 91 5
<)6
J UK MKC1IAMSM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[HU.I..M.
discission of kusultk.
43. Having thus obtained some knowledge of those phenomena for
iron, it is expedient to indicate1 in passing some reasons lor their proba-
ble cause. Iron submerged in any aqueous solution is polarized posi-
tively by a eoat of hydrogen. Jlenee it is practically a condenser, whose
capacity increases directly wit h the wetted surface, cantoris paribus. The
effort of strain is therefore of a twofold kind : In consequence of the jar-
ring and vibration which unavoidably accompany the stretching, some of
the hydrogen is mechanically shaken off, and the positive potential or
positive polarization decreased to a lower limit. Hence the neyatice
throw after the first strain. Simultaneously with this result the capacity
of the wire is diminished in consequence of stretching. Hence the posi-
tive potential or positive polarization is increased. If this last effect
gradually predominates over the other (effect of jarring), the temporary
throw changes from negative to positive.
This explanation is nearest at hand, and it need not be sufficient; but
it is clear at once that before any hydroelectric effect can be ascribed
to strain as sueh. it is necessary, to evaluate the polarization effect, as
well as other minor errors, such for instance as are due to the increase
of temperature of the wire during stretching. (Of. Wiedemann's "Elek-
tricitat,r' vol. n, p. 77^, etc.)
DATA FOR MYKllS METALS.
44. In the following tables 1 have inserted data corresponding to
Table 20, but obtained with (Jerman silver, brass, copper, iron, all the
wires being of larger diameter than before. The notation is the same as
above. In Tables 21 to 24 zinc sulphate in concentrated solution is the
electrolyte; in Tables 25 to 27 distilled water is used. At the ends of
tables, the mean values per pull of extension {6L /,), radial contraction
(fifvp), permanent potential increase e volts, are inserted for each wire.
Table 21. — Ififtlroetrvtrir vffvvt of tnt*ilr at ruin.
( '*■» ~~ * 111"*" In
(iiiin.tn silver, /im- Hnl]>]i;itf. J .7 ' ~ ,„'
i
i Strain.
i
(»
I
11
III
IV
i)
1 :
II
III
IV r
v !.
n
row.
r •. 10' !•
1"
i
■iiiiMir.nv
to
:j« i
jtn
»•• lo»
prrmn-
nent.
+27 1
• :$!>
147
•r"»l
124
-j-Lfi
t-24
+■-»:)
■t IS
4-4'J
• li'.l
1*J
Iff
1'J i
A~ 1
j
12
C,
— 1
IM
i.i
4
.. In
!l .
i
in
is
■»
■'.■»
l:;
!
mm
4 .
I
■1 .;
.
i
1
1
...
_ _
fl.U. Extension jii'r piill .n.'i.
ll.nl : 1 1 i-olll f'.l ti-'Il |»'I' |t;ill HJ
Mr:in pcrm.MiMit potential iiu:iras«- pi r pull _a .003.
HTDROFXBCTRIC EFFECT OF STRETCHING.
Tablb Si.~Hijdrnt1eclric ejftel of IcHiile ttraiu.
B™, line anlphate, j §* ™ ",|*!^;
1 «:■; io< temporary. | t> iji
3l'"u- ;tw.| ,- | , | r
4- j Dr..t.
: i i
I ; +21 18 { 12 | 13
It ' +11 ! 31 j 28 | 25
III | +48 30 . 20 j IK
13 ' +30
24 ; +»
IS ' +OS
,v0; 1 i i
1 IE
I j +17 i 4 j 2 | 0
II j IS 1 10 | a 3
—2 —18
1 ] —18
fl, h- Kit.
litiiill lii-ninll :- 015.
.opwpnll .-
Tahi.i; 33.— Hmdw/ird-k tffrrt of tmnitr Hlraht.
cu,1prr,Ijn,:S1,ipi11iu..S^:::i^:;
e 1 101 tMn|»nry.
1 t<IW
Thru*.
i- j 2-
- 1 •
i
_j_ ""'''_
0
0
g
ol
0 +0
o
0
0
oi
0 +0
+3
2
!l
2 i -*S
+2
i i z
+2
1
1
■i ! :
1""
!
Mean DrruaQrnl [")i™tinl incn>a« per pull = -001.
Table 24. — Hydroelectric tgeol of textile lira
1W,
ne.i.lph.ie.f^
—15*-.
— '147—.
Sin
*X10> temporary.
»>10>
1- | 8- | 8- |
*■
Wilt.
a
+8
-fl
I
—58
-a
-2P
-22!
—IT
II
-38
—21
—12
— i !
— 5
— S
JIT
—22
— s
— 2
— 2
— 1
—3
IV
-3d
—in
IT
"I
— T
+*
I
-U
-38
-24
-18 I
-IS
11
—30
—IT
—10 i — 0
- 4
— T
III
-30
-.8 -■! -4J
— 0
— T
IV
lM-11-i..Ti prrpull -OS.
11 .« I in I I'm true (Inn per pull — 0(5.
Hull! parmaavst potential lucniaae per pull = -OJJ.
G8
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL.9J
Table 25. — Hydroelectric effect of stretching.
Strain.
e \ 101, temporary.
" "
<■ X 10*
i
perman-
Throw, i
I
1-
2" ! 3m
4"
ent.
0
I
1
— 76
-44
+ 82
73
pj ' 48
39
11
+58
40
22 8
•>
M
— 52
III
+63
49
28 14
1
- 56
IV
+62
44
27 14
S
— 60
0
I
i
+ 73
+ 103
+42
42
42 IIS
36
II
+21
14
13 j 8
6
+ 91
III
+2*
21
11 -1
0
+ 77
IV
+29 I
24
14 7
3
+ 67
Extension per pull = "05
Kmlial roiitrartiou por pull — *02
Mean permanent potential increase per pull — ± -015
Tadlk 26. — Hydroelectric effect of stretching.
Iron water? 2p' = "^J""-
iron, «»««r{'jpfc = (j20'-.)
■
Strain.
•
e .<■■ ll>
1-
', temporary.
4-
f '.< 10»,
perman-
ent.
Throw.
2- 3-
0
I
IT
III
IV
0
I
II
III
IV
+16
+79
+95
-17
—10
+4G
+24
60 i 67
28 29
70
l
|
i
—56
-40
—23
1 -•
—33
- 4
- 6
—17
+ 7
+ 13
— 6 i —3
+ 14
+ 14
....
■
Extension por pull -()*>
Radial contraction per pull —
Mean permanent potential increase p«T pull = + "027
Table 27. — MuceMancon* work.
Copper wire, water.
Strain.
ex 101. temporary.
Throw,
1-
*>m
3-
4-
*'16*
]>erma-
neut.
0
Jerk . .
Jerk . .
I. II ..
Ill, IV
—42
—33
+20 ,
+13 '
+ 2
- 4 '
+ 2* ! +20 .
+ 9 , + 7 I
i 34 ;
+ 8 ' ;
+ 15
+ 4
+ 2
+■27
+28
Extension per pull —-05
Radial contraction per pull — -03
Potential increase per pull = -015
HYDROELECTRIC EFFECT OF STRETCHING.
Table 27. — Miscellaneous wort — Continued.
Bma wire, w»t*r.
Strain.
«»*-■-*■ ! «m.
TImvw.
i- . *- ! j- 4- J '■-«•-
! H
J«k
3
•
i :.; : ..*>
:...! .' : _,i
Rob
.:::::±::::::-::::::::i •
::.:..:/:: ■ 1 .
+ »
it
li 31 si +■:»
0 1
I'll
— ta
—la! —
_*' -
—21 —
J k
;i +i1
Jt k
Alter whI ting
! ; i
1 ] '
i< train.
*<llP.pmim-
+13
+ «
Hi raiu.
|«<l6\|«rni»-|
j
j
i „a i
n
H
1 »
III
-
EFFECTS CLASSIFIED.
45. Turning first to the permanent hydroelectric effect of traction,
Tables 21 and 22 show increments of decidedly larger positive value
than hold for iron in Table 20. The effect for copper in Table 23 is
nearly zero, and for iron, Table 24, actually negative. Whatever the .
effect may be it is necessarily to be considered doubly specific, depend-
ing hath on the metal and the liquid. Hence I made further investi-
gations in Tables 25, 26, 27, by replacing zinc sulphate solution by dis-
tilled water. Here it is found that the permanent effect is decidedly
less in magnitude for zinc sulphate than tor water, from which a close
relation of these phenomena and of polarization muy be inferred. More-
over, the effect in case of water is by no means as regular as in the other
case. 1 n Table 25, tor instance, the permanent points inclose an area of
rhomboidal outline, showing that tliee.ffc.ct* of initial pulls arc different in
sign from those of final palls. Again, copper, which in caHe of zinc sul-
phate is not charged by traction, shows a hydroelectric effect in case
70
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[Bnx. 04.
of water comparable with that of other metals. Again the changes
iron-water are excessively large. Irrespective of sign, the magnitude
of the hydroelectric effect has increased with the diameter of the wires
used.
Among results bearing on a later paragraph (§46) I may mention that
the permanent elfcc-t of traction of iron in zinc-sulphate is sometimes
positive and sometimes negative, depending on the qualities of the
wire. Table 27 shows a specimen of German silver in which the per-
manent effect is negative.
I have given the temporary effects in their abnolute values (increments)
at consecutive times, independent of the potential of the wire. In case
of German silver, of brass, of copper, these effects arc distinctly posi-
tive, i. e., opposite in sign from the temporary effects for iron, which are
invariably electronegative both in the present instances (Tables 24, 2G)
and in Table 20.
DISCUSSION OF EKKOUS.
46. Returning to the explanation suggested above (§43), it appears that
in German silver, copper, and brass the effect of diminished capacity
and of exposure of fresh surface,1 due to stretching, both of which are
positive, predominates over the negative effect of accidental jerking.
In iron they do not so predominate. It is specially to be noticed that
the permanent effect is entirely independent of the temporary effect.
Inasmuch as the permanent effect is obtained by commutation (each
electrode being alternately put to earth) the residuum of the temporary
effect is discharged. From this it may be conjectured that the appa-
ratus acts like a double condenser.
In Table 27 1 give some data bearing on the probability of this ex-
planation. The wires were adjusted in the usual way, but instead of
being stretched they were only jerked by the action of the machine. In
this case a negative temporary effect is obtained in all the metals, about
of the same numerical order as the data of the earlier tables. Similar
results follow after rubbing immersed parts of the wires.
Again, the temporary effect may be due to friction at the axle of the
drum. But such an effect would discharge itself to earth, unless the
wire and water act as a condenser. It would necessarily fall out of
the permanent effect, for here the wires are alternately put to earth.
47. Variable captivity. If the wire be of the form of a cyliuder of
length / and radius r. its capacity is approximately
C=l 2//<I.
r
Hence, since the charges are constant
(j= VC= V'V or V r'=logr'logr/
whence it follows that ( IV and T being identical)
1V=. lo*Y' -,(V-V)
log r— log r
(i)
'This Wing at once ucterl on by tlio liquid, falls muler the couaidenitioii* made in
the text.
HYDROELECTRIC EFFECT OF STRETCHING.
71
From this expression the polarization of the wire may be calculated
from the dift'ereiice of potential produced by traction. The data of
Tables 30 to 27 then furnish the following values of V. Tbe subscripts
attached to the symbols for metals refer to the number of the table.
Table S8
—DlgeHt,
Uetnl.
,,
Arg, Br, ! Co, j Fe,
...
Fe,
Cu,
lojt r/Imi r/f -
»
16
5*4
33
15/4
."L°.
u
*
n
ZnSO,
llgfj
If the wire with its surrounding liquid acts like a condenser, of which
the layer of polarizing gas (hydrogen) is the medium through which in-
duction takes place, then the capacity is that of two concentric cylinders
of radii rt and r„ respectively, and the common length J. Here
f5s=i> /» -- •/» or G='i, (1+2f )> nearly, whem„—r, = P and K, the
specific inductive capacity of the layer of gas is taken as 1, Now, if we.
proceed as above, and consider the charge constant, an equation similar
to (1 ) may be obtained by introducing some reasonable postulate rela
five to the. thickness e of the polarizing gas. Suppose e = constant; i.e.,
that before and after each pull the layer has not changed in thickness.
Then V' V'=(2r'+e) j (2r+e), or, approximately { IV and V being iden
tical),
y-'=/_r{V-<") (3)
Again, suppose the mass of gas to remain tbe same, so that 2rrre =
2nV. Then Vj l''=(2r'*+e»*) /{2rT+e), or, approximately (\V and V
identical),
'V=p^(F-P) (3)
Hence, Tables 1 to 8 furnish the following digest ;
TaiiLK 29.— mgv>t.
Mital. j 1'P, ! ArB, Br, j Cu, [ », ! Br, Ff, j
Zii KOi
11./)
Iu discriminating1 between V,t V7, Y3, it is clear that the conditions
i Th.. .Iiw nnalujiy «r » HhHm-iI v.illnm.^r anil * rtmil.l.il con.lni«nr «w piilmtnl mil l.y Varli-y
I'bll. Trim.. v,.l. cm p. li». I'll) nnl nihiTH. Tin- ■ulijit-t i" iniimirly iMitniMwnl In Wi.ik'iimiii'n
Ik-ktrii-iiJil. vol. ii, [iji. 7J.«lci"l. It in.ij Iw obiwrvi-d Ibat In «|iibUiiu (3| (liu Ini-reim-nt of pnti-lttln!
ark* w Ik ilflcr-'tiiiint or llir wettnl mirfwc.
s4i^**fc.'i«y vcr &- '^^fcu«ti ■
72
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BVLL. 94.
under which V} applies are not given, and that the maximum probability
rests with \\; but this quantity is not decidedly above the order of pos-
sible polarization for the cases under consideration. Hence, the perma-
nent hydroelectric effect due to a change of the electro-positive quality
of a metal by traction, is obscured beyond recognition by the unavoid-
able variations of polarization accompanying the experiment.
SINGLE WIRES.
48. Having thus failed to obtain reliable evidence fiom the hydro-
electric experiments, 1 endeavored with some pains to discern a direct
electrical elicit (potential) due to the traction of an insulated wire.
Here again 1 failed; for nut only is the needle of Mascart's electrom-
eter always in motion when connected with a train of insulted wire,
but the effect of traction is friction at the points of fastening at the ends
of the wire. This friction of the metal wire against the insulators is apt
to evoke relatively powerful charges as compared with the true effect
of traction. Particularly is this the case if during traction the distended
wire begins to loosen. By soldering loops at the ends of the wire the
frictional disturbance can be reduced to a minimum, without, however,
furnishing definite evidence of a purely traction effect.
SUMMARY.
49. In the above paragraphs I have endeavored to refer the very
definite hydroelectric results obtained to the simplest explanation at
hand. Hut it is necessary to bear in mind that the phenomena an' so
largely beyond the observer's control that an exhaustive experimental
discussion is out of the question. It would be unwise, therefore, to
jose sight of other points of view from which they may have a direct
bearing on the real question in hand. viz.. the possibility of molecular
change in a metal corresponding to each change of strain imparted to
it. The question is steadily gaining in probability. Osmond, after
making an elaborate pyrometric study of the conditions under which
(lore's phenomenon occurs in iron, postulates the existence of an tr and
a fi variety of iron. These varieties when cold maybe distinguished
physically by their difference in hardness. Moreover, /*- iron, besides
being produced spontaneously out of /r-irou, above a certain tempera-
ture in red heat, may also be produced in small quantity by straining
tr-iron at ordinary temperatures. 1 pointed out that such a hypothesis
involves the occurrence of a and ft varieties of most metals, even when
no such criterion as is given by Gore's phenomenon is observable.
Quite recently Mr. Cams -Wilson,1 from experiments made on the vis-
cosity of .strained steel, summarizes his experience in favor of Osmond's3
view. Unfortunately, the well known effects of strain on the therino-
H'.innWiUni. Xutmv, vol. 11. ism. ji. i']'.{.
"Onmniitl. Aunult-it tics Minm. July -August, l***; Mem. do l'nrtillrrir <l<> l;i Marino. Pari*, 18&*, |>. 4
BAKTS-I
HYDROELECTRIC EFFECT OF STRETCHING.
73
electric quality and on the resistance of metals are not at once inter-
pretable. except, porhnjw, in so for as they are accompanied by hystere-
sis ((..'oil n, Warburg, lowing, ■Scliitiiiiitin). Tite ion theories of metallic,
electrical conduction now coming into vogue (J. -I. Thomson, Giese3 },
conditioned as they must be hy tin* oeeiirrenct1 of marked molecular
instability in metals, an* steps in the same direction. 1 will therefore
merely point out, in concluding, that the simple explanations given
above for the temporary effect, whieh was founil consistently negative
at first in iron, and consistently positive in all the other metals, is not
satisfactory. It is permissible to regard it as the direct result of a
change of molecule due to straining; for it is precisely in the first stages
of the temporary effect that evidence for such molecular change may
reasonably be sought.'
U'f. K.inli.nil will Hell lira'. I -it.), whn an- ulilijiril I" lu»i> th.-ir InfiTinci-n im [In' tniuimrary liyilm-
1'li'rl.rfr I'ltVrl c.f tuaiilu't la.1t urn. In oil lii'.lil.'lm ill t]il» rlliirurtrr il i» licd-Minry lei iltattli-niiHli Ik-
IwH-n till- IHMilliilinl Millnliti anil tlic rln ■ ■ L i ■ ■ill atuMlitv iil'a liuili-rllll!. Il lluis* nut full 11 IT that II I lie
IVirnu-r .niiilir;, in int-muml II.- Ii.U.t Hill *1«> In-, fnr a rln-mii'sl soivnil .W* u»t pl.k ii|. iHuic-rnb-* .
iHnlil.v, bul liy iH«iiit''j!i'iUina I limn. In litIiiIii i-xiwrlin^iil-xui lh« 1»..th..niuil elt!r(rumutivt> form u(
a Him il -11 1.,-t * ceil In mid l.diM ritiiHMiilMsniK 1 will liittkulu tliia furtbor,
Cn APT KB VI.
THE SECULAR ANNEALING OF COLD HARD STEEL.
INTRODUCTORY.
Inasmuch as the method I used for testing Maxwell's theory of the
viscosity of solids contains a proof of that theory :i fortiori, I did not
distinguish in that paper1 between a break-up of configurations of molec-
ular wholes and the more intensified break-up in which the integrity
of the molecule itself is invaded. The experimental distinction is not
always easy. If, for instance, J dissolve certain solids (pitch, say, iu
turpentine) I may produce a continuous scries of viscous fluids; but
the molecular mechanism by which this is brought about can not iu
the present state of our knowledge of solution be said to be known. I
may cite another striking example, ebonite, which above 100° loses
vicosity at an exceedingly rapid rate by mere heating; but, again, the
molecular change which produces the viscous effect is obscure. And
so generally in less remarkable experiments.- Iu the case of metals,
it appears that those elements whose molecules are least stable and
possibly monatomic5 (K, Xa, etc.) are of a soapy consistency, so that
here vicosity (Naehwirkung) and permanent set can hardly be dis-
tinguished. In general it appears that metallic permanent set is phys-
ical manifestation of looseness of moleeular structure. If, as in the case
of annealing glass-hard steel, the rigid arch (say) of molecular wholes
breaks up because one or more of the molecules, the stones of that
arch, disintegrate, and if the decomposition be of a kind that the debris
may be chemically recognized; then, by coordinating the viscous and
the chemical observations, I obtain a fairly good notion of the molecular
mechanism which has produced the viscous effect. This is the method
1 applied to prove Maxwell's theory. But partial disintegration or
reconstruct ion of molecules may easily be conceived to occur in such a
way as to escape detection altogether or at least to escape detcctiou
as much as docs a break-up of configurations of molecular wholes. It
may, 1 think, be reasonably supposed that the solid molecule is of the
form M„, in which n is variable; and any given value of n will occur
1 Philosophical Mii^n/hit-. I.oiulon, August. JSK*.
•Cf. Lolliur Mi-ytT 1 1 >it» inoilcrni>n Tlii-tirim tlrr Cln*inn«, Mn-slau, lt*84, chapter VIH,) ou solid mole-
cular *t rnrt im*.
* lliitl. chapter xvi, «!■«. .'tt»8, etc.
74
nan™.] SECULAR ANNEALING OF HARD STEEL. 75
less frequently according as it is proportionately greater or lew* tlun
the mean or typical value of n for the wild. The effect of strain, of
change of strain, or even of long eon tinned secular subsidence is merely
lo vary the distribution of molecules M,, so t!i at the general properties
of any observably finite part of the solid do not change.'
1 will adduce other points of view in succeeding papers ; but the sug-
gestions stated are suttlcient, I think, to show the importance of discern-
ing whether the cause of viscous deformation in tempered steel is the
type of viscous deformation in general or whether, in using the phe-
ii'Hn -na of annealing steel to test Maxwell's theory, I have merely in-
terpreted tlic exception to prove, the rule. The result of such an inves-
tigation, besides throwing light on the structure of solid matter, must
ultimately lead to inferences bearingdircctly on the questions of fusion,
solution, and volatilization.
REKl-I.TS FOR HOMOGENEITY OF RODS.
51. This inquiry, being essentially a comparison of detail, will consume
much time before it can be brought to an issue; and, as the individual
parts of my work, have led to results which are of interest* apart from
the purposes to which I hope ultimately to apply them, it is perhaps
best to communicate the data separately. The following results on the
secular annealing of cold glass-hard steel essentially sustain the infer-
eii ces of my last paper. They were omitted because of the space occu-
pied by the discussions there given. The rods to which the data refer are
of Stubbs's best steel, tempered in a special apparatus,' by aid of which
the wire heated to redness electrically is suddenly whipped into water.
Freshly quenched samples of wire showed specific resistances {0° C.)a»
high as s=4H. All the rods were tested for longitudinal uniformity of
temper by stepping off, as it were, the resistance of lengths of 2cn'. each
for each of the consecutive .'J1""1, of wire. The total length being about
25™., eight measurements were thus made. A device utilizing Mat-
th iesseu and I lock in's method, and provided with a suitable rider,
enabled me to do this with reasonable accuracy. Table 30 contains
the results as obtained with three batches of wire, of the diameters
1 In oilier wnnK il Ik Iwre enplaned that theasmimpt lun i>r -.lid statu hn> not thoroughly eliminated
the 1ii|iiiil or even (lie gauiim uwh-culi' uul Hut It inn. oil Hie other bund, produced molecule* it
■n ultra-wild complexity. Htm I lunch tho keynote. i>f ar.rta.ln diftlculliea in my mind against con-
ceiving tho solid molecule a* » uniformly distinct, whole, cap.ible of rotnllnii (Kolilraiisru viscosity!
arcapahtnnnrwHliition from jit rained lo laotropic coiiM|;uriitlon (Maxwell Tlscoglty). I look upon It
in ■ mure ciimber-wmi- tiling, which may under favorable conditions even Inee Its identity, and which,
when lmilc-rniiiiifj the motions stated, camBa Into scrluiis conflict with contiguous molecules. Snrh *
view, even If it ho men' surmise (incepting the esse of haul steel di»cii»*od), la a suggestive working
lijliatliimiH; fur it n.-Dnin broad enough loanable mo tn circumscribe the true phenomenon by clipping
the postulate. Till* In the general endenvor of my present work.
■ It !■ well knnwn tbut cxiierim-nta on (he secular changes of metal ■ are being made at (ilaagow by
Mr. Bottomle-y. flf. Brit. Asvks. Import. 18*8, p. 53T.
•Bull. I'.S, I iiiil. Surrey, No. 14, lfcO, p. 2d, My present apparatus is horl cental in form and enables
tuetonucuc.h the wires iVmnany degree of red heat in waleror other liquid at any desirable tempera-
ture. See rig. 5, p. 7, Hull. No. 73, hWl.
76
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 04.
2/>=-081cin., -044cm., and •127cm., respectively. The approximate resist-
ance (microhms) of the 2CI". of length is designated by r.
Tauli: 30. — Longitudinal uniformity of temper of the steel rods. — Variation from mean,
in 1rr in* of the electrical interval, hard-soft.
No. ].
r— 18T»oo.
•002
4
— 1
— 6
4
1
— 4
No. 11.
rr=61200.
007
•>
No. 2.
18500.
002
••
«i
— 2
H
10
. No. 3.
17700.
•000
0
ft
5
5
I —
i»
o
4
No. 12. ! Xn. 1.*.
G060'». ' 01200.
No. 4.
17000.
•won
•>
— — w
«>
7
•>
— 0
— 2
3
No. 14.
ifcnitlO.
No. 5.
177«W.
- i
No. C. ' No. 7. No. 8. I No. 9.
18501*. ' 18400. ' 18500. j 17400.
No. 10.
17000.
•010 i -006
10 - 3 1
7I
5!
l'
I
- I-
I
•004 i -000
i ' - ii j
i ; - :i i
o
G
— I
— 11
*A). 1ft.
62000.
.* ——
7 : —
9 ! -
< i
7
ft .
5
ft —
I
a ' -
5 —
5
1
•032
•000
18
— 6
11
2
40
•>
64
_ «
IG
- fi
2.J
10
41
- o
No. 16. No. 17.
6800. 0700.
No. 18. No. 19. ! No. &>.
0ft8>. 7290. ! 637)0.
.; i - —
I
10
1
1
I
10
I _
•0)7
1
4
I
4
1
4
13
I
- - -oo:i
i
_ 3 _
:t
_ in i _
5
— 3
8
8
•02i
l
- l
7
4
4
4
4
010
1
3
9
— -000
•>
3
o
•OvJl
1
12
1
2 ' - 2 -
h
•I
7 i
ft
3
3
1
- 3 —
I —
•U.KI
7
lft
H '
1 '
11
5
20
•001
1
10
10
11
11
11
11
013
23
4
17
13
13
13
4
- 13 I
With the exception of Xo. 0, the variations are, as a rule, well within
1 per cent, of the electrical value of the interval hard-soft. Whore
the resistance is larger or smaller than the mean value, it is possible
that the parts were accidentally splashed by the water immediately before.
quenching or quenched at a different degree of red heat. Ihit, inas-
much as the series of measurements for each rod takes some time and
as the effective resistances are necessarily small, I believe that the rods
are even more homogeneous than Table 1 indicates; for the errors in-
troduced by variations of temperature, by the difficulty of clamping the
thin, very brittle rods (soldering would change the temper enormously),
and by other inconveniences of manipulation, sire by no means negligi-
ble. Hence the degree of homogeneity found may be considered quite
satisfactory.
MASS CONSTANTS OK HODS.
52. Ill Table 31 1 give the mass w, length /, and density at 0° C, J0, of
some of the rods. The latter datum is essential for the determination
of the. sections. I shall also use it in the future in determining the secu-
lar volume-changes of these wires. I{<*ls Nos. 11 to lo are too thin for
direct measurement. Hence a mean value of J„ was here assumed. I
may add that in the soft state the density of these rods is about ^0=
7-80.
SECULAR ANNEALING OF HABD STEEL. 77
Table 31.— Mate eo**tant* of the glatt-hard tleel rode, June, 1885.
So. ■
I
A,
So.
.
1
A,
««.«».
ff/em".
t-
Mufti*.
31cm'.
HIM
M'US
t-tio
'3257
270*
9
BSU
21-02
7088
12
■3322
28-30
8
WTO
25-25
7-703
13
■3170
27-20
1 1
04KJ
20-30
7-705
U
■2888
2135
t 1
0070
85-M
7-703
13
-3004
20-07
a l
0243
2580
70B7
IB
2-1713
2503
T-8T8
7 1
0089
2547
7'OTO
IT
21857
26-70
T-OTl
8 I
007*
zs-sa
7062
18
2-1013
22-50
T-5M
» 1
Ml
zo-sa
7-726
18
2-532T
30-08
1-085
10 1
02M
»-u
7-TO
20
J-3557
21-10
T-053
53. Electrical constantii of rode. — Table 32 contains the electrical con-
stants of these rods; r, being the observed resistance per centimeter
at t°, a the temperature coefficient, and (to the corresponding specific
resistance at 0° C. The wires wore quenched on June 1 and 2, 1885,
and the measurements made at the time given, only a few days after
hardening. Sections and radius are given tinder q and p respectively.
In most cases q is individually determined.
Table 3
— Specific resistance of the glass-hard steel rode, measured Jane i and 8, I
I Effective length, 20 cm. to 20 cm.]
12011) I
Finally, Table 33 contains the electrical constants of these rods made
about thirty-seven months after the tirst measurement. It also con-
78
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
f B17U- 91.
tains the variations, Jr„ of the resistance per centimeter, as well as the
variations, As^ of the specific resistance. It will be seen that JsQ is
negative throughout, whereas the effect of atmospheric influence and
the unavoidable abrasion in cleaning the surfaces of the wires before
measurement would produce a positive error. The same bridge aud
the same standards of German silver are used both in the measure-
ment* of Table 32 and of Table 33. The fact that the wires differ in
diameter, and therefore vary largely in resistance, is a guarantee against
the effect of differences of sectional errors of the bridge wire. Again,
although J*A is esseutially the difference of secular change between the
steel- wire and the German-silver standards, the fact that two standards
(1*0 ohm and 04, respectively) wrere used at least partially eliminates
the error due to variations in the standards. Moreover, the electrical
effects of corresponding variations of temper (steel) and of the drawn
strain which the German silver may possibly carry are enormously dif-
ferent. For instance, if glass-hard steel is boiled loug enough the
change of resistance may reach 12 per cent and more. The effect of
boiling German silver is of the order of some tenths per cent.1 Hence I
apprehend no serious error in ascribing the whole of the observed vari-
ation of *o in Table 33 to secular annealing of the glass-hard steel rods
under experiment.
Table 33. — Specific resistance of the glass-hard steel rods measured July 9, 188$, and the
secular variation.
[q as iu Tabic 32; effective length, about 1TJ cm.]
No. | 2p\10*
1
o
3
4
5
G
m
i
8
9
10
11
12
13
11
IS
1«
17
19
20
806
44
f 2807 ;i
126-5
2*07
2*30
1
2808 ;J
28
Centim. Microhm. ° C.
81(H)
8i:io
HillO
7950
8(110 ;
8460
8100 '
8510
7920
8170 |
l
27860 '}
27710 '•
28000
27490
28100 !
29
29
ArlJ
Microhm.
- 790
--H20
—S60 '
— sr»o ;
— *M>
— 800 !
—800 i
—750
—HIM)
—780
—2810
—2610 i
—2620
— 2590
—2590 :
— 590 |
— 570 ;
— 810 '
— 620 .
iXlO3
A«„
I Microhm . Mirroh m
- 4-2
1"7 {
1-7 <
21
41-7 '
417
— 4*3
39-3
— 4-4
39-3
-4-4
39-4
— 4-3
42-0
— 41
41\"»
— 4-3
41-0
— 41
39-2
— 4-3
408
-4-3
405
— 4-6
403
-4-2
407
-4-3
400
— 41
41-3
— 41
333
— 7-7
33*4
— 7-5
33-8
—10-5
33-5
— 80
« t'f. Kullotin U. S. Gool. Siirv. "So. 14, p. 94.
SECULAR AXXHALINQ OF IIA1IU STEEL.
54. Summarizing the results of Tables 3U and 33, it appears that
dnriug the 37 months between the two series of observations the specific
resistance of the rods has fallen from 40-5 to |42-5 in case of the thin
rods (diameter <-08 ccutim.) and from 43-7 to 35-4 in the tram ease of
the thicker rods (diameter .13™.)- Hence the variations are a decre-
ment of specific resistance anion ntiug to some 10 or even '.'0 per cent
in the extreme eases. This may be stated succinctly as follows: ^
Mean atmospheric temperature acting on freshly quenched steel for »
period of years produces a diminution of hardness about equal to that
of 100Q(J. acting for a period of hours. Similar results have been sus-
pected for magnetic measurements; but such results are very much
less easily interpretable than the electrical data of Table 33; for earlier
measurements prove conclusively that the electrical variations in ques-
tion are sufficient evidence tor the occurrence nf concomitant changes
of hardness, volume, carburation, etc. Finally, the above results show
that the method of tempering magnets proposed by Dr. Stronhal and
myself warrants the steel against secular structural instability for a
time certainly exceeding three years.
CHAPTER VII.
THE VISCOSITY OF ELECTROLYZING GLASS.
AIM' AR ATI'S.
55. The apparatus by which 1 endeavored to throw light on thisqncs
tion is represented in Figs. 5 and o\ As regards principles involved they
are identical with my earlier apparatus. Hot and eold parts of a glass
tube abc are counter twisted. To accomplish this with least amount oi
breakage, the ends of the tube are clamped between parallel thin boards,
A and B% and cemented with mastic. A being fixed, torsion is applied
at B. The amount of this is never very large and it may be gradually
increased by a screw adjustment acting against a radial lever in con-
nection with B. The experiment is troublesome, as the brittle glass
tubes frequently break. To heat any part of abc, it is inclosed in one
of my boiling tubes, dddil, containing mercury, tW, which may be
kept in ebullition by the ring burner /i'A\ The mirror 3f, adjustably
fixed between hot and cold parts of /i 6c, registers the amount of viscous
deformation. The method of passing current through the tubes is dif-
ferent in the two figures. The more complicated arrangement in Fig.
5 secures greater constancy of temperature along cold parte of the
tube, all hot parts being above. The core of the tube abc is partly filled
with sodium amalgam, as shown at//'"/', and one terminal of a dynamo,
or a drove battery, connects with this at/'. Again the tube abc is sur-
rounded near its middle by a funnel shaped cup Fb\ also containing
sodium amalgam. This can be drawn up into the central tubc/ygr, closed
above by aid of an exhaust pipe attached at E. The other terminal of
the dynamo is in connection with F, as shown at //. When this current
is made, it therefore passes in at/, into the core of abc, through abc, into
the core of////, into the nip J-\ and thence back to the dynamo. In Fig.
0 the mechanism is much simpler. The tube abc is fixed in dd4d with
a plug of plaster of paris, />, and a bo is immediately surrounded by the
ebullition mercury 0. The current as before pusses in at /', through
the walls of abc into f/, and thence via // to the dynamo. Some care
must. here, be taken in screening Mm the mirror, in general a number
of screens are to be disposed in ways which easily suggest themselves,
80
■»■]
VISCOSITY OP ELECTROLYZINQ GLASS,
HUSULT8.
56. In Table 34 I have given my first
results with the apparatus, Fig. 5. A
battery of 10 lirove culls was used as
a source of current. Warburg's1 device
of sodium amalgam electrodes was not
known to trie at the time, and J here
uHed simple mercury for the purpose.
The current in this case was originally
about '01 ampere, but fell off rapidly
to -001 ampere, and finally vanished
altogether. The results of the table
were obtained during the period of cur-
rent; and although in later experi-
ments I applied both dynamo and inter-
mittent currents, the effects were nil.
Warburg {loc. cit.) has shown that glass
partially electrolysed is a condenser of
very measurable capacity, the dielectric
being filmy silica. In the table, L is
the length of the tube, a the length
of the hot part (temperature 0=360°),
and it the length of the cold part (tem-
perature ^=25°), respectively. The
mirror is sit a distance V above the lower
end. The rateof twist is t. Finally p\
is the outer radius, fh the inner radius,
q the material section of the tube. To
understand the progress of the experi-
■ meut it is necessary to consult the time
column. The viscous datum has tbe
same meaning as above, except that in
the present instance it refers to rela-
tively very large sections q. Hence
the smaller amounts of viscous motion
observed. Moreover, in case of glass,
t can only be chosen very small, if lia-
bility to rupture is to be avoided.
In Table 3?> the dimensions of appa-
ratus are nearly the same as in Table
34. Twist, however, was considerably
increased, almost sufficiently to produce
rupture; and, moreover, sodium amal-
gam is here employed. The result was
a current of the uniform intensity of
0-02 ampere traversing the glass.
A number of other similar experi-
ments were made, all of which led to
iWirbnra: Wlril. Ann., ni, p. 823, 1881.
Bull- 04 0
-^=^g
1
TDE MECHANISM, OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
results of the mime indecisive character.
With currents of the small intensity given
{<;0-02 ampere), viscous effects can hardly
bo expected to be discernible within the spiatl
interval of observation. If large intervals
were chosen constancy of temperature in
case of the apparatus given could not be
guaranteed. The results of Table 34 are
such as.te- suggest the actual occurrence of
a viscous effect of current. This is not sub-
stantiated by Table 'Mi. I can not, however,
regard these result* as conclusively nega-
tive. It is difficult to avoid contact between
the tubes ulic and yg in Figure 5, without
choosing for the latter a tube inconveniently
wide. For this reason I abandoned this ap-
paratus and made the further experimenta-
tion with that of Fig. (i. It will not be' nec-
essary to give the data in full. They are
again indecisive, because the viscous motion
is too slight for sharp discrimination. The
method of work being such that the rate of
twist was successively increased until rup-
ture niially ensued, it appears that the ex-
periment was carried quite iip to the limits
of attainable accuracy. In Table 3ti I indi-
cate the nature of the results for the case of
an extreme intensity of twist, alter which the
I tube broke.
IJJKK8KSCES.
57. To summarize: When the available
current can not be increased beyond the
small datum given in the tables, it is im-
probable that viscous effect of larger value
than one or more, per cent is possible; but,
to discern such small differences, the viscous
motion must be very much more rapid. In
other words, very thin- walled tabes of small
caliber are to bo chosen. In such a case
the intensity of current as well as the vis-
cous deformation will be effectively in-
creased. The difliciilties of experiment
with thin tiil)es are very great, so that I
am obliged to abandon further research at
present.
In conclusion 1 may insert some remarks
relative to the conditions under which in
creased viscous motion during the passage
of current nmv be exiRvlu.l. Prof. J. J.
VISCOSITY OF ELKCTBOLYZING GLASS.
83
Thomson and Mr. Newell ' have shown that for small electromotive
forces the leakage in case of a liquid dielectric obeys Ohm's law, thus
indicating that the molecular break-up was merely directed, but not
produced, by electromotive force. On the other hand Quincke, using
much larger electromotive forces, finds that the leakage, ceteris pari-,
bus, takes place accordingto some higher power than the first of electro-
motive force. Hence in this case the electric field is actually instru-
mental in dissociating molecules.' Since Ohm's law is rigorously obeyed
in electrolytes, it is questionable whether electromotive tbrces of ordi-
nary value can produce viscous effects even in case of solid electrolytes,
for the rate of break-up is not thereby increased.
Tablk 34. — Viacotily of tleclrolgziHg gin**. Hg terminals.
Time. Current.
Xl»
Time.
■
MO'
»» i
0-0
12* 35-
83-3
" !l , 1
160
38
; - {
873
»U 1
30-7
38
87-3
430
41
; -a i
80-7
23 '( (
38 j 00 j
50-3
41
i -I
HV- 3
" !> off J
£
47
i -{
M*
29
.
n-3
47
Ml
31
I ™ {
78-3
50
; "" j
88-3-
85
i *l
777
S3- 3
Now. unless the electric field be of sufficient intensity to produce :i
marked change in the motion, i. e., the free path of the ion, it is not
probable that such a field will modify the viscosity of glass. Fields of
small intensity can not increase the molecular instability. Hence the
experiments of the next chapter, the character of which is nearly the
converse of the present experiments, are better calculated to show posi-
tive results.
Tabi.k 35. — Viirotitf af elti-lrtil y:ing giant. No-amalgam ferminuit.
t,.,!,:
rrwil. ] -10'
Time.
3* 51-
53
Current.
! -f
83
32 I
! **
U !
17 jl
-
H
E
j *,<
SI
8«
us
« II
8-4
54
1 •■ i
OS
Z [j
-f
8-0
54
U
1 -!
M
:|i
-1
8-3
» physics and chemistry, p, 303.
84
THE MKCIIAMSM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[nn.i.91.
Taiilk 3li. — I'lHco/iity ofvlerlrolyzinff fjIaxH. Xa-ainttlt/<ttn terminate.
$ :io<r .
^ -=
•"»:!"».
n=l.V-.
9' . -J") ■.
-»Pt
•40""
/, -- !»rf-
,
i
. i;
Current,
urrrut.
0.U2
T
.■IIUIM'M'.
■ W Time, r
iirrrnt.
T
1
j Thiir
xlo»
34"' .
■ ■ i
off ....
10
4ti
48.
... j
... >
nil ....
38
: 3fi .
38 .
(in
1-6
4*.
.'ill.
- *
... )
nil
4-8
3S...
40...
nil ....
I'M
50
... j
... >
off
52
4i> ..
42...
■ ■ f
Oil
J- 4
5J
54
... }
«... *
on
60
4L' . .
44...
:■}
off ....
■J-O
54
."Hi.
... ?
... >
off....
G*8
44...
46...
i
on
i
o-2
SB.
58.
on 1
i
7.6
CHAPTER VIII.
THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF STRESSED GLASS.
INTRODUCTORY.
58. The thermal relations of the resistance of glass, originally
studied by Buff,1 have more recently been made the subject of research
in memoirs by Beetz,1 Foussereau,3 Perry/ Thomas Gray,* and others.
Warburg's* experiments, however, throw new light on the inquiry, by
showing that the apparent polarization evoked by the passage of enr
rent it* due to a layer of nonconducting silica depositing at tfcc anode.
If this be continually dissolved by an electrode of sodium amalgam,
the apparent polarization is so far removed that an almost constant
current may be kept up indefinitely. If the film be not removed, con-
duction soon ceases ami the glass behaves like a condenser of measur-
able capacity.
The effect of temperature on the conductivity of glass has thus been
mapped out with considerable detail, aud it will be superfluous to add
new data in the following chapter. I purpose therefore to confine
myself narrowly to the effects of stress1 on electrolysing glass, kept ad
nearly as practicable at diffcieut constant temperatures between 100°
and 3W)o.
APPAEATUS.
G9. The Apparatus for these measurements are shown in Figs. 7, 8
9, 10, 11. Figs. 7 and 8 are simpler and adapted to -iVM° and 100°
respectively. Figs. !t and 10 are intended for experiments with ani-
line (180°) or other nonconducting fluid, boiling at higher tempera-
tures; aud the last apparatus, Figs. 10, 11, are differential in kind.
As before, the ends of the tube abe (Fig. 7) to be operated upon are bent
book-shaped, and then fastened by screws and resinous cement between
. 'lilllf: LIfu. Ann., vol. IC, 1854, p. 257.
■B»lii Pan- Ann., Juuelbmd, 1871, p. 23.
■F«in»8rei.ii : Jour, iln phyii.. II. vr.I. xi. 1883. p. 2*1.
Terry : Free. Hoy. Sw., vol. nill, IBiS. p. 408.
«T. llray: Proc. Buy. Si*., veil, miv, 188:1, ]i. 1W.
'Warburg: Wind. Ann., vol. ui, 1884, p. «3: ill., xxxt, 1R88. p. 4M.
'Jtrfi-nwe may l.sre be uiau> to J. nn<l 1*. Onrio (O. It., vnl. 01. pp. 294. 383; vol. 82. p. 350, 1881; vol.
03. p. 1137, IbUI), anil to Haulm) (Wtal. Ann, p. flit), ISdl). wlmali iw [list In rvrlitiii homilinlral try*- ■
lain longitudinal rmnpri'B-iuu 1* accoiupaniwl by tint iiunifmlaLluii nf i-lMlr.iiu.it lie for™. Curiu'i
Tory ruouui work i* ■umuiuiied iu Uio IleibUltsr, vol. 12, p. H57 tu BUT, 1888.
8G
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
slabs of wood A and IS. The upper one is fixed; the lower, B, provi-
ded with ii liook from which a scale pan may be hung. In the expert-
nieuts made, the load P was gradually increased as far as 20 kg. To
heat the tube (die, and thus promote conduction, I used n ring burner
SR, as before. WW, the ebullition liquid (here
mercury), is contained in the boiling tube rf,
to the bottom of which the experimental tube
abc is cemented with plaster of paris. Glass
is electrically so sensitive to changes of tem-
perature near 300°, that great care must bo
taken to keep the flame of the burner constant,
and the ring is to he fixed in position rela-
tively to the tube. Any disturbance of this
symmetry during loading produces a periodic
thermal error, tne effect of which may be ex-
cessively large a« compared with the stress
effect to be measured. Finally, the current
when made passes into the mercury within
| 1 the tube ffiic at /, then through the walls of
or or the tube into the ebullition liquid G, and
thence, via A, back to the battery. At 360°
the resistance of this arrangement was less
than 200 ohms, so that aside from tempera-
ture fluctuations the measurement is easy.
With a single Daniel! and a mirror galvan-
ometer, the current observed is sufficiently con-
stant to admit of direct measurement. From
this the resistance may be deduced. When
the liquid boils violently, resistance Is vari-
able, probably from the fact that a film ' of
mercury vapor of variable thickness envelops
the metal and interferes with the uniformity of
contact The resistance for this case is larger,
even twice as large, as when the mercury is at
incipient ebullition. When the apparatus is
loaded and unloaded alternately, relatively
tbe long and regular fluctuations of temperature
are of no disturbing effect, the stress effect
being superposed on tbe long undulation.
EXPERIMENTS.
60. Data/or .350°. — Tile scale deflections tinder the stated conditions
are given below. From the many data I will select those of later date,
these results being less liable to inaccuracy than the earlier data.
■ I hire tliuuglit at iuIum 1Mb obaornlius ■■ a builiniiiwlul criterion.
RESISTANCE OF STRESSED CLASS.
Table 37.— Rtaittitnee of glats across the Hues of strew.
[»= SJif. 20, = -53*-. •?.;.,-■ or- . Koalatiiiicc, UW uhma.J
Ttair.
Load,
"ssr
Xiln,
"■*"■ : (inn.
h. m.
*»
<™.
m.
k-j. ! ™.
3 8
28
o jvio
10
0
5-40
11
0 1 4-80
J
8
a-io
IS
34
111
a
510
38
0 8-10
U
IB
.«
41
0 | S'90
»
4'40
M
b 1 5-W
5 5-30
as
54.
47
7 i 5-25
27
0
535
M
7 | 5-00
Plainly the chief fluctuations here observed are due to temperature;
l»ut whatever the stress effect may be, its amount can not exceed a few
per cent of the resistance of the glass sample. This appears quite as
clearly in other results of the same kind, which need not be summarized
here.
61. Data for 100°. — In consequence of the thermal discrepancies
enumerated, I made the next experiments at 100° in a steam bath. The
resistance encountered under these circumstances is, of course, very
large, I measured it at about 20,000,000 ohms in case of the appa-
ratus, Fig. 8. Here the tube to be stretched, abc, is surrounded by a
wider tulte, gg, closed above and below. Both tubes contain sodium
amalgam, protected from moisture ■ by a layer of paraffin, m. Steam
enters at the top and is discharged at N, so that the apparatus is drained
of condensed water. In other respects the present apparatus resembles
the above. The scale pan is attached at P. The results for this case
are much more uniform. I give the following example:
Tabu: 38.— Resistance of stressed glass at 10O3.
[Sp, = S8~. -in-- W- I — 15-. RoaUtai.ee, 20 megohms, appro linmloly.]
o| »)
l)e(lP!-
Mau.
5-35
5-35 |
5-40,
S*
5-37 1
nki.
TIIK MKCHAXISM OF S01.I1> VISTOflTY.
In these, results the resistance, alter attiiiiiin^: u constant value, de-
creases by about 1 per cent when the load in wblcd. It can not, how-
ever, be affirmed with certainty that this decrement is the true electrical
effect of the Htress increment. AH I have done is to narrow down its
value to the order of 1 j>er cent.
68. Data for IBS'3.—. My next experiment was made with aniline. Tlie
U™itj
apparatus is shown in Fig. 9. Similar parts arc lettered^ aa in the
preceding figures. The aniline is contained in the boiling tube d, y.
The experimental tube abc being tied to the fixed central tube ga of
theapparatus by a piece of rubber tubing, in, it is easy to surround both
the inside and outside of abc with mercury. Current passes iu at/' and
BAr.rs. 1
RESISTANCE OK STRESSED CLASS.
K9
out at h. Ebullition is kept up with sufficient intensity to just till the
tube d with siniline vapor, which condenses in the exit tube fc", and then
runs back. Two Grove cells were found sufficient for the experiment,
the observed resistance for this ease being about 00,000 ohms.
Table 39. — Resistance of stressed gla*s.
[2p, = -53<*
2pt=-40*»
lr
= 6e».
$ ~ 180°
Time.
Load.
Defloc- i
tion. I
• cm. '
Time.
Load .
Deflec-
tion.
h. in.
kg.
1 .
h. in.
*</•
cm.
3 21
0
23-6
3 47
10
241
23
0
237 ;
50
10
240
25
4
241
51
15
240
30
4
242
55
15
24-2
31
0
24-0
56
20
24-3
35
0
244
GO
20
241
30
10
25-5 i
62
0
24*3
40
10
24-2 j
63
20
245
41
0
24-3 -
1 67
20
243
45
0
24-8 1
l
68
21
Breaks.
These results do not certainly indicate any electrical effect of the ap-
plied stress at all. They narrow down its possible value to about 1 per
cent, thus corroborating the results at 100°.
63. Result* of twisting. — After making these experiments, the general
character of which is negative, but not conclusively so, I made a variety
of similar attempts to obtain an electric effect of twisting, but T arrived
at no definite results, although I carried the experiments forward to the
point of rupture. I omit the data.
64. Differential apparatus. — Having these results in hand it appeared
probable that the work could be carried to a greater pitch of nicety by
comparing strained and unstrained glass simultaneously.
The apparatus with which most of my definite experiments were
made are shown in Figs. 10 and 11, and are differential in kind. The
resistances across equal parts of the walls of two nearly identical glass
tubes, respectively stressed and unstressed, are compared. These tubes
are shown at abcF and ekhf. The ends proper are bent hook-shaped,
and those of the glass tube to be operated on, fastened by aid of screws
and cemen*, between slabs of wood A and B. A is fixed yB provided
with a hook, P, from which a scale pan may be hung, or with a lever
arrangement for twisting. In the experiments made the load was grad-
ually increased as far as 20 kg., but the tubes were strong euough (theo-
retically) to sustain about three times this weight. The remainder of
the figure shows the devices for heating and for passing the currents.
Fig. 10 is adapted for high boiling points (aniline, etc*.), Fig. 11 for
steam. An apparatus similar to Fig. 10 was used for mercury. In
Fig. 10, G is the ebullitiou liquid, heated by a Gibbs's ring burner RR
%
THE ilKCHANlSM OP SOLID VISCOSITY.
t»t
surrounding the wide glass tube /W. A narrower glass tube gg, closed
below with a perforated cork through which pass the experimental
tubeH abc and ekh, is partially filled witli sodium amalgam. This is
practically one. terminal of the battery, the wires connecting at p. The
other terminal, after passing through the respective coils of a diftereu-
_A|.|.nriLfu
, 11.— Appminf
tiul galvanometer, connects at hi nnd/wifli the sodium amalgam con-
tained in the experimental tulles abe and i-kh.
The iioliiti.ni in Fig. 11 is the same as that in Fig. 10. The two
forms of apparatus are essentially identical, except that in Fig. 11 it
is expedient to puss steam through tltl, the vapor entering at 8 and
■aw*] , ItESISTANCE OF STRESSED GLASS. _ 91
leaving the Apparatus at 8'. For reasons stated below, § 67, it is de-
sirable that the menisci of the amalgam contained in abcF and ekkf. Fig.
10, be visible above the level of the npper cork of the tube dd. The
amalgam in 1717, Fig. 10, should bo submerged below the level of 0.
Inasmuch as sodium amalgam is necessary only at the anode, ordinary
mercury may be used at cathodal parts, aud these may therefore be
exposed to hot air or steam without annoyances. To summarize: Cur-
rent arriving at m and / passes into the sodium amalgam core of the
tubes abc and ekh, thence across the walls of the hot parts of these
tubes into the mercury surrounding them, and finally via p back to
the battery. Regarding other apparatus, cf. § 69.
65. "Results for torsion. — I commenced work with torsion experiments
of which I may indicate something here. A battery of 10 Grove cells
was used and the analine at O, Fig. 10, kept both below- and at the
temperature of ebullition. The deflection of each eoilaloiiebeingl6-4in',
it was found that the differential action (nearly zero) could not be mod-
ified by twisting more than 0-02cm. Hence the specific electrical effect
of twisting can not be greater than about 0- 1 per cent. The resistances
encountered in these cases were about 200,000 ohms. Profiting by this
preliminary experience, however, 1 was ultimately able to detect and
measure the effect of torsion on electrolytic conductivity, using a dif-
ferent and more sensitive method to be indicated below, § 69.
66. Character of traction effect*. — In case of traction, the data deci-
sively indicated an increase of conductivity proportional to the pull.
But this result is necessarily complex in kind, and must be carefully
scrutinized before its true signification can be stated. I will therefore
give my experiments in chronological order, the first series living made
at 185^ (aniline), the second at 100° (steam), the third series finally at
300° (mercury).
One remark may be made at the outset: Inasmuch as the electrical
effect of traction is persistent with the traction, and is an increment of
conductivity, it can not be due to temperature. For the extension of
an elastic solid like glass1 produces temporary cooling, § 70.
67. Results for traction. — The resistance across the walls of the experi-
mental tube at 190° was about 100,000 ohms. In case of intense ebulli-
tion, the temperature is not fully constant. It is therefore desirable
to use the apparatus, Fig. 10, just below the boiling point of aniline,
and to bring the plane of the ring-burner slightly below the plane of
the ebullition liquid O. Parts of the apparatus which are not to be
heated are screened with asbestos. In this way a nearly stationary dis-
tribution of temperature is reached.
Under these circumstances, when a weight of 18 kg. is alternately
placed on the scale-pan and removed from it by mechanism, thus sub-
jecting the tube to periodic pulls of the force given, a definite and per-
sistent oscillation of the galvanometer ueedle ensues synchronously
'Cf. Sir William Thomsons Collected Pipon, vol 1, p. 309.
92
TIIK MECHANISM OP SOLID VISCOSITY.
[cinx. M
with the period of stress. The amount of this oscillation was found to
be equivalent to a resistance-decrement of 1,500 ohms for the stressed
tube. In other words, the effect of the pull of 18 kg. is a diminution of
the resistance of the stressed tube amounting to about 1 -4 per cent.
These experiments were repeated many times with practically the saiuo
results; e. g.:
P = 2 kg., resistance reduced *4 per cent
P = 15 kg., resistance rcilnocil 1.2 per cent
P .=. 20 kg., resistance reduced 1'4 per cent
data in which the oscillation of the needle was made the basis of com-
parison. They betray a somewhat wide margin of error, because glass
at 190° is exceedingly sensitive even to trifling changes of tempera-
ture. Nevertheless, the data are sufficient for the present purposes,
and work of a more precise character with high -temperature vapor-
baths seemed to me to be superfluous. By using a more sensitive gal-
vanometer such measurements can be repeated at 100° with facility
and much greater precision.
68. Discussion of these results. — The result obtained is clearly a super-
imposed effect, being due in part to the elastic change of dimensions
during stretching, and in part to the direct action of stress in pro-
moting molecular break-up. It is therefore necessary to estimate the
value of the former influence.
The radii of the tube being pi=*20cm and pj=-19cln, the section is
about f/=#lcm8. Supposing the tenacity of gla^s to be 6"5 x 10* dynes
per square centimeter, this tube should bear (m kg. Tubes are rarely
free from imperfections, such as result from insufficient annealing, and
it is moreover difficult to apply traction in an experiment like the pres-
ent without some flcxural or other strain across the section (tendency
to be crushed between the slabs A H at the supports, for instance).
Hence, 1 found it practically difficult to strain these tubes with more
than a pull of about 2."> kg. without producing rupture. Hut from all
this it appears clearly that the longitudinal extension produced by
IS kg. is much below the maximum for the given dimensions and mean
strength of tube.
ff the tenacity of glass be froxlO3 and Young's modulus 5-5 xlO11,
the values given by J. I). Kverett,1 then the maximum longitudinal ex-
tension is -0012 Again, since Poisson's ratio for glass is nearly J, it
follows that the corresponding radial contraction is about -0003.
Finally, the resistance It of a hollow cylinder, of length /, radii px and
pi, and specific resistance a, to conduction across the walls of the tube
is (M being the modulus of Brigg's logarithms):
U = %l. * l()g fh Mi = •-**»<#"> * log /J, ifo
(1)
To evaluate the resistance effect of clastic change of dimensions, R is
Kvoivtt: Tnits mid 1'hyn. CuiiHtuut>. \u OC. The-iiilata aiv iv«lun\l from Raukiiie'a •• Utile* uud
Tablea,"' i». 6U5.
babus.1 RESISTANCE OF STRESSED GLASS. 93
to be regarded as a function of /, p{ and fo. In view of the symmetrical
occurrence of the last two variables, and if the simplifying relation
16 Pxl &=!*&/ fh=til/U nearly, it follows that 6R',iR=(dR'/dl)*l/R+
(dR'/dpl)Spll'R + (dR'fdp2)6p-z/R=-6l/lJ where the accent has refer-
ence to elastic change.
Nevertheless radial contraction enters in ease of an apparatus of the
form Fig. 10, in which decrease of bore during traction lengthens the
column of mercury contained. If A be the length of this column before
stretching, its length during stretching is A(l+2'?/jI//?,)=A(i+(l/2)
61/1). Hence, in consequence of elongation of the mercury column,
6R"/R=—(\/21)6l/l, nearly, where / is the length of the hot part of
the column. Hence, the elastic discrepancy is
(6R'+6R")/R=-{1 + X/2l)Sl/l (2)
In none of my apparatus did A exceed 2*5J. Moreover, A is always one
shank of a U-tube. Therefore "003 may be assumed as a decidedly
superior limit of the numeric of equation (2).
Hence, in an extremely unfavorable case, the resistance effect due to
elastic change of dimension ( — *30 per cent) is only about one-fifth of the
observed effect of traction ( — 1*4 per cent) produced by a pull much
below the tenacity of glass, the said pull (18 kg.) being certainly not
more than one-half the maximum load. These effects are very dif-
ferent, and it follows that the decrement actually observed is principally
due to decreased niolecu la r stability superi nduced by stress. In equation ( 1 ),
s is therefore the variable whioh chiefly responds to the action of stress.1
To obviate the troublesome occurrence of 6R" /#, the column of
mercury in most of my experiments was made so long as to extend far
above the zone of conduction of the stretched glass tube (see Fig. 10).
In the apparatus for steam (Fig. 11) the menisci of the column are
advantageously raised quite above the cork. In such a case 6R"/ll = 0,
and the elastic discrepancy is simply —61/1.
In one respect this reasoning is deficient. It does not take into
account the changes of elastic behavior of glass due to the heating to
100°. Tabulated constants for this large interval are not available.2
Hence special cathetometric measurements must be made. At 190°
this is difficult, and for these and the other reasons given above (§07), it
is expedient to refer to the complete set of measurements at 100°. (§ 09.)
• __^__^^___ ^___ .
1 Put pi = p -f- e and p* — p — e; ,', pt/pt = 1 + 2e p nearly.
Then
Here p, the moan radius, is sunjiOKod to remain constant, and the effect of traction is therefore nil
invrentent of length fl ami a decrement of the mem thic.kiie.s8, 1r. of the walls of the tithe. Now. the
value of {tlR'/dr) if R is relatively very small. Hence, 6r e -- i'le,'!?. and the radial contraction may
bo regarded identical. Then the value of 6R' R in equation (2) is
- ;*•/* .= + ooi2 + gffi^ = *•"
Hence the superior limit of the resistance c fleet due to elastic change of dimensions, ill'; It .— — .14
96. not differing materially from theahove.
*KohlrauBch uud F. £. Loom is (Am. Jour. Sci. II, vol. L. p. 350, 1870), give low-torn] er.iturc data for
metal*.
94
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 04
69. Traction at 100°. — At 100° the results can be made more accurate
than the above chiefly for two reasons: In the first pku&, the tempera-
ture is easily obtained absolutely constant; in the second, elastic changes
of dimensions can be directly measured with facility. In Table 40 I
have given the results obtained with the apparatus (Fig. 11.) The
method of measuring these large resistances (glass at 100°) is necessa-
rily chosen more delicate than above. I used a high resistance Thom-
son galvanometer, read off by Hallock's short-range telescope, and
adjusted for differential work. The needle being practically ballistic
in kind, the maximum deflections (swing) obtainable by alternately
adding and removing the loads P were used for comparison (met Hod
of multiplication.) I then determined the amount of oscillation pro-
duced by inserting known resistances into one or the other coil of the
differential galvanometer. Knowing the resistance of each tube (mean
values) from special and preliminary measurements, I was able to
deduce the percentage variation of the resistances of glass across the
lines of stress. Table 40 contains four series of these experiment*; i.
e., two spts of results for each pair of tubes. /?, the observed electrical
resistance per tube, was found to be about 7,500,000 ohms per tube, of
which the external and internal diameters were 2p,='53CID 2p2='3$cu\
respectively. The table gives the oscillations for the divers loads P;
the corresponding absolute decrement dR of 2£, and the relative value
of this decrement in terms of R.
The amount of variation here given for glass is somewhat smaller
than was found at 200° above. In the last ease, however, the data are
less accurate, and definite statements can not be made. In Table 40
the values for the second apparatus are smaller than for the first, a cir-
cumstance obviously depending on the tubes chosen, but which I will
also leave without further comment.
Table 40. — Resistance of stretched glass at lOfP.
Tubofi.
p
kg.
Maximum
oarillution.
_
cm.
iR
Ohm*.
ivx6Ji/R.
(Method.
•
I ami 11
6
105
—21000
—28
DilTciviilial galvanometer.
10
163
—33000
—44
15
2-20
-44000
-5-8
19
2-90
— 58W0
-77
I and 11
0
■*7
— 17000
—22
10
1-r.o
— 2*H):>0
—38
15
2 17
—J 2000
—54
19
2-91
— 5CiMM)
—7-3
III and IV
6
•29
— 0000
— -9
10
•74
— 15iHK)
—22
IS
1M!5
—21000
—31
III and IV
G
•33
— 7000
—1-0
10
•70
—15000
—23
15
111
—22000
—3-3
rv
5
10
1 ti:i
...12
—28
Pridxo.
. . . ..
bari».] RESISTANCE OF STRESSED GLASS. 95
This table proves conclusively tliat, within the given limits of varia-
tion, the resistance decrement experienced by glass is proportional ti>
theapplied stress. For the given conditions (2/j|='53""2/j1=*40rni) it is
as high an 380/10' i»er kilo stress, and is not below 210/10" per kilo
stress. Since the section q=-10rni2 nearly, it follows that the mean
relative variation of resistance due to stretching is about 30/10* per
gram load, per square centimeter of section. Mr. II. Tomlinsoii,* who
investigated the effect of stretching metals, finds that for steel, iron,
and brass the total variations are only about ^ as large as this, and
of the opposite sign. Of. §74.
70. Further results at 100°, — When the temperature is sufficiently
constant, for instance, in the case of a steam bath, experiments may be
made with a single tube. Let abridge adjustment be so arranged that
a[h=rjR where rin a known rheostatic resistance and R the resistance
of the tube, the current in the galvanometer being nearly zero. Then
if Srlr produce the same maximum oscillation of the needle as SR/R,
it follows that Sr/r=SR/R. An accurate chart or table of Sr/r con-
sidered as a function of the oscillation is therefore first to be constructed
by aid of the rheostat. This being in hand, the value of SR/R corre-
sponding to any oscillation produced by alternately adding and re-
moving the, load on the tube, is given at once. This method may be
made very accurate, arid I was able to obtain not oniy traction effects,
but torsion effects, as indicated by the following data. Here r is ap-
proximately 53,000 ohms, R approximately 5,900,000 ohms. Tn ease of
torsion, P denotes the load acting during the alternate twisting and
an twisting.
Taiu.k 41.— Unttinnvr
fxcdgUmal ll*P.
n»ry.
1
Tr
„.
..
To™,
WSIll/S
Mcillnlio
.' /' 1
Isriirai
™
W*.tll/Jt
!• Om-illotinn
™.
*.,.
■s:>
ID ,
I-J7
-2-8
3 -29
—■0
1-<W
1 16 |
1W
-41
10 ! -28
_■«
The traction data SR'R are numerically larger than in Table 40, and
hence lend greater favor to the views just expressed. The torsion data
SR/R are of the same sign as the traction data. In other words tor-
sion decreases the electrolytic resistance. They are of smaller magni-
tude than traction data and are independent of the load which the tube
sustains, so far as I could follow them.
6, p. 411; Ibid, t*1. 20,1*77, p. «
9C
'i1
TIIK MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[UULL M.
Taijlk 12. — Lonyituflhitil rj'tcmtiou of the tub**, Tuhlv 40.
'lYiniii'iahirr. Load.
L
6T./L
°C.
i ty.
cm.
IO-«x i
10°
1 o
m0
77 '53
t °
1 6
77-:>:*
1 0
10
77-54
130
15
77' 50
200
10J°
2
i
775:5
0
: G
77-58
0
10
77*60
\ 200
15
7700
20)
100'
»
77 '57
0 >
19
77'5'J
200
IU0'
•>
77 57
0
19
!
77-G-)
:j90
1 ,
Cocfliricnt of expansion 000008.
71. Dimensional change due to tornion. — To interpret the alwve data,
special measurements of extension are necessary. These are given in
Table 42. Tliey were made cathotometrically and are not intended to
give more thau a safe estimate of the elastic effect in question. Tin*
glass tube to be examined was surrounded conaxially by a second
wide tube of glass, through which steam at 100° continually circulated.
Measurements were also made at 10°. L is the length between fiducial
marks.
Utilizing these values to obtain a superior limit of the elastic dis-
crepancy in Table 40, it appears that <?///< '0004 and tf/>//j<-0001, these
data being the largest obtained for the largest load, IS kg. Hence by
equation (2), — tilt', 7i* < 2-5 x -0004 =-0010. In other words the elastic
discrepancy is numerically much less than -1 per cent of A, whereas
the corresponding mean value for the traction effect in Table 40 (ap-
paratus with tubes 1 and II, low menisci) is *75 per cent. Again for
raised menisci (Tables 40 and 41, tubes in and IV), —6/R'/ft=6l/i=z
•0004. In this case the corresponding mean value of the traction effect
is numerically greater than \">0 per cent. In both instances it may be
safely inferred that error introduced by elastic change of dimensions is
at most about 1 10 of the decrement of resistance actually observed as
the effect of stretching.
72. Effwt oftempvmture. — I will make a final consideration here, rel-
ative to temperature. The thermal effect of traction is negative; its
influence on K must therefore be a resistance increment, i. e., opposite
in sign to the effect observed. Nevertheless, it is desirable to obtain
some estimate of its value, which will probably bo found too small for
direct measurement. Since Z'=20 kg. and <5/> X<.0004rm, the total
energy ehutically potentialized per linear centimeter during stretching
is L'fiL L< 10000 ergs. Hence, even if all this energy were converted
into heat, the increase "of temperature resulting in case of the given
»*■»•] BESISTANCE OP STRESSED GLASS. 97
tones (section -lO™*, density <3, sp.hcat <*2) would bealmut l«'/240x
10*; i. t., less than -005°. This datum is too small to produce serious
error even in consideration of the phenomenal sensitiveness of hot glass
to temperature variations. Estimating that the resistance of glass de-
creases several per cent (5 to 20) per degree between 100° and 200°,
the thermal discrepancy can not be greater, numerically, than the elas-
tic discrepancy.
73. Traction at S6<)°. — I have now to communicate the data obtained
at 360°. This case possesses some points of special interest, because
the differential npparatns is itself a battery, the action of which outers
in a complex manner. The electrolytes here are the hot glass tuhes
containing amalgam and surrounded by mercury. The actual appaintiiH
was a simplified form of Fig. 10. Fig. 12 presents a clearer diagram
of parts, in which a ami b arc the hot glass tubes in question, E
A].panituBf..r^6^.
the battery, and J) the differential galvanometer. The electrical car-
rents due to E are indicated by the tnxitle arrows; but these currents
are considerably recuforcod by the action of the element sodium amal-
gam/hot glass/mercury, as shown by the arrows crossing the tubes a
and b. The electromotive force of this element is easily found by re-
versing the action of E. In an actual experiment I measured Nallg
[hot glass; Hg= 1*4 volts, a datum somewhat affected by polarization
and depending for its value on the strength of the amalgam and the
purity of the mercury.
Besides this large electromotive force there is another of smaller value,
due to the fact that the tubes a and 6, with appurtenances, represent
two elements switched against each other. The currents are indicated
BulL04 — -7
98
THE MKCHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BILL. W.
by tlic* ouMfle arrows in t lit* diagram, and they are necessarily si » circum-
stanced as not to flow through the galvanometer (J differentially. Their
occurrence is therefore a serious and annoying disturbance, such that
measurements at 3<»0° can not, without unreasonable painstaking, be
made with the saint* accuracy as measurements at HM>°. I measured
the electromotive force in question as about '2 volt, but it is necessarily
variable, even as to sign, containing as it docs the polarization incon-
stancy of both elements.
Since the resistance of glass near 300° is enormously low relative to
its value at ordinary temperatures (in some practical cases the appa-
ratus showed less than 1.000 ohms), the extraneous electromotive force
K can be withdrawn altogether. The present measurements of the elec-
trical effect of traction are therefore made with the NaHg hot glass/
Hg element in the apparatus. Fig. 12, notation being as above, 2p{=
vWc,n, %2p>—4:l)vm. The small' resistance at the boiling point is not avail-
able; owing to the formation of bubbles at the surface of contact between
mercury and glass, the resistance is too variable even for approximate
measurement. Hence 1 observed at a lower temperature, encountering
somewhat larger resistances JV.
Even under favorable conditions these data are only qualitatively
satisfactory. They are important, however, because they iudicate that
at 300° the diminution of resistance due to traction is 'not larger in
numeric value than at KMP; and, since this would be the ease if the
decrements 61i observed were due to elastic change of dimensions, I
have here in hand additional evidence against this assumption.
~ Taiilk 4tt. — Km'istanvv of ntrvtrhtd gltiH* at .)6QJ.
Apparatus.
i
r
hi.
<;
m
15
I*
10
Maximum
•i.ti'illatiiiii.
an.
•50
•50
•To
•TO
l-0*«
1-4H
*J 0.1
n
Ohm*.
i::i'4ni
ill
(>Ii,hh.
M\
- :;»
."•n
- ."ii
- 15
•••»
:il
Jo*
fill R
i
1 !
I
•!
•1
—4
—4
— 1
■
— 1 i
1
III
ITikmi
_•' !
The present experiments are attended with much annoyance. As
the load increases, the tube is apt to break in such a way as to spill
the hot mercury: and with all reasonable care several tubes are usually
sacrificed before a full series of observations can be obtained.
SI'MMAKV.
74. The above paragraphs summarized prove that a solid electrolyte
like glass is a better conductor of electricity { /. c manifests smaller
specific resistance; when m a state of strain fraction torsion) tUau
»*«*] RESISTANCE OF STRESSED GLASS. 99
when free from strain. Inasmuch as the necessary concomitant of
conduction in this case is unilocular decomposition' and recombination,
stress of the given kind must promote such decomposition. The rate
at which molecular reconstruction occurs per unit of volume increases
Dearly proportionally to the intensity of stress; and it may in case of
traction lie carried as far as the limit of rapture of glass amounts to an
increment of 1 per cent. In case of torsion the effect is not much
larger than about ■,-<-, „f this, and the increased break-up clue to torsion
is therefore studied with greater difficulty. The influence of tempera-
ture in changing the value of the electrolytic, effect of stress is not
marked. So far as observed the same pull per unit section does not
increase the conductivity of glass more at ;tOU° than at 100°, if indeed
it increases it as much.
Again the traction effect in case of electrolytic conduction, being a
decrement of resistance, is of the opiwsite sign of the traction effect
incases of metallic conduction ■ (increment of resistance). The former
is also of decidedly greater magnitude. If, therefore, conduction in
metals is essentially the same phenomenon1 as in eletstroly tea,* then
the soft metallic state must be singularly well adapted to promote
molecular reconstruction. This tine adaptation of structure is de-
stroyed by strains of dilatation, by heat, by alloying,4 etc. In the data
given, the electrical traction-coefficient and the electrical temperature-
coefficient (resistance) are similar in sign and in relative magnitude, both
in metals and in electrolytes. They lire positive in metals and small;
negative in electrolytes and large. This is additional evidence in favor
of a volume effect discussed at some length elsewhere.
78. Degree of molecular imtabilitg uf yia**. — The chief result of the
present paper is the emphasis thrown on the fact that, independently
of the passage uf current, such a solid as glass must be conceived as
undergoing spontaneous molecular reconstruction at all temperatures;
for, if the reconstruction in question were superinduced by the electric
field, then the current passing would vary at a power higher than the
first of electromotive force: whereas it may be taken for granted that
currents id' the intensity of those discussed above pass through glass
in accordance with Ohm's law.* Ifecently J. J. Thomson,8 among many
results of his development of the Lagrangian function, investigated an
expression for the number of times n, the electric field is discharged
at any point, in case of conduction through either metals or electro-
lytes. If A be the specific conductivity, A" the specific inductive ca-
■Mathm hrm. Thi> Venn iiml«.-n1»r iwoo«tnuil™ i« lievtl in pirf-
whr, vnl. IS, 1853, p. 33; H. Tomlluina: Proc. Rnv. Sac., vuL IS,
il.
t>yiumie> tn 1'hyi.ta. ami ClH-niMry, 1W, p. -JM.
i. Awie, IMRt), p. :»Zl »li"* il"t elnAritlyte* obey Oluu't lav aoca.
iltUbeattuiiv
1.1.I Ihr
■Moil"..!!' V,,„
a- Srlm
70 .].. I'll . ibliL
Vl.l. J".
tJ.J.TU.m.wra
: A|.,.l
>Am.-l-ur S.i.
. vol. :ii
• Kilis'«W ni'l
Tt 1.
100 THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. [bitm-W.
parity of the medium, then H=27rft\/K; where fi is a coefficient the
value of which is less than unity and depends on the relative time of
destruction and existence of the electric field. Accepting provisional
values for fi and K} Thomson computes a table of values for the supe-
rior limit of w, in cases both of metals and of electrolytes. From this
table it appears that w for mercury, for instance, is less than 8xl015.
Similar values for the limit of n in case of glass at the above tempera-
tures of observation, 100°, 200°, 360°, may be deduced. In round num-
ber the specific resistances of glass at the temperatures stated were
108, 105, and oxlO-1 ohms, respectively. From this it follows nearly
that for glass at KMP, n=$x W; at LMMP, n=Sx III9; at 300°, w=ltfxl<)l».
Thus it is fair to conclude that at temperatures quite as low as 100°
the spontaneous chemical action, i. e. the continuous rearrangement of
the molecules of glass, is a pronounced occurrence.
The given value of the frequency of discharge of field, ?i, may be
further expressed in terms of the number of molecules m, which break
up per unit of volume, per unit of time, when the number of molecules
g per unit of surface, whose disintegration just discharges the field,
and the mean distance .r, over which they are urged by the field during
the interval between break-up and recombination, are known. For
n=mx (/; or m=n (q x). Here ./■ is a very small quantity, not exceed-
ing the centimeter numeric of the mean free path of the molecule of a
gas; whereas q is a very large quantity. Hence m is larger than the
given value of w, even if the above superior limits be 100 times the
true value of w.
These approximate statistics are the nearest exact statement for the
phenomenon of molecular break-up which I can adduce, but they suf-
fice for the present purposes. They show that even when glass is
practically an insulator the number of active molecules m considered
absolutely is very large1 and that m need by no means be negligibly
small even in comparison with the total number of molecules per unit
of volume.
The above paragraphs prove that the rate at which molecular break-
up takes place is appreciably greater when glass is under stress than
when it is not. It is improbable that the system will instantaneously
state of molecular equilibrium to another Hence, pass from one
since even in ease of very high resistance, such as that of glass at 100°,
the number of unstable molecules per unit of volume must still be con-
ceived to be very large, it follows that the species of molecular break-
up in question may be looked upon as a fruitful cause of viscous defor-
mation.
CHAPTER IX.
78. Introductory. — In the following work a soft annealed wire is
stretched by a known weight falling from an initial position (strain
minimum) to the lowest position compatible with the given adjustment
(strain maximum). If the wire remains sufficiently soft throughout the
experiment the recoil is nearly zero. Hence the energy expended in
stretching is to this extent easily measurable; and, if also the heat
evolved during stretching be measured, the difference between the
work done on each centimeter of wire and the heat produced per centi-
meter of wire hi the energy potent iali zed; i. c, tint energy which per-
manently manifests itself as tensile strain. Using the nomenclature of
Maxwell's theory of viscosity, the numerical datum thus obtained is
an expression for the amount of change in the history of the typical
molecular configuration, the dates being taken immediately before and
immediately after the tensile stress is applied.
Now it is clear that the strain effect of a given amount of work done
must depend on the dimensions of the material. Strain must be sup-
posed variable with the extension produced in case of a given sectional
area, as well as with the section of the stretched wire in case of a given
extension. At the outset it is difficult even to conjecture in what
respect these strains, though of a given class, may differ in essential
details. There is, however, a more interesting phase of these experi-
ments: the strain- effect of a given amount of work done on centimeters
of wire will vary, cu-teiis paribus, with the material acted upon. From
this point of view the prosecution of the present research promises to
lead to results bearing directly on the nature (form and mutual rela-
tions) of the molecules sustaining strain.
77. Apparatus.— In Fig. ):t ft', <" t", the weights (Z'=30 kg to 00
kg) by which stretching is to be done are supported on a suitable trap
door, lilt; and the fall of lilt, when released, is guided hy the upright
slides xh,k'h'. fixed in the linn base, il, of the apparatus. I took pains
to adjust the soft wire ab to be acted on as nearly straight and free
from initial tensile strain as possible. It was firmly fastened above to
a heavy eross-tiinber of wood, />/>, the lintel of a framework which in
form and purpose closely resembled a gallows. The screw clamp at a
in the vertically adjustable brass torsion -circle A, the axle of which
passes snugly through />D, secures the upper end of the wire. The
101
. :.-_i.r.;fr;^
uz
102
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[dull m.
lower end is lapped around the hook of the weight part, 6n», then
wound around the wire and soldered, care being taken to avoid such
loops and kinks as might change form during stretching.
A thermocouple, afriti, originally of platinum/platiiium-iridium, with
its junction /3'tied on with silk thread on the upper half of the wire aft,
J~
ft
V?
, r
LA
////Av////-////- A. ///,,.
"FlG. 13.— Apparatus for iiiianm-iiii: tin* tliiriiinl effort of atntcliing.
enabled me to measure the change of temperature due to stretching.
In later experiments more reliable devices were adopted; cf. § 80.
Changes of length were measured with (Irunow's cathetometer, two
fiducial marks having been painted on the wire ab about 7(K»» apart.
At a given signal the catch-board EF of the trap door BB was jerked
■M
ENERGY POTENTIAL! 7.RD IN STRAINS.
103
away, by aid of a rope tied at F and manipulated by au assistant.1
Simultaneously with the si retelling I reail off the temperature- incre-
ment in terras of the excursion of the needle of a sensitive mirror gal-
vanometer, and as soon as this was taken I made the final length
measurement with the eathetometcr. From these both Hi. and Hi, i. e.,
the length -increment of the whole wire and of the part between the
fiducial marks, respectively, were derived.
HL varied between 8mi and 2(1™. St between tK™ and 11*", L being
aboot VZW"\
78. Renultt. — In Table 4-1 I have systematized the results of the
measurements. Here pt and /■„ denote the radii of the wire before and
after straining and are computed from gruvi metric measurements. P
is the stretching force; Sl'l, the longitudinal extension produced and
measured between fiducial marks on the wire with the cathetometer.
£=l.'sL/LssPal/l is the work done on centimeter of length; *, the ob-
served increment of the temperature of the, wire resulting. Finally,
r=Bt/B indicates the part of the applied work which is converted into
beat-, the remainder (.£' — A\)/J? being potential ized. The table con-
tains both I'oL/L and l'rll/1, the hitter being usually greater in eon-
aeqnence of errors of experiment which need not here l>e considered.
The heat corresponding to t° being Amcl, where -A is the mechanical
equivalent of the wah'i-grain-degrce in ergs, m the. mass of the wire
per centimeter, and e its specific heat. I was obliged to take o from
tables and also for want of data to disregard the variations of c during
straining.
■ rtt.ii.
i ] i-ra
i-ii i
itt-tnl'pii.
01
,»■,
..;
5112
:i -9 i -3i
*3 1 -31
6U . ■«
70 1 "M
»■» ! -38
hi Z
3 » i -it
6-1 113
•_:_..!!
"■
5.5 ! -00
tt*£K
104
THE MECHANISM OV SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL.B4.
Ill Table 45 I have given the densities of the metals, strained and un-
fit-rained, JB, Ji„ and Ji„, referring to wires which are soft, strained
hard, and softened after straining, respectively. Brass shows a slight
deerease of volume alter straining; but this result, like that of iron, is
doubtless obscured by differences in the composition, hardness, etc., of
parts of the annealed wire. Annealing the stretched iron wire scarcely
shows any volume effect . In ease of copper the eifect of stretching is
a definite increase of volume of a few tenths per cent. Small as this
datum is, it is well to bear in mind that a like expansion of the wire
produced by heat, calls for an increase of temperature of 30° or 40°.
Elsewhere 1 have shown that it is scarcely safe to draw conclusions of
this kind unless data are in hand in great numbers.
Tahij: 15. — Variation of drn*itji of ' ntrrtvked wire.
Metal, i No. i
lira.*** .... I I :
Itraita i II i
j Iron I
Iron II ....'
Copper .. .' 1
Copper ... II '
I **
A**
S-410 '
8411
"•702
7'tt7«
M-8S1
HH7U '
8-420 '.
8UU '.
7'lWS
7fr*6 |
7-tttl 7GS1 J
*»•«»
H-WI7
I
79. Discussion of errors* — A few words on the errors involved are
essential. Comparison of the values ofPtiL-'L and 7* / / shows that
the work lost upon kinks and flaws, together with that spent upon the
framework, is not seriously large so far as the present purposes are con-
cerned. This is also true of the energy elastically potentialized, as
may be found by direct tests. The satisfactory measurement of the
thermal datum /, however, is much more diflieult. Apparently the
graduation of the thermocouple is simple, for it is merely necessary to
make preliminary observation of the throw of the needle of a ballistic
galvanometer produced by given increments of temperature. The use
of such graduation is, however, only permissible if the temperature of
the wire remains constant during the period of oscillation of the needle.
These conditions are never rigorously given; whereas oven in case of
jacketed wires it is a question whether they are sufficiently given. The
temperature of the wire increases very rapidly to a maximum, and then
decreases by radiation, etc., reaching the original thermal value iu a
few minutes. Again the cooling effect of the metallic wires of the
thermocouple can not easily be allowed for, neither can it be considered
negligible even in case of filamentary wires. Finally the error of hetero-
geneity is of serious consequence; for the thermoelectric measurement
is virtually a thermal exploration of the metal lying very near the point-
junction. Hence since the wire near such a point may be imperfect
by reason of llaws or composition, so that more or less work is done
here than at other parts of the wire, it follows that the temperature
■ak*] ENERGY rOTKNTIAUZED IN STRAINS. 105
thcnnoeloetriralty obtained is not a mean datum tor the wire taken aa
a whole.
Unfortunately the combined effect of the errors stated will usually
be the cunse of too small 11 value of t. Home assurance of the approxi-
mate truth of the results in Table 1 may, however, ho obtained by ob-
serving that the experiment* made are to some extent differential in
kind. For instance, co'teris paribus, for an expenditure of only two-
thirds the work applied to the brass wire, about tho same heat is
evolved in the copper and the brass. Sections and thermo-couple are
here the same and similarly adjusted.
80. 8ncec*slre stretching. — The importance uf the -thermal datum is
such, however, that special corroborative measurements are essential.
To obtain the.se, the above method was modified in such a way that
the wire was stretched siieeessively in equal amounts. One end of it
was lived aud the other fastened on the circumference of an iron ilium
of small radius, p = (Ml By revolving the hitter the wire is stretched
and the friction of the axle sufficient to keep it so. I chose successive
angles of revolution, «■, by which extensions 6L/L = -054 each were
easily produced and could usually be repeated 4 or ■> times.
These accumulating strains are numbered in Table Hi, in the first
and second parts of which the data 6t are obtained by a PtfPt -Ir
thermocouple with wires 0-05™ in diameter; in the third part by a
filamentary iron / brass thermocouple (wires O-trj*1" in diam.). Moreover
in part l the junctions are fastened by binding them down upon the
metal to be stretched by platinum wire. In purrs n and in the junc-
tions are bound down with silk, us in Table 44. In part iv the couple
is of the kind used in constructing; Table 47 below. The data of Tables
44 and ■Mi when referred to the same value of o" L L agree fairly well.
Some difference in favor of the silk fastening is apparent. Again 6 t
increases in proportion as the wire is more nearly stretched to the
point of breaking. This is in part due to the fact that, as the wire
hardens more work must be done to stretch it. When the wive breaks
(strain V) the resilience is usually siiflicieiit to increase tit appreciably
in consequence of the energy ehisticully potcutialized. Finally it is
easily seen that, although the mean values of 6t in case of the divers
metals are not very different, this is not true for the amount of work
done in stretching. 1' varies widely, being less in copper than in brass
aud less in initial than in final strains.
irfftr^w *. ■+£' »
■*•
10G
TTTK MECHANISM OF SOUD VISCOSITY.
[DULL. *U-
Taiilk 4i>. — Succt'Mtth'e xtrrtvhing.
[6L/L- 0054 per pull.]
Metal.
I.
Strata. ! — •-■
I 6t
6t
IT.
it i it
III.
IV.
6t
U
ItnwH
I
0-8
10
II
11
Ill
V.'J
1-2
IV
20
1-2
IT
1-2
0-6
1*4 '
13 ,
10
1-0
20
1-9
24
20
i.a
10
1-7 i
21 ■
3-0 '
I
I'll i
i
I
2-2 |
21 i
6t
2-0
2-5
3-5
3-9
in in ...
Copiwr
I ..
II .
Ill
IV.
I ..
II .
Ill
IV
2-2 !
2-2 :
"I.
2-3
25
2l»
2-8
I"
0-7 :.
1-7 .
2o ;.
20
2-5
4*0
81. Result* of improved methods. — The errors discussed in § 79 induced
me to repeat the- work with a thorough change of method, so far as
the thermal measurements are concerned. To obtain the data of Table
47, the thick wire ah. Fig. l.'t, was itself used as one of the elements
of the thermocouple. The other clement was a filamentary wire, «vtff,
passing from a fixed point,/?, in connection with the terminal of the gal.
vauometer, once around the wire to be stretched (junction, /3), aud
thence to an insulated spiral spring h\ to keep it tense. At the point,
/*, where the thin wire lapped around the thick wire, both were care^
fully brightened ami good electrical contact was further insured by
stiffening the spring R as much as the thin wire permitted. The upper
end a of the wire to be stretched placed in connection with the other
terminal 6 of the ballistic galvanometer completed the circuit. In this
way the heat generated by stretching acts at once at the thermoelec-
tric junction of the thick and the filamentary wire, while the latter
may be chosen so thin as to produce only negligible cooling. Indeed,
in virtue of friction the discrepancy is apt to be in the opposite direc-
tion.
In this arrangement, ' a special error is introduced by the change of
thermoelectric constants due to stretching, but this error, for the pres-
ent, purposes at least, is negligible in comparison with the thermoelec-
tric powers copper iron or brass iron, being not greater than a few
per cent.
The notation of Table 47 is the same as that in Table 41. .fc',, the mean
energy stored in the wire per centimeter of length, has been added.
> After iiinkiii^ ttit'Hi- (-vpcriini'iitH. I l'mind that a Mhnihir inrthotl of tliormiM'Wtrir- meoHurenieDt
ban rtTt-utly liet.iit"»i)pl«>yi'«l by WuMuimth (Wivucr SiulHjr., vol. 02 i2), 1#&*, ji. 52). WuBiinuth'ii par-
puscfl art- distinct Iruin mine. ^
ENEROY POTENTIAUZED IX RTItAIXS. 107
Tarlk n.—Eiicnj!) poleMiiiltetrl in tCHiilt tlrami.— Second mrthod.
MsUl.
jb.
P 1
il/t J? |
«..
p. ;
(em.) , ittiiatnv*. 1
s
i
■10] ' li -j ;
'IK! 10-O |
•Ul
|
■1«
«|
Icon
■i:w
W.uml |
1IU
1-21 |
■131
'
■m
4-Ji
«...
*81
1-20 1
A comparison of the results of Tabic 44 and Table -17 shows that the
latter substantiates ami emphasizes the results of the former. In Table
47, moreover, the measurements of the cllcets produced by stretching
the Baine metal lire in very much better accord. It is not improbable
that the variations of Et:E for the same metal in Table 2 may 1* due
to actual diftcrciiccs of hardness or composition of the. annealed wires.
In case of iron two values of /' occur and the metal exhibits striking
differences of behavior in the two- experiments. It np|>eurs that more
energy is potent ialized during initial than during final stages* of strain.
For P=4t) kg, the small value of t is only measurable as a superior
limit. Moreover the extension is here so small that the error due to
resilience may be fi per cent.
82. Nummary. — To summarize: It appears that as much as one-half of
the work done in stretching up to the limit of rupture may be stored up
permanently; that the amount id' work thermally dissipated varies
considerably with the metal acted upun, being very large for instance
in the case of cupper (7."i per cent), smaller in case of brass ((10 per
cent) and of iron ['A) per cent); that in ease of the same given metal
the work done is very largely potentialized during the incipient stages
of strain and very largely dissipated during the final stages of strain.
When stress of n given kind is applied to different metals, the tutal
amount of energy which can be stored per unit of suction, per unit of
length ii|i to the limits of rupture, may therefore be looked upon as a
molecular1 constant of the metal. Table 41 shows that in case of :v
wire abuut .Hi"" thick stretched nearly to the limits of rupture, at
least ■'> mcgidcrgs per centimeter will have been stored in ease of brass
and about I megalergs per cent i meter in ease of copper. In iron ■14""
thick at least - megalergs per centimeter arc potentialized under the
same conditions.
108
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 04.
Perusing the present chapter as a whole it will be seen that the
experiments made are closely analogous to the usual mode of thermo-
ehcmical measurement. The difference between the initial and the final
energy of a system of two interacting liquids is the heat evolved dur-
ing mixing. In solid metals this experiment can be made with a sin-
gle substance. The reactions are such that energy is absorbed during
straining; in other words the difference between the tinal and the
initial energy of the system of weight and wire is the heat evolved iu
stretching. It does not follow, however, that the increased intrinsic
energy of the strained metal occurs in consequence of the formation
of new molecules of greater intrinsic energy; for the added energy
niav be stored in modi lied svstems of the original molecules. Never-
theless it is interesting to note that the diminished viscosity which
usually results from permanent strain corresponds to an increment of
the intrinsic energy. Viscous motion is therefore the result of the
tendency of the increment of energy to dissipate, since the systems
within which it is stored are unstable.
CHAPTER X.
EARLIER RESEARCHES.
83. In a recent number of the American Journal' I communicated
certain data on the effect of dilatation al strain on tin; electric resist-
ance of glass. These, experiments, though decisive as to results, were
somi'wliat complex in character; and from their important bearing on
the chemical equilibrium of solids, I resolved to attack the subject from
a new point of view. The present work is direct, and I hoped that
reunite could thus be resulted without necessitating auxiliary hypotheses
ot experiments. In this expectation 1 deceived myself: the insulating
oil which transmits pressure to glass shows a pressure- coefficient
usually much larger than the glass itself. Jtoth must therefore he
studied. Nevertheless the confirmation of my earlier results which
the present paper gives is gratifying, i am thus able to carry the de-
ductions one step farther. Again, the behavior of liquid hydrocarbon
insulators under pressure presents many points of special interest in
relation to the formation and occurrence of ions.
As a result of the investigation of different oils, T have been able to
increase the efficiency of my screw- compressor2 in marked degree. By
using n sticky viimrui machine oil. thick enough to he almost opaquely
fluorescent3, not only does the screw of my apparatus run more easily,
but leaks at high pressure are practically absent Moreover, the gas-
ket of marine glue is not in any measure dissolved (this is the case
with sperm oil), and it therefore lasts indefinitely. Finally. Ihe insula-
tion of barrel mill piezometer is now at least as high as l(MKM) meg-
<dims and need not be less than 1,0110 megohms. This is an important
requisite in experiments like the present.
The special work on the effect of pressure on the electromotive force
of the cell Sallgglass Ilg lias intrinsic interest apart from its gub-
si diary purpose as embodied in the present text. From experiments
to be published in a bulletin of the 1". S. Geological Survey, 1 infer
that the secret of the relation of the Peltier contact to the Volta win-
tact will probably manifest itself, it a suitable cell, suitably com-
pressed, be carried through a large range of temperature quite into
red heat.
110
TUB MKCHAMSM OF SoLIH VISCOSITY.
I gain another infereiire by i-oiiipuriug the present results with the
iliitii of my hist pujier' on the efleet of pressure on the thermal rela-
tions of metallic and electrolytic conductivity.
Finally, tin; present wurfa is tributary to an extended svriiwiif exper-
iment* cm t In- relation of melting puint mitl pressure, ns will appear in
, i sm, Thus it forms an essential part of the work
J suggested by Mr. Clurem-e King.
Al'lMlt ATI'S.
84. C'lwprtvmr. — Hydrostatic pressures us high as
t 1..T4M) atmospheres itcii1 applied. Having found that
■|, within the limits of the present paper nothing essen-
= tially novel was gained by excessively high values of
* pressure- I facilitated my work by avoiding them
| as laui'h us possible.
t 66. Vapur bath*. — To obtain different constant
5 tempeniliires. the tubes were exposed successively
f to vaprn-s issuing from wafer ilfMl'V turpentine
- flfifl'i, naplitlmlene (il.">~), and dipbetiyhimiue
| (SHI"). A servieeable con ri minim vapor buth for this
f purpose in also di'seribed in the paper hist cited. I
l need only add that the ends of the brazed eopper
| bath are provided with serew stuffing-boxes of the
; ordinary kind, in which either a sliest ns parking or
;i hollow cylinder of cork may be forced home by
j* a the gland. Vapor baths must he removed hot.
' They then slide off the smooth steel piezometer
easily, and without jarring the tube.
86. fuxiilntinu. — In the compressor the arrange-
uieiil adopted is that of insulating the piezometer
inlic from the barrel and compression appurte-
nances. Inasmuch as in some of the experiments
= theresiMiilieestohe
e.l am
,1m- I i
the
icier
1 1 luin-
nsulutioii must be
siiul megohms. How
ed will he explained in
\ end wire and raised
essential. Cure must
ja-kets which eool the
water lo drop into a
t the vapor hath must
■ Maine, etc. At high
will have decreased
ions are superfluous.
cd,
*]
HKS.STAXl'K TITHES.
87. The reninUnn-c tufa: — The original
resistance of compressed glass is shown
the latter is a diagram. Fig,
14 consists essentially of
two coaxial glass tubes, the
larger completely surround-
ing the smaller. The diam-
eter of the larger (thick-
walled) tulie is -4 to ■■"i"1' ;
that of the inner (thin-
walled) tube is ■l,r,». They
tire joined nlong the ring
a a. Two separate compart-
ments are thus formed, the
inner of whieh is tilled with
pure mercury and the outer
with sodium amalgam, to a
sufficient length to com-
pletely envelop the inner
tube. The end of the large
tube contains hydrocarbon
oil, to protect the amalgam
against moisture or air
when the tube is not in
place, and also to prevent
the saponin" cation of sperm
oil and to eliminate condens-
ible air when the tube is in
place. Mercury and the
fluid amalgam are to be in-
troduced by aid of the air-
pump, care being taken to
boil out all traces of air.
The mercury of the inner
compartment is in galvanic
connection with the plati-
num wire i, which in its turn
connects with the pica nnel er
tube. Hence h need not lie
insulated. The amalgam is
pierced by the terminal e,
completely insulated from
the piezometer by the un-
broken length !•/ rtiMi/litXH tulir surround
wire from being pulled otil of place >
MHtled j|i tin' inside- oft he insulator tube
apparatus for measuring the
in Figures 14 ami 15, of whieh
r the wire. To prevent the
ring the adjustments, v is
i shown in the lignre. This
112
THK MKi;!IAM<M OF SnUI> VISCOSITY.
[Dl'LL M.
terminal is in galvanic connection with the barrel. It is seen that the
tube is virtually a galvanic HI. Xallg glass Hg. and is reversible.
Finler tin- influence of hydro>tatic pressure the fig-
ure of tin* glass tube is symmetrically reduced in size.
Hence, with retrard to the conduction taking place
across the walls of the hnur tube, the resistance would
be increased, in consequence of changes of dimensions,
only by the amount in whieh the length of the inner
tube is diminished. In other words, if r=sl 2.tRL,
where *. /. K. L deimte respectively specific resistance,
thickness, radius, and length of thin tulie; then the
dimensional ettert « d" pressure is **V= *'/ 2tRL) x6h L,
nearly. Hut all such values . oL L being less than .1
N per rent per Unhi atm. are negligible in comparison
^ with the relatively large pressure coefficients actually
obtained cf. Tables 4s to .V>. . and to be interpreted with
^ reference to*'— *.
c Fig. 1 "> -diagram shows the resistance tube in place.
f PF is the tubular steel piezometer, surrounded by the
| vapor hath V V. and the cold water jackets D I) and
\ W I>'. and tilled with the oil < M K by which the pressure
C is transmitted. The inner compartment of the glass
^js = tube is at a mercury . the outer compartment at m m
S £ i sodium amalgam . with petroleum at n n. The termi-
A <* I ual wires are shown at b ; cathode connecting with the
/J 1 £ °
/j | ]iie/.nnicter and at v anode, insulated).
88. In the course of my work, however. I found it es-
~ sential to connect <• with the piezometer and to insulate
£ b: for by thus reversing the tube there is no tendency
of short-circuiting through oil ami the ow/er tube. In-
deed, so important is this adjustment, that I further
modified the tube. Fig. 13, in the way indicated ill Fig. 16.
Here the inner compartment is tilled with mercury
to only ahoiit 7"'' of the end. The remainder of the
tube, containing hydrocarbon oil. runs completely
through the piezometer into the barrel, with which the
insulated platinum terminal connects. To keep the
mercury in place, the inner tube is drawn down to a
smaller diameter sec /. Fig. 3-. into which the mercury
meniscus projects. Air is excluded by boiling the mer-
cury with the platinum wire in place. The latter amal-
gamates externally. but careful handling is mine the less
advisable. The outer tube, with its idling of sodium
amalgam, not only envelops the inner mercury thread,
but extends in both directions as far as the voUl parts of the sur-
rounding piezometer tube. Since v couuects with this, no current wil|
■«w.J INSULATION OP OILS. 113
pass through the film of hot oil and the outer glaws tube. All currents
between piezometer and barrel mast therefore pass through the walls of
the inner glass tube — a condition which is further insured by making
NaHg/glass/Hg the acting electromotive force, I have purposely de-
scribed these precautions at length; and their importance is obvious
when it is remembered that the oil medium has a larger pressure coeffi-
cient than glass, ami that the insulation of oil sometimes breaks down
in marked degree with rise of temperature (§ 103). The effect, of cold
oil can be found preliminarily, when the whole apparatus is cold.
89. Arrangement for tenting immlntion. — I have finally to show the ap-
paratus for testing the resistance and pressure coefficient of the liquid
insulators at different temperatures. This is given in Fig. 17 (dia-
gram), and consists essentially of a cylindrical steel rod s h, adjusted
coaxially with the steel piezometer PP, containing the oil to be tested.
Tubes of glass, tjg, hold the rod hx iu position. Owing to the fact that
ab0V6 21)0° glass conducts better than most hydrocarbon oils, this in-
sulating arrangement is not quite satisfactory; but by using thin-walled
glass tubes tilled witli the oil, the data so obtained are sufficient for the
purposes of the present text, since the rate of breakdown with temper-
ature is accentuated. It is seen that the measuring current passes
from the piezometer 1' P, through the cylindrical layer of oil, into the
rod a a, and thence to the battery. The diameters of steel core and
piezometer tube being -lli and ii'f eentirn. respectively, and the exposed
part 0 eentiui. long, tiie specific resistance of the layer of oil is easily
computed (§ 103).
90. Diyrwu'uiii. — By filling the greater part of the closed end of the
inner tube (Fig. W or Fig. 14) with the substance to be examined, and
the open end as far as r. with mercury, the tube is available tor the study
of melting point and pressure. In such a case the forward motion of
the inner mercury meniscus due to pressure proportionately decreases
the resistance of the arrangement by increasing the op|iosed surfaces
of mercury and sodium amalgam. Increased delicacy is secured by en-
larging* the bulb at the end of the inner tube. At the solidifying point
the sample usually undergoes a phenomenal reduction of volume, cor-
responding, therefore, to a similarly large reduction of resistance. This
occurrence I propose to use as the criterion of solidifying point and of
liull. M
114 THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. rBnx.M.
melting point. The apparatus is available above 1(K)° under any pres-
sure up to several thousand atmospheres.
The criterion specified is also available when a Hue platinum wire is
stretched through contiguous coaxial columns of the substauce and of
mercury in a vertical piezometer.
91. Resistance measurement. — Resistances were first measured by a
bridge method; but owing to the fact that electromotive forces are in-
volved which may themselves vary with pressure, I lost faith in the
safety of these methods and replaced them by simple circuit methods.
The errors to be guarded against are primarily in the experiment itself.
Again, the resistance tube (Figs. 14-10) is well adapted for simple cir-
cuit work, since the electromotive force NalTg/glass/lTg may exceed a
volt, and the only pronounced resistance is in the cell. Only at 100°
need auxiliary cells be inserted.
Throughout the work the low-pressure or fiducial resistance is meas-
ured before and after the high-pressure resistance. This safeguard is
necessary. From three to live minutes were allowed for the elimination
of thermal discrepancies. The fiducial resistance is to be measured
under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres, both to condense the air
retained in the pump and to make the oil less compressible (§ 110). Not
much care was taken in measuring the absolute resistances, since the
inferences of this paper are to be drawn from the increments.
92. Galvanometer. — In the high-resistance experiments 1 used the
Elliott square pattern of Thomson's high-resistance astatic galvanome-
ter. The readings, however, were made by PoggendorfTs method of
telescope and scale. To adapt? Thomson's concave-mirror adjustment
to this purpose, I compensated the curvature by an ordinary "No. 30"
concave spectacle glass fixed in front of the mirror, diffuse light being
suitably screened off. Glass "No. 30 " slightly undercompensates the
mirror, leaving some magnification which is not undesirable. How
far a weak telescope may be made to do the service of a more powerful
instrument, by virtue of the concave- mirror and a lens even weaker than
No. 30, remains to be seen. With the above adjustment of lens and
mirror, using a telescope magnifying somewhat over 20 diameters, and
a scale somewhat further than 2 meters from the mirror, I obtained an
image about 4-."> centim. long and sufficiently distinct for all practical
purposes. Thus, if one volt act in one million megohms, the current
produced would only just escape detection.
At 200° the galvanometer was suitably shunted.
93. Other adjustments. — Regarding other manipulations, the paper
cited in § 84 will have to be consulted. Electromotive forces were meas-
ured by a zero method.
OBSERVATIONS.
94. Tables explained. — Table 48 contains data for the apparent change
of the resistance of glass with pressure, when the liquid which trans-
mits pressure is ordinary sapouiHable sperm oil. Here 0 denotes the
babus.1 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF GLASS UNDER PRESSURE. 115
temperature of the vapor bath, approximately, and R the resistance of
the uncompressed glass shell. tfR/R is the increment of resistance, R
corresponding to the pressure increment tip, where the initial pressure
is at least 50 atmospheres (§91). kr=z61i/R.6p is the pressure coeffi-
cient. To save space, I have taken the mean of the two or three com-
plete triplet observations for each 6p given. The table contains six
independent series of experiments, made at different times and often
with different tubes. The adjustment, however, was in the main that
of Fig. 15 reversed.
BIJ5 48. — Apparent effect of pressure (in
atmospheres) on the resistance of glass, in an
insulating medium of animal sperm oil.
Series No.
R
MeantrxlO*
10»X
Bli/R
5p
10«X*r
Serio« No. .
e ' 10" <
K ' 6K/R
MoanAvXlO* 1
i
« ■
Bp
i
10*A*:r
I.
82
470
174
in.
51
480 110
215°.
160
835
193
310°.
99
877
113
117X10S*
213
1180
181
—
165
1320
125
182.
116.
IV.
164
_ ^^
450
I.
75
455
167
365
2150.
157
825
191
100*.
330
930
355
117X10V.
217
1100
1X8
.
* 182.
407
110
360.
112
515
217
L
59
IV.
310*.
117
830 142
160°.
102
525
196
6X10\*
170
1175 j 145 '
— _
111
610
185
137.
i i
__ I .
470 ' 130
845 | 136 '
1155 , 137
200.
VI.
100*.
420
420
I.
310*.
6xl0»»
61
116
158
605
650
685
640
134.
I I
------ #i-=_rr=.-rr-_-
390 1 171
660.
VI.
655
II.
67
127
194
215*.
135
750 1 180 '
160*.
136
644
211
122X10S»
105
1070 182 ,
—
141
674
209
178.
1 '
203.
II.
49
450 j 112 :
VI.
126
657
192
310°.
07
790 | 122
215*.
123
691
177
9X10'-
,145
'1120 1 127
—
127
688
184
121.
1
i i
184.
III.
85 ' 516 ! 163 VT.
i '
97
689 | 143
»215°.
165 , 1000
163 , 310°.
89
G:(9 138
130xl0*»
219 i 1405
156 ' 10»»
161.
l
:
140.
95. Remark* on the table. — A graphic construction shows the charac-
ter of these divers series to be identical, though the individual pressure
coefficients show marked variation. The data of the third series are
made in connection with the following data of Table 49, in which elec-
tromotive forces are measured before and after the resistance measure-
ments* As a rule, the galvanometer needle does not reach its position
116
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[bcllM.
of equilibrium at once; the slow changes registered are probably duo
to gradually vanishing thermal discrepancies (§1-1).
96. Electromotive force. — Table 49 gives results for the effect of pres-
sure on the electromotive force Nallg glass Hg. Here 6 is the tem-
perature of the vapor bath, and e the observed electromotive force, in
volts, corresponding to the pressure r)//, when the initial pressure is
above 50 atmospheres (§ 94). ke= 6e e . tip is the pressure coefficient.
Five minutes were allowed per observation. Special experiments
showed that e decreases on cooling. The medium /or transmitting
pressure is again ordinary animal sperm oil. Earlier observations were
discarded, and the results are condensed as far as possible.
Table 19. — Apparent effect of prexsure on tht ehviromotire force of XaHy/gla*$/lIg.
0
Mean Jt' MO*
*P
i <?.-. 10»
1
i
| I0***r
Mean k. s 10*
t2iy>.
6p
: 5 °
i l 488
exlO1
10** «
100°.
X 720
5180
i —
11182
_^
230.
5or»o
1
210
10-9
11244
11-3
\ °
< 1080
I °
I 5.0
\ °
I 524
43(iO
i _
i
i
l
t 902
S ° ;
\ 1378 '
* °
I 550
11210
— -
5440
• 10872
; 10004
10H12
10950
j 245
5*5
i
!
11332
i
11224
11374 j
11214
11286
11-0
•213 *.
73.
9-7
•
11-7
r 0
10022
i
i
i
310*.
\ °
I 505
10G58 ,
—
i
551
10008
77
51.
10672
25
1010
10990
i
6-8
i
< ° !
10666 ,
_
f 0
10021
^^
\ 480
10706 !
7-8
1 535
1 1011
1O070
11008
8-9
7-7 !
i
1
|
f °
10I»24
1
I 542
10972
8-2
j 1033
11004
7-2
I
U441
11024
6-5
:
r 0
10012
— j
510
10008
06
1<>27
1436
1 1004
11028
■
83
74
■ pM-fort* tin- resistance mea.Hiirvmrnts.
1 Af't«*r the n -8 i stance lucuMiivim-nts.
97. Remarks on the table. — To facilitate measurement, the greater
number of experiments are made at 215°. Polarization was observed;
and for this reason the measurement of temperature coefficients by
removing and readjusting vapor baths was not tried. The increment
of electromotive force is largest immediately utter compression (tempo-
rary effect), and then decreases to the apparently constant values of
the table. The converse holds for the decrement on removing pressure.
At NMP no satisfactory results could be. obtained (§118). At 310°,
although the temporary effects were distinct, the permanent effects
are not warranted.
PHE8SURK COEFFICIENT OF OILS.
I2O0
98. Pressure coefficient of
apermoil— Table 50 contains t^
result*, given on a plan
identical with that of Table
48, for the ease in which the
glass tabu (Fig. 14)
moved and the steel rod
(Fig. 17) inserted. In this
way the pressure coefficient i!0-C
of ordinary sperm oil
found. Table 50 also
tains results for glass made POP
After the work with oil.
These results are shown
in Fig. 18, where little circles 90Q
disti aguish the observations
*or oil.
The pressure coefficient of
600
1 500
sperm oil is therefore de-
cidedly larger, and the spe-
cific resistance of this oil is
usually smaller, than that of ZQQ.
glass (cf. § 103, Tables 56
and 57) ; but the breakdown
of resistance with riseoftem- gOO
perature is more marked in
tlio latter case. Neverthe-
less the data ofTablo SOcast
grave donbt on the trust
worthiness of the data
Table -IS; and hem-en seal ....
must be made fur more ^fifl
highly insulating liquids.
For obvious reasons 1 se-
lected the hydrocarbon oils 300
of the paraffin series.
99. Pressure coefficient <>f
gattaline.— Table 51 cimtuins 200
data for the insolation and
pressure coefficient of very
volatile gasoline.
These results tire shown
in Fig. Ifl.
The resistance of gasoline
is th erefore euur t noil s as co i u
pared with sperm oil, and
above 100° more than 100
times that of glass. Morc-
200*
I
"3008 4O0*"
118
THE MECHANISM OF SOLTD VISCOSITY.
[BULL. 94.
over the breakdown of the gasoline insulation with temperature is re-
markably slow; but owing to the difficulty of keeping the apparatus
free from leaks in the case of this very thin oil, 1 did not make experi-
ments with the glass tube.
Tabus 50. — The in*ttlation and pressure coefficient of sperm oil,
(jj, = 100 fttm. Prefttturo eoeftieient of giant).]
Series No.
0
R
Mean 10*x*y
10*X
3K It
i
10«X*r 1'
r
1
1.
3300
540
1
6200 I
20°.
3500
573
6100 '
18X10V»
810i)
1240
6500 !
X5700.
6500
1140
5700 •;
r
2200
553
4000
1.
500
550
910
100°.
550
010
890
2X10V»
990
1150
860 1
+880
460
550
840 ;
1.
180
550
330 :
i
215°.
200
600
330 j
300X10**.
230
675
340 j
+330.
i
Series Xo.
Mean W>> kr
10»X
4K/R
*P
10«X*r
GlflftH tnbe inserted.
VII.
347
570
600
100*.
373
580
640
240 x 10*w
620.
VII.
90
570
157
215°.
94
560
170
500XiO»w
186
1000
186
171.
•
A feature of these results is the negative pressure coefficients found,
which themselves decrease algebraically nearly proportionally to the
temperature of the oil. At a given temperature the resistance is not
constant, but decreases; and since the gasoline is discolored when re-
moved from the press, the decrease of resistance is undoubtedly a solu-
tion phenomenon. Indeed, I suspect that negative coefficients are
possibly to be associated with solution (§ 123).
I0OO
2000
Fig. 10. — Presanre coefficient and temperature for gaaolino.
100. Pressure coefficient of petroleum. — In Table r>2 data are given for
ordinary illuminating oil (petroleum). The glass tube still has the
form of Fig. 14, reversed. Two sets of experiments were made.
BARU&. ]
PRESSURE COEFFICIENT OK OILS.
119
Taiilk 51. — Behavior of tja*oU*e under pre**ure.
[Initial prcaAtirc j*=200 atm. Iteaistance at 2(P, 2 10*w.]
Serien No. .
0
K
MeautrXlO*
10»x
JR.' It
2-
0
10<P.
r450xlOV»
<
to
130x10*.*
±0.
2.
215©
-330
r220X10V»
—290
to
—200
150X10V*
-140 :
I -800.
-190 :
1
6p
2.70
10« Kkr
K«*ri<*R No.
It
1 1 Mean kr/ 10*
0
2.70
280
280
220
250
-1300
-1050
— 710
— 640
— 700
o
310°.
220 X lOVi
— 1800.
10»X
Mt/It
— :«o
ip
1
—.750 '
—.780
- .v»o i
—590 '
I
l
250
300 '
300 '
300 !
300 j
10«X*r
—1.700 i
—1800
—1900
-18C0
—2000
Tablk 52. — Insulation 0/ pressure coefficient of petroleum.
[Initial pressure, p0 = 50 atm. Prrnsurv corllicient of glass. J
Series No.
0
R
MeanifcrXlO*
10«\
*R'K
6p
700 '
700 j
400
480
10«<*r
1530
1460
Serii'H So.
0
It
Mean Av < lo8
10* •'
Mi/R
tp
10«X*r
Petroleum touted again. p0 — 200 atm.
520 j
570 i
580 i
760
890
750
4.
1<XP.
740 ■ 10««
+ 1800.
560
750
370
360
1500
2100
1
134 I
167 j
177 I
570 I
590 j
580
234 I
1:
282
306 ''
11
—285
—281
—229
—223
—102
VIII.
1<MP.
230 X lt^w
+ 780.
630
420
550
—521 ■
570
—492
570
—404 !
640
— 349
520
-369 '
Glass tub
570
880
610
680
4.
21.7\
64\10S*
i 560.
4.
310\
32X10S»
— 340.
115 ,
193 ,
106
1
200 '
-115
—175
—100
—105
—140
—115
— 130
310 ;
305 '
300 ,
300 '
—105
I
300 ,
550 i
285 !
290 I
523 i
298
495
280
380
640
553
667
—383
—320
—360
—360
—270
—383
—265
—380
I
IX.
1«P.
lO9!*
+ 1330.
400
300 1
1330
vii r.
215'.
200 XIO1**
+ 136.
84
86
630 I
600 !
132
142
VIII.
310*.
50 «: 10'a*
,-43.
20
34,
33 :
40
1
740
725
665
610
IX.
215°.
700\10>«»
+ 83.
20
25
I
36 I
30 ,
300 :
280 !
300
300
26
34
50
63
IX.
310°.
140 :lo*fa»
-76.
66
88
120
100
— 25
— 32
1
— 17
300
300
300
■ 83
-107
- 55
These results are shown in Fig. 20.
120 THE MECTTAVIRM OP SOLID VISCOSITY. {Biti-M.
The specific resistance of petroleum ia not ho high as that of gaso-
line, though it is more than twenty
times that of glass at 215°, and the
insolation breaks down less rapidly.
The pressure coefficients decrease
in marked degree with rise of tem-
perature and nearly proportionally
to it, and they actually pass from
positive to negative values. They
are of a larger order of numerical
magnitude than the glass coeffi-
cient*. At 310°, where the petro-
leum coefficient is negative and the
glass coefficient, according to Ta-
bles 48 and 5(1, positive, a criterion
> of the effect of the oil is obtainable.
'■ The glass tube1 does not stand this
i test fully, since the pressure coeffi-
I dents of oil and glass in series iz
! arc both negative, though tbe effect
'- of the glass is a decided algebraic
■ increascof theoilcoefficient. More-
i over, as the trustworthiness of a
; tube like Fig. 14 reversed is no
\ longer vouched for, I made tho
j remaining experiments with the
i tube Fig. 11. I also tested a better
■ insulating oil.
\ 101. Vressiire coefficient of thin
; machine oil. — Tables 53 and 54
I contain data for tbe insolation and
i resistance of thin mineral machine
'< oil ("mineral sperm"), and also for
• glass surrounded by it. At 215°
the resistance of the liquid is more
than 50 times that of glass, and
the breakdown in the former case
much less rapid. Two glass tubes
of the form Fig. 16 were used con-
secutively. In the first of these
the into :ialand external diameters
of the inner tube were 0-24 and
.tiunml behavior
Inrd by a illucrtlou uf tbe tube lifter i
«*w»1 PRESSURE COEFFICIENT OF OILS AND fiT.ASS.
0.34 centimeters, respectively; in the oilier the di
inner tube were those Riven in $ 87.
TAHI.K 53.-In>iiltilu.n and jjrc**ure nirffiriint iif tltiu Miner,
[p. 150 aim. iMuIuttnant SP, 3.<lu'».]
121
of tlio
Beiio.No.
B
XI 0»
SK/K
*
"-
6.
400
410
Kbj
315°.
wo
420
M0 .1
SSOxufu
1
+M0.
|
b.
— K»
410
—MS
•IIS.
-100
430
-870
HOXlWo.
-i»o
—4.10
-MO.
V I dll.R
Ml'UltrXlO"
1 tp
fcxlO"
+200
: 390
320
410
070
| 130
i
Table 51. — Prmure
S..ri.-« \n
1
|
»
*R/It
ip
fcxiic ' f.
* 1
trX 10*
!
XI.
01
445
137 -i xr.
57 1
400 '
143
S3
420
117
WM0"»
+IM.
1: +145.
XI.
S3
425
127 XI.
71 i
383
US
US'.
07
420
HI
305
260
120*10".
113
375 1
300
+143
!
!
XI.
41
3d
us , -xii.
on :
JH|
170
3100.
43
(B.-UO'u lg
40
431
112 3W'-|<I*»
al
355
175
52
4111
i
1
+m.
48
s
us 'Xlr
2i
";!'
'"'»
'i 2H iMa
07 '
180
I +1M.
1
i
Sonic of these results are shown in Fig. 21.
Repetitions oi' this work led to virtually tin' same uniformity of re-
sult, aa is well evidential by the close coincidence of the data for Hl~fl.
The coefficients of tlie two tubes, however, are not identic;)!. A feature
of Table 53 is the change of sijfii of the pressure eoeflleient when the
oil has become contaminated. It is in these experiments (Table 53)
122
THE MECHANISM OK SOLID VISCOSITY.
[bull. m.
that I specially observed the apparent accommodation detailed in § 121.
As a whole, the data are in reasonable conformity with Table 48.
102. Pressure coefficient of thick machine oil. — My final experiments
were made with a very sticky mineral machine-oil (cf. § 83). Two
tubes of the form Fig. 10, but of different resistances, were used (§ 101).
100" TOO* Sod" 400'
Flu. 21. — Pri'*Kim» coefficient ami tcinporatnre for thin win.
oral machine oil and for glass.
At 310° the oil coefficients are negative, whereas the glass coefficients
remain distinctly positive. This seems to be a conclusive test, since
an effect of the glass in changing the sign, or in anyway increasing
the oil coefficients is inconceivable. The increase of the latter with
pressure at 215° (cf. Table 55) is probably an actual occurrence. The
two tubes again differ in their properties.
BABUS.]
PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS OF OILS AND GLASS.
123
Table 55. — Insulation and pressure coefficient of sticky mineral machine oil.
[f»*=>150 atm. Pressure coofliHont of glass. Oil insulation at 100°, 4x 10''».]
Scries No.
i
i
i Series No.
t
0
K
10»X
aii/it
«P
i
*rXlO*
1 «
1 K
10* '
*R/R
Sp
*rXlO»
Mean*rX10*
810
i
! Meaiv*,-XlO«
XIII.
6.
530
ess '
[
73 | 430 j 170
215».
520
820
635
1
♦215.
42
450 1 92
130X10Vi
125
360
350 '
120 < 10»»
50
400 1 125
+510.
155
400
390 1
1
129.
Tube broken.
- 6.
310O.
18Xl<*»
-296.
-140
—145
—120
-125
-125
-115
440
410
420
450
470
430
—320 1
— 355
-285 !
—280 j
—265 i
—270 j
ed.
Tube of high reaititance inserted.
XIV.
215°.
730.*.10>w
+205.
81
84
16Ti
180
400
420
830
830
415
420
820
202
200
200
220
170
145
160
Tube of low resistance insert
XIV.
310°.
30x10^
70
60
130
xin.
52
415
125
100O.
64
420
150 |
+155.
125
780
160
HXlOVi
115
820
140 !
54
400
135
+135.
09
810
125 '
!
I
1 i
* Dirty after an explosion.
These results are shown in Fig. 22.
103. Digest. — In Tables 56 and 57 I have briefly summarized the sta-
tistics of insulation for oil and for glass. All reference is made to 215°,
since these measurements are the more reliable. The table is not in-
tended to convey more than a mere estimate of the conditions en-
countered.
Table 56. — Breakdown of resistance in the case of the divers oils examined.
Specific resistance at 215
Relative resistanceat 20
Relative resistance at 100
Relative resistance at 215
Relative resistance at 310
Gasoline.'
I
Petro-
leum.
| Thin Very thick
1800X10*
10
2
1
1
400X10"
26
9
1
•6
mineral
machine
oil.
infneral
machine
oil.
1000 X 10* | 1200X10*
300
30
1
oo
30
1
Table 57. — Breakdown of resistance in the case of divers {/lass arrangements.
[Specific resistance at 215°, 10 x lo8.!
1
Glass in— i Sperm oil.
o
100
215
310
500
1
1 Thin
Gasoline, j Petroleum. ; mineral
Thick
mineral
machine oil. machine oil.
I
1400
1
300
1
.o
•05
124 THE MKCIIANISM OK SOLID VISCOSITY. [bull-W.
DEDUCTIONS.
104. Effect of presume. — It appears from Table 48 et seq., that the
pressure-coefficient does not decrease with the size of the pressure inter-
val -ip. The tendency is rather in favor of an increase; but thin is
obscure. Hence the results, obtained are properties of either the oil
or of the glass, and not incidental disturbances. Moreover, I am war-
HT
M>
d:
n» "**.
- (E-
l»
is
ranted in taking the means of the divers pressure coefficients found at
any temperature as the probable vnlue at that temperature.
1M. Temporary and permanent efffrts. — Remarks on the discrimina-
tion of temporary and permanent effects have, been made in §§ 95, 97.
URca.1 PEKSSURB COEFFICIENTS OF OILS AND GLASS. 125
106. Chart. — In order to obtain a clear insight into the data of Tables
48 to 55, it is best to win struct pressure coefficient as a function of tem-
perature. This has been done in Figs. 18 to 22, above. It would be
more in keeping with the present work to coordinate this coefficient
with resistance; but the latter data are not sufficiently accurate.
107. Pressure and chemical equilibrium. — Turning attention flrst to
the behavior of the solid insulator, it appears that the electrical resist-
ance of glass increases in very marked degree with the pressure which
is brought to bear on it. In my earlier paper1, in which I subjected
glass to tensile stress (presumably d Mutational), I found that the resis-
tance had pronouncedly decreased. I also found that the results at
3)K)° were not as evident as at 10(1°. J [once the present and the earlier
observations, though attacking the question from opposite points of
view, are in accord. I am thus justified in announcing that the chemi-
cal equilibrium of a solid chamjes with each change of strain (§ 1 14)..
108. Effect of temperature. — The tables further show that the pres-
sure coefficient of resistance decreases with rise of temperature; or that
the efTect of pressure decreases algebraically as the nninber of free ions
available for the transfer of charges become greater. In an earlier
paper* I showed that the resistance of a liquid electrolyte like zinc sul-
phate in water, or of a liquid metal like mercury, is a decrease of spe-
cific resistance. Finally, the present results for insulating oils contain
several examples in which a passage of the positive into the negative
pressure coefficient is directly observed. I conclude that the curve for
glass, if prolonged, will eventually intersect the axis of temperature
somewhere in the region of low red heat, and that the further course
will be negative. Hence tor all substances, solid or liquid, there is a
point or state of electrolytic dissociation at which the effect of pressure
on resistance is nil, or at which the increased molecular stability ob-
tained by pushing the molecules nearer together, and perhaps of bind-
ing the constituents of the individual molecule more firmly together,
counterbalances the decrease of the path over which the ion travels in
conveying charge. Taking all the results for glass, oils, the solution,
and the metal into account, it appears that the complete functionality
will be given by a curve which is asymptotic both to the vertical in
the region of low temperatures and positive pressure coefficients, and
to the horizontal in the region of relatively high temperatures and neg-
ative pressure coefficients. The nature of this curve I have not been
able to work out (5 lull), nor will it be the same for all substances.
109. Molecular effect n of xtrcss. — I laving thus found a consistent be-
haviour in metals and electrolytes iti relation to strain, I am prepared
to accept the proposition italicized in § 107 as true for solids3 generally,
~~ "Ameri.N.n .Iminisil nf SeiniiM (l^M), >,.]. :IT. p. :149. ~~
• Amnrk-an .J.>:iriwl »r S.-1. m-r (1*iuj, veil. 4«. p. ■>!!>.
■Tu my knowli-dxi- On- mily i-ipci uih-ii(a<ju I tn rflivt if iirFJUnin- nn thn rfniMnncn nf nilfcl mrtnU
an? *n> to (.'liwnlwui (Carl'* lii-prriorium, ml. 1J, p. 28, 187(1,) who tituw* that iIkIi jncnum toriB-
126 THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. [bull. 94.
For the case of metals Osmond1 has partially anticipated me, stating
that strain more or less completely converts cold metals from one def-
inite molecular condition into another. I have been unable to find,
however, that Osmond has any direct- evidence to support this asser-
tion, and I have already pointed out2 some of the difficulties which Os-
mond must surmount before his view can gain general credence. If
mechanical stress is to convert a-iron into ytf-iron, it is not to be over-
looked that whereas the hardness called temper changes the electrical
resistance of steel enormously (as much as 300 to 400 ]>er cent), the
electrical effect of mechanical strain is relatively negligible. Even
though much of this discrepancy can be explained away, direct experi-
ments on metals confirming Osmond's view will not be easily forth-
coming. Two years ago I spent much time in endeavoring to throw
light on the polymerization of metals, by studying the hydroelectries
of stretched and soft wires3, by dissolving hard-drawn and annealed
iron, by investigating the carburation changes of strained steel; but
in no case have 1 found evidence of an indisputable bearing on the
ppint at issue. Finally, regarding the mere statement4 of inferences
of the above kind, I believe I anticipated Osmond by interpreting vis-
cosity in solids4 with reference to (-lausius's theory of electrolysis.
110. Hysteresis. — The proposition of § 107, taken in connection with
my observation of the occurrence of volume lag5, under isothermal con-
ditions, suggests important inferences on the behavior of stress solids
generally, and leads naturally to an explanation of hysteresis. If the
pressure under which a liquid just solidifies, cseteris paribus, is in excess
of the (positive or negative) external pressure at which it again liquefies
(volume-lag6), and if the chemical equilibrium of the solid acted on
changes with each change of strain, then, quite apart from consider-
1 Osmond: Ami. des Mine*. July-August. 1PM8. p. 0: Mem. de l'artillerie de la marine (Paris, 1888),
p. 4. Of course 1 make no reference against the. ingenious experiments from which Osmund infers the
spontaneous conve rsion of a-iron into 0-iron at red heat.
1 Nature vol. 41. 1890. p. 370.
•American Chemical Journal, vol. 12 (1890), page 1.
* Am. Jour. Sci.. vol. 3:1, 18*7. p. 2«\
• Am. Jour. Sri., vol. 38. 1*>W, p. 40S.
•A good example of tlu* volume-lag in given by nn underciHilcd liquid like fused thymol (melting At
53-). for instance, which at. nay, 30 solidities under about 500 at in., and doe* not again liquefy on re-
moving the external pressure. I have worked with para-toluidiuc, naphthalene, a-naphthol, paraffin,
and caprinic, palmitic, and monochloracrtic acids. My original lndief in the general character of
these .italic phenomena ha«* recently Imtii disturl»cd by new experiment*, in which I found for the
HjM'eial cine of paraffin that it would be possible to \m misled by U>ral soliditicatimis of the column
under pressure. The volume-lau is always marked when there is even a suggestion of undercooling.
The action of pressure is then similar to the closing of a door and opening it again without lifting t-h©
latch. Observation-* made at intervals of 20 minutes each, with palmitic acid, showed that at fUSP this
substance solidities bet wren ::uo ami 4oi) jitm.. ;m<l then remains Hid hi even between 200 and 300 at in.
At 10«>\ a-naphthol solidities at ."»oo to 00(1 atm.. and when pressure is being removed it remains solid
until alniiit \:*\ atm. I'mlen-iNm-d caprinic acid at 20° solidities under J.'H) atm., remaining solid. A*
33? it solidities at alioiit ."iOii atm.. and then tunes again at about 2<H) atm. Local sol id i Heat ions hero
suggest the oeeurreiiee of imuners or other impurity. Sometime*, as in the ease of naphthalene, the
volume lag is not Thoroughly static, but Is-comes viscous in character, etc. 1 have yet to studj tho
effect of tern perat ure on tin- magnitude of the volume lair, i- ft., «»n the difference, of presauivn W
thermally «-orresjM»iuliiig to solidification and tc» fuaiuii. Very largo pressure-intervals are essential
for this purpose.
«■]
HYSTKKKSIS.
127
ations directly involving the second law of thermodynamics, quite
apart from the energy dissipated in the cycle, the solid at identical
stress points needs not to he in the same chemical condition while
stress is being removed in which it was when stress was being ap-
plied; for there will be certain groups of particles, uniformly distrib-
uted throughout the solid, which during the "stress-on" phase pass
from a first molecular condition to a second, and which, in virtue of
the volume-lag, do not regain their original state at identical pressures
of the "stress-oft" phase. The march in the two cases is not a sym-
metrical one. This I take to be the inherent nature of the phenomena
studied by Uob.it1, Warburg1, and others, and to which Kiring", after
much original research, has given the generic name hysteresis. In my
note I pointed out the important bearing of the volume-lag on the mo-
lecular behavior of matter4, though I have yet to specify my views in
detail. The occurrence of hysteresis therefore implies a favorable
molecular mechanism of the kind indicated, and one would not expect
to find it at once in all substances.
Conformably with the above, the interpretation given by Mr. C. A.
Cams -Wilson* of his important discovery (to which I alluded in a
former paper) is much more than an analogy.
111. Magnetic hyaterexi*. — Warburg and Kwing have proved that
hysteresis is not only associated with mechanical stress, 1ml may be
very clearly evoked by magnetic stress. Curiously enough, the evi-
dence in favor of the views expressed in $ lili is here directly forthcom-
ing. KemscnV discovery of the chemical influence of the magnetic
field, additionally substantiated as it now is by the ingenious experi-
ments of Rowland and ItclP, proven beyond a doubt that magnetic iron
is more electronegative than mnnnguctic iron. Conformably with the
above paragraphs, 1 therefore infer that this phenomenon is to be inter-
preted as directly evidencing a chemical difference between magnetic
and un magnetic iron, and as such 1 consider it- an exceedingly impor-
tant step towards an ion theory of magnetism". Thus the occurrence
■E«-lnK: 1'
Iiil.
Tniw, vol. a
im... |.. 3ij.
'Am. .lour.
8r
•CuniM-Wil
.-..ii
: Phil. Mm;., v
■■I. ai. am. p. am
, (lu-ni. .Timr..
vnl. !l. HUM. II. 157.
'ICowlaml ii
.nil
Ilplh Phil. Mug. |.-.|. ...Mil, Ins*. ,i.li
.1.41. 1KM ,.. :;THi 1 [Kilmnl mil dial
rai-lli-rrailiitti:
if ii right im.l n
l.-fl lllllil MI-.-H--tllT.-ll.
the »,Y«iuirtri
.■si
iii uflmi I'.Hnrrii-LLt I!
tnilllKl till' HUH
1 .lio.il Inluiil nut hi h
tfl ie|)lilri- 111.
i.r iiinli-ru] ur rum-lit.
From till- [-
lilt
..I vii'W magm-i
i< ian<l cln-trli- fiolit* i
.-.,.1- j.-.ill.-.l
1.-.I ll.
I hil'errc.l Him ili.-lri.-iil .■
Itu-a.'limi uf the nnsiiotii- li.-l.I rimld l»- in.,1*
I'imiUUng in u m.J.-.-iik wll limit n--l««iii.-.
■ri'ly .litr.T in 111- rotational .tuirn.-ti-r of Oh.
niiull ..I' • "
i-linf-m-tlmi
■I in i
kMMrtl'i
128 THE MECHANISM OF £OLIL> VISCOSITY. Jbvu. *4.
of the chemical difference in question, and the explanation of magnetic
hysteresis, as given in the present and preceding paragraphs, mutually
sustain each other.
112. Mvehanixm of riseosity. — Whether viscosity and dissociation in
solids are to be explained with reference to a single mechanism, or
whether we are to conceive of two mechanisms (molecular and atomic
frameworks), one, as it were, within the other, is at the present stage
of research a mere question of special convenience. The remarkably
low viscosity at the yield-points of metals, as well as the similarly low
viscosity near the Gore-Barrett phenomena, are both in conformity with
the sudden passage from a first molecular state to a second, through an
instability.
It may be well to point out the bearing of the singular minimum1 of
the viscosity of hot iron on the interpretation given of Maxwell's theory,2
more explicitly. When iron passes through Barrett's temperature of
recalescence, its molecular condition is for an instant almost chaotic.
This has now been abundantly proved/' The number of unstable con-
figurations, or, more clearly, the number of configurations made unstable
because they are built up of disintegrating molecules, is therefore at a
maximum. It follows that the viscosity of the metal must pass through
a minimum. Physically considered the case is entirely analogous to
that of glass-hard steel suddenly exposed to30<P. If all the molecules
passed from Osmond's fi to his a state together, the iron or steel would
necessarily be liquid. This extreme possibility is, however, at variance
with the well-known principles of chemical kinetics. The ratio of stable
to unstable configurations can not at any instant be zero. Hence the
minimum viscosity in question, however relatively low, may yet be large
in value as compared with the liquid state.
In a preceding bulletin (No. 73) 1 have shown that to explain the varied
physical phenomena which accompany temper, it is sufficient to recognize
some special notability in the tempered metal. This condition is given
by the carbide configuration, and the physical explanations in question
may be made without specifying its nature further. The essentially
chemical nature of this phenomenon is, however, not to be ignored.
Seeing that the amount of carbon contained in steel is not large, the
electrical resistance of hard steel is at once an expression of its chein-
(leniHiii ('-Ili-at." chap, xxn, \ 10>. producing marked effects at the expe nditure of a relatively email
amount ill* work.
The advantage which I nock for in thi«i tentative suggestion has direct reference to my own line of
work. I <*an picture to my -elf the role played hy \\u> foreign ingredient chemically prevent in iron, in
modifying the ri-teiithcuc** ami the magnetic Malulity of the metal. Thu* I conceive the carbon
atom* in hard Meet to he <n» phu cd that after magnetization they Muck out definite closed helical path*
in the metal, along which the transfer of charges must thereafter take place. Hence an increase of
magnetic stability aft contracted with pure iron, when* from any jioiiit four or more anch pat ha may
be open. Again, other subatanccg (mangaiie-e. say) may lie conceived to nnite with tbe iron in each
a way as to *hut nut the iMnnibility of cloned helical pathn altogether. The fact that my permanent
magnet i-» ej*Hentially a »elf-ex haunting engine doc* not seem to be a serious objection.
1 Koltert-* Aiitftiu: Xalniv. v^l. 41. 1»!m. pp.11. 34.
•Hani*: Bulletin. I". S. Oitil. Sur.. No. T.\. 1*91.
•Of. John llopkinson : Phil. Truns., London, vol. 180, p. 443. 1889, where the literature may be ftrane).
feAMTB.' VISCOSITY AND ELECTROLYSIS. 129
ical composition, structurally unknown though it bo. Ilencc in the
electrical diagram of the phenomena of temper, constructed by Dr.
JStrouhal aud myself,1 the time variations of resistance of hard steel at
any given temperature may be interpreted as a case of Wilhelmy's*rate
of chemical reaction, and expressed in accordance with his well-known
exponential law. This indeed is the character of the observed curves.
Hence also the full diagram of the phenomena of temper, considered
both in their variation with time and with temperature, is available for
the elucidation of moot points relative to the effect of temperature on
rate of chemical reaction.
From all that has been said it is clear that the mechanisms of viscosity
and of diffusion (electrolysis), though containing a similar thermal
factor, can not be quite the same. Thus it has lately been shown by
Reformatsky 3 that thcf speed of the same reaction in a jelly and in a
water medium do not appreciably differ. On the other hand diffusion
in solids is essentially a slow process. Studying the colored oxide
coats on iron, Dr. Strouhal 4 and I pointed out that the outer surface
of the film is oxidized as highly as possible in air; and that the inner
Niirface of the film, continually in contact with iron, is reduced as far
as possible. This distribution of the degree of oxidation along the
normal to the layer, is equivalent to a force in virtue of which oxide is
moved through the layer, from its external surface to its internal sur-
face. The formation of an oxide coat is thus a case of diffusion. Con-
formably with this view, the film, during its formation, behaves like an
electrolyte, as was discovered and substantiated by Franz, Gangain, and
Jenkin, and more recently by Bidwell and by S. P. Thompson. We then
adverted to the crucial difference between diffusion in solids and diffu-
sion in liquids, inasmuch as in the former case (solids) diffusion demon-
strably ceases after a certain small thickness is permeated. The limit
thickness of the film is reached asymptotically through infinite time.
It has a definite value for each temperature, increasing as temperature
increases. In the light of other information since gained this explana-
tion is substantiated. The formation of the oxide coat is a case of solid
diffusion, and as such it bears the same relation to the diffusion of
liquids that the viscosity of solids bears to the viscosity of liquids.
The two phases (solid, liquid) of each phenomenon are to be correlated
in ways essentially alike. The available stress, as compared with the
available instability, determines the time character of the result.
To recapitulate: In the usual cases of viscosity there are presented
to us cases of localized destructions of configurations, the integrant
parts of which are stable molecules. In the case of chemical interac-
tion between contiguous configuration (diffusion, electrolysis) consist-
1 Bulletin, U. S. tiool. SurM No. 14, chapter II, 1885.
' Wilhelmy : l'ogg. Ann., vol. 81, 1850. pp. 413, 499.
a ltafornuitnky : Zritflchr. f. phys. chera., vol. 7, 1891, p. 84.
< Hull. U. S. (tool. Sur., No. 27, 1888, p. 51.
Bull 04 1)
130 THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY. [bull M.
ing either of an exchange of atoms or of molecules, there need be no
viscous effect, provided the exchange is perfectly reciprocal. In the
case of irreciprocal interaction, finally, by which molecules are left in
the lurch and broken up, the configuration of molecules will also be
modified, and hence a viscous effect appears. Examples of all these
cases are frequent in the above text.
118. Electrical effect* of aolotropic stress. — It follows from tables 48
to 55, that in an awlotropically strained transparent solid like glass, elec-
tric conduction is different in different directions, the difference depend-
ing on the intensity of strain. Suppose this be considered in connec
tion with the doubly refracting property of such a solid, and again
with Warburg and TegetmeierV researches on the electric conduction
of quartz along its optic axis, with nonconduction at right angles to it
Then the inference is tenable, that the strain artificially sustained in
one case is naturally sustained in the other. Tegctmeier's conducting
sodic silicate, ingrained in the crystalline structure of quartz, and pos-
sessing larger molecular conductivity in quartz than in glass, may be
looked to as responding to strain of the kind suggested.
UNAVOIDABLE ERRORS.
114. Polarization. — In the uext six paragraphs it will be convenient
to discuss some of the errors relating to both the measurements of resist-
ance and electromotive force.
The effect of pressure on the polarization occurring in case of the
above cell and of exceedingly weak currents is somewhat difficult to
handle. Warburg2 and others have shown that the reaction is essen-
tially Na/glass/Hg changiug to Xa Na2Si03glass/NaHg, or a mere
transfer of sodium through the walls of the glass, by aid of sodium
silicate as a conveyancer. I shall therefore have to rely on the data of
Table 49, in which, if a marked effect of pressure on polarization had
been present, it would have been detected. It will be remembered that
I commenced with high initial pressures (p0=50 to 200 atm.) to obviate
incidental disturbances.
115. Insulators. — The effect of pressure on the oil in the piezometer
was specially investigated in each case. Cf. Tables 50 to 55, § 122.
116. Shifting isothermal planes. — A source of error is introduced by
the temporary shifting of the isothermal planes of the piezometer,
during compression, in virtue of the compressibility of the oil contained
in the tube. Adiabatic thermal changes during compression or removal
of pressure would produce effects of a sign opposite to those of the
tables.
To remove both of these it was often my habit to wait 3 to 5 minutes,
• — — — —
1 Warburg and Tcgetineior: Wicd. Ann., vol. 35, 18*8, p. 455; vol.41, 1890, p. 18.
* Warburg: Wied. Ann., vol. 21, 1884, p. 022; vol. 35, 1888, p. 455.
«»».] UNAVOIDABLE ERRORS. 131
supposing the original thermal state was then nearly enough regained.
Longer waiting watt not safe because of fluctuations of the astatic sys-
tem of the galvanometer.
Special testa were made as follows : Tn Fig. 23 let I' Q be the piezome-
ter closed at Q, and receiving pressure in the direction of the arrow.
Let A B be the position of the glass resistance tube. Finally, let the
hollow cylindrical vapor bath surrounding the piezometer stretch re-
spectively from ft to d, or from a to e, or from v to e. Parts lying within
the vaiwr bath have constant temperature, which falls off rapidly
from both ends of the bath towards the ends of the piezometer. When
pressure is applied the vertical isothermal planes of the compressible
oil are all moved from P to Q. With the vapor bath in the position
b d, pressure would thus cool the cud A and heat the end It of the glass
tube AB; but the cooling would exceed the heating. Hence an error
of the sign of the data, Table I, etc. Sow let the vapor bath he
shifted to the position a c and the thermal state be steady. The It-half
of the tube A B is now exposed to cold, and compression can only have
the effect of heating these parts, seeing that the A-half is protected.
rj_ — r -41 5f
fin. KI-IKjieriun.
Hence an error of a sign opptmUt to the data of Table 4S. etc. Finally,
when the bath has the position ce, the error Jirst considered would be
accentuated.
I made experiments iti accordance with this scheme at 310°, but
found that this seven- test did nut change the character of the results
of Table 4.S. Data are superfluous, Again, decreasing the length of
the tube A B bad no appreciable effect. Similar tests were made with
reference to Table 111.
117. FAtrtromulii-cfortr. — It is clear at the outset, since pressure in-
creases both the resistance of glass and the electromotive force NatTg/
glass/lfg. that changes of the latter will act in a way tending to wipe
out the change of resistance. Let c, I, H denote the electromotive force,
current, ami resistance of the uncompressed circuit. Let I, he the cur-
rent correspond inf.' to pressure p, and kK and fr, be, resj actively, the
pressiirc-coellieients of resistance and electromotive force. Then
*.-(J(l + M-y*-lp (I)
Table 10 gives A. = 10 I ft* say, whence the values of Table 58 result
from Table -IS, series in (cf. § IB). In the final column k'R=. 311/11. 3pt
the former coellicieut.
132
THE MECHANISM OF SOLID VISCOSITY.
[bull. 04.
Tabli-: 58.— Allowance for increments of electromotive force,
[0-215?.]
523
995
1411
l
512
1010
1403
5.2
»-9 :
i4-i ;
51
10-2
140
l+J'*-)
h
10* v Alt
lO'XJfR
157
2118
10-47
1G8
21-28
18-11
17d
104
21-37
17-27
1G8
i:.o
2118
10*39
180
ion
21-28
1807
172
103
2137
1728
109
150
Thus the data underlying §§ 100, 107, 108 are accentuated. At 310°
a permanent pressure-coefficient ke could not be detected, and sit 100°
it is certainly very much in error (§ 118). Since therefore k, is never
fully vouched for, I have omitted it in the computation of A-R altogether.
118. Short circuiting. — In case of an uncompressed circuit shunted by
unavoidable leaks, let Rl} R*, R3 be the resistances of the cell, the shunt,
and the metallic circuit respectively. Similarly let ii, i2j i3 be the three
partial currents corresponding respectively to 1m, R*, R3. Let <?Ri/R|
be the effect of pressure on the resistance of the (jell (resistance tube),
and de/e be the simultaneous increment of electromotive force. Finally,
in case of the compressed circuit, let accentuated symbols replace the
symbols for the uncompressed cell. Then a somewhat tedious reduction
leads to
R /R ..*3(l+6>/g)-iV (1+1WR,)(1 + K3/Bi)-1
17 '" "V " * lV"ffi-(»-l)K3/Mi ' '
,_tV(*Ri/Ri)(Rf/«i-(w-l)R3/Ki) h-i,'
• • • (2)
ApIp— *3 \Ui,i/"i; \««*/ "i — v« — *;«<3/ "]/ «:« — «j /ox
^^-^•-Ki+i^/iMHT+JWiM)-! u"' ( '
where <?Ri/Ri = ft<?R2/K2. and tfRg/Ra i» the pressure coefficient of tho
oil through which the leakage obviously takes place. Regarding tfR, /R|
in (2), if the resistance, R3, of the metallic circuit is relatively small, or
if Ri be reasonably small relative to the leak R2, the considerations of
§ 111 at once apply. The case of defc, however, is serious. Supposing,
again, that R3/R1 and R1/R2 are small, the last equation reverts to
-^—(^-^(l + tfR./R,))/^
and thus the changes of resistance due to pressure are interpreted as
changes of electromotive force. Zero or even eleetrometric methods
will only measure the difference of potential of two points of the leak-
shunted circuit. Hence the permanent pressure coefficients (Se/e) of
Table 49 can not but be regarded with suspicion, and they are merely
an essential. justification of Table 48 etseq.
119. A final difficulty in case of short circuiting is not to be lost sight
of. A leak usually includes an electrolyte between two different
metals, and thus introduces an electromotive force in a way quite be-
yond computation.
120. Electromotive force and pressure. — The consideration of the data
BAnrsl ELECTRIC RESISTANCE OSCILLATING WITH PRESSURE. 133
of Table 49 would now be in order; but for the reasons just stated I
hold tbe work scarcely ripe for discussion, and will therefore withhold
remarks until 1 can devise some more nearly faultless method of meas-
urement.
121. Graphic rcprettentation. — Hi order to exhibit the full character of
the individual observations of Tables 4S to 55, I shall discuss a series
of data which I was first inclined tointerpretasan electrical manifesta-
tion of volume "accommodation" (§ 10L). In Fig. 24, A, B, C, theob-
:«■
Q\5\oil)
*»*+
■MMftataa&l
v\ A
700
*00
C\/A_.._B
1 ^ \\ j
l0' Si
12,
Kio. lit. — A, B, C: Charts showing fln» oscillation of tlio eloetrli* cond activity of glaas with prenftare
at 21 .V\ .'110°, an«l again at %1\5'J mHpwtivoly. Experiment;! mado consecutively. D, K: C!hArtit
Hliowin^ th<» om-ilhition of the rlcctrir conductivit) of very vicious- hydrocarbon oil ("mineral
machine oil") with pivsHiirr, at 213 > and 'M50 respectively.
served intensities of current in relative measure arc given as ordinates.
They are therefore inversely proportional to the resistance of the glass.
The abscissa1 are times, supposing that the times consumed in making
each triplet of observations are equal and similar. The oscillations are
due to the fact that pressure is raised from about 150 atmospheres to
about 000 atmospheres, and then lowered to the first value again, thus
giving the three points for each of the triplets numbered.
134
THE MECHANISM OK SOLID VISCOSITY.
[r j.94.
In Fig. 24, D, E, similar results are given for thick mineral machine
oil. In the former, pressure was twice increased from about ICO to 080
atmospheres and back agaiu ; and then from about 160 to 540 atmos-
pheres, thus obtaining amplitudes of different values. In E pressure
oscillated between about 150 and 000 atmospheres.
A, B, C, which were obtained consecutively, show a gradual decrease
of resistance to a limit, very obviously in A at 215°, quite as obviously
in B at 310°, but not obviously, if at all, in C. Hence the inference is
suggested that the continued exposure to strain alternations at 310°
has wiped out all viscous instability possible at 215°. The volume
elasticity of the glass, so far as its chemical manifestations are con-
cerned, is now constant. The objections to this interpretation are
twofold. In the first place the amplitudes of oscillation are constant
throughout, coat, par., and do not converge to a limit. Again, the results
for oil show similar phenomena, not very obviously in D, but marked
in E, wThere both the negative pressure coefficient and the resistance
decrease act together to invert the figure.
122. Electric instability of hydrocarbon oils. — I have finally to refer to
the results obtained with highly-insulating liquids. It appears from
these that the effect on resistance of an additional number of molecules
splitting up in consequence of the removal of a fixed amount of pres-
sure, decreases rapidly with the total number splitting up, where the
decrease is to be taken in an algebraic sense and to include a march
through zero. In the case of sperm oil, gasoline, petroleum, thin and
thick hydrocarbon machine oil$ the observed pressure coefficients pass
from positive towards or actually into negative values as temperature
increases, and at a rate which for the same oil between 20° and 300° is
nearly constant.
These rates (611/11 . 6p . 66) are as follows:
Table 59. — Rate of thermal variation of pressure coefficient.
Sperm oil.
Gosolino.
Petroleum.
Thin mineral
machine oil.
Thick mineral
machine oil.
-3/10*.
— 9/10*
- 6/10*
—10 10*
— 7/10*
— 6/10«
The figures therefore denote the change of the pressure coefficient
per degree centigrade. In a general way it may be noted that this
change is least in sperm oil, where ions are present in greatest number.
Similar remarks were made in my earlier paper1, after an examina-
tion of mercury and solution of zinc sulphate. Both coefficients in this
case were negatives and I was not prepared for the positive coefficients
(611/11 .dp) so marked in the present paper. The data as a whole,
therefore, show that it is not permissible to pass from one substance
to another; doubtless because the number of molecules which must
* Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 40, 1890 p. 222
\
\
BA«rs.] CONCLUSION. 135
split up per unit of area to discharge the field varies largely from sub-
stance to substance. Inferences are to be drawn from one and the
same solvent, either elect rolytically dissociated by temperature, or
modified by the solution of some given substance, or both.
123. The remarks of § 122 are substantiated by the incidental results
of Table 53, where the number of ions is increased by dissolved dirt.
It agrees with the negative pressure coefficient found for zinc sulphate
(loc. cit.). Moreover, by keeping the thick machine oil at 310° for two or
more hours, I found that its resistance continually decreased, while the
pressure coefficient passed from indistinctly positive to pronounced
negative values. Dissociation is here to be inferred.
I have only touched upon this question in passing; but if it can be
proved that the occurrence of negative pressure coefficients is au index
of solution, then metals may also be regarded as holding ions in solu-
tion. In general a sequence of changes of state or of molecule corre-
sponding to gas-liquid, liquid-solid, may be regarded as crowded into
the solid state, though the external manifestations are here no longer
obvious at once.
124. Conclusion. — The present research has been excessively tedious
and elusive. Moreover the final values for the pressure coefficient of
glass (Tables 54, 55), although consistent, do not show the uniformity
of values which I had hoped to reach. Nevertheless the results are
marked, and unless there be some occult behavior of polarization, I do
not believe that I have been led astray in my inferences. In so far as
my results are correct, they contain the first direct and connected evi-
dence of the change of chemical equilibrium with strain.
Regarding the behavior of liquid insulators like the hydrocarbon
oils, the results found present many points of interest, and 1 have no
doubt that a more systematic study of the subject than 1 have been
able to make would throw much light on the details of the mechanism
by which electricity is conveyed.
INDEX.
JEolotropy, electric effect of _ 130
Annealing, thermal »
Annealing (secular), or ateel — 71
Apparatus for Mating viscosity under
■train 18
Apparatus for electrolysing glass, etc. SI, 82, 86,
88, 80, 97,110, 111.112
Apparatus for measuring potentlallzed
Apparatus for eleclrolyzSng oil 113
Auerbach on hardness 27
B
Bibliography of mechanical strains II
Bibliography of electrical resistance ot
glass a
Braun on molecular change 20
Breakdown of resistance In oils and glass 123
Breakup, kinds of 30
Bottom] ey, experiments ol 78
C.
Carbon, how estimated I ii w
Carburatlon affected bystraln 40,13
Carburatlon, results for. dlirunspd tl
Carus- Wilson, views of 72,18?
Cohn on cyclic traction 131
Diffusion, mechjmlsni of 129
Drowne, views of 40, <tl
E.
Electromotive force changed by pres-
sure llfl. 132
Energy potential! zed In strains nil, los. iw
Equilibrium (chemical > of solids io»
E wing on hysteresis 128.127
G.
Galvanometer, adjustment for Thom-
son's 114
Gasoline, pressure rleet rt<-s of. llf. It]
Glass, electrical resutanm ot «s,#|
Glass, pressure elecrnomt lu». 123
Page.
Hardness denned by Hertz 21
Helical paths for Ions .. 12H
Hertz on hardness 27
Hydroelectric effect of strain, of mag-
netization S3
Hydroelectric effect of strain discussed.. 00,711
Homogeneity of steel, how tested 7S
Hysteresis 128,127
Instability, electric, of hydrocarbon oils. 134
Inqulaion of oil, electrics of 130
Ion theory of metallic conduct Ion... 73
Ion theory of magnetization 137, 128
M
Magnetisation, hydroelectric effect of... A3
MajniKiiznt.lon. theory of 127, 128
Maxwell's theory of viscosity 17
M Bcoan Mm of viscnslty I2g
Metallic conduction. Ion theory of _ 73
Molecular change, electrically studied .. 61
O.
PIN. ]ire«*ure coefficient ot eh-ctrlcs of.. t»l
tinnvnd views of 27, 4". 81. 7!, ISO
P.
Petroleum, pressure electrics of 118,
120. 122, 123
Polarization changed by pressure 130
Pressure, effect of. ou electrolytic resists
"ice 124,133
Q.
Qu incite, experiments of „ 83
R.
Recalescence it
Remsen. experiments of 83. 117
Residual viscosity afi
Resistance, electrical, rif stressed glass.. 85,01
Resistance, electrolytic, changed by
pressuro 121,133
Rowland, experiments of 63,127
187
138
INDEX.
S. Pago.
Secular annealing of cold steel 74
Shunts, errors due to 183
Solids, chemical equilibrium of 109,125
Solution, method of measuring 48
Solution, rate of 48,58
Solution, data for. of steel 49
Solution of steel, digest for 59,60
Sperm oil, pressure electrics of 115, 117, 123
Strain, hydroelectric effect of 03
Strained wires, viscosity of 28, 31
Strains, mechanical, bibliography of 17
Strains, energy potent lull zed in 101. 105, 107
Strouhal on temper 79, 129
T.
Temper related to viscosity 31
Theory of magnetization 127. 128
Thomson, views of 82,99
Page.
Torsion changes electrical resistance of
glass 91.95,99
Tractiun. cyclic... 25
Traction changes electrical resistance of
fflasa 91,96.99
Twisting, cyclic 33,37
V.
Viscosity, Maxwell's theory of 17
Viscosity of drawn wires 20.23
Viscosity of stretched wires 23,34
Viscosity of ele^'trolyzlng glas* 80
Viscosity, mechanism of 128
Volume lag, examples of 126
W.
Warburg electr0ly7.es glass 81.85
Warburg on cyclic magnetization 127
YVassmuth, experiments of 100
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TO Till UlBB'TXlH or TBI
United Statm GKOiftrAT. rlUKVVT,
Wasbuiutok, D. C.
DEPARTMENT OP THE INTERIOR
BULLETIN
ir'Unt.
UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
ISTo. 95
WASHINGTON
GOVKBNHBNT I'RIKTINO OFFICE
1892
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY
J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR
EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA
IN 1890 A.NT> 1891
EDWARD SINGLETON 1IOLDEN
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMBNT PRINTING OFFICE
18U2
CONTENTS.
rage.
Letter of transmittal 7
Introduction 9
Instruments 9
•Scale of measurements 10
Differences of intensity 10
Stations 12
Chronological record, 1890 i . . 12
Chronological record, 1891 20
3
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Department oe the Interior,
United States Geological Survey,
Waxkinfiton, IK ('., February 2, 1892.
Sir: I have tlie honor, to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled
"Earthquakes in California in 1890 and 1891," by Edward S. Holden,
and recommend its publication as a bulletin. It is the second of a se-
ries furnished the Survey by the Lick Observatory, the first having;
been prepared by Prof. J. E. Keeler and published by the Survey as
bulletin No. 68.
Very respectfully,
O. K. Gilbert,
Chief Geologist.
lion. J. W. Powell,
m
Director.
,0
m *
'EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1890 AND 180],
By Edward S. Holden.
INTRODUCTION.
The following paper is a continuation of records of tbe same kind by
Prof. Keeler and myself ami it brings tlic list up to the end of the
year 1SU1. It records all the shocks observed or felt on Mount Ham-
ilton, and all those reported to the Lick Observatory by letter, as well
as newspaper report* of such earthquakes aa occurred in the state
during that year. No systematic examination of the newspapers has
been made, however, aud rciwrts may have escaped notice.
INSTRUMENTS.
The instruments used for recording earthquakes on Mount Hamilton
are described in Publications of tbe Lick Observatory, vol. I, p. 82.
The largest and most complete instrument records tbe north and south,
east aud west, and vertical components of the earth's motion, sepa-
rately, on a smoked glass plate, which is started by the preliminary
tremors of the earthquake aud rotates uniformly in about three minutes,
tbe edge of tbe plate being graduated into seconds at tbe same time
by the clock, which also serves to record the time of occurrence of the
shock. This instrument has been called the Kwing seismograph in tbe
notes. Another simpler form consists of the heavy "duplex" pendulum
adjusted to a long period of vibration, with a magnifying pointer or pen,
which records on a smoked glass plate both horizontal components of
the motion. The vertical component aud the rime are not recorded.
The motion of the earth is magnified 4.0 times in the duplex seismom-
eters.
The observatory possesses other seismographs of various patterns,
but they are not constantly in use.
iLi«t of rrcnrdod partluiimkrH in Qdlfornia, Lower California, Oregon, nnd Wiubfngtou Terriio.-j
(from rflW WI88S.) Swrmneiitot Sl*l" Frinliuji OBIoc.
Kuril ..[UiikiMt in CiiUfornln In 1B3H, Anit-rioMi Jonum! of Science, vol. 3T. Miiy. 1889.
E»rtli<igjike» In C»llfornio iu 1889. Bullotlu U. S. Geologic*! Survey So. 08, 1H00.
10 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1*00 AND 181U. 1*lu-05
SCALE OF MEASUREMENTS.
In the record made by the Ewing seismograph both horizontal com-
ponents are magnified 3*3 times, and the vertical component is magni-
fied 1*0 times. The measures of the vibrations as given in the notes
are taken directly from the tracings, and therefore represent the mag-
nified motion.
If both the period T, and the amplitude a of an earthquake wave are
given, the maximum acceleration due to the impulse, which may be
taken as a measure of the intensity or destructive effect of the shock, is
given by the formula —
T *
in which the motion is assumed to be harmonic.
DIFFERENCES OF INTENSITY.
Estimatesof the intensity of shocks are also given (in Roman numerals
inclosed in parentheses) according to the Rossi-Forel scale, which for
convenience of reference is inserted below. Experience has suggested
that for observations in California a few additions should be made
to this scale, and these are printed here in italics. When these are in
quotation marks also, they are expressions actually used in the news-
papers, etc., in describing earthquake shocks, whose intensity is other-
wise known. The scale, as amended, is as accurate as anything of the
kind can be.
I.
Microseismic shocks recorded by a single seismograph, or by seismo-
graphs of the same model, but not putting seismographs of different
patterns in motion ; reported by experienced observers only.
II.
Shock recorded by several seismographs of different patterns; re-
ported by a small number of persons who are at rest. " A very light
shocks
III.
Shock reported by a number of persons at rest; duration or direction
noted. " A shock; " " a light shock."
IV.
Shock reported by persons in motion; shaking of movable object*,
doors, and windows; cracking of ceilings. "Moderate;" "strong;79
"sJtarp;" (sometimes) "light"
won**) THE B0S9I-F0BEL SCALE. 11
V.
Shock felt generally by everyone; farnitnre shaken ; some bells rung.
8ome clocks stopped; aovititleepers leaked; '.'smart;" "strong;" "keav-j/;v
"severe;" " sharp;" " piite violent."
VI.
General awakening of sleepers; general ringing of bells; swinging
of chandeliers; stopping of clocks; visible swaying of trees; some
persons run out of buildings. Window glass broken; "severe;" uvery
severe;" "violent." •
vn.
Overturning of loose objects; fall of plaster; striking of church
bell*; general fright, without damage to buildings. Nauseafelt; "vio-
lent; " " very riolmt."
vin.
Full of chimneys; cracTjs in the walls of buildings.
Partial or total destruction of some buildings.
Great disasters; overturning of rocks; fissures in the surface of the
earth; mountain slides.
The relation between the intensity (I) of a shock as determined by
the formula already given, and the numbers of the Rossi-Forel scale,
has been reduced from all available data up to 1888, and is given below
iu tabular lorn), it is, of course, a rough approximation only.
HobjI- Pon-I
lii trinity.
Diffsronce.
VX,
110
30
IX ....
i.to.
TOO
One of the objects of i he earthquake observations on Mount Hamil-
ton is to obtain data fur correcting this table, so that the intensity of a
V*
shock, as defined mathematically by tho formula 1=-^- (where V is tho
maximum velocity of the. vibrating particle), can be inferred from the
ordinary descriptions of ifcj effects.
12 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1890 AND 1891. [buix.95.
STATIONS.
A number of duplex-pendulum seismographs, quite similar to the one
used at the Lick Observatory, are placed at different points ou the
Pacific coast, but they are not all in operation. The stations are:
Student's Observatory, Berkeley, in charge of Prof. Soute.
Chabot Observatory, Oakland, in charge of Mr. Burckhalter.
Private observatory of Mr. Blinn, in East Oakland.
Observatory of the University of the Pacific, San Jose.
Observatory of Mills College, near San Francisco, in charge of Prof.
Keep.
Office of State Weather Bureau, Ciarson, Nev., in charge of Prof.
Friend.
The reports of the United States Light-House Board and of the United
States Signal Office (United States Weather Bureau) for 1890 and 1801
record a number of shocks not mentioned in the following list, and
they should be consulted in this connection.
Prof. Keeler was in charge of the earthquake instruments of the
Lick Observatory during 1890 and 1891. Mbst of the following statis-
tics were, however, collected by myself. Dr. Henry Crew has kindly
put them in chronological order, as follows:
CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 1890.
January 15. — Mount Hamilton, r>:05:dtlm. a. 111. (Prof. TToldcn). —
Intensity =V — Kossi-Forel scale. Mr. Keeler was partly awake at
the time, and counted one minute from the beginning of shock, and
noted time by watch, P. S. T.^orOo^ilOs. a. m. Intensity = IV,
Kossi-Forel scale. Time1 by earthquake clock = 5:02 a. m.
The record of the duplex seismograph shows the actual displace-
ment of the pendulum bob to have been 2*6 mm., in a direction
almost exactly northwest and southeast. The record consists of a
single nearly straight line.
San Jose. — Two shocks felt about 5 o'clock a. in., sufficiently heavy
to awaken sleepers; from north to south.
January 18. — Napa. — Two slight shocks. Vibrations from north
to south.
Santa Barbara, 3:30 p. m.— Report «h1 in the Chronicle as "quite
a heavy shock/'
January 23.— Chabot Observatory. 4:18^1 m. a. m.— Time ob-
served by George B. Fox. The seismograph ic record accompanying
the report indicates the total actual displacement of the pendulum to
have been 2-8 mm., in a direction from "north by east" to "south
by west.r The tracing is made up of five small waves (small with ref-
erence to the total length of the tracing), which look as if they might
»P. S. T.s= Pacific dope time
aoumr.J CHRONOLOGICAL BECOBD, 1890. 13
have resulted from a simple harmonic motion having displacements in
an east and west direction.
January 24. — Santa Ana. — The San Jose Mercury reports this as
follows:
"Santa Ana, January 24. — A very distinct earthquake shock, last-
ing 4 seconds, was felt this afternoon at 1 : 15, and at 4:30 o'clock there
was a larger and more pronounced shock, lasting ten seconds. The di-
rection was northeast and southwest."
February 5. — San Diego, 10:15 p. m. — "Distinct shock; vibra-
tions from east to west,"
SantaAna, 10:14 p.m. — "Shock lasted eight seconds. Vibrations
from northeast to southwest."
San Bernardino. — "Three distinct shocks, preceded by a low
rumbling noise. The shock (!) lasted for four or five seconds."
The above three reports are all from newspapers.
February 9. — San Bernardino. — Following is the report pub-
lished in the Times-Index of San Bernardino of February 10:
" Quite a heavy shock of earthquake visited this section yesterday
morning at 0 minutes past 4 o'clock. The vibrations were north and
south, and the shock caused a great many persons to arise much earlier
yesterday morning than heretofore,"
Under this date the Examiner, of San Francisco, reports the follow-
ing:
"San Pedro, February 9. — Three mild bat distinct shocks of earth-
quake were felt at San Pedro at 4:07 o'clock this morning. The vibra-
tions lusted for several seconds and were from east to west.
"(,'olton, February 9. — A heavy shock of au earthquake was feltin
Col ton at 4 o'clock this morning.
"Pomona, Februarys. — At 4 o'clock this morning three distinct
shocks of au earthquake were felt here. Nearly every one was roused
from liia slumbers, but little damage was done. In the Progress office
type was 'pied,' and some panes of glass were broken about the city.
" San Diego, February 9. — Another shock of an earthquake was felt
in this city at 4 o'clock this morning. It lasted about a minute, and
was accompanied by rumbling noises."
February 13.— Teuaciiapi, 2:10 a. m.— The following is from the
San Bernardino Times- Index:
"Tehachai'i, February 13. — Three light but distinct shocks of earth-
quake were ielt here about 2: 10 this morning. They occurred at inter-
vals of about twenty minutes. The second shock lasted several
seconds."
February 15.— Los Angeles, about 4 a. m. — Reported as follows
in the Los Angeles Herald of February 16: "Residents in thiscity and
dwellers in its suburbs generally were very rudely awakened from their
slumbers yesterday morning at about 4 o'clock. A long, low rumbling
noise as of distant thunder along the crests of the mountains was heard
14 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1890 AND 1891. [bull.».
by people who were awake at that Lour, and this was soon followed by
a very decided shock of earthquake, nouses shook, windows rattled,
pictures vibrated on their hooks, and it was only very sound sleepers
who were not roused to full consciousness that th« giant tread of the
shaker was abroad. The oscillations were of a long, steady character
rather than of the short, jerky order often felt in earthquake move-
ments. The vibrations were nearly from northeast to southwest, and
were separated into three distinct divisions . The first was the heaviest,
followed by another lighter one at a short interval, and then, after a
pause, a third little kick, less pronounced than the others. This is the
second shock in this section within a year. In old days it was noted
for its frequent seismic manifestations, but for forty years they have
not been pronounced. Their center is noai the San Jacinto peak."
Gllroy, midnight. — A light shock.
April 11. — Ukiah, 11:30 a. m. (t)— Vibrations from southeast to
northwest.
April 15. — Mount Hamilton, 2:00 a. in. — So record but the tracing
of the duplex seismograph, which is an almost perfectly straight line
running northwest and southeast. The total actual displacement of
the pendulum bob is 1*9 mm.
April 24. — Mount Hamilton, 3:36 a. m.— The duplex seismo-
graph gives an exceedingly complicated traciu# in the general direc-
tion northwest and southeast. The maximum possible displacement of
the pendulum bob was 4*0 mm. in the direction indicated above.
At right angles to 'this the maximum displacement was 1*4 injn.
The tracing is folded on itself from nine to eleven times.
Mills College, about 3:39 a. m. — The tracing from the duplex
seismograph indicates motion in every possible azimuth. There is no
marked tendency in any one direction. The max iinuiu excursion of the
pendulum bob is 114 mm. running from north northeast to south-south-
west. By maximum excursion is here meant the maximum diameter
of the diagram.
The tracing is such as might have been produced by "resonance,"
the amplitude increasing as the earthquake proceeded.
Berkeley, 3:38 a. m. (Prof. Soute). — The tracing from duplex seis-
mograph gives maximum displacement (6*4 mm.) in a direction north-
east and southwest.
There is quite a well-marked displacement of 4*3 mm. in an azimuth
which may be defined as " west-northwest n to "eartt-NOutheast." The
tracing recrosses itself from fifteen to twenty times. The disturbance
at Berkeley seems to have been considerably smaller than at Mills Col-
lege.
Ohabot Observatory, 3:37:44 a. m. — Duiation six seconds; pre-
ceded by a rumble lasting ten to fifteen secon.ls. Gcueral character
and size of tracing from duplex seismograph about t!ie same as that
observed at Berkeley. Maximum double amplitude of pendulum bob
nearly east and west, amounting to 5-7 mm. (Mr. Burckhalter).
■oldes.] CUKONOLOOICAL RECORD, 1800. 15
East Oakland, 3t37:40a. m.— Mr. P. d. Bliun reports the duration
at ten seconds ami the intensity as IV (BP),
The seismograph tracing is exceedingly complicated, recrossing
itself probably titty times. The maximum displacement is east and
west.
San Francisco. — Following is the report of Prof, Davidson, as given
by the Examiner: "(1) First shock light, but awakened observer 3 : 30 : 18
P. S. T. Direction, east and west. {2) Continuous shock 3:37:03 to
3:37:23; first part slight; last 'shock like a terrier-dog worrying a
rat.' Trace east and west and north aud south, giving resultant north-
east and southwest or northwest and southeast, according to circum-
stances. Shock rang doorbell in Davidson's room. Stopped clock in
room 30, Appraisers' Building. Ilecorded by Frank Edmonds as north-
west and southeast."
The following from the Evening Bulletin gives observations in other
parts of the state:
" Salinas, April 24. — The heaviest temblor ever known here oc-
curred at 3:40 this morning. Two light shocks were followed by a
third and heavier, which lasted about twelve seconds. These were
followed by four or live more, one of which was sharp and abrupt.
The vibration was from east to west. Clocks were Btopped, but no
damage was done.
" Bennjia, April 24. — The people were awakened from slumber this
morning at 3 :45 by a very distinct shock of earthquake. The vibrations
lusted some seconds and seemed to be from east to west.
" Los GrATOS, April 24. — Two distinct and severe earthquake shocks
were felt this morning about 3:40, the last shock being much heavier
that the first and of longer duration. The vibrations were from east
to west. No damage was done, but many persons were considerably
frightened aud a few clocks were stopped. A slight shock was also felt
about 5 :;J0, but it was scarcely noticeable.
" Brentwood, April 24. — A slight shock of an earthquake at 3:30
this morning.
"Uilroy, April 24. — The damage by the earthquake this morning
was not great. The gas mains were disjointed and the lights extin-
guished.
"San Jose, April 24. — The shock of earthquake this morning was
very sharp, but no damage is reported. Many people were frightened
out of their beds.
" Hollister, April 24. — Temblors began here at 3:32 a. m., lasting
until 5:30 a. m. Thirteeu distinct shocks were felt, and during the en-
tire two hours a continuous vacillating motion was observable. The
shocks were not sharp, but long continued and heavy rolling, the worst
that have over been experienced here. Only nominal damage was done.
A private dispatch states that the MoMahan House was twisted so
badly that cracks were opened in it sufficiently large to admit a man's
band aud that other damage was done.
16 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1890 AKD 1891. [mm.*.
"Redwood City, April 24.— Three shocks of earthquake occurred
this morning, ending with a severe jar, which threw crockery and other
articles from the shelves of several residences. Clocks were stopped
at 3 :37, the hour of the occurrence. The vibrations were east and west
and the duration twenty seconds. The residents assert these were the
severest shocks since 1868.
" Point RetEs, April 24. — A sharp shock of earthquake occurred
here very early this morning.
" Centkrvuxe, April 24. — A heavy earthquake shock was felt here
at 3:40 this morning. It was preceded by two light shocks. Many
were frightened, but no damage has been reported.
" Watsontille, April 24. — There were twelve distinct shocks of
earthquake felt here after 3:30 this morning, the first and second being
the most severe. The \ibrations were from west to east. In the coun-
try north of town nearly all the chimneys were thrown down. The
railway bridge across the Pajaro was misplaced and the train delayed.
" Napa, April 24. — At 3:40 o'clock this morning a heavy shock of
earthquake was experienced here. The vibrations were north and south.
" Santa Cruz, April 24. — There was a heavy earthquake shock this
morning at 3:48, but very little damage.
"Mayfield, Cal., April 24. — A slight shock of earthquake was felt
here and in neighboring towns this morning. The vibrations were from
northeast to southwest, and lasted eight seconds. There was a heavy
atmosphere, with no wind. The tops of trees rocked, making h noise
like a heavy wind blowing. Plastering was broken and the depot clock
and others stopped at 3:37 o'clock. The temperature was 48°. Super-
intendent Basset t and Assistant Superintendent Haydock went south by
a special train to look after the damage done to the track by the shake
between Pajaro and Sargents. It is reported that the track was moved
aibotoutofline,and that the ground settled six inches in places. The
bridge, fifty feet high, is impassable at both ends, the rails being pulled
a foot apart. A large force of men is at work, and they expect to have
the track so that traius can pass in a few hours. At Sargents and
Gilroy there were more than a dozen shakes, and chimneys were
knocked down."
Carbon City, Nevada. — No time reported. The duplex seismo-
graph indicates a disturbance about one-quarter as large as that at
Berkeley. (C. W. Friend.)
San Jose, 3:37:43 a. m. — Seismograph at the University of the
Pacific furnishes a diagram having a maximum double amplitude of
16-2 mm; from the manner in which the index has run all over the glass
one would think the equilibrium of the pendulum too nearly neutral.
May 11.— East Oakland, 1:00:15 p. m. (Mr. Ireland); 1:00:18 p.
in. (Mr. Boise). — Mr. Blinu's seismograph makes the disturbance almost
entirely in an east and west direction; its amount (maximum double
amplitude) was 1-0 mm. The diagram which Prof. Keep sends from Mills
■ ■
holm*.] CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 1890. 17
College indicates a slightly smaller disturbance in a direction south-
west and northeast.
San Francisco, 1:00:15 p. in. (Mr. William Ireland). — Inteusity=
IV, Kossi-Forel scale.
Following is a newspaper acconnt of the shock as felt at San Lean-
dro May 11 : "A very heavy shock of earthquake was felt at this place
at 1 :03 o'clock this afternoon. The oscillations were north and south
and the duration 5 or 0 seconds. No damage reported, although many
of the older houses in town were loosened up considerably, notably the
depot of the Southern Pacific Company,"
May 14. — Santa Cruz— The following general account is taken
from the newspaper of even date:
"Santa Cruz, May 14.— Ever since the big earthquake of the 24th
of April there have been daily seismic disturbances along the line
between Pajaro and San Juan, where the earthquake was heaviest.
Each day three or four small shocks occur, and yesterday sis quite
pronounced ones were felt. Two were felt at 5 o'clock this morning in
this city. The Assure made on the Chittenden ranch, above Pajaro,
during the big earthquake has been gradually increasing in depth and
width. The railroad company is keeping a force of carpenters in the
vicinity of the bridges between Pajaro and Gilroy for fear of damage
by the shocks if they get heavier. It is said that there will be no
change of the time card on the coast division until the earthquakes
cease, as the company does not want to put on the Mouterey tiyer for
fear of accident."
June 1. — Healdsburg, 1:21 p. m. — Slight shock.
June 29. — Santa Rosa, 7:25 a. m. (newspaper). — "Three distinct
shocks; people awakened; vibrations from north to south."
June 30. — Our information of this earthquake is comprised in the
following three dispatches found in the newspapers:
" Petalcma, June 30. — An earthquake shuck passed through this
city yesterday morning about 6 o'clock. The vibrations were from east
to west."
"Santa Rosa, June 30. — Three earthquake shocks were felt here
about 11 o'clock. They were not quite as severe as those in tins morning."
"Santa Cruz, June 30. — Earthquake shocks in this city at 12:30
this afternoon shook all the houses in town. The first shock was slight
and was followed iu a second by a much heavier shake. No damage
was done. The vibrations were cast and west A private telegram
from Sargent station, near the center of the seismic disturbance last
April, states that the shock was quite severe there, breaking crockery
in the houses."
July 1. — The following account appears to be from a San Francisco
newspaper of even date:
"At 33 minutes past midnight of Monday there was a sharp shock of
earthquake felt in this city, lasting ten seconds. The direction of the
Bull. 95 2
18 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1890 AND 1891. (bull. 85.
vibrations was principally northwest and southeast, with a shock
nearly north and south. It was felt in nearly all portions of the city
and had the effect of rousing many people from their slumbers. Gas
fixtures and windows were set rattling, and in some houses picture
frames, loosely fastened on the walls, were thrown to the floors. It
was not noticeable by people walking on the streets, and had no dis-
tinct violence in the down-town hotels."
Gllroy, 12:35a. m. (newspaper). — " Sharp shock from north to south
lasting about one minutc.,,
July 4. — Eureka, 4:30 p. m. (newspaper). — "Quite a sharp shock."
July 24. — Bakersfield, 3 a. m. (newspaper). — " Severe shock."
July 26. — The Examiner contains the following:
"Sissons, July 20. — There were three earthquake shocks this morn-
ing at 1:45 o'clock. The vibrations were north and south."
"Hydesville, July 20. — Several severe shocks of an earthquake
were felt at this place at 1 :40 a. m. to-day, lasting about twenty seconds,
and another slight shock at 8 o'clock."
July 28. — Petaluma, 12:03:35a.m. (newspaper). — Two slight shocks
from north to south.
August 17. — Mills College, 6:50 a. m. (Prof. Keep).— 'Slight,
but distinct shock. The tracing of the seismograph shows three, vibra-
tions (averaging0'3 mm.), in a direction from one point south of vast to
one point north of west.
August 23. — Mono Lake. — The following is from the Homer Index:
"Remarkable earthquake at Mono. — The southern end of Mono Lake
was considerably agitated hist Sunday, and dwellers in that shaky
locality were 'much perturbed. Steam was issuing from the lake as
far as could be seen, in sudden puffs, and the water was boiling fiercely,
like a bean pot, while high waves rolled upon the beach and receding
left the sand smoking. In.a moment the air was thick with blinding
hot sulphurous vapor, and subterraneous moans and rumblings made
the witness think that the devil was holding high carnival down below.
The fences wabbled up and down and sideways; the wood pile at Nay's
ranch locked arms with a big freight wagon and waltzed around the
barnyard gleefully to the dismal bellowing of the dismayed cattle and
the shrill neighing of terrified horses.
" This appalling fraeaslasted about two minutes. Then came ablessed
quiet for a moment, followed by a sudden twitch of the earth, as a horse
jerks his hide and dislodges a bothersome fly. The shock threw men
and animals off their feet with bruising violence, but it was the wind-up
of the entertainment, which Mr. Nay hopes will not be soon repeated.
k< It. was some hours before the lake ceased to emit columns of steam
and the water became very hot. Two springs near the house, long
noted for the coldness and purity of their water, changed their char-
acter and spouted hot mud for two days, when they flowed cold water
holds....] CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 1890. 19
again. A stack of 200 tout* of hay was moved 7,0 feet south without
disarranging it-"
September 3. — Mount Hamilton, 2 :21 :20 p. m. (accurate to one or
two Boconda), r. S. T.— Felt by Prof. Holden in third story of brick
house and estimated by him at II ou Kossi-Forel scale. Recorded on
duplex seismometer, but did not start Ewing.
A slight shock was also felt at San Francisco at 2:30 p. m.; like-
wise at UlLROY.
September*— Mount Hamilton, 10:00:45 a. in. (E. C. Holden).—
'■Swung the hanging lamp in my study." — E. S. Holden.
September 5. — Mrrced, 2:15 p. in. — Vibration east and west.
September 19. — The record of earthquakes under this date consists
of the following dispatches to Sau Francisco papers:
"Calico, September 19. — A severe shock of earthquake occurred at
12:15 last night. There were vibrations east and west. There was
another shock fifteen minutes later."
"Daogett, September 10.— Two earthquakes were felt here at 12 :25
and 12 :50 this morning. The vibrations were east and west. No dam-
age was done."
"San Bernardino, September 19. — A light earthquake shock vis-
ited this city a little after 12 o'clock this morning."
"Barstow, California, September 10. — There was an earthquake
at 12:15 this morning, with a rumbling sound. No damage."
October 3. — Hbaldshuro, 12 :06 p. m. (newspaper). — " Sharp shock,
accompanied by long and distinct rumbling. Vibrations north aud
south."
October 29.— Mount Hamilton.— Two distinct shocks.
First— 8: :5ti: 29 a. m. ± 2s., P. S. T. Rossi-Forel, IV to V.
Second— 8:39:29a.m.±2s.,P.S.T. Eosi-Forel, III. (Prof. Holden.)
Prof Barnard reports as follows : "Coming to the observatory, half-
way up the plank walk heard two distinct and heavy jars in the frame
cottages as if they were falling down. These followed each other by
about one or two seconds. Did not feel any shuck. The noise of the shak-
ing of the frame houses could have been heard perhaps an eighth of
a mile. Beaching the observatory, another shock occurred; did not
feel it; heard a rattling. This was at 8:39:35 ± one or two seconds,
P. S. T.1 I compared the clock in the earthquake instrument case with
the Howard (this was for the first shock). Earthquake clock, 7 : 29 : 0;
Howard 20:42:27."
December 4. — Lone Pine, 9 o'clock p. m. Ten distinct shocks
felt from 9 to 11. No damage done. This was the seat of the great
earthquake of March, 1872, in which many lives were lost.
" This is the first disturbance at Lone Pine for eight or ten years." — 0.
Mulholland, ■
20 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1890 AND 1891. fBULUflB.
CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 1891.
January 2. — Generally felt throughout the state.
Prof. Hohleu telegraphed from the Lick Observatory as follows:
"Lick Obervatory (Mount Hamilton), January 2. — A violent earth-
quake shock stopped our standard clock at eighteen seconds alter noon .
to-day. The pendulum swings about north and south.
"Several ceilings were cracked iu the observatory, and large pieces of
plaster were thrown down in the brick houses. So far as I know no
damage was done to the instruments. The earthquake registers indi-
cate by far the severest shock since 1868 in northern California. Its
intensity was vn on the Bossi-Forel scale. The pen of the duplex
seismometer was thrown completely off the glass plate. Some definite
idea of the force may be had when I say that a swinging lamp, makiug
& pendulum of about 15 inches in length, which is suspended in my
study, was still in vibration twenty minutes after the shock.
"Framed photographs on my mantel were overthrown. It appears
that serious damage would be done to the houses here by a shock of
twice this intensity, but it looks as if the observatory would stand con-
siderably more. The large telescope has been secured to its base by
four holding down bolts, and it is as safe as it can be made."
Prof. Davidson's observation will be found among others reported
below :
"San Francisco was visited by two distinct shocks of earthquake at
noon yesterday (Jan. 2). Both shocks were distinct, but of a different
movement, the first being vibratory, the second proving of the typo
known to seismic observers as undulatory.
" Prof. Davidson states that his chronograph recorded the time of
the shock to be 12:00:40, with an entire duration of fifty seconds. A
comparison of directions observed by various persons indicates the
wave to have moved from southeast to northwest. In the lower por-
tion of the city, from Kearny street to the water front, the shocks are
said to have resembled the rumbling of a wagon, while in the more
elevated residences the vibratory movement was perceptibly felt.
" Santa Cruz, January 2. — There was a heavy earthquake here at
12:02 this afternoon. The shock, which passed from southwest to north-
east, lasted ten seconds, ami was the heaviest felt here in years. Only
very slight damage was done, but the people were greatly frightened.
" Salinas, January 2. — A very severe shock of earthquake wa« felt
here at 12 o'clock noon to-day. The vibrations were from north to
south.
" El Vhrano, January 2. — A severe shock of earthquake was felt
here to-day at 12 :20 o'clock. It moved from southeast to northwest.
Houses were shaken up. .
44 Los Gatos, January 2. — A sharp shock of earthquake was pre*
ceded by a rumbling sound at 12:01 o'clock this afternoon. The dura-
tion of the shock was fifteen seconds. No damage*
Itourc.l CHRONOLOGICAL RECOltO, 1891. 21
"Gilboy, January 2. — One of the heaviest earthquakes ever felt
here occurred at 12 :(>1 tins afternoon. The duration was loss than half
n minute, hut it was- accompanied by heavy rumblings and a sickening,
swaying.sensatiou. Gas fixtures and movables swayed and clattered
considerably.
" Stockton, January 2. — Rather a sharp shock of earthquake was
felt here precisely at 12 noon. The vibrations were south to north.
" Lathbop, .January 2. — There was a severe shock of earthquake at
12 o'clock to-day. Houses squeaked, clocks stopped, lamp chimneys
were broken, etc. No further damage was done. Apparently the direc-
tion of the shock was from east^o west,
"Modesto, January 2. — A sharp earthquake shock was felt here at
noon to-day. The shock lasted fifteen seconds. The vibrations were
north and south.
"San Jose, January 2. — At 12 o'clock a sharp earthquake shock
was felt here, the movement being north and south, and it lasted about
fifteen seconds. Clocks were stopped and buildings rocked, but no
damage was reported.
"1'etaluma, January 2. — This afternoon, a few minutes past 12, a
sharp shock of earthquake passed through Petaluma, with vibrations
from east to west.
" San Leandro, January 2, — A sharp earthquake shock was felt
here to-day at 12:02. The oscillations were from northeast to south-
west. The duration was about ten seconds.
" San Rafael, January 2. — A rather sharp earthquake shock was
felt here at 12 noon today, lasting several seconds. The vibrations
were from cast to west.
" Boulder Greek, January 2. — A severe shock of earthquake was
felt here at 12 o'clock, continuing for several seconds. The vibration
was from southwest to northeast. There was a general rush for the
streets, tmt no damage was done.
" Si'ANifiHTOWN, January 2. — A severe shock of earthquake occurred
at three minutes before noon to-day. The vibrations were fi-oni east
to west.
"Merced, January 2. — A slight shock of earthquake was felt here
nt 12 o'clock to-day with vibrations from east to west. The shake was
heavy enough to cause the glassware on the shelves to rattle.
" Redwood City, January 2. — Two sharp shocks of earthquake were
felt here to-day at two minutes past noon. The vibrations were east
and west." — San Francisco Examiner.
Sax Jose, January 2. — "Buildings shaken so that their motion was
plainly visible. Many clocks stopped at 12:00:30 p.m." — San Jose
Herald.
Hcismographic records obtained at Mills College by Prof. Keep and
at Oakland by Mr. Blinn show the greatest disturbance to be in a direc-
tion running from northeast to southwest.
22 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1890 AND 1891. IHu.IL
Mr. Blinn's seismometer gives it rjiii^-rum indicating that the- mnxi-
mum double amplitude of tlie pendulum was .'1'8 mm. The diagram con-
sists of many (not loss than 25) intersecting loops. So far as one may
judge from the tracing, the instrument was in good adjustment.
Prof. Keep's tracing is of the same general character, but with a
maximum double amplitude of 5*8 mm.
These maximum double amplitudes probably indicate very little in
a diagram of this kind, in which the pendulum makes so many vibra-
tions; for one can not tell to what extent it is a "resonance" phenom-
enon.
The Carson City seismometer (0. 'W. Friend) gives a tracing even
more complies! ted than either of the preceding; it is the smallest of the
three, but every azimuth is filled with fine lines.
The glass plate of the San Jose instrument was jarred by the earth-
quake and the record spoiled.
A third shock of intensity III on Rossi-Forel scale is reported by
Prof. Holden as occurring at the Lick Observatory at 8:18:21 p. m.
January 12. — Berkeley, 1:36a. m. — Prof. Hilgard reports a "light
earth-tremor lasting a little less than a second, but preceded by a
marked rnmbliug from the son th west. "
January 13.— Mount Hamilton, 2:58 p. m., I to II Bossi-Forel
scale; observed by Mrs. BrescDo.
February 15. — Downieville. — Quite a shock felt between 2 and
3 a. in.
January 21.— San Francisco, 2 :24 : 35( p. m .— Art i fiend earthquake,
caused by the explosion of 3,000 pounds of blasting powder, for the pur
pose of clearing away a hill in San Francisco.
But few rocks were scattered ; the hill collapsed and the earth in the
neighborhood showed deep crevices.
No distubance was observed on the San Jose seismograph, which was
watched by Prof. George. Nor was any record obtained at Mount Ham-
ilton, where it was looked for with mercury basins.1
February 24. — Independence, 3:10 a. m. — Reported by Mr. O,
Miilholland as follows: "A strong earthquake shock. The tremor was
preceded an instant by a rumbling sound. The motion appeared to be
a little east of south to west of north, i. e., parallel to the Sierra Nevada
Mountains. The house shook so that the pans and dishes rattled. A
strong breeze from the south had been blowing all night, but at the
time of the tremor there was a brief but complete, lull ; then the breeze
set in as before."
April 4.— Mount Hamilton, 4:30 a. in.— "A light, but prolonged
shock from east to west," reported by Prof. Holden.
April 12.— Mount Hamilton, 9:2!)(t) 41.-— "A sudden, slight earth-
quake of intensity II, Bossi-Forel scale," reported by Prof. Holden.
April 13. — Healdhuuru. — A sharp shock at 11:40 p. m.
■Publication* AMrunumical Society of tbv I'auMa, vol. in, pngu 132.
HM-ms.] CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 1831. 23
Visalia. — Earthquake at 10:30 p. m. Vibrations from north to
smith.
May 8. — Berkeley, G;10 p. m. — Prof, Frank Smile" writes: '-Very
slight in San Francisco and Oakland, so much so that comparatively
few people noticed it. Tito Ewing and Gray-Milne instruments,
though in excellent order and very sensitive, were not set off. The
duplex pave a small record indicating that the direction of the shock
was from northwest to southeast. From individual accounts, I should
r.itc it as II in the Bossi-Fnrel scale.
San Kafael, 6:08 p. m. — A heavy shock lasting ahont six seconds.
The vibrations were from west to east.
May 19. — Sijsanvillk. — Seven shocks felt; two very heavy; time
not reported.
May 20. — Mills College. — Prof. Keep writes: "An earthquake
was felt here last night about 10 -o'clock. The shock was slight, but
was preceded by a peculiar sonnd which made me brace myself for a
severe shock."
The seismographic record accompanying this letter shows the greatest
disturbance to have been in a north and south direction.
Jane 22.— Pasadena and San Fernando.— Slight- shocks felt be-
tween .8 and fl o'clock in the evening.
June 28. — San Francisco, 3 :02 :45 a. in. — Reported in San Francisco
Chronicle as follows: "A doable shock of earthquake occurred early yes-
terday morning. It was not heavy, and was of such brief duration that
not many of the citizens who were awake at the time could have noted
it. F. W. Edmonds, the assistant in Prof. Davidson's observatory, was
at work when the shock came and noted its features, afterward com-
paring his figures with those recorded by a small seismograph. The first
shock began at 3:02:45, Pacific standard time, and ended five seconds
later. The vibrations were east and west. Theu at 3.03:05 there was
another shock, so brief that the duration was not recorded. It was
sharper than the first shake, hut had the same motion.
" Prof. Davidson remarked to a Chronicle reporter yesterday that one
night lust week, while he was making observations tor latitude, there
was an almost imperceptible quake. He was reading the level of the
instrument at the time and noticed that it was suddenly shaken, the
bubble moving backward and forward several times in quick succession.
The extremes of this motion as marked by the bubble were three or four
millimeters apart. The vibrations were north and south."
Mount Hamilton. — Waked sleepers, sot hanging lamps in vibration,
rattled windows, pictures, stoves, etc. Ewing seismograph clock did
not start; components were therefore recorded as straight lines. The
actualdisphtceinentsoftlteearth wereas follows: North and south =0-24
inches; east and west = 0-39 inches; vertical = 0-15 inches.
Prof. Holden makes the time 3:02:08' ± 20s. P. S. T.
'The Hi. I tlmo liuio given 1» probably wrong. E. m. u.
21
kaktii'ifakk* in California in isao and im. ;»■«_».
Mr. Campbell makes tin; time .'5:02:30 ± 2s. P. S. T.
Mr. SHmeheile make* tin- time 3:02:35 (watch). P. S. T.
Intensity on Kossi-Forel scale, V.
Ma yi'iki.i*.— "A slight shock of earthquake was felt here at 3 o'clock
this morning, it lasted four seconds. Trembling vibrations were fol-
lowed by two shocks." — Telegram to San Francisco Chronicle.
June 29— Moint Hamilton, 8:00:31 ± 2 a. m. (W. W. Campbell);
8:00:32 M. M. ttchacberle). — One quick shock lasting for less than half
a second; Rossi Forcl I or II. '•iiecorded on duplex, but not on Ewing
seismometer." No record of measured displacements.
July 13.— Montkukv, 4:27 p. m. — A sharp shock with vibrations
from southwest to northeast. Clocks wer% stopped and crockery
thrown from the shelves.
July 17. — IloLMsTKii, 1 a.m. — Quite a severe shock; no damage.
July 30. — Lkkdo, Mrcx., was the center of a very severe earthquake
about 0 o'clock a. in. It appears to have caused a tidal wave of con-
siderable height at the head of the (iulf of California. The country
is so thinly and poorly settled that no damage was done. The reports
of (his earthquake are so indefinite and contradictory that we have
really very little reliable information regarding what must have been
at least a very widespread disturbance. One newspaper report from
Yuma, Arizona, makes the direction of the shock from east to west.
Among other curious freaks a number of salt springs are said to have
been made fresh; but judging from later investigations made by a
Chronicle reporter who visited the. scene, no reliance is to be placed
on any statement of this kind.
August 9. — MoNTKKKt, 0:11 a. m. — A heavy shock, causing build-
ings to rock. The vibration was from north to south.
September 12.— Okdak City, Utah, 8:4s p. m. (C. Mulholland). —
"Shock heavy and accompanied by a sound like that of a heavily loaded
wagon passing over a street paved with granite blocks. Its duration
washriel. and there was but one shock."
September 16.— Sai.km, Oukuox, 8:30 p. m. — The shock was brief
and distinct, and was followed by a wave-like motion lasting several
seconds. It was felt in all large buildings: windows rattled.
September 21.— Pout Angklks, Wash.— Reports differ as to time,
some claiming that the shock occurred at 4:10 a. in., others at 5 a.m.
It is possible then* were two distinct shocks. The direction of vibra-
tion was from northwest to southeast. Many people were awakened
from sleep. Houses trembled and chinawarc rattled.
Pour Townsknu.— Shock felt shortly after 4 o'clock a. m. Dishes
rattled and sleeping people were awakened.
September 22.— Yictokia, B. l\. 3:40 a. m.— Sharp shock felt all
over city: lasted about seven seconds.
September 23.— llKVLnsiu'Ru. 1 ::10 p. m. — •• Very severe and long-
continued shock; one of tf?e most severe ever felt in this vicinity."
holukn.i CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 1891. 2f)
October 2. — Mount Hamilton. — Prof. Barnard reports as follows:
"From one and one-half to two seconds' duration. A very decided
shock. Gradually increased iu intensity. 7:10wfi I*. S. T. end of
shock."
Prof. Holdeu gives the time as 7:19:65. Intensity II on Itossi-Forel
scale. So record on seismometers.
October 11. — Felt generally over the central iiortiou of the state.
Following are the newspaper accounts:
" San F'rancisco.— A slight earthquake shock was felt throughout
the city last night. It seemed like the heavy, noisy nimble of a cart,
and was perceptibly felt in every part of the town. Prof. Davidson
was at work in his observatory when it occurred. He did not consider
it severe enough to disturb him in his investigations, as the pier upon
which his instrument is placed was not thrown out of level in the
slightest degree. The earthquake lasted for thirteen seconds, begin-
ning at twenty-seven minutes and thirty-two seconds after 10 o'clock and
ending at twenty-seven minutes and forty-five seconds after 10 o'clock.
An unusual feature of the shock was that it began light and gradually
increased until it was greatest during the last three seconds. The di-
rection was southeast to east southeast. Prof. Davidson had no means
of ascertaining the velocity of the shock, but he did not consider it in
any way severe."
Mr! Burck halter reports from the Chabot Observatory that the mean
time clock was stopped at 10:27:49 p. in. His seismograph shows the
actual displacement of the earth to ha vc been 2-5 mm. in an east and
west directum.
"Suist'N, October 11.— At 10:20 o'clock to-night a heavy shock of
earthquake shook up this quiet little city in a frightful manner. The
shock lasted nearly half a minute. It was the heaviest earthquake'
known of here for years. The damage is slight, but the fright of the
people was extreme. ,
'• Oakland, October 11. — A sharp shock of earthquake was felt here
last night at 10:20, the vibrations being from north to south. Win-
dows were shaken, but no damage done.
*' Sacramento, October 11. — A pretty lively shock of earthquake,
or a double shock, was felt here at 10:2H to-night, but it was not heavy
enough to do any damage. Many persons did not feel it.
"San Jose, October II. — A slight shock of earthquake was felt here
at 10:28 this evening. The movement was from northeast to south-
west.
" Winters, Oal., October 12. — There was a heavy shock of earth-
quake here last night about 10:30 o'clock. It was heavy enough to
wake people from a sound sleep. The vibrations were from east to
west and lasted two or three seconds.
" Fairi-ield, (,'al., October 12.— There was a heavy shock of earth-
26 EARTHQUAKES IN CALIFORNIA IN 1800 AND 1891. [bull.86.
quake here last night at 10:30 p. m. and another at 4 a. m., but no
serious damage was done.
" Spanishtown, Oal., October 12. — Quite a heavy shock of earth-
quake was felt here at 9:20 last evening.
" Sonoma, October 12. — Sonoma and vicinity were visited last night
at 10:28 o'clock by the severest earthquake ever felt in this section of
the State. The people were shaken out of their beds, chimneys were de-
molished, windows broken, and the interior of almost every plastered
house in the town shows effects of the shock, which lasted about eight
seconds. The temblor was a series of vicious twisters. Pickett's resi-
dence and wine cellar at the outskirts of town were badly damaged,
the interior of the house presenting a scene of desolation. On S. F.
Ringstrom's farm a large chimney fell and went crashing through the
roof to the floor below. Several chimneys in town were also over-
thrown, but fortunately no one has been injured. Reports from all
over the valley s.how more or less damage. On the Polpula ranch,
which contains a number of warm-water springs, the earthquake caused
the water to gush forth in perfect torrents. The first shock of the
evening was slight and felt at 0:15. Then came the heavy one. after
which, at intervals of an hour or so, there were eight or ten other
shocks. More or less damage was done to every building in Sonoma
Valley. People are greatly excited and everybody is talking 'earth-
quake.'
" Petaluma, October 12. — At twenty-five minutes past 10 last night
the heaviest earthquake shock since 1808 passed through Petaluma.
Door-bells were rung and some plastering badly cracked. The heavy
shock was preceded a few minutes by a light one, and after it came
six or seven otlier shocks, the last one being at 5 o'clock this morning.
Many people were kept awake most of the night. The main shock
lasted fully nine seconds.
<rNAi»A, October 12. — The heaviest earthquake shock ever felt here
was experienced at 10:34 o'clock last night. The people rushed out
into the streets greatly frightened, and the whole town was in commo-
tion. The shock was especially heavy at the insane asylum, and the
inmates were almost uncontrollable.
" The first shock came at 9:16, but it was light. At 10:29 came the
heavy shock, which lasted forty-six seconds. It was a twisting mo-
tion from right to left. Some people fainted, and all were greatly ex-
ercised, but no fatalities are reported. Lighter shocks followed during
the entire night. Some say there were twelve shakes, while others
profess to have counted as high as seventeen. Some people remained
in the street all night, aud others did not sleep for fear of a repetition
of the dread sensation. The damage will not be very heavy on any
one building, but in the aggregate is considerable. Scores of chimneys
are thrown down or turned three-fourths around. Many brick build-
•/
m»u>K(.| CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 1891. ' 27
ings are badly cracked, and the wall decorations in most of the fine
houses iirt* badly damaged, while nearly every house had some bric-a-
brac and crockery destroyed. The insane asylum reports some dam-
age to the walls and tower, but nothing serious.
"St. Selena, October 12. — The heaviest earthquake shock ever ex-
perienced here occurred at 10:30 o'clock last evening. Houses shook,
crockery rattled, and clocks stopped. The vibrations appeared to be
south to north, followed half an hour later by a light shock, and one
also at 5 o'clock this morning.
" Santa Rosa, October 12.— The severest earthquake shock felt
here in four years occurred last night at 10 :32 o'clock. The oscilla-
tions lasted forty-live seconds. A slight trembling was perceptible
for three or four minutes.
" Sam Rafael, October 12. — The most severe earthquake exper-
ienced here for years was felt last night at 10:26 o'clock. The
shock lasted about twelve seconds. It was preceded by a dull rum-
bling noise like a heavy wagon rolling over the pavement. Much ex-
citement was caused, and saloons and business places open at the time
were soon relieved of their patrons, everybody seeking refuge in the
street. Two shocks of lesser power were felt this morning about- 4
o'clock."
October 13.— Mount Hamilton, 11:0:30 (Prof. Holden). — "Inten-
sity II, Rossi-Forel scale."
Prof. Barnard reports as follows: "Three shocks of earthquake
wore felt in rapid succession. Interval between the individual shocks
about one and a half seconds. The last of these three was the most
severe. This occurred at 11:00:09 P. S. T. The shocks were simply
quick jerks, and ought to have been powerful enough to wake a per-
son from ordinary sleep."
Mills College, 10:28 p. in. — Prof. Keep sends a very complicated
diagram from his seismograph, indicating disturbances in all directions.
Maximum north and south = 3-0 mm. ; maximum east and west =
4*0 nun.
The above figures are for the actual displacements of the earth. •
October 14. — San Francisco. — Felt in all parts of the city. Prof.
Davidson says: "The last shake was similar to the one of the 11th in-
stant in its wave like vibrations. Its greatest force was during the first
seven seconds, and its entire duration was ten seconds. Time of be-
ginning, 4 :'t.'t:23 o'clock. Direction of the vibration, north and south."
Following are newspaper accounts:
" Napa, October 14. — The earth continues to tremble. Four shocks
have been felt here this morning. At 4:30 a. in. the people were
startled with quite a heavy shock, and several lighter ones have fol-
lowed. The damage done by Sunday night's shock is much more than
28 EAfcTHQKAKEK IX CALIFORNIA ltf 1890 AND 1891. [bci.l.9&.
was at first supposed and will amount to several thousand dollars.
Many of the people here are so terrorized that they have hardly slept
since Sunday evening, and the slightest shock now starts many into
tin* streets."
" Petal i ma, California, October 14. — Another lively earthquake
shock passed through Petaluma this morning about 4:30 o'clock, and a
much lighter one about 7. The vibrations were north to south.''
"Suisun, October 14. — Shortly after 4 o'clock this morning the peo-
ple here were aroused from their slumbers by another sharp, severe
shock of earthquake. Jt was not as severe as the first one that occurred
on Sunday night."
"San Kafael, October 14. — Quite a severe earthquake shock was
felt here this morning at 4:25 o'clock. The shock lasted about ten
seconds. The vibrations were from west to cast."
Prof. Keep reports that the seismograph at Mills College indicated
an actual displacement of the earth in an east and west direction
amounting to 1 mm.
October 27.— Mo i nt Hamilton, 0:35:43:fcls. (Prof. Holden). — In-
tensity I or II on Kossi-Forel scale. Prof. Barnard reports this as **a
decided shock," occurring at (i:3f>:44.
November 8. — Ashland, Okegon. — Following is the news] taper
account: "The first time an earthquake shock has been felt in Ashland
for years was last night about 8 o'clock, when a distinct shock, though
light and lasting only a very few seconds, caused a general rattling of
window panes in many buildings in town. Though the shock was not
heavy enough to cause even timid people any alarm, many unused to
such occurrences did not realize what the disturbance was at the time."
November 29. — Seattle. — At 3:21 o'clock this afternoon two
shocks of earthquake, lasting about five seconds each, were felt here.
No damage was done.
The direction of the vibrations was southeast to northwest. One
building swayed so much that the elevator bumped against the side of
the shaft and could not move until the shock was over. Lake Wash-
ington, on the east side of town, was lashed iuto a foam, and the water
rolled on to the- beach 2 feet above the mark of the highest water and
s feet above the present stage. •
Reports from Snohomish and Bellingham Bay towns say the shock
was plainly felt there.
Pout Tow.wsend, November 2!>. — A distinct shock of earthquake
was felt here at .'>: 1 4 this afternoon. The shock continued fully twenty
seconds. Buildings shook, windows rattled, and many persons rushed
out of their houses. There was no damage done.
Tacoma, November 29. — A slight earthquake was felt all over the
city at .'I: Hi this afternoon. No damage was done. Dispatches say
there was a severe shock but no damage done at Olyinpia.
CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, Ih91.
29
Mhndocino, November 29. — Two shocks of earthquake were felt last
niyht at 10:45 o'clock, preceded by a ruin blinj,' noise. There were two-
minute intervals.
December 16. — Mount Hamilton, 8:28:12 a. in.— Prof. Schaebnrle
estimates the intensity at I on the Kossi-Forel gcale.
December 21. — Mount Hamilton, fi:15:41 ± p. in. (Prof. Hol-
den). — Intensity II on Komi-Forel scale.
December 29. — Mount Hamilton, 3:2C: 56 ± 3s. a. m. — Intensity
1 to II on lloasi-Forel scale.
INDEX TO PLACES,
AuManil . .
B*ke»jit-hl
IWdvy
Boulder Urn-
Bn-alwoud..
I)iiwiLi(-vL!U'
Port Tbwiiw
HedwufflUUl
ia,u,2j
23
T. 18,21,38,18
Naliniw 15,20
Sail RpTuilnlllHi 13, 1»
.ml.'
1»,18 San Fraud*™ .
XI Vera no 20 Sun Jose
Eureka Id i Sau Leunrlro . .
K»irlH.-lil 25 i Sira Totlm . . . .
uMln.y HIS, 18.1B.21 ] Ban Ralavl
HfflM-liurc U. 10,22, 24 ' Mania Am ....
llnlHatiT IS, 24 ( Sunu Ifcirlwrn
HjilmvfUu 18 j Mania Unix ■ ■--
Iniiei" ii.l.iiii'. ...*. 22 I Sautii K.aa
Utfimjj 21 [ Bwltlo
h- PJiw
19
13 i Ni>:iiiisli:i>
Uillo r.il1(-Kt« -
UalmtO
Uono Laki- . . ..
llontorvy
LIBRARY CATALOGUE SUPS.
United flt*le». Department of (An interior. (£T. 8. geological tarray).
Department of the interior | — | Bulletin | of the ] United
States | geological survey no. 96 ] [Seat of the deportment] ]
Washington | government printing office ] 1892
S&ffwd Kile: United States geological aurvey | J. W. Powell,
director | — | The | volume thermodynamics | of | liquids | hj |
Carl Unroa | [Vignette] |
Washington | government printing office | 1893
B°. 100 pp. apL
Baxoa (Carl).
United Statu geological survey | J. W. Powell, director | — |
The | volume thermodynamic* | of | liquids | by | Carl Barn* |
[Vignette] |
Washington | government printing office | 1893
B°. 100 pp. SpL
(P. 8. ytolofUud lurttjf).
tj United States geological snrvey | J. W. Powell, director | — {
g . The [ volume thermodynamics | of | liquids | by | Carl Barns |
| [Vignette] |
7 Washington | government printing office | 1892
■ 8°. 100 pp. 8 pi.
e [UflTEn SrATU. Dtpartmtnt if On inUriar. iff. S. g
J Bulletin W.J
ADVKBTI8SMBNT.
[Bulletin No. M.)
The publications of the United State* Geological Survey an Issued In eccordanoe with the statute
approved March 3, 1879, which declares that—
"The publications of the Geological Survey shall OODtist of the annual report of operations, geological
and economic maps SDnstraflng the resources and class! flaVUon of the lands, and reporta upon general
and economic geology and paleontology. The annual report of operations of the Geological Survey
shall accompany the annual report of the Secretary of the Interior. All special memoirs and reports
ol said Survey shall be leaned in uniform quarto series If deemed necessary by the Director, bnt other-
wise In ordinary octavos. Three thousand copies of each shall be published for solentlno exchanges
and for sale at the price of publication; and all literary and cartographic materials received In exchange
is property of the United States and form a part of the library of the organisation ; and the
o the Treasury of the United
nent publics.
On July T, 1832, the following joint resolution, referring to all G
by Congress:
■' That whenever any documentor report, shall be ordered printed by Congress, there shall be printed.
In addition to the number in each case stated, the ' usual number ' (1,M0) of copies) for binding and
distribution among those entitled to receive them."
Except in those cases In which an extra number of any publication has been supplied to the Surrey
by special resolution of Congress or ha* been ordered by the Secretary of the Interior, this oflloo has
no copies for gratuitous distribution.
AKKTTAL REPORTS.
J. i'irat Annual Report of the United States Geologic al Surrey, by Clarence King. 1880. 8". 7»pp.
1 map. — A preliminary report describing plan of organisation and publications.
II. Second Annual Report of the United State* Geological Survey, 1880-' 81, by J. TC. Powell. 1882.
III, Third Annual Report of the United States Geological Surrey, loel-'ES, by J. W.
8s. xvlil, S04 pp. AT pi. and maps,
IV. Tutirth Annual Report of^he United States Geological Survey, 1682-'83, by J. W.
:xii,47;ti
is United States
a eolo gical Survey, lSTO-'es, by J. W.
Geological Surrey, 18W-'S5, by J. W.
T. Fifth Annual Repoi
8°. xxxvl, 1(19 pp. W pi. and maps.
VI. Sixth Annual Report or the United
8°. xxix, STO pp, 65 pi. and maps.
Til. Seventh Annual Rooortof the United States Geological Survey, ISSS-'eB, by J. W.
6°. IX, 056 pp. 71 pi. and maps.
Till, Eighth Annual KVporlof the United State* Geological Survey, ISStt-'BJ, by J.
|e. -2\: nit, 171, xlipp. « pi. and mapa; 1 p. 1., 475-1083 pp. 91-78 pi. and maps.
IX. Ninth Annual Koport of the United Slates Geological Survey, IsaT-'SS, by J. V.
8=. xili, 717 pp. m ],1. an,] Liiijia.
X. Tenth Auiiual Ki-purt of the United States Geological Survey, 18B3-'89, by J. W.
Powell. 188).
Powell. 1884.
Powell. 1683.
Powell. 188*,
'1 [>!'■
•J pi. a
XI. Kb
8". a v.
XII. Twelfth Annual Report of the U,
jo. ;,. iiii.«i|ip. 53 pi. and map
ThcTliirt.eutb Annual Report is ll
if tho United Stat™ Geological Survey, 188»-'80, by .1. W.
*57 pp. 00 pi. and maps; Ix, 381 pp. 30 pi.
~ 'tedStatosGool,igicalSurvev,1880-'»l.b)
xvtli, 670 pp. 148 pi. and maps.
MONOGRAPHS.
1'ow ell. 1891.
I. Like lionnovllle, by Grove Karl Gilbert. 1880. 1". xx. 138 pp. 81 pi. 1 map. Price 81.50.
II. Tertiary History of the Grand Gallon District, with atlas, by Clarence E. Dutten, Capt. U.S.A.
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■ DnucToa or the
llHlTID STAT18 Geological Sl'BVIT",
Wasulmotor;, D. C.
DHl'AltTMBNT OF THE INTERIOR
BULLETIN
UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
No. 96
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTIKC! OFFICII
1892
IH^HHBl
UNITED STATES- GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY
J. W. POWKLL. DIRECTOR
THE
VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS
LIQUIDS
CARL BARU8
WASHINGTON
IITEBNUENl PB1NTIHG OFFIUK
1802
CONTENTS.
Page.
Letter of transmittal 13
Preface 15
Chapter I. Method of obtaining anil of measuring very high pressures 17
Introduction 17
The screw compressor ! 18
General method 18
Special devices 18
Steel screw 18
Barrel. Head 19
Barrel. Head, improved 19
Barrel. Body 20
Barrel. End with piezometer tube 20
Piezometer tube. Vapor bath 20
Method of filling 20
Case for protection 21
Vertical piezometer 21
Pressure measurement *. 22
Tait gauge. Adjustment 22
Tait gauge. Graduation 23
Tait gauge. Volume increase measured and computed • 29
Direct reading. Bourdon gauge 30
Concluding remarks 31
Chapter II. The isometrics of liquids 33
Introduction 33
Apparatus 33
Constant volume tube 33
Manipulation ' 34
Method of filling 35
Vapor baths 36
Method of cooling piezometer 37
Method of temperature measurement 38
Method of pressure measurement 38
Preliminary results 38
Data for ether 38
Discussion 39
Definite results 40
*
Apparatus improved 40
Notation .• 41
Data for ether 41
Method of purifying 42
Observations for ether 42
Observations for alcohol 44
Observations for thymol, para-toluidiue, and diphonylamiiie 45
5
6 CONTENTS.
Chapter II. The isometrics of liquids — Continued.
Temperature** corrected 46
Behavior of the torsion galvanometer 46
Air thermometer comparisons. Apparat us 47
Air thermometer comparisons. Observations 48
Isometrics corrected as to temperature 51 *
Correction for the thermal and elastic volume changes of the glass
tubes 54
Thermal expansion of glass 54
Compressibility of glass 55
Compressibility of the above liquids 55
Deductions 58
Curvature and slope of the isometrics 58
Final interpretation 60
Isometrics of solid glass 61
Conclusion 62
Chapter III. A comparison of the Bourdon, the Tait, and the Amagat high-
pressure gauges 63
Historical 63
The earlier work 63
Amagat's manometer 63
Bourdon gauge 64
Discussion of results 65
Multiplying mechanism 65
Fraunhofer micrometer 6^
Tait gauge 67
Summary v . 69
Chapter IV. The continuity of solid and liquid 71
Introductory - 71
Scope of the work 71
Other methods tested ; . 72
Advantages of the present method 73
Apparatus 73
Temperature 73
Pressure 74
The volume tube 74
Method of measurement 77
Constants of the tube 77
Volume of the charge 78
Correction for expansion ami compressibility of envelopes 78
Resistance measurement 79
Calibration 79
Electrolytic resistance and temperature 80
Volume in terms of resistance 82
Pressure coefficient of the electrolyte 82
Results of the measurements 83
Arrangement of the tables 83
Solid isothermal, 63° 84
Liquid-solid isothcrnials, 80° 85
Liquid-solid isothermal*, 90° 85
Liquid-solid isothermals, 100° 86
Liquid solid isothermals, 117° 87
Liquid-solid isothermals, 130° " 88
Deductions 89
Graphic construction 89
Hysteresis
CONTENTS.
Chapter IV. The continuity of solid md liquid — Continued.
Dim 1 11 o t i o us — Con tin ued .
J amen Thomson's double inductions
The characteristic ipecUic volumes
Critical point
.Solidifying point* and melting points
Transitional point
Solubility and pressure
Conelnsion
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Pafre.
flat© I. Pcrew compressor, with parts in place 18
II. Diagram showing the isometrics of ether, alcohol, thymol, para-
toltiidine, and diphcnylaminc 58
III. Tubular piezometer, with appurtenances 76
IV. Fusion isothermals of naphthalene. First set 86
V. Fusion isothermals of naphthalene. ►Second set 88
VI. Fusion isothermals of naphthalene. Third set 90
VII. Fusion isothermals of naphthalene. Fourth set. 92.
VIII. Diagram showing the conditions of fusion and of solidification. . . 94
Fig. 1. ('hart showing the bow-shaped cycles obtained in the gauge com-
parisons 25
2, 2a. Direct reading helical Bourdon gauge 29
3. Chart showing the action of the helical ISourdon gauge 31
4. Constant volume tube; longitudinal section 33
5. Constant volume tube; diagram 34
6. Method of fastening the terminals 35
7. Vapor bath and piezometer tube; longitudinal section 37
8. Isometrics of ether; preliminary results 40
9. Sectional vapor bath, for comparing air thermometer and ther-
mocouple 48
10. Longitudinal elevation of one of the halves of vapor bath, show-
ing the t hermometers in place 49
11. Comparison of the Amagat manometer and the Taif gauge 69
12. "Piston libre." for high pressure 70
13. Diagram of the volume tube 75
9
TABLES.
Page.
Table 1 . Comparison of Tait gauge No. 0, and Bourdon gauge 24
2. The same gauge comparisons after long use 24
8. High pressure tests l... 24
4. Comparison of large Bourdon gauge with Tait gauge No. 1 26
5. Comparison of Tait gauges Nor. 1 and 4 27
6. Calibrations of Tait gauges Noh. 1 and 4 28
7. Comparison of Tait gauges Nos. 1 and 4 28
8. Calibrations of Tait gauges Nos. 1 and 4 28
9. Comparison of Bourdon gauge and the spiral gauge 31
10. Isometrics of ether. Preliminary results 38
11. Digest of these data 39
12. Isometrics of ether. Observations 42
13. Isometrics of alcohol. Observations 44
14. Isometrics of thymol. Observations . 45
15. Isometrics of para-tolnidine. Observations 45
16. Isometrics of diphenylamine. Observations 46
17. Constants of the torsion galvanometer and couple 47
18. Comparison of thermocouple and air thermometer 50
19. Data interpolated from the above 60
20. Isometrics of ether. Temperatures corrected 51
21. Isonio tries of alcohol. Temperatures corrected 53
22. Isometrics of thymol. Temperatures corrected 53
23. Isometrics of para-tolnidine. Temperatures corrected 54
24. Isometrics of diphenylamine. Temperatures corrected 54
25. Isometrics of solid glass 54
26. Correction factors, being compressibilities at 0 ° and p atm 56
27. Corrections for thermal and elastic volume changes of glass tubes.. 57
28. Isometrics. Digest of probable results corrected 58'
29. Observed initial slopes of the isometrics 59
30. Order of values for internal pressure 61
31. Cyclic comparison of the Bourdon gauge with the Amagat mano-
meter. Multiplying gear 64
32. Cyclic comparison of the Bourdon gauge with the Amagat mano-
meter. Fraunhofer micrometer 65
33. Cyclic comparison of the Tait gauge with the Amagat manometer. . 67
34. Volumes per unit of length ^ 80
35. Temperature coefficients and pressure coefficients of concentrated
zinc sulphate solution 81
36. Relation of volume and resistance at different temperatures 82
37. Pressure coefficients 82
38. Isothennals of naphthalene at 63.5° 84
39. Isothennals of naphthalene at 83° 85
40. I so thermal 8 of naphthalene at 90° 85
41. Isothennals of naphthalene at 100° 86
42. l8othermais of naphthalene at 117° 88
43. Isothermals of naphthalene at 130° 88
44. Volumes of solid and liquid at solidifying points varying with pres-
sure 91
45. Volumes of solid and liquid at melting points varying with pressure. 92
46. Showing the relation of solidifying point and melting point with
pressure. Naphthalene 94
11
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Department of the Interior,
TJ. S. Geological Survey, Division of Chemistry and Physics,
Washington, D. C„ Nrptember o, 1891.
Sir: I transmit herewith a manuscript by Dr. Carl Bums upon work
dour in the Physical Laboratory of this* division, entitled "The Volume
Thermodynamics of Liquids." I recommend that it be published as a
bulletin of the Survey.
Very respectfully,
P. W. Clarke,
Chief Chemist
lion. J. W. J'OWELL,
Director.
13
PREFACE.
In the following chapters, I have commenced a serious study of (lie
volume thermodynamic* of liquids and solids. The work is, as yet, con-
fined to volume, pressure, and temperature. Questions involving en-
tropy and energy are also iu active progress, but can not be included
in the present bulletin.
Accordingly the first and third chapters describe the method of gen-
erating and measuring high pressure (i. e., pressures up to 2,000 or
3,000 atmospheres) in full. The second chapter treats of the isometrics
of liquids, and it is found that they can be very nearly represented by
straight lines (Levy, Ramsay, and Young). The fourth chapter finally
traces the isothermals, as yet of but one substance; but the results are
none t he less noteworthy since they indicate the occurrence of a criti-
cal temperature solid-liquid, and show a probable method of coordinat-
ing the normal type of fusion with the ice type, in a continuous diagram.
The far-reaching importance of hysteresis, as accompanying all changes
of molecule, whether chemical or physical, whether induced by stress,
magnetization, temperature, or the intervention of affinity, and whether-
observed electrically, mechanically, or chemically, etc., is emphasized.
The work as a whole is tributary to the geologic views of Mr, Clar-
ence King, by whom the importance of a deeper insight into the vol-
ume changes of liquids and solids was pointed out. 0. B.
*.- J
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS.
By Carl Barus.
0 JIA PTEE I.
METHOD OF OBTAINING AND OF MEASURING VERY HIGH PRES-
SURES.
INTRODUCTION.
1. Andrews's screw compressor has this advantage, that the strains
are all brought to bear within the compass of the barrel. In other
.arrangements, such for instance in which a cylindrical plunger is forced
into the barrel, stress must be exerted on the bed plate or applied in
a way tending to flexure of the plunger. It seemed to me, therefore,
that the screw compressor might well be taken as a model for an ap-
paratus of greater strength and efficiency than was necessary in An-
drews's work. Indeed, Andrews himself seems to have been of this
opinion,1 and toward the close of his life devised an apparatus in which
screw plungers are an essential part. Hannay and Hogarth,* however,
were the first to carry a practical improvement of the screw into exe-
cution. They reached pressures but slightly short of 900 atmospheres,
stating that their reasons tor stopping work at this datum are quite
apart from the efficiency of their apparatus. With the screw compressor3
described below I obtain 2,000 atmospheres with facility (§ 17, 23). It
is so constructed that a considerable volume of liquid can be operated
upon, admitting of compressions of bulk of 5 cubic inches. Finally,
special provision is made for the insulation of parts, thus enabling the
operator to apply the essential electric methods in studying his test
samples.4
Particular notice should here be given of the remarkable modifica-
tion of Desffofte's differential manometer, by which Amagat* succeeded
ERRATITM.
18 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. Fbuil.9*
pressure, but whereas on the one band Amagat has as yet given only
a meager account of his machine, Prof. Tait on the other has so recently
described an apparatus on the priuciple of the "manometre j\ pistons
libres," that it seems expedient to refer the reader to Prof. Tait's
memoir.1
THE SCREW COMPRESSOR.
2. General method. — The apparatus consists essentially of a strong
wrought-iron barrel ABC, PL i, the head of which A A is suitably
threaded, so that a steel screw SSTT can be forced into it. The pie-
zometer tubes are attached at the end GC of the barrel. Barrel and
tubes are quite filled with oil.
3. Special devices. — It will facilitate comprehension if I state here at
the outset the two chief devices used in the construction of the machine.
The first of these is the tinned screw. This is an ordinary, well cut ma-
chine screw of iron or steel, covered with a uniform thin adhesive layer
of solder by dipping it in a vessel of the fused metal, soldering salts being
used in the ordinary way. Screws of this kind, when forced into their
sockets, secure complete freedom from leakage Gauges and other ap-
purtenances may thus be attached to the barrel or removed from it
with convenience. The other device is the gasket of marine glue2 or
other very viscous liquid. A stuffing box is easily made, by which this
substance is kept pressed against the threads of the screw, or against
the smooth walls of a cylindrical plunger. The viscosity of marine glue
is such that, whereas it easily admits of being shaped by pressure to
fill up any cavity, the substance is yet far too viscous to flow through
capillary iuterstices like those between the metallic parts of a well-
fitting screw, except after the lapse of an enormous time (months).
Thus I found the absolute viscosity of the glue to be 2(H) xlO6. It
would therefore require 1,000 atmospheres to force the cement through
a capillary aperture .01cm in diameter and lem long, at the small rate
of only .05em per hour, supposing (an unfavorable supposition) that its
viscosity does not increase under pressure. For larger pressures the
rate is proportionately increased. Now, -it is the property of the above
screw to close the apertures under pressure, since the metallic parts
uuder these circumstances are bound more closely together. This prob-
ably further accounts for the insignificant leakage actually observed.
I may note in passing that the viscosity of a pitchy substance like marine
glue is therefore 20 billion times that of water.
4. Steel seme. — To rotate the screw ST conveniently, it is provided
with a lever and ratchet LDRR. The ratchet wheel is shown at RR
in PI. i, 1 and 3, and is cut so as to correspond with the right and left
click />. A pin E, sliding in a socket of the lever /,, and actuated
1 Tait : Challenger Reports, 1873-'76, Physics and Chemistry, vol. 2. See Nature, vol. 41. p. 361, 1890.
* Supplied by M. Dncretet. of Paris, or by the SociAte Gcnevoise. It is a specially prepared mixture
of ruhl>cr ami shellac. It may bo thickened by adding shellac.
SCREW COMPRESSO
i PARTS IN PLACE,
[bawm. SCREW COMPRESSOR 19
by ;i spring, enables the operator to adjust the ratchet either for for-
ward or retrograde motion of the screw ST, or wholly to withdraw the
click from the ratchet, as shown in PI. i, 3. The figure gives a full ac-
count of the manner in which the parts of the lever and ratchet are put
together. The ratchet wheel is securely forged to the screw. Essential
parts are made of steel.
The screw NT is 1 inch in diameter. On the front half of it a thread
of 12 turns to the inch is cut from the end to about 1 inch of the ratchet
wheel. The rear half is a cylindrical shaft held in position by a journal
HUH. The latter is bolted down to the bedplate FG, and addition-
ally secured between slides, as shown in PI. I, 2.
5. Barrel. Head. — The planed front end of the cast-iron bedplate FG,
the part J? of which is hollowed out so as to catch drippings, carries
the barrel JiJiB already referred to. It is seen in cross-section in
PI. i, 8, and its flat side is firmly secured to the plane of the bedplate by
two bolts. The head AA of the barrel carries the stuffing box kk,
of special construction. The efficiency of the screw depends entirely
on this arrangement, and it must therefore be described in detail, kk
is a hollow steel nut of the form shown, and provided with a large flange
liir screwing it in place. Both the inner and the outer cylindrical sur-
faces of the nut kk are threaded, with 13 turns to the inch. Moreover,
the inner thread bbbb of kk is a continuation of the thread aaaa
in the walls of the barrel. And since the thread eccc also has 12 turns
to the inch, it is clear that the nut kk can be forced in or out of the
head AA, no matter what the position of the screw ST may be. In
practice eccc is cut first and the nut screwed in place. Alter tins the
whole thread bbanaabb is cut at one time. To prevent leakage of the
oil in the barrel through the threads of the screw, the gasket of marine
engine mm is inserted and kept firmly pressed against the threads by
the gland kk. At high pressure the friction is sufficient to hold the
nuts in place, thus obviating the need of lock nut.
It is seen that after the screw enters the barrel the chief strain of
compression is borne by the thread nana. The threads cccv aud bbbb
hold the material of the stuffing box forcibly in place.
6. ISarrtl. Heart, imprnrv.il. — There is an objection to this form of
shitting box, inasmuch as at very high pressures the threads aaaa and
bbbb tend to act as lock nuts on each other. To obviate this annoyance
1 devised the method shown in PI. i, i and Si. Here the thread aa is
movable, being on the inside of a ring rr of steel, which fits snugly in
a socket of the barrel. The ring rr, though capable of moving back
and forth, can not rotate, being prevented by a projection correspond-
ing to a slot in the barrel. In this way the material in the stuffing
box is not forced into the barrel on actuating kk: Xoto that the
thread within kk is carried quite to the end, and that the inner face
of kk is beveled very obliquely, thus allowing the gasket to encircle
a greater number of threads of the screw SN. The strain is now borne
by the thread bb. Experiment has shown this to be no disadvantage.
20 THK VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bitll.M.
7. Barrel. Body. — This is perforated by lour or more holes (PL i, 1)
about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and threaded to admit the
tinned machine screws. Two of these MM are vertical, the other two
Ar, 0 (PL t, 8), horizontal. They are of use in tilling the ban-el with oil,
for attaching gauges and other appurtenances.
8. Barrel. End with piezometer tube.1 — The steel tube uuu is in-
serted in such a way as to insulate it electrically from the barrel -end
CC. A screw is cut on the end of uuu, fitting into a cast-iron flange
WW between two cylindrical jackets XX and IT of hard rubber or
ivory. These parts Y, W, A" are screwed to the end of the tube Un and
the cylinders Y and -Y are turned large enough to fit the hole of the
barrel and the internal aperture of the steel gland ZZ snugly. All
space within the head VC is tilled with marine glue dd. This is easily ac-
complished by melting the cement into the crevices between Y and Wy
W and X, before putting the piezometer in place. A thick gasket dd is
also inserted. After this the remaining annular space around W,
through which leakage might occur, is filled by forcing in the nut ZZ
gradually, and at a temperature not too low.2 To obviate possible
electric contact between W and Z, the rubber jacket 1' is flanged.
9. Piezometer tube. Vapor bath. — The further end of the piezometer
vu is closed with a tinned screw V. The substance to be examined is
inserted in ways which must be specially described for each experiment.
As a rule the same tubes are adjusted within the compass of a copper
vapor bath ffffj PL I, (5. This is a hollow cylinder, closed at both ends,
through which a suitable thiu copper tube hh passes somewhat above
the middle and from end to end. The liquid yy to be boiled is intro-
duced into ffff and heated with a large burner. The vapors escaping
at// are coudensed and run back, thus making the ebullition continuous.
A number of baths of this kind are at hand, each containing a substance
of suitable boiling point. In order to pass from one temperature to
another it is merely necessary to slip off one vapor bath Jf and slide
on another. The copper vessels are to be surrounded with thick as-
bestos jackets in the usual way, and proper provision made to close up
the ends of the tube hh so that convection currents may be obviated.
10. Method of filling. — When the screw is in good adjustment leakages
are small and fresh supplies of oil are not frequently necessary. A
convenient method of filling the screw with oil is indicated in PL I, 8.
The steel rod oo* threaded at one end and provided with a strong cross
' Weldlcss cold-drawn steel tubing of any dimension nmv Ik; obtained from John S. Leng, New York,
or of Philip S. J list ice, .Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Moth gin tie men art* agents of English house*
whose address in not known to me.
51 The lignre N somewhat diagrammatic here to exhibit the part*. In practice I use hard-rubber
cylinders A'Jfaud IT, and two hard-rubber annular disk* l»etwceii IT and WW and JFIFand XX, re-
spectively. When ready for insertion, the cylinder* an- screwed against WW, ho that there are mere
films of marine glue left between contiguous plane*. Finally, tin* nut ZZ is brought in contact with
the llange IT (disk) by pressure. It is in view of the fact that 1' I' is pressed radially inward toward
the axis of UV, as well as outward by pressure, that the arrangement holds so well. Repacking Is only
rarely necessary.
■*■»■] PIEZOMETEB. 21
handle at (lie other, is surrounded by a cylindrical tube of brass V
surmounted by a funnel-shaped iulot Q. Both Q and P are kept full
of oil, and to prevent leakage there is an ordinary stuffing box at pp.
A spring clamp (not shown in the figure) keeps the end of the tube P
of the filler PQ appressed against the barrel BB, a leather washer
being suitably interposed. To manipulate the filling arrangement, the
pressure is taken off and oo screwed out without removing it from I*.
The oil in FQ will then follow the retreating screw ST, PL i, 1, To fill
the barrel completely, one of the screws M may bo removed until oil
exudes. It is clearly advisable to remove all the air out of the barrel
and piezometer tubes, otherwise <S*7' must be forced in to a considerable
part of its length before the air spaces are sufficiently compressed to
sustain high pressure. Ordinary sperm oil or machine oil of a thickish
quality, yet sufficiently thin to flow, is available for filling the barrel.
It has a great advantage over water in not rusting the barrel, and in
keeping the moving parts oiled. Mercury is objectionable, since it would
dissolve the tin coating on the bolts, and thus soon produce leakage.
11. Can*- for protection. — Working as far as 2,000 atmospheres, explo-
sions are not infrequent. They occur with slight detonation, scattering
thin mists of oil. But there has been nothing of a serious nature. It
is necessary, however, to surround the barrel with a case of 2-inch
plank, and to put a barricade beyond the end of the piezometer tube.
A tin pan, suitably fastened below the bed plate of the screw, is ad-
vantageous in catching oil. After filtering this may at once he used
over again.
12. Vertical piezometer. — Aa adjustment similar to CC ««, but smaller
in dimensions, and ending below in a finely perforated screw, maybe
attached at M. The piezometer is thus fixed in vertical position, and
is easily adjusted or withdrawn, while the end of the barrel is available
for other purposes. (§ 23.) A full view of the vertical piezometer is given
in PI. i, 7, and I'l. Ill, below, shows the same, with appurtenances.
In I'l. i, 7 ita is n hollow pear-shaped piece of steel, which can
be attached to the barrel by means of the perforated tinned screw/.
The piezometer tube of steel is shown at tin, and is provided with a
steel flange, piece cc. The hard rubber flanges for insulation are
screwed on at d and e, and the system held in place in a medium of ma-
rine glue, by the steel gland bb. The advantage of the vertical adjust-
ment lies in the fact that a surface of separation or meniscus of mer-
cury is very much less apt to be broken in the vertical position of the
column thiin is any other. It is also frequently desirable to produce
gravitational separation of mixed liquids under pressure. Finally, since
the apparatus 1*1. i, 7 is complete in itself, the electrical and other ad-
justments may be made, and all glass apparatus within tin fastened
before the piezometer is screwed into the barrel. Note that the tube
nil anil the barrel are insulated from each other.
22 Tin-: vom'me thermodynamics of liquids. [bull m.
PKESSUKE MEASUREMENT.
13. Tail flange. Adjustment. — The gauge connects at -V, PI. I, 8, and
is shown at qq, /f, 88. Tlie essential part is the steel tube <///, closed at
one end by the tinned bolt r, and connecting at the other with the re-
ducing piece A*. 1 added N because it is not advisable to cut a deep
thread in the tube qq. Connection "may be made with AT by a shallow
line thread and solder, and the connecting thread cut in the thick-
walled tube of Ar. The tube qq is tilled with oil. To measure the ex-
pansion of qq under pressure it is surrounded by a close-fitting glass
tube tttt, one end of which is joined to the steel tube at nafi by a layer
of marine glue. The other end of tt communicates with the vertical
capillary tube**, by which the expansions are measured.
It is clear that the shell-like space between the steel tube qq and the
glass envelope tt must be filled with a liquid of small coefficient of ex-
pansion. I first tried mercury, but found it almost impossible to fill tt
in such a wav as to entirely exclude air. Moreover, in view of the frie-
tion of the mercury thread in *#,- any trace of air in tt will produce ir-
regular motion, and vitiate the experiment. Colored alcohol shows too
much thermal expansion. I therefore used water colored with an
alcoholic solution of fuchsine. Under these circumstances a sufficient
constancy of temperature may be obtained by surrounding tt with a
jacket mi of circulating cold water coming directly from the hydrant.
Thus the temperature error may be reduced so as not to exceed 10
atmospheres, reasonably slow motion of the screw presupposed. (See
below.) To keep the liquid in us at a given fiducial mark, a special ad-
justment for moving the meniscus suggests itself; but this is an ex-
ceedingly difficult device to apply, seeing that there must be the mini-
mum of water in tt, and that obsolutely tight joints are essential.
Hence I raise or lower the meniscus and color it, when faded, by in-
serting filimentary glass tubes into the canal of **. Such tubes are
easily made by drawing out a wide glass tube and then covering the
open wide end with a rubber cap. Using such tubes there is little
difficulty either in adding more liquid to the thread in 88 or in with-
drawing liquid from it.
It is advisable to protect the steel tube qq from rusting, either by
nickel-plating it or in other ways. I observed, however, that water
free from air and containing a little alcohol does not easily rust iron.
After an exposure of several months, bright surfaces were still untar-
nished. A dilute solution of rubber may possibly be used for coating
the tube. Thick coats are to be avoided, because they interfere with
the expansion.
In later experiments 1 made the joint at the closed end of the glass
envelope hermetic and rigid, as follows: In IM. I, 8 a is a layer of ma-
rine glue between steel and glass, and u a plug of fusible metal, the
whole being surrounded by an external close fitting copper envelope
TARda.) TAIT GAUGE. 23
(wired to the glass) 0. The latter being a prolongation of tlie glass
tube, the layers a and ft are melted iu, while the gauge is held in a ver-
tical position. The effective part of the steel tube qq is about 100™
long, leni thick externally, and '5™1 in internal bore. A capillary tube
of the rather wide bore ■07'"' is then sufficient for measurement, show-
ing a displacement of men incus of nearly 2°m per 100 atmospheres pres-
sure. Data are given more accurately below. My reasons for using a
long tube are these: That the effective length can be more accurately
stated. In short tubes the error at the joint not is much more serious.
Again, since the expansion corresponding to a given pressure increases
in absolute magnitude with the length of qq, it is clear that a wider
capillary tube at *« will suffice when qq is long. A wide capillary *« is
obviously convenient, since it can be more easily adjusted for zero in
the way just stated, and since the tube qq itself can l»e more easily
filled by aid of the air pump. When the gauge is properly charged
and adjusted, it must show no displacement of the fiducial zero during
the interval of experiment.
In later experiments I bent the vertical tube an, PI. i, 8, horizontally,
so that its measuring parts lay close to wk and immediately above a
millimeter scale. A somewhat finer capillary corresponding to about
2,000 atmospheres per meter was used with advantage. So constructed
the Tait gauge1 is very much more compact and loss fragile.
14. Tait gauge. Graduation. — To graduate the gauge I compared it
with a large Bourdon gauge, reading from 0 to 1000 atmosphere. The
tube of the latter in this case communicates with the barrel through
one of the screws M. This comparison with the Bourdon gauge is a
check on both instruments, and the statistics are therefore given be-
low. It affords no means of checking the correct value of the standard
atmosphere employed. But since both gauges arc based on Hooke's
law, and provided with scales of equal parts, the relations are well in-
dicated. In the table 2aB, 2n„ and L, denote the interna), the ex-
ternal diameters, and the length of the steel tube qq, PI. i, 8, 2 p, is the
bore of the capillary sn.
i The form nfnHH-1 hiiMi preiwure gauge baaed on Hooko's Uw ivcoromeo.ind but not ^instructed by
Prof. Toil (Inc. clt.), I* Mine what iUffl-raut from the above. I think my form hu the practical advan-
tBBr uf gr.wt.T «iui|.lirity. being eaaonlially a elngle-wall.il totw. Tho mi-thod of computation la due
tii Prof. Tait, It vriui my |>iir|H>w W make the tube tt of brans, ao Oial ttarhoat of cflntprran ion would
1* more rjuiikly diaxiputod. But I failed to obtain tubing uf the proper bom and atrengtu until qnlte
24
THi: VOLUME THKUMODYNAMirs OF LIQUIDS.
fBtTL,!.. 96.
Taw J*: 1,—1'uMpttritton of Tail gauge So. ", and HounloH gnugv
K
! Tim*.
Ituitnlon.
AtM.
0
100
200
300
400
500
000
7«K)
800
900
1(MK)
900
800
700
600
500
4IM>
3.0
200
100
•27r» : a
15'»
Tait.
. Cm.
1-90
3-58
5-20
7-05
8 70
10 -50
' 12 -50
14-10
15 05
17-22
18-80
16-62
14-65
12 -80
10-95
9-30
7 -55
5-95
4 50
3-04
1-74
, 1.CK-;
30"'
Tait.
•
Cm.
2 10
3 -70
j 5 -50
7-25
9 00
10 -72
12-50
; i4 -io
15 -70
17-20
19-00
16-70
14-70
12-80
1100
9 -28
7 55
0 00
4 -55
3 12
1-90
L - IOC"
45~
Tait.
1 : p ■-- AYM
; 75-
j Tait.
1
t
j Cm.
1 2 18
| 3 -85
5 -55
: 7-45
1 9 10
10 -85
12 -55
14-20
15 85
17 -45
19-10
16 -80
14 -70
12 92
11 12
9-35
7-60
6 15
4-60
3-20
2 00
1 90m
i
j Tait.
Cm.
2-00
3-60
5-35
, 7 -20
8*90
10-70
12-45
14 10
• 15-70
17 30
19 00
16-80
14-63
12 -75
11 00
9-23
7 50
6 10
4*60
3 15
l'JU
i Cm . |
2 16 !
i::::::::::1
; 7-30!
12-70 !
19-20
1 11 00
5-85
i
0
1
I'M
Uat<\ in
reutiint*-
t«TH, JMT
alniiiH-
!
} ...0169
1
J
0171
0172
>
0172
* Hrvnk iu the mcaHiuviuciit*.
15. — Tahi.k 2. — Jin name gauge comparisons (No. 0 and Bourdon) after long use.
Larei*
jlioiinloii.
100
2oo
3oo I
4(H)
BOO !
Tait.
Tait. ; Factor. Mean.
I
6 -35
8-03 '
9 -79
11-4K ;
13-26 .
Small | Lurgi'
HiMiitlon. Ituurdoii.
30
12' i
210
300
31
121
210
3(H)
6-27
7 IMS
9-79
11-41
13 10
Tait.
4-94
6 -42
8 -III
9-60
•01715
1725
1720
1728
■01722
Tait. I Factor. Mean.
j
— r
5 05 .
0 -53
8 -05
9 07
•01722
1767
1007
1744
. 01725
Tahi.k 3. — High pressure U*tn.
r 0 .vP - 4-90
2110 40-93
0 5 10
2100 , 41 95
0 ' 5 20
16. — Table 1 contains five series of observations made at the time*
stated. In the first four series I went up to the maximum and down again
gradually, but not slowly. The last I operated as fast as the* experi-
ment would permit. To determine the degree of aecuraey it is well to
eonsult the. rates at the bottom of the table. These show that a mean
displacement of •0171"" of the meniscus takes place in the pressure in-
6*m».] GUAGE COMPARISONS. . 25
creasing scries for each atmosphere pressure. Consulting data on the
same horizontal row it appears that the differences of leading of the
new gauge corresponding to a given reading of the Bourdon gauge arc
greatest in the region of low pressures. At zero the maximum diller-
euce observed is -40™, equivalent to an error of 24 atmospheres. Again,
comparing the two zero readings of the last column, the difference of
reading is •.161""', corresponding to ;S3 atmospheres. This, therefore, is a
maximum index of the inaccuracy of the Tait gauge due to thermal
26
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS.
I BULL.. 9fl\
effects of compression and unreasonably hasty work. To diminish this
error further, it is necessary to decrease the bore of the glass tnbe tt
in PI. i, 8, thus making the thermometer property of the gauge of smaller
importance. In the above apparatus this tube was 1-15C,M in internal
diameter, corresponding theret?>re to a liquid interstratum '01em thick.
Clearly this admits of further i eduction. A brass tube would in many
respects be preferable to a gla^s tube, since in this case the heat -of
compression is more easily dissipated; but I did not find one of the
necessary dimensions.
17. — A second point of view is obtained by comparing the data of the
pressure "on" and of the pressure "off" phases of the above experi-
ments. For convenience I insert the Chart, Fig. 1, in which the data of
Table 1 are inserted. It is seen at once that the degree of accordance
in the "on" series is satisfactory. The errors are nowhere larger than
10 atmospheres. The loci, apart for slight circumtiexure, are straight
lines. In the "off" series, however, this good uniformity is lost. The
data lie on consecutive broken lines. The feature of particular im-
portance is, however, this : The observation that the "off" data do not at
all return on the lines of the "on" data, r Indeed the two lines, "our
and "off," inclose a band the maximum width of which is even 1.5«'m,
corresponding to 90 atmospheres. Since this band widens at once at
900 atmospheres, and falls off at zero atmosphere, it is clearly due to a
virtual shifting of the fiducial zero of the mechanism of the Bourdon
gauge.
In the present comparisons, therefore, the "on" series of data need
alone be considered. It appears for these, slow work presupposed, that
the error of the gauge in -the above form need not exceed 10 atmos-
pheres, and that it can certainly be reduced decidedly below this limit
by diminishing the bore of the glass envelope tt, PI. I, 8.
18. — Table 4. — Comparison of large Hour don gauge with Tail gauge Xo, 1. p = .0220rm
ai=lcm.
Large
Bourdon.
Attn.
0
100
200
300
400
500
800
700
800
900
Xo. 1.
Cm.
1718
2 130
25- 03
28-85
32 03
36TK)
40-35
44 05
47-55
51-25
Diff.
Cm.
a. — ■■»•?*• in
Large
Bo union.
At in.
900
349
800
3-73
700
382
600
3-78 .
500
387
400
3 85
300
370
200
350
100
3-70
0
fo. 1.
Diff.
Cm.
Cm.
51-27
47- 12
4-15
43- 10
402
3911
4(H)
35- 12
3-99
31-32
3-80
27 75
3-57
2431
3-44
21 00
3-31
17-96
3-04
Second comparison. Another thread length.
o
loo
200
300
400
500
6(10
7(H)
800
900
1000
5-96 !
9-42 :
13 17 |
17(H) I
20-74 !
24-60 i
2845 !
32- 15 .
35-78 ■
39-57
43-36
3*46
3-75 .
3-83 !
3-74 1 1
3-86 I
3-85
3-70 ..
3-63
3-79 'I
3-79 i
1000
43-4«» ..
900 j
39-00
4-40
800
34-7.*) ,
4-25
700
30-76 !
400
600 ,
26-75 i
401
5(H)
22-84
3 91
4(H)
1013
371
:too
1574
3-39
2(H)
12-36 ;
3-38
100
9 14 .
3-22
0
6-21 1
i
2*93
GAUGE COMPARISONS.
Tjtrgt Bourbon gauge with Tail gauge* Sot. 1 and 3.
[No. i, (. = .o-jw. Ko.a,p = .o:ni)— ,]
Bunrjon.
".„... ;
Aim
0».
I'm
0
•2700
•i-i
19.— Tahi.k 5.— Companion of Tait gauge/ So*. 1 and 4.
\ 4
s~
K.i. 1.
*t
U»M
Ho
* aU»1m
]« of No
*.
"•'!) ■
iifsy,
1-M
l*l»
l*-U\
::, '■!(;,
14-45
■'■■■■'
m'tS!
14*1
14 u
a*-u
Ki-11
M-44
47-30
41-25
SS
u-h
litau
MM
MHO
WT
u-og
1
,
1-M
13-05
H
oo
28
THE VOLt'MK TIIKUMODYXAMICS OF MljriDS.
[BULL. 00.
Tap.i r. •». — <'<tlibnitioH8 oj Tail gamje* Son. 1 tittd 4.
Ix-.1 K. . ' Sniiill No. 1 ! No. 4
*u. l. ■ no. 4. n,II|nlll||- fa,.|or. factor.
130
1202
13*10
600
1529
ow
1697
9 05 ;
1696
5-00
15-26
220 i
1,T62
1-30
12.04
l)
3-05
1-63
100
369 i
167
200
:wio
107
300 |
a) 1 -1
1-61
300
200
3-69
1-60
100
1
0
TaBI.k 7. — CnmpariMH of Tnit yamim Xoh. I and 4*
No. 1.
No. 4.
IV
*V
Cm. ,
r.'/zl.
At in.
A tin.
•40 ■
12-40
0
0
838 j
1645
244
252
18-23 !
20*85
517
525
2* 43 :
25-40
801
807
38-3U ;
2980
1077
1081
50-04
3491
1401
1399
5993 :
3941
1675
1678
<k:-T3 '
tl-2.'»
1781
1791
5503
37 :n
1540
1519
42.89
32-im*
1202
1221
31-90
2719 '
897
919
20 09
21-Wi
.•WW
588
902
10-78 •
2li2
272
— •;•:• ,
12-30
- 4
6
Taiilk 8. — I'alihnithw* of Ttiit yunyv* So*. J and 4.
I 1 J 1
Small v 1 : v « Fin-tor j Far tor '
Boiinloii. *"• '• *"'*• . No. 1. j No. 1.
A tin.
0
1(H)
200
3-H)
300
200
100
0
I'm. i
rut.
•56 '
12 36
3-57
" 1-60
290
13-93
3' <il
1-00
H-59
15-50
3-58 1
1 61
1035
17-26
3-51
1-57
6-f* :
17-26
1500
3 60
1-61
3-18
1405
-- -33 j
1
12-40
CONSTANTS FOR TAIT GAUGE.
29
80. Tail gauge. Volume increase measured *nd computed. — With the
aid of the above results it will now be easy to compute the volume in-
crease of the steel tube qq, PI. i, 8, per atmosphere of internal pressure,
and then compare the datum thus obtained with the result computed
by aid of Tait's formula.1 From the dimensions «w a„ L, p given in
table 1, it follows that the. increase of the external volume of the
cylindrical steel tube is 47/10* per unit of volume of qq, per centimeter of
displacement of the thread in the capillary ss. This corresponds to a
volume increase of
/Vu
(1)
per unit of volume of the steel tube, per atmosphere.
Tait shows that in case of internal pressure the changes per unit of
length tangential!}' to a cross section of radius r and longitudinally for
any part of the tithe, are respectively
fffli
• oi. -j, im. Ajn.cB.iii a
30 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [buia.96.
v'
Hence the increase, f> per unit of volume of the external surface of
the tube is
*'_.>/ P
. . . . (2)
Here £ is the displacement of the point whose position is x centi-
meters from one end, and p the change of a point in a right section,
originally distant r centimeters from the axis, // the internal pressure
in atmospheres, and Jc and n the compressibility and the rigidity re-
spectively, of the steel employed. I take Jc and n from Everett's tables,1
as follows:
fc = 1.84xl012 w =8.2x10"
Inserting these quantities into the equation, there results
*, = .(MHMHI073 .... (3)
It appears at once that this result is of the same order as (1). The
difference is probably due to the constants k and w, which Prof. Everett
doubtless found from a high-grade tool steel, whereas the above tubes,
being made of low carbon steel, are nearer wrought iron in their prop-
m
erties. Beyond this the absolute gauge atmosphere is not vouched
for; nor (being the mean value between 0 and 1000 atmospheres) are
the coefficients at the end of tabic4 1 quite free from thermal discrepancy.
When the observations are made for the purpose of measurement,
there appears no doubt that equation (2) may actually be utilized to
obtain serviceable values of (l/A'+l/w). For instance, a^ may be ob-
tained accurately by filling in vacuo with mercury and weighing, and
then from the known specific gravity of . the steel tube and its weight
when empty, a\ may be computed, p is similarly capable of accurate
measurement. Therefore by combining (1) aud (2), (1/k+l/n) is meas-
urable with the same accuracy with which // is known.
21. Direct reading, Bourdon gauge. — It is well to insert my endeav-
ors to adapt the Bourdon gauge for high pressures and direct reading.
In order to achieve this result it is necessary to multiply the number
of coils as well as to work with fiat tubes. In Figs. 2 and 2a, the
latter being the plan, the former the elevation, 1 have drawn a form
of apparatus, with wiiich 1 obtained some results. It consists essen-
tially of a helix, A B V I> E F, the spires of which do not touch each
other. The end is provided with a needle V #, moving over a millimeter
scale 8 S, supported by an arm T K S. This gauge is screwed directly
into the barrel. iJcing entirely of iron and metal it is very linn. The
spires are hammered fiat by heating them to redness, the tube being
'Kvrri'tt: Units »ml T'liynical (.'oiiHtunt*. Li>ii«loii, Munnillnn. 1870, p. 53.
HELICAL BOURDON GAUGE.
31
origiually l'm in external diameter and 5™ in bore. After winding
Lot, the internal diameter of the helix was found to be somewhat larger
than 4'™. There were live spires iu all, aud the upper one M F, witli
its needle, extended about a decimeter beyond the helix.
The following littie table gives the results of a comparison with the
Bourdon gauge :
Tablk 9. — CoiHpariKaii of Bonrdoa gauge and the »jiii*nf gauge.
J °-l
Constructing thetie results graphically in Fig. It, it will be seen that
betweeu 0 and ;t00 atmospheres, the permanent set is not appreciable.
J_
HI
O tOO 200 300 4O0 £00 GOO 700 600 900
¥vt. ;i.— t'lmrt KhowiujJ tlw uclluu <•!' the fadiiil llourdoo puiec.
When pressure was taken off, the fiducial zero reappeared. Above300
.atmospheres, however, permanent set becomes very marked. The helix
was ruptured at 1,000 atmospheres, and the new zero after explosion in-
dicates the large amount of immanent set during the course of the
measurement. Connecting the final zero with the point for 900 atmos-
pheres, a line is obtained nearly parallel to the line between 0 and 300
atmospheres. The mean motion of the index was therefore '0017'™
per atmosphere. Since high pressure measurement was only contem-
plated, tin* gauge would have been serviceable except for the occur-
rence of permanent set. .The chief cause of this insuperable difficulty
is the fact that to flatten the gauge it must be heated to redness. By
so doing the drawn hardness and resilience is destroyed, and the soft
metal of the gauge then becomes useless for measurement. Owing to
the rupture of the tube I did not experiment further, since the coiling
and flattening is a tedious operation. Clearly the gauge might be
nsed without flattening by suitably attaching a minor index. But this
complicates the apparatus.
22. Concluding remarks. — I will conclude this description by a few
32 THE VOM'ME THERMODYNAMIC?? OF LIQUIDS. [aru. M.
general remark* on the apparatus used. It is i:Iear that instead of a
single barrel, two barrels, the axis of one of which is the prolongation
of the other, surest themselves. The barrels wouM lie used alter-
nately, one l»eiiig filled while the other is emptied. Again, instead of
having th«."! ** ri'w enter tin* barrel. good results must also l>e obtainable
by forcing a cylindrical shaft into tin* barn-1: fur the device shown at
the end of the band V (\ PI. I. pr«»ve> that the gasket of marine
glue is quite n< serviceable for cylindrical shafts as for screws. In
case of a cylinder, however, the strain encountered in forcing in the
shaft would t>e brought to bear on the bed plate, i. e.. outside of the
barrel. .Sih-c hilly strong devices would therefore have to be resorted
•to in fjolting down the barrel, etc. These would make the apparatus,
supposing the horizontal foiui retained, much more cumbersome. In-
deed I conceived it to be an advantage of Andrews's screw, inasmuch
as the chief stresses exist within the compass «»f the barrel. The nec-
essary provision against Twisting is much more easjjy applied. Finally
I may .state that it \\n< my original object to obviate stuffing boxes
altogether, by u>ing a tinned screw •>' T. The maximum of pressure
thus obtainable far exceeds the limits nf the above screw-compressor
with shilling boxes? The tinned screw would have this disadvantage:
it would have to be fresh lv coated whenever it became necessarv to re-
fill the barrel with oil. thus occasioning some loss of time. It is a de-
vice however, to be kept in mind, since it obviates the necessity of
troublesome metallic gaskets, like those used in Moiisson's well-known
steel n nt, for instance.
23. Ceteris paribus, the labor necessary in producing the above pres-
sures decreases nearly as the fourth power of the diameter of the screw;
for friction and leverage both increase as the radius, and the resisting
pressure as the square of the radius. Similar advantage is gained by
increasing the number of threads to the inch. Hence, by supposing
the initial pressures to be produced by a thick screw (diameter 1 inch.
say; at one end of the barrel, and the final pressures (above 2.000 at-
mospheres, when the inclosed liquids have become much more incom-
pressible) produced by a thinner screw (diameter half au inch, say)
at the other end of the barrel, the practical cfliciency of the screw com-
pressor would be, increased. In such a case the piezometer tube must
be vertical. ($ TJ.) However, in limiting my present work to 2,000
atmospheres, I have by no means exhausted the power of the above
machine. My purpose in doing so was to avoid straining the gauges.
I add, in concluding, that among the facilities of the above screw com-
pressor is the almost mieroiuefric accuracy with which pressure can be
raised to and maintained at. a given value for any reasonable length of
time.
24 The facility with which t he Tait gauge may be replaced by Aina-
gat's manometer, the absolute calibration of the. Tait gauge, its availa-
bility for tin* measurement of pressures indefinitely high, and allied
subjects will bo considered in chapter in.
CHAPTER II.
THE ISOMETRICS OP LIQUIDS.
20. ittilizing the advantages of the screw compressor describee! in
the foregoing chapter, I made the following investigation on the isomet-
rics of liquid matter : The nature of the problem is clearly defined by
the results of an earlier paper,1 where it appears, conformably with the
inferences of DupnS, Levy, Ramsay and Young, and Fitzgerald, that
liquid isometrics are lines of small curvature.1 It is tbns the purpose
of the present work to investigate the amount of deviation from a
straight line as accurately as possible.
The word " isometric" is used by J. Willard Gibbs1 in his researches
on graphic methods in the thermodynamics of fluids. It has the advan-
tage of priority if not of erpressiveness, and I do not feel the need of
withdrawing "isometric" for "isochore," as do Ramsay and Young.*
.APPARATUS.
86. Constant volume tube. — The criterion for constant volume is to be
given by a reliable electric contact. The liquid whose isometrics are
to be determined is inclosed in a tube of constant volume, of the form
shown in Figs. 4 and 5. This tube consists of three parts, a reservoir ef
and two capillary stems ed and da separated by an enlarged portion d.
A platinum wire e, passing through the walls of the tube, enters the
cavity d, for the purpose of securing electric contact, as shown in Fig. 5.
The dimensions of the tube are given in Fig. 4, and the choice made is
such as to admit of its easy introduction into the steel piezometer
tube uu, chap, i, PI. I, Fig. 6.
Fig. ~t (diagram) shows the tube ready for use. The end of the tube
ff is sealed, holding the platinum wire mm, which passes quite through
the reservoir ef into the capillary stem. The Bubstance having been
■ Ball. U. S. Gwl. Surrey, So. VI, im, uu.p. I, p. 54.
> Am. Jour., 3d Mr., toL 99, ISM. pp. OH •« «eq.
■Oiblw: Trana. Oonneotiont Acad., vol. p (3), p. 311, 1873; of. ibid., p. 383.
• Itainany and Young: Pbll. Mag. (5), vol. 23, p. 435, 1687.
Bull. 9C 3 33
34 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. (boll. M.
introduced into of, completely fills this space and about one-half of the
adjoining stem, Tlu; remainder of the tube is filled with mercury Ait,
care being taken to guard against inclusions of air.
The tube thus adjusted is inserted into the piezo-
meter, and the terminal c put in metallic connection
witli the walls of the steel tube, near V, PL I. The
terminal ml is insulated by a glass tube.1 and after paus-
ing through the piezometer into the barrel, is there
put in metallic connection with one of the vertical
screws .'f. It will be remembered the barrel anil pie-
zometer are not in electric contact. A serviceable way
of connecting the terminal with the barrel is shown in
Fig. 6, where. IiB is part of the wall of the barrel. 8
is a perforated screw, slotted on its upper face, so
that it can be inserted or removed easily. The end
of the terminal lo is passed through the hole in 8, and
then coiled helically, as shown in the figure. The
tinned screw- M is now inserted so as to bind the helix
between its lower face and 8. This insures electric
contact. A similar device is utilized at V, PI, I, Fig. 6,
and the glass tube is thus held in horizontal position
within the steel piezometer tube, by aid of its two
tense terminals.
Before introducing the constant volume tube, both
piezometer and barrel must be quite filled with oil, and
the screws M and F, PL I, are to lie so fastened that
air may be as far as possible excluded.
27. Manipulation. — Supposing the constant volume
tube in place, surrounded with oil, the screw 88
(PL l) is forced in. The pressure thus brought to
bear uniformly on all parts of the tube, moves the
thread of mercury inward by an amount correspond-
ing to the compression of ef. Eventually, therefore,
the meniscus near k and the sharp end of the plati-
num terminal near mi come into electric contact. Now,
as ban-el and piezometer are in a simple circuit, includ-
ing u suitable galvanoscope and a battery, a deflection
in the galvanoscope occurs at the moment of contact.*
This method of registration is very sharp and thor-
oughly reliable. Pressure is applied by ineaus of a
screw, and can be diminished or intensified with great
nicety. Hence the position of the meniscus k can be
controlled with utmost micrometrie precision, even
when the pressures are us high as 2,000 atmospheres.
"'EulibiT aniloOwr .inillnr inatilritiun* nip ImbwI ur dlnolrnl M high pre*.
■tin?, and «v ihmfim until Italilr.
MVvi.v. nf iiihkluil tare Wii much used by Weiuhold, CmJV, Hcnden-
■
•akwI PIEZOMETEB AND APPURTENANCES. 35
Wben the machine Is in satisfactory adjustment contact can be made
and broken at hm without apparent variation of pressure, the differ-
ence being in fractions of an atmosphere. The delicacy, however, de-
pends on the relative caliber of capillary tulte and reservoir tube.
To avoid breakage of the thread k on being forced through m, the
free end must be made- as fine as practicable (■01a"> in diameter, Bay).
Hence it is advisable to weld a fine wire to the relatively thick terminal
M (diameter 0-5"m).
28. In passing from one constant temperature to another, care must
be taken to avoid the mercury thread from being forced either out of
the tube or iuto the reservoir. This may be done by keeping the me-
niscus it always very nearly in contact with »». Hence, when a vapor
bath is attached and the burner started, pressure is increased in such
a way as to keep the contact just made. On the other hand, when tem-
perature decreases, pressure is relieved in such a way as just to keep
the contact broken.
29. When the series of isometrics are to be
mapped out, the volume of liquid between
the meniscus k and the sharp end of m is
suitably changed. This volume may bo con-
ceived as either positive or negative. In the
Litter case the wire m penetrates the thread
k. The advantage of such an arrangement
is shown below.
80. Method of fitting. — When the substance
to be compressed (</, Fig. 5} is liquid at ordi-
nary temperatures, like ether or water, the
tube may easily be filled without an air pump, _
/ J l " Flo. (.-Method of fuMsnlng the
by making use ot filamentary glass tubes with terminal*.
enlarged funnel-shaped heads. The nlamen-
. tary end is introduced at « and pushed down to the bottom g, suppos-
ing the tube ug to be vertical and a uppermost. The liquid is allowed to
run throughthe funnel, the top of which is kept filled until the reservoir
cf and adjoining capillaries eda are quite tilled. The operation is not
stopped however until three or four times as much liquid has run through
c/as is necessary to fill it.
The tube is now tipped nearly horizontal and mercury passed into
the bulb d by aid of similar funnel capillaries. The thread is then
pushed forward from d into de by aid of an empty glass filament, by
successively draining off small parts of the liquid in tie, until the
meniscus k has the desired proximity to m,
31. The greatest care must be taken to have all paTts of the tube per-
fectly clean, to use pure, fresh mercury, and to aroid rubber connections
or other material impregnated with sulphur. I find it desirable to
draw off the mercury in abd by aid of a fine tube and a jet suction pump,
and thus to thoroughly dry out this part of the stem. Fresh mercury
36 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [buu-96.
is then poured in through the glass filament until the tube is again
full.
When the mercury appears dead or fails to move as an unbroken
column the tube is worthless. The cause of this by no means infrequent
annoyance is usually found in the presenceof sulphurous dirt in the tubes
or of sulphide in the sample liquid. It is advisable therefore to use
fresh tubes only.
32. When the substance is solid like thymol or diphcnykuniiie, it
must be introduced by aid of an air pump. For this purpose a wide
glass tube about 20cm long is fused to the end a, Fig. 5. Into this the
solid substance is put, after which the open end of the wide tube is
drawn out to a filament and connected with the air pump. After the
exhaustion of the system the solid is fused with a burner and allowed to
run down into ef. The operation must be repeated many times and use
made of vacuum ebullition to expel the last traces of air. The thread
of mercury is introduced in the way already stated (§ 30), except in so
far as it is essential to keep the tube in a warm bath to prevent solidi-
fication. When in adjustment it is inserted into a hot piezometer tube.
These operations call for much skill on the part of the operator. If
solidification occurs the mercury thread is drawn down into the bulb in
consequence of the large volume contraction, and the charge is therefore
lost.
33. Vapor baths. — In order that the isometrics may be sharply traced,
temperature must be regulated to a nicety. This is not easy, seeing
that the metallic piezometer tnbe is a good conductor. Hence the forms
of vapor baths used in my earlier similar works1 are not applicable
here. It is essential that vapor be directly in contact with the surface
of the piezometer tube and that the reservoir of the constant volume
tube be at a distance of 3 or more centimeters from the end walls of
the bath.
Substances useful for vapor baths are methyl alcohol, 60°; water,
100°; amyl alcohol, 130°; turpentine, 100°; naphthalene, 215°; benzoic,
acid, 250°; diphenylamine, 310°; phenanthren, 350°, and others
These form a convenient series. They admit of being boiled in a brazed
copper vessel and decompose very slowly. The fiducial or initial temper,
ature is obtained by allowing a current of water from the hydrant to
circulate around the piezometer tube. .
At temperatures above 200°, the form ffff shown in PI. I, 6, is serv-
iceable. The tubulures hh through which the piezometer passes may
be closed with perforated cork stoppers.2 At higher temperatures hh are
screw stuffing boxes, securing asbestos jackets. The vapors issuing
from yy, the ebullition liquid (usually solid at ordinary temperature), are
condensed in a lateral tube (not shown) and run back into the drum ffff.
The thermocouple is inserted through g.
1 Bull. U. S. Owl. Snrv. No. 02, p. 22; Am. Journal Sci. (3), vol. 39, p. 482, 1890.
* Rubber stoppers melt and are otherwise very objectionable above 200°.
VAPOR BATHS.
37
31 At temperature below 2003, this form of vapor bath is not con-
venient, since the substance yy is usually liquid and too easily spilt.
Moreover the degree of constant temperature obtainable in the drum
ffffi* probably in sufficient. I therefore employed the circulating sys-
tem shown in Fig. 7. Vapor is introduced into the drum fff from the
boiler J. and the influx pipe B. It is condensed in the tube G C carry-
ing the cold water jacket D D. The condensed liquid falls into the
funnel E, which is cylindrical and thus subserves the purpose of a water
gauge. The piezometer tube is shown at U « « U with the constant
vol nine tube adeg in place. G aud G are cold- water jackets surrounding
UU to prevent tba spread of high temperatures along the tube. A
Fig. 7.-v»p™
plsiomot* r tub* ; longiti
single current of water (issuing from the gauge jacket, PI. r. 8, above) .
passes through G, D, and G. This current is shunted, so that G D G
can be cut out at pleasure and the vapor bath removed or replaced by
a circulating water bath. It is to be noted that the parts of the vapor
bath an- rigidly connected, so that it can be rapidly withdrawn as a
whole. U is a suitable electric clamp, corresponding to the other termi-
nal K. All parts of the vapor bath are heavily jacketed with asbestos.
It is necessary that the vapor baths slide off and on easily. Any
violent jarring of the piezometer tube will break the thread in the glass
tube within.
35. Method of cooling piezometer. — To cool the tube CT after the vapor
bath has been removed, it is convenient to oil the piezometer with vase-
38
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS.
(bull. ds.
line. The jacket G may then be slid to and fro very rapidly at first,
care being taken to relieve the pressure in proportion as the tube cools.
36. Method of temperature measurement. — For the measurement of
temperature I used a platinum platinum iridium thermocouple, the
electromotive force of which was expressed in terms of the torsion of
the platinum fiber which suspended the given astatic system. The tor-
sion galvanometer serviceable for thermo-electric work I have already
described elsewhere.1 To calibrate this apparatus the boiling points of
water and of mercury were lirst used. Finally I made elaborate com-
parisons with the reentrant glass air thermometer. §§ 48-50.
37. Method of pr ensure measurement. — Pressure was measured in terms
of the expansion of agiven cold-drawn steel tube, as detailed in chapter I.
It is needless to say that the factor of the gauge was frequently
cheeked during the course of the work. A small sensitive 300-atnio8-
phere Bourdon gauge with a tinned screw connection is very convenient
for this purpose. About twenty or thirty minutes were allowed to se-
cure isothermal conditions b>th for the gauge and the piezometer tube.
Leaks of the apparatus must be so far as possible avoided, inasmuch
as continued pumping changes the thermal state of the liquids operated
on and is therefore a fertile source of error.
PKELIM1NAKY RESULTS.
37. Data for ether. — The data of Tables 10 and 11 were obtained in
the earlier experiments. Although neither the gauge nor the thermo-
couple was remarkably sensitive, these results bear directly on the
matter below and must therefore be inserted. V and 9 are correspond-
ing values of pressure and temperature, such that the volume of ether
remains constant. Two or three observations were made for eavli datum,
allowing five minutes' time per observation. This is essential where"
isothermal conditions are to be guaranteed. So far as these observa-
tions go, the corrections for volume changes of glass are negligible.
During the first live series, extending over an interval between March
14 and 19 the constancy of the fiducial pressure (at about 10°) is to be
noted. In the remaining series it was not always possible to regain
the fiducial pressure, owing to accidents.
Ta-HLK 10. — InomririrH of ether. Preliminary results.
o.
/•.
0. I
At,*.
O.
A tm.
"■<.*.
1 2o:t
11-6 |
i K*7
00
ai.'.i
no '
11M7
100
>**w
go .
1242
100
M*rt
toi '
1247
100
1227
UK)
284
1 10
12W
100
28M
11-2
300
11-6 ;
301
11-tf !
'■ 2*7
10*0
S85
00
1
1 2X7
100
1 Dam*: Pliil. Mag. (5), vol. 20, p. 146, 18D0.
CAUL'S..
ISOM
ETHICS
OF El
riiEK.
Table 10. — Iaometrics of ether.
Preliminary resul
%
P. 1
A tm .
e. |
i
1 r'
e.
°c.
Attn.
276
9-4
. 101
9-8
289
9'9
1 647
645
66
67
277
98
1 1)72 103
■
1502
127
1 000
103
1510
128
1080
110
1482
123
1003
121
MHO
128
51 100
279
9-7
1 1443
14;sg
155
158
278
10-8
1 nl
10-0
875
868
874
280
64
66
65
9-7
80
608
611
613
614
103
60
66
66
66
14
98
014 , 65
545
67
925 00
545
67
924
101
850
102
921
101
837
102
920 101
919
100
•
65
10-6
84
103
595
64
1112
119
602
64
1112
120
597
63
1380
153
1421 ; 156
71
108
1451 ' 161
912
101
1446 162
914
100
I .
70
10-8
94 i 112
i 627 60-3
156
10-8
6:t0 | 66-4
1087
114
l»26 ' 98-H
10!>4
115
924
i 98-5
i
30
Taiii.k 11. — IHgvnt of thexe data.
±p
i
1 O
1
A0
j
i
0
A* |
o
11-5
"T'i
!
9-9
0 ll
580
66
55 |
570
66
50 '
9'.l7
100
89
1
893
OIK?
103
120
90 , \ (3)
110
0
08
0 '
(i)
1360
156
146 J
1210
127
117 1
i
0
103
0 '
0
10-2
0
530
66
56 !
590
65
56
840
1030
100
120
90
110 1
i
0
9-8
0
1342
158
148
(4)
5: si
67
56 |
i
1
1
844
«
"■
1
0
j 534
11-2
(Hi
o !
55 ,
0
107
»3 ; \ <->
! 831
99
89 -
530
64
1
i
840
1U0
«»
i
,
j
0
10'8
o1
1
934
114
103
!
i
1
38. Discussion. — Iii the digest. Table 11, the coordinates have been
shifted, so that the fiducial pressure and temperature are now zero.
The graphic representation, Fig. 8, shows a distribution of points lying
very closely along straight lines. So far as these data go, therefore,
the linear character of the isometrics is maintained. The rates per at-
mosphere are respectively -01)3°, -107°, -KHP, -107°,
40 TOE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [iuu-M
DEFINITE RESULTS.
39. Apparatus improved. — With the above data in hand I endOftT-
ored to carry the discrimination one step further by increasing the
sensitiveness of both the pressure gauge and the thermocouple*
Using the same steel tube for the registration of pressures by Hooktfs
law, as before, the gauge was made much more delicate by decreasing
the caliber of the capillary measuring tube (n, PL I, 6), and by
■iMW.1 NOTATION. 41
Making use of a more close-fitting glass jacket it than before. The re-
sults have already been shown (§§ 15 to 19). Apart from errors dne to
viscosity and thermal effects, the gauge was sufficiently sensitive to
register fractions of an atmosphere at 2,(K>0 atmospheres.
Particular care was taken to redetermine the initial pressure corre-
sponding to the initial or fiducial temperature (about 15°), before and
after each high temperature observation. This is a certain check on
the validity of the results obtained.
Again the temperature measurement was made mure delicate by in-
serting a finer platinum fiber in the torsion galvanometer. Statistics
will be given below.
At least ten minutes were atlowed for each datum of pressure and
temperature given. In proportion as the second of any two measure-
ments made at a given temperature coincides with the first, the infer-
ence is warranted that the thermal effects of compression are fully dis-
sipated. The observation at any temperature therefore lasted twenty
or thirty minutes.
10. Notation. — The notation is as follows:
N'p deflection in degrees of arc observed at the torsion galvanometer ;
i, temperature of the cold junction of thermocouple;
nt1 correction by which JVt is reduced to JV^, the deflection which
would be observed at the torsion galvanometer if t = 20°;
8, temperature of the vapor bath surrounding the piezometer tube.
B is computed from JV(. 9 is therefore the temperature of the reservoir
of the constant volume tube.
N , reading in centimeters observed at the capillary tube of the pres-
sure gauge.
p, pressure corresponding to JV_ in atmospheres. Hence p is the pres-
sure bearing on the substance in the constant volume tube;
zip, Jtf, pressure and temperature obtained by shifting the ' coordi-
nates, so that the initial pressure and temperature may be zero.
41. Data for ether. — Table 12 contains fifteen series of observations
made with ether. Series in which the constant volume tube and con-
tents were changed are separated by heavy lines. It is necessary to
consider these data somewhat in detail. Each series contains at least
one observation at tin- boiling point of water. Since the barometer
was also noted, the data for the final reduction of the values 9 are at
hand— uf. §§ 4S et seq.
The first eight series need but little comment. In the first the gauge
reading for p = 0 was — LOO0™; in the second, third, fourth, fifth it was
— 2.000'"; in the sixth, — 3.50™ j iu the eighth, 1.70*™. Inasmuch as
the relation between p and p is nearly linear, the gauge reading for
p = 0 is of secondary importance. Owing to accidents the fiducial read-
ing was lost at the end of the sixth and eighth series.
42. Comparing the first eight scries with the remaining seven, it is
Been that the fiducial pressure is very much more constant in the
42
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMIC? OF LIQUIDS.
[HULL. 9tf.
former than in the latter; for the reading at the initial temperature
in the one case does not vary more than 5 or 10 atmospheres; whereas
in the other the variation is as large as 100 atmospheres. The cause
of this discrepancy is a strain permanently imparted to the gauge at
the end of the eighth series, where it was necessary to work the machine
with great violence and much above the pressure given, to counteract
an accidental leak. Hence in constructing J/> for these series (9 to
M) I deduct the fiducial pressure preceding and following any pair of
high temperature data from the first and last of these data respectively.
In this way the viscous error of the gauge is eliminated. Of the two
values of Jp thus obtained at each temperature, the latter is the more
nearly correct, since it has been coordinated with the fiducial pressure
immediately following it. As the work proceeds, that is, in the thir-
teenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth series, the fiducial pressure is again
more nearly constant, showing a gradual increase of the viscosity of
the gauge.
43. In the ninth and tenth series, p = 0 is at — .70°"; in the eleventh,
at— .30r-; in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth, at .50 m. The
last three series (13-15) were obtained with the same tube, and the
work, done continuously, was throughout very satisfactory. Moreover
the change of fiducial juessure still marked in series thirteen becomes
of less prominence in the last, two series. These therefore were se-
lected for the digest below.
44. Method of purifying. — The ether employed was thoroughly dried
with sodium, and then distilled in'a small flask at a temperature onl y
slightly above the boiling point. All parts of the condenser tube and
tiask were fused together, and rubber connections were scrupulously
avoided. The distillation was frequently repeated, and the ether then
at once used for filling the constant volume tube. I can not guarantee,
however, that the ether after being introduced in the tube was quite
free from water; for during the necessary manipulations some absorp-
tion of water out of the air was unavoidable.
45. Observations for ether. — The data for ether are as follows:
Table 12. — Ibomctric* of ether. Olwervntions.
V'
t.
i
nB' I
■
I.
Cm.
4 115
4-1T2
22-3
-192 i
•200
7191
7209
223
«>•>.■»
Ma. «J
•200 i
•200 |
__ . - _—
.- ..= :=
-..-_.— , |
II.
13-115
13 170
23- 1
237
•270
•321 j
fl-94«
«-*9U
3-849 '
3-849
i-
21-8
2.V0
2.V0
250
•418
•438 1
•438 1
•438
•V„
'• ■
P-
_. _J
Cm.
of.'.
— 54
151
4-10-K7
67-5
4-16-80
67-tt
— -70
15-5
+27-20
99-5
4 27-29
99-6
-- -50
15-5
•23
+ 45x9
+40-12
- -in
+2*01
+28-0J
+ 17-59
+ 1701
— -09
154
1570
158-8
15-5
99-2
98-8
G7-2
67*3
15-0
V-
y$.
Ap.
4*. 1
Attn.
10
°c.
Aim.
.0
474
479
«
702
705
0
0
1. 272
1,278
0
778
778
493
493
0
•0
52-2
523
0
810
841
0
512
517
3C
4307
4332
800
8»3
41
7-391
7409
48
1, 312
J. 318
52
13-3*5
13-497
142-4
143-3
0
83-9
83-5
51-9
520
•o
822
822
537
537 i
30 '
7;i»l
7-328
4-2*7
4 287
1
ISOMETRICS OF ETHEB
T*tiLK 12. — Iiomtfriet of tther. Obiervalion$—Contlnne&.
HI.
M«
MM
.'
V 1
*•*
fcrt
+'^J.
£22
11 11T
IS:*'
- —
g:jj
•J»
ir,f.:.i
V.
I* IW
10 u»
■ _ .
»■«
oil i
n. i:i
i-- -■»■
i»i&i
iwi
ill
Sl-J
112 ,
VI." "
VII.
■-= -.1
2>H
1*9
;aSS
:: 'b
} ■'■
I jT.',
Till ■
J-1U
7]|l.
Si ■ -*.
Wvii
" IX
a-lefl
Mill
—
--■- —
-1M ,
.'Ji
■»1 i
W-3B3
21 S
""j i
i ';•'■>
i« i 4 « i« i ' lit
X.
"■" ;"
.'_
-
si : l
087
XI "
_ _ _
4".1»
■ws!
i->:
.:•:
*3M
S3
298 MVSt
i:<»l
44
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. (bull. M.
Table 12. — Isometrics of ether. Observations — Continued.
XIV.
7147
7-132
t.
np
N$-
9.
3-80
29-79
29-80
4-29
64- 30
6430
5-19
2114
2114
(520)
4904
4900
5-30
P-
A*.
±p.
17-8
082
980
180
218-8
218*8
181
678
08-0
i!8 1)
157-8
157-9
17-9
104
816
819
118
1761
1701
142
579
579
(142)
1344
1344
148
114
1758
1758
116
845
845
122
586
585
121
Lt41
1342
133
0
80-4
800
0
200-8
200-7
0
49-7
49-9
0
139-7
1400
0
0
712
701
0
164a
lOltf
0
21-2
21-3
•ioi
•112
7-251
7-244
20080
20071
21-7
21-8
146
155
20-220
20-220
4-144
4147
222
22-3
192
•200
4-330
4*347
4:i7 1
437 1
0
13-177
13-104
22-3
22-3
•200
•200
13-.I77
13-394
1202 :
1191) 1
0 !
~ XV."""
20 371
20-353
, ,
■
17-4
220-2
2200
17-4
991
98-8
174
691
69-4
17-4
1580
: 158-3
1 17-4
1
4*18
0417
6410
4*23
30-83
30-84
4-45
21-37
21-85
4-43
48-93
48-98
4-86
1
0
202-8
202-6
0
81-7
81*4
0
517
520
0
140-6
140-9
0
0 '
200
200
0
0
20-371
20-353
1644 1
1642 1
0
7-312
7-265
208
20-8
•068
008
7*380
7-333
729 1
723 |
0 !
4-397
4-415
210
210
•0K7
•087
4-484
4-502
464 |
464
1 0
13-306
13-330
■
21-2
21-3
•104
1 112
13-410
13-442
; 1220 !
! 3209 ■
1 0
> 1
46. Observations fo r alcohol. — Table 13 contains data for alcohol cor-
responding to those already given for ether. The two series, obtained
with the same tube on successive days, are satisfactory throughout.
The arrangement of data has been already explained.
The alcohol used was kindly furnished me by Dr. Stokes. I redis-
tilled it over lime in small quantities immediately before filling the
constant volume tube. Nevertheless some absorption of moisture from
the air during the manipulations was not avoidable.
Table 13. — Isometrics of alcohol. Observations.
V
i <• ;
V
AY
9.
17-2
09-5
«D-7
17-2
989
990
17-2
1590
1590
17-2
170
99-2
991
lfl-8
159-7
159-7
16-9
160
«7-4
07 0
170
I'.v n
08 5
170
4-92
25-46
25*46
514
3707
37-68
5-27
6304
6304
6-53
4-92
37-72
37-70
512
63-20
6315
5-39
6-39
2514
2516
5 69
38-36
3K-36
011
P-
A0.
Ai>.
1
135
697
697
141
1032
1032
144
1727
1727
152
135
1034
1033
140
1732
17M
148
148
689
689
156
1051
1051
107
0
52-3
52-5
0
81-7
81-8
0
141*8
141-8
0
0
82-2
823
0
142-9
142-8
0
0
50-5
500
0
819
815
0
11
4-4H5
4-491
20-3 j
20-3 '
1
■025
025
4-510
4510 '
1
502
550
0
7-2*5
7282
20-7 1
20-8 1
1
059
-068
7-344
7-350 .
891
0
13-427
13424
210 !
210 1
•087
•087
13-514 '
13-511 ,
1583
1575
0
1
!
0
7 377
7-350
19-9 1
20 0
1
—•008
±■000
7-370 ,
7*:c*o
899
893
0
13-547
13-541
20-4 j
20-5
1 . .
•034
•042
13-5*1
13-5*3
1592
1582
0
1
0
4-KK)
4090
.»« ** 1
1..
■192
192
4-292
4 282
541
533
O
7-100
7-077
22-4
22-4 I
■209
•2i»9
7-:!15
7-2S0
895
8*4
i)
1
THYMOL, TOLUIUINE, DIPHENYLAMINE.
45
47. Observations for thymol, para-toluidine, and diphenylamine. —
Tables 14, 15, 16 contain results for thymol, para-toluidine, and diphenyl-
amine, arranged on the same plan as Tables 12 and 13. Thymol is.
particularly convenient since, after firing, it admits of undercooling
much below its melting point. Observations can thus bo made even
at 17°. Ju case of the other two substances this is possible to a less
extent, and it is necessary to insert the constant volume tube into a
liot piezometer. A large bath of heated water must bo at haud to
prevent freezing during the manipulations. (§ 32.)
T a u i.K 14.— Itomtt
1 of Ihgiuol. Obterratiot
4227
N«
■0*7
0»7
"»■
<•
'V
J>-
A..
dp.
taw
4"j21
rai
<■■'.'
4411
871
88-8
681
08-5
K»
980
17-2
139-5
17-3
170
«8'<l
OT'8
18- 1
89-0
18- 8
124- S
125-3
re]-™
33 03
4183
7-35
83-40
83-35
7-77
SJl-jW
03-40
8*58
7-83
AM
1340
1380
201
1700
313
915
1373
1713
zoo
B0-I
818
»■«
SIS
81-7
81-7
108-3
0
50-ft
83-2
107-7
108-5
704
1155
715
1180
15118
(15
731
1513
1508
7230
7 221
21 ?
DOS
■mi
7325
: res
Ifft-.J
9 8j8
217
144
BToa
BTV3
*3!
so-s
-ws
•034
4 148
7 2BH
30 4
s
M48
• ■*Ti
20 4
ok.
01163
l-V — Itomelrii* of para-lotuitlinc. Obitrvatit
AV
"•■
*.
f
■V
I>-
A8,
„.
„
4-071
~l
J
J|
13008
•MS
n ■;*.-.
ia;-o
iI'S
'«?
88-1
4 017
313
4-340
678
1818
451
0
0
4G
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OP LIQUIDS.
[BOLL. 9*
X
B'
I
4 035
4.027
U'U7f>
6'96'J
4*051
4'<>5»
9:»25
9-587
3075
i
-' '
Table 10. — [*ometric* of di phenyl amine. Observation*.
•J3 1
23-1
23
si
2:5
24
240
242
n
$'
•270
•270
■20X
•2JW
■:W0
•:wo
•:;50
•3V)
■307
•:j«7
a:
0-
4-305
4297
7273
7-267
4-3H1
4-: WO
9 875
9037
4-342
4.348
a.
67-5
67-5
98*2
08 2
681
68-3
124-1
124 9
67-8
080
1801
1K-02
36-26
36-:H)
18-53
1854
51-95
52-29
1O40
1936
493
404
903
905
508
508
1423
1433
633
530
A*.
0
0
80-7
30*1
0
0
53-8
57- 1
0
0
±p.
0
0
499
487
0
0
915
900
0
O
Another zero.
13-200
24-2
13- 171 :
24-3
3010 !
24-4
3-055 |
34-4
6-S02 1
24-4
6-834 1
21-4
3085 |
24-4
4-012 '
21-4
0470 1
24 4
0 534
21-4
4035 .
24-4
402L '
21-3
•367
•375
•3*4
•:W4
•384
•3K4
•384
•3*4
•384
•381
•384
•375
1\ I
I
13-567
13-546
4-333
4-339
7- 186
7218
4-369
#396
0-854
00J8
4*410
4-306
l
1590
150-5
07-6
67-8
97-3
97-8
68
68
124
124
68 5
685
6515
6512
16-02
1593
33-49
33-48
15-98
15-98
40-34
4030
16.30
16.41
TEMPERATURES CORRECTED.
48. Behavior of the tor 8io 11 galvanometer. — An inspection of the tables
shows the temperatures to need correction, for the boiling points (water,
for instance) are usually low. The cause of this discrepancy is to be
sought in the temperature coefficient and perhaps also in the time co-
efficient of the magnets of the torsion galvanometer. This error is
easily allowed for as follows: It is clear that the magnetic change
which obtains affects all deflections (deflections for all temperatures)
uniformly. Consequently if N'§ be the twist corresponding to 100° on
any day of observation, and if Xe be the corresponding twist on the day
of calibration, both observed at the same torsion galvanometer, then
Ne/X' e is the factor for the reduction of all temperature observations
for the former day to the scale of the calibration day.
To test this inference I made two independent calibrations of the
same couple about a month apart. The constants a and b given in
Table 17, where N0= a (T—t) + b (T2—t2), show considerable varia-
tion during this interval.1 Computing the twists N§ and iV# for dif-
ferent temperatures T, when t— 20°, it is found that X*/ W 9 is con-
stant within less than \\ per cent for the whole interval 50° to 400°.
Clearly this is an error of observation, since the constants a and b never
quite faithfully reproduce the calibration interval. Slight recipro&U
changes of a and />, for instance, would wipe out the discrepancy
J(Na I X'o), without appreciably slighting the observations.
*T> t arc the tora]xtratiirea at the junctions of the platinum platinum-irhlinm thermo-couplo.
AIE THERMOMETER COMPARISON.
47
i of T, April
W*\iZM&n.
M">' ■■" j 6'— [uutWoOt.
- " "
" -
1M
1 '.!■«?
12-.111
■B804
■lit)
SI-MI
23- m
(00
*3M°
U-S7*
"""
49. Air thermometer* comparivm. Apparatus. — There is a more serious
question relative to the degree of truth of the interpolation equation
]f,=a [T— t)+b (T*~ £). This can only bedecirted by direct air-ther-
mometer com pari sons, such as are given in Table IS. There are three
complete time scries and two comparisons in steam.
The air-thermometer bulb used was my reentrant form, combined
with the Jolly- Pfaiindler stand, by a platinum capillary. The method
of work is described elsewhere.1 Here I need only remark that the
metallic fiducial mark at the bulb end of the manometer, being noth-
ing more than the sharpened end of the platinum capillary, the criterion
of constant volume was given by an electric contact.
To heat the bulb I made use of a large paraffin bath, being a cylinder
about 7 inches lougand 7 inches in diameter. This was heavily jacketed
with a thickness of about 1 inch of asbestos. At the, center of the bath
the bulb of the air thermometer was placed; and being of the reentrant
form the junction of the thermocouple in its turn was at the center of
the bulb.
The paraffin bath, Figs. 9 and 10, needs further description. It
consists of two half cylindrical boxes of brazed copper, d ef and g b k,
which fit into each other on their flat sides. These are of thin sheet
copper, provided with hemispherical cavities H and gutters * ( adapted
to receive the air thermometer bulb and thermocouple. The figure,
shows the thermocouple <i i> ,3 and the air thermometer bulb H II t in
place, the stem of the latter and the insulator of the former issuing in
opposite directions. Though filled with paraffin in the present experi-
ments, t lie apparatus was constructed to be used as a vapor bath at 210°
(naphthalene! or HUP (diphenylamine). In such a ease the chimneys N
are prolonged by iron gas pipe into which the vapors distill and condense,
falling back into the charge below (indicated by the dotted horizontal
line). In this way thoroughly constant temperature may be obtained,
and the apparatus is therefore availahlo for standardizing2 a porce-
'Ttull. C.S. (i»l. Sun-.. Nu. 54. 18M. pp. H»otse.|.. IMetwq.
'(X Darin: Bull. U. S, Geol. Siurv., Kg. 54, 1SS», i>p. 33, WtJ ot otq.
4&
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS.
[MTU* 96.
lain (nonin glazed) air thermometer, by aid of a glass air thermometer
bulb of known constants, through the intervention of (or consecutive
comparison with) the same platinum-iridium thermocouple.
In all cases the bath is to be heavily jacketed with asbestos, to a thick-
ness of say I inch. Two burners are then sufficient.
Fin. 0.— Sectional vapor bath, for comparing air thermometer and thermocouple.
50. Observations. — Observations were made during the period of cool-
ing, after heating the bath to .'300°; cooling must, therefore, take place
so slowly that the temperature of the air thermometer bulb and of the
thermocouple maybe regarded as identical. Whether this is the case
can be decided only by trial. Therefore, in making the following com-
parisons, the first and third series were observed during ordinary cool-
ing; in the fifth series, however, a flat evaporating burner was placed
under the paraffin bath to insure slower cooling. The liquid was stirred
and paraffin gradually added to compensate for the contraction in cool-
SECTIONAL VAPOK BATH.
49
ing. In tlie table Vis the volume of the air-thermometer bulb, v' that
of the hot part of the stem, v" that of the cold stem and of the capillary
connections and dead spaces; finally fc„ 's the observed pressure for the
bulb in melting ice. It is advisable to work with slightly rarefied air,
to avoid pressure on the bulb at the high temperatures.
AT'M is the twist observed at the torsion galvanometer at the time
given, and when the temperature measured by the air thermometer was
T„t. From this I computed X-u,, the twist which would have been ob-
N
r
(••
9
9 \
h.
Iff "
^\
:
\\ H
L
k.
A.
a
' ' a.
FIQ. 10. — Longltnitlnal elevation nfime of the halves of vnporbath, showing tbetherman intern In place.
served on the day of calibration (May 27), by the method shown in § 48.
Hence I made use of tiie series n and V (comparisons in steam) and of
the low temperature comparisons between thermocouple and air ther-
mometer, tor here the cooling is so slow that no time lag need be appre-
hended.
From both N't and Ne, the thermoelectric temperature equivalents
T,< and T,„ were then computed, by aid qf the data of Table 17.
Bull. % 4
50
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OP LIQUIDS.
[BULL. Oft,
Table 18. — Comparison of thermocouple and air thermometer.
F=239-93~; »'=-030"; t*"=.694«-; *«>=48-28*».
Time.
28464
r.«.
A'jQ.
Tie.
Dlff.
T*.
<
Dlff.
I. 21
2921
28749
291-6
+ -5
2940
r-,1-9
36
25-531
263-5
25-786
267-8
-4*3
2700
-6-5
44
24(H)!
251-4
24-241
2551
-3-7
257-3
-5-0
52
32-648
239-4
22-874
243-6
-4-2
245-6
-0-2
01
20*456
222.1
20-600
224-6
-25
226*5
-4-4
7
19-438
213-3
19-632
215 5
-2-2
217.4
-41
18
18052
201-3
18-233
2031
-1-8
204-7
-3-4
34
10060
183-2
16227
185-2
-2'0
186.5
-3-3
45
14-893
171-2
15-042
1742
-30
175*6
-4-4
58
13-571
160*6
13707
161-8
— 1-2
163-2
- 20
17
12 155
1469
12-277
148-5
-1-6
149-7
—2*8
34
10-840
134-9
10948
135-4
- -5
136-7
—1-8
50
9-912
125-5
10-011
1264
- -9
127-4
— 1-D
12
8639
1140
8-725
1J3-6
+ 4
114*5
— -f»
35
7598
103-8
7674
103- 1
+ *7
103-8
± -o
9
6-359
90*4
6-423
90-3
+ "1
910
- -6
40
5-448
80-9
5-5H2
80-5
+ '4
81- 1
— -3
58
4-975
76-4
5025
75-4
+ 10
760
+ *4
10
4-479
70-9
4-524
700
+ -9
70-5
+ *4
39
4075
Otf-7
4116
65-7
+ 1-0
66-1
+ o
II. ( 0
$20
III. 34
7-245
100-22
7-317
99-4
+ •*
100-2
± 0
7-264
100-28
7-337
990
+ '7
i
-31
100-4
- 1
1.
-5-3
28174
286.3
28-456
289-4
291-6
45
26136
2700
26-397
272-8
-2-8
2750
-5-0
56
24-400
2550
24-644
258-5
-3-5
260-5
-5-5
7
22-050
235-3
22-270
2385
-3-2
240-5
-5-2
17
20-731
224-3
20938
2270
-2*7
2290
-4-7
26
19 338
214-5
19-531
214.6
- .1
216-6
-21
38
18036
200-4
18-216
203.0
-2-6
204-8
-4-4
50
16-709
189-2
16-967
1920
-2-8
19;t-6
-4-4
6
15184
176-2
15-336
1770
- -8
178-5
-2-3
21
13-899
M'4-2
14038
165-0
- -8
166-4
—2-2
44
12-237
148-9
12 359
149-3
- -4
150-4
-1-5
IV. (53
29-702
209-6
30147
301-6
-20
3050
—5-4
i 5
29-223
295-3
20661
297-9
-2-6
301-2
— 5-»
I16
28-744
2920
29175
2940
—20
207-3
-5 3
[25
28-410
289- 1
28*836
291-4
—2-3
294-8
—5-7
33
22025
236-3
22355
2383
—2*0
241-2
—4-9
42
21-492
232-2
21-814
233-6
-1-4
2:165
—4-3
<
55
20-806
226-9
21179
ooq.»»
-1-4
231-0
—41
9
20-293
2220
20-597
223-2
-1-2
225-8
-3-8
1 3
14-334
167-7
14-549
1690
-1-3
171-2
—3-5
13
13-590
160*9
13-794
1620
-11
1641
—3-2
<
24
12-720
153-4
12-911
1540
- 0
155-6
-2-2
36
11-897
145-4
12076
145-9
- -5
147-7
—2-3
[18
9-4*7
122-5
9-629
1220
4- -5
123-4
— »
29
8-9*1
117-2
9077
116-7
+ '5
118-0
- -8
138
(52
8-567
1131
8fi96
1130
+ 1
114-3
-1-2
7966
107- 1
8086
106-7
+ '4
1080
— -9
529
6618
940
6-717
930
+10
940
± 0
<39
0-335
00-9
6-430
900
+ 9
910
+ 1
v. nfl
♦ [28
7-205
10003
7-313
990
+10
1
100- 1
- -1
7-221
KM) 09
7-329
90-1
+ 10
100-3
- -2
(37 !
1
7-199
10009
7307
990
+ 11
100-1
± 0
• i
i
- Steam, temper Aturo 10011'*
t Steam temperature 99-93°.
Table 19.— Interpolated from thv above.
J*, (air the* ' 5.,, ' 100o
niometer). **' 1W
150°
N
*>■
2- 63
730
12-4'
200^
250^
300 o
18 05 23-90
30-20
L
ISOMETRICS OF ETHER.
51
Tables 17 and 18, or a graphic representation, show at once that
throughout every stage of cooling, temperature as registered by the
thermocouple is always higher than the corresponding temperature of
the nir thermometer. Inasmuch as the system cools from the outside
of the air thermometer bulb, this is precisely what must occnr in case
of too rapid cooling. It is well, however, to note that in Table IS,
series IV, notwithstanding much retarded cooling, the discrepancy be-
tween air thermometer and thermocouple retains its original magnitude.
Without passing judgment, therefore, I have deduced TJ, and ATnlroin
all the observations, ior use below. See Table 19.
51. Isometrics corrected as to temperature— Apply lug the corrected
temperatures investigated in the foregoing paragraph, I obtained the
following data for the isometrics. if* is the corrected twist and tf,'' and
w„ its thermal equivalent, as expressed by the air thermometer or the
thermocouple (boiling points, HjO and Hg), respectively. The two data
given under J » are to be similarly interpreted. .Jj> is the value already
met in tables 12 to lli.
It follows from the slight irregularities still observable in the boiling
points, that in order to use the torsion galvanometer satisfactorily, check
measurements of the boiling point of water must be made before and
after any series of temperature observations.
Table 20.— ftomWric* of ether.
*v
*.,.
«.,.. !
it.
if.
st.
*.
.....
.19.
„. 1
4-249
15-1
(71
1*1 1
SB-l '
0
0
I »
«-
H2
18 3
1 "°.\
4-27.
«-B
M-4
J 4TB
_'
r»
H
155
HDD
Si
j m
11 245
1M
I*.
i*g
{ zl
i .«!
;:m
HUM
■«.!,
an
j »
wain
187 -5
1K-4
\ \w\
1*4
15 5 |
0
°
18405
186-4
158
\ lfl).4
15-4
J
o
"I
!i, !
52
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [dull.snl
Table 20. — I noun tries of vthn- — Continued.
y
' 7294
7-2*5
20-177
20- 170
I
4-251 '
4-JKl
7-2*4 '
i
7313 j
- I
I
7-3IW
7-331 '
4340
i 4334 j
7-325 I
7314
1
1
— .
4-342
4355
7295
tff..-. I Ba,t.
ifi-4
99- 9 ;
1000
SB.
±]K
222*0 ' 2190
■!■>•». t
1(1-5
•17-5
079
99-8
1001
1U-7
16 0
I
■v ,
4-. 151
4-359
7207 ,
7272 •
!
....... j
13-320
509
824 i|
0
2013K
2U140
10 G
100-3 ' j
10-5
liKJl 1001
ino-3 |
10-5 ,
J
100 106
080 69*2
l'*- 5 09
1002
,!{
I
1001 !
100 '
■
io-o !
08-5
(W-7
990
100-2 : J
i
10-6
1001 , -
0
83-5
8-t-r»
83- 8
8JX
0
0
520
52-6
51-9
52-5
83-6
8.3*6
8.1-5
83*5
0
'40 ■; ,
•> ;i 7-2(17 .
742
0
_ 20 290
i
0 20 291 \
i
7-323 i
; 13-230 .
I
| 13-356
I 16-009 :
j
: 10-021 ■
100-2
16-6
158*8
160-0
16-7
181-9
1*50
16- 7
16-6
09-2
69-4
990
100-2
166
157-4
158.7
16-7
182-7
182-8
107
i
C 51*9 I
\ 52-6 J
i 521 *
{ K3-3 )
) 83 3 $
830 j {
836 5
142-2 s >
140-8 , i
113-3 |>
142-0 {
0
168-2 | I
166.0 >
1683 )
166- 1
0
465
467
745
747
0
0 ■
463 ;|
4-350
4-361
13-420
13*437
0/.C
6
a.t.
A*.
&p.
"I"
68- 4 '
080
99.7
99-7
17-7
159-0
150-6 i
17 8 j
i
I
221-8 j
222-0
17-9 '
17-8
99-7
99-7
180
223- 1
223-1
181
68-6
68*6
(181)
160-4
160-5
17-9
69-4
69-5
$
99 7 '?
99-7 | |
17-7 i
i
158*2 i $
1581 J
17-8
C 51 0 i >
510
51 K
10
51-9
82-0
H-J-0
820
8
141-9 !)
140-5 1 1
141* )
140-3 j 5
0
218 5
*M I 20216
739 20*198
17 0 17-6 '
743
O1
7-324
1289
7-277
1208
oi
4-450
1370
4-468
1369
0 13-308
13-340
I
0
17-4
222-4
mmmmmm «*
17.4
1002
99-8
17-4
69-8
69-9
17-4
159-5
159-7
Lt-4
21*
.7 <
17-9
2040 ■ )
2(H)- 7 S
2011 I
2008 , >
0 I
439
1
440
700
707
0
1191
1171
0
1639
1011
0
\\
159.4
17-9
0 I
81.9
81-9
Sl-7
M-7
0
205-1
201 0
2o5-o
201 8
0
50-5
51- 1
50 5 ' )
51 4 |5
0 '
142-3 I?
1411 ,5
142-7 , )
141-5 >
0
i
'I
V
17-4
219-2
2190
17-4
100-2
5 2nrr« ; )
\ 201 H ' S
C 204 9 I
\ 201 •« !>
99-8
174
70-2
70-4 J
17-4 I
1581
0
205-0
201-8
204 ■«
201 •«
0
828
h*J-«
*2'4
82-4
0
52 4
52-8
I
)
158-4
17-4
S
52-5 ! \
5.30 ; 5
0 i
i42-l )
1407 5
I
0
712
701
o
lcn
H!|9
0
437
437
0
1202
1190
li ■
0
10*4 i
1042 |
t» !
729
72:s
0
404
401
0
l
142- 1
1410
ii
1220 !
i
1209 "
0
BABU8.]
ISOMETRICS OF ALCOHOL AND THYMOL.
53
Table 21. — Isometrics of alcohol.
Table 22. — Isometrics of thymol.
9n,t
A0
Ap
124*5
\
107-6
107-3
I
1495
172
0
0
17-0
0
0
691
\
51-5
521
}
721
090
\
515
621
}
729
10-9
0
0
1001
\
83-2
83-2
!
1166
100-3
\
83-5
83-5
\
1171
10-8
0
0
125-8
\
109-3
1090
\
1512
126-5
I
1101
109-7
I
1506
16-8
0
0
About a month later, and after the gauge and appurtenances had been
much used during intervening experiments, I repeated the work tor
thymol again, using the same tube as in Table 22. The results are
given in the next table (22 supplement) and will be seen to be in excel-
lent accord with the earlier data. This proves that there can have been
no error in the method of measurement between times, and hence
the exceptional behaviors noted in case of some of the following sub-
stances are actual peculiarities. The constancy of the gauge factors
vouched for in this way is gratifying.
Taiilf. 22 ('suip|>]<>m<»]it). — Isometrics of thymol. Check-work a month after the above.
V'
li-fil'l
0400
8-806
8-925
t
U0
i
»
9
25-9
1000
1000
26-0
1251
125-5
2C0
NP
6*20
44-47
44-50
660
57-25
57-25
6-65
V
170
1218
1219
181
1560
1569
179
A0
0
74-1
740
0
991
99-5
0
A/>
0
10-48
10-38
0
13-88
13-90
0
270
27-7
065
•673
7-188 !
i
2X1
28- 1
•711
■711 |
■
9-607
9-636
i
54
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMIC'S OF LIQUIDS. [BrLL M.
Table 23. — Isometrics of para-toluidine.
4-328
4311
7-286
7274
4-3.")2
4 34:*
6t,e
68-4
68-2
99-9
99-7
68-6
68-:>
9-774 i 124-8
9n,t
691
6«-9
99-9
99-7
69-3
69-2
124-6
A0
0
31-7
310
311
304
0
0
56-3
55-4
*V
1
i
0
452
0 i
0
809
*•
4-3<)7
4-3:16
441 : 13 231
13-2."i6
4-332
4-331
«t,<
9*776 !• 125-0
C8-3
68-5
158-8
159 0
68*5
68 5
Ba, t
1248
68-9
69-2
157-4
157-8
690
69.0
if
1$
i
567
55-9
| 799
0
0
0
1 o
90-3
88-2
| 1137
90 5
88-8
.] 1124
0
i 0
0
0
Table 24. — Isometrics of di phenyl amine.
*o
436U
4-306
13-752
«/,<
68-7
68-8
1637 '
Ba.t
4323
4315
7303 \
7-297 I
4-399 :
4-407 j
9-910
9-978 I 1270 126-6
68-3
68-2
690 :
690 i
1000
1000
100.0
100-0
69.2
G9-4
69-8
69 9
126-5
1260
69-4
696
A0
Ap
162-4 . J
94" {
92 8 ! >
0
499
487
0
0
pi;»
9H>
0
0
1346 i
y$
4-392
4-398
7-284
7-316
4-428
4-4.V5
9988
4*479
4456
i
*'.<
13-731 163-4
690
69-2
99-9
(69-5 »
69-5
69-7
10 053 127-6
I
TOO
69 8
Bn.t
162 2 \
69*6
69-8
99-8
1«*.2 100-2
(701)
70- 1 I
70-5
A*
94 4
92-6
0
0
30-
30
30#
301
I > 1345
C 30-7 , >
\ 300 : 5
1271 126-8
127-3
70-8
70*6
\
a
0
57-4
563
576
56 5
0
0
0
0
481
479
0
0
914
904
0
0
CORRECTION FOR THE THERMAL AND ELASTIC VOLUME CHANGE8 OF THE GLASS
TUBES.
52. Thermal expansion of glass. — The direct measurement of the elastic
constants of glass throughout an interval of 300° and 20[00 atmospheres
is at present out of the question. Hence I selected liquid substances
of large compressibility, in order that the discrepancies due to the com-
pressibility of glass might be of smaller magnitude, and could, there-
fore, be at least in a measure applied by interpolation from known
djita. It is clear at the outset, moreover, that the correction in ques-
tion is of smaller moment, because it is differential in character. Rise
of temperature expands the glass tube, pressure again diminishes it.
If the isometrics of solid glass and the liquids were identical, the cor-
rection would be nil. Curiously enough this is nearly the case.
The expansion of glass throughout large intervals of temperature
was measured by Duloug and Petit,1 by Kecknagel,2 and by othere.
The results of the latter are the larger. For this reason I accept the
former, seeing that in the ease of compressibility of glass a datum
Uhilong and relit: Ann. de cliiin. et phys. (2), VII, 1817, p. 113.
"Eccknagol: Sltz. Bur. k. Bayr. Acad. (2), 1866, p. 327.
BABUS.]
ISOMETRICS OF SOLID GLASS.
55
too small must be accepted for want of data on the thermal variations.
Dulong and Petit find that from —
0° to 100°, coefficient of expansion, fi = 258/10*
0° to 200°, coefficient of expansion, fi = 276/107
0° to 300°, coefficient of expansion, fi = 304/107.
A chart may then be platted from which p maybe taken tor any inter-
val. It follows that the volumes, Tr2o of the constant volume tube, in
terms of the volume at 20°, will be (pressure = 1 atmosphere).
T = 2<P 50° 100° loOo 200° 250° 300°
1^=1-00000 1-00075 1-00208 1-00350 1-00504 1-00670 1-00856
Again, the corresponding volumes, F70in terms of the volume at 70°,
will be —
T = 70O 100O 150O 200°
TrTO = 1-00000 1-00080 1-00222 1-00376
53. Compressibility of glass. — On the other hand the compressibility
of glass, 1/fc, from corroborative results of Rcgnault and Amagat1, is
1/4 x 10n in terms of dynes and square centimeters. Bearing in mind,
therefore, that no compensation of k in respect to temperature 6an be
made, the volumes of the constant volume tube under any hydrostatic
pressure, P will be 1 — P x lO6/^, where
P = 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 atmospheres,
P/fc = -00125 00250 -00375 -00500 -00625 .00750
Thus, when the initial temperature is 20°, the volumes will be as fol-
lows:
Table 25. — hornet rics of solid glass, in terms of unit of volume at 20° and 1 atmosphere.
e -
I» -1 utni.
5oo at in.
10 0 :itm.
15 '0 :itm.
2.HMI iifui.
25: :o arm.
3iHi:> at in.
20°
50*
1<KP
160*
200 3
250°
l
300<>
10000
10007
1-0021
l-wro
1-0050
1-0067
1 0086
■sn»s7
•9995
10008
MH)22
l'Od.lo
10054
1-0.173
•9075
.9982
•9990
1'OUlO
1-0025
10042
10001
•09u2
•9970
•99m:i
•9997
10013
1*0029
1.0048
•9350
•9957
•9971
•9985
10000
10017
rooiso
-99.17
•9945
•9958
■9972
•9988
1.0004
1*0023
•9925
•9932
•9946
•9960
•9975
•9992
1.0011
A similar table is easily constructed for unit of volume at 70° and
1 atmosphere.
It these results are represented graphically, the volume changes dv,
if the constant volume tubes can be at once obtained for each of the
pairs of values of Jo and Ap given in tables 20 to 24. I have given a
full list of the values, #?r, in table 27, where the arrangement adopted
is such as to correspond to the earlier tables (12 to 10).
64. Compressibility of the above liquids. — Having given these data,
it is therefore finally necessary to find the pressure equivalent of the
1 Amagat: C. R.. C VI II, 1889, p. 1199; CVII, 1888, p. 618, or J.D. Everett'* Tables (Macmillan, 1879,
p. 53).
THE VOLUME THEBMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS.
[nnj..«
values tiv; in other words, to find the value tip wliicb will annul 8v.
To do this it is necessary to know the compressibility of each of the
liquids under the given conditions of pressure and temperature. The
results of my earlier papers ' are available for this purpose, and from
them I take the following mean values.
Tin lk 28.— Corrwiion fanioni if y 1/ dp V bring romprt-t»iWHiet at 6° ami p aim.
KTHKR. A«=*-
*.
THYMOL. A»=»-M=.
__
1CM 1
_ _ ._
ir; 1
j(p),dpl
'
<;V*| *
mo
" I)
J -
711 !
■•—
i
,
run
KSYLAMIJTE.
jU.COHOL. A« —
-iU<.
10" A
TltO
'
.(,':)/*■
11
ioo | :.i ;
ITS.
In!
ill
JW
*-"*'■
]0» 1 6" i
llrt)
Knowing therefore the volume changes of the glass, and the com-
possibility of the inclosed liquid under the given conditions of pressure
and temperature, the correcton 3p follows by division. Tins is fully
given in Table 27. Utilizing these values I constructed the final Table
28, in which JO aud Jp, such as would be observed if the glass tube
were absolutely rigid, are inserted. This table 2S exhibits the impor-
tance of the correction 6p, relative to Ap. For J# I give the thermo-
electric values only, believing them to be the more nearly correct. The
table alsocoidainsp,, and «,„ which are the initial pressures and tempera-
tures used in const rue ting Jp and J# (cf. Tables 12 to 16). In case of
paratoluidine and dipheiiylrtiniiie, pa hud to be estimated.
•abtts.] CORRECTIONS FOR ENVELOPES. 5<
Table 27.- -CorrteiioM (dp) for thermal and elastic volume changet of glass tvT>ei.
ETHER.
D> 10*
I(|)/*
Jp
ap.i>
a»
drxlC*
d it) '*"
•>
+ JJJ
110
85
a
710
740
1350
84
+ 350
05
+ *
a
3
10
11
10
52
81
84
142
+ 200
+ 300
+ 150
+ tmo
+ 1150
05
B5
TO
100
89
80
00
+ TOO
+ UK)
80
OS
!
+ noo
70
■
IB
+ MM
400
1250
1710
141
202
+ 250
+ 400
+ BOO
+ 1800
t'S!
05
IS
+ 300 M
3
SHI
1700
89
203
142
+ 400
+ 1750
+■ 200
+ 800
M
oo
100
80
10
a
10
+ 100
H
w
110
aa
l
KK)
203
n
+ 1700
+ 350
oo
os
80
+ 28
+ 4
+ 2
+ 10
PARATOLXTDINE.
1710
108
— ur^i
4"
- 2.1
,15
""
- S.,3 |
42
— 20
DIPHKSTL AMINE.
[=:
s
- - K;.l
— 800
43
38
— 10
920
1.150
30
67
" ™
"l
= j|
58
THE VOLl-MK THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bum. 90.
Tablk 2S. — Isometric* — Dhjcst of probable result* corrected.
i '„
Siilmtaut'o.
A*
1 ±r'
I *j>'
Af
Substance.
Ktli
IT
*u
1S*»
/'o
- '<0 atm . . .
•
Kfhor
*,,-
17o
50-5 I
818 i
1425
2050
437
o
701
4
1196
10
1019
30
439 I, * Para tolui ilino
I i
705 ||
'I I
1206 :' 9„ - 08» '
1049
, /*j - 3o a tin .
52-5 i
i
826 ,
i
142.1 .
2030
464
o
723
4
12M
lit
1642 |
2H
4(iC
727
1219
1070
:■ Thymol.
p0 ■-■■ . 80 atm . . .
TllYlll"!.
•B = =17°
Alcohol
0o^17n....
j*o~50 at m
W0
830
14:i-g
556
2
P88
—I
1575
o
Alcohol.
9* - 17'
p0 — 50 at in
51-2
834
144*5
554 ' p0- -.80 atm . ..
i
887 ;
^lH plitnyla-
1573 I. iuiup... ".....!
; 0„--O3° !
A9
31-4
56-5
90-4
51 -a
82-7
107-7
51-5
K3-3
1007
Ap'
&p'
Ap
441
435
—6
8ii0
792
--8
1124
1117
— /
i
I
710
—11
1158
— 17
1495
—23
729
- 11 !
1171 |
—17
15 »6 |
—20 ;
i
313
l»7 7
533
•i
8^9
— I
1582
2
551
888 :. *l)iplMiiyla-
miuo
1580 jl
li
6 — 6&.
30-7 '
57-5 ;
94-5 i
487
—10
9U0
— 16
470 ,
--1U j
— 1* :
134">
—21
700 i
1141 '
1472 '
718
1154
1486
477
884
I
I
409 |
H>*6 •
I
1324 I
*p„ = 400 atm., approximately.
DEDUCTIONS.
55. Curvature and slope of the isometrics. — The deductions to be made
from the above laborious investigation can be briefly stated. It con-
duces to clearness to express graphically both the data of Tables 20
to 24, as yet uncorrected for the volume changes of the glass tube con-
taining the solutions, as well as the data of Table 28, in which this cor-
rection has been provisionally added. This is done in PL n, 1 and 2, in
both of which Jp are fully given, as is also A6 in 1. In 2 the chaugo
of J& is represented, and the points are connected by straight lines to
bring out the contour of the curves.
It is seen at a glance that below 1,000 atmospheres the curves are so
nearly linear that they may be accepted as such with an error no larger
than 1° or 2° at 1,000 atmospheres. This is quite within the unavoida-
ble errors, as may be seen from an inspection of the individual points.
The discrepancy is somewhat greater for tolnidine1; here, however, the
initial temperature is high, being 70°.
Turning first (PL n, 1) to ether, the deviation from the right line
at 1000 is less than 1° ( '.: at 1300 atmospheres, the deviation is 9n>° in
one case and 10° in the other, showing an abrupt increase of curva-
ture. The slopes of the isometric within the first 1000 atmospheres, are
'Owing to breakage of the tube, 1 did not repeat tolnidine.
't
0. ft. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
-E.i.
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ISOMETRICS OF ETHER
•A
rh
/;>
1 > 1
/
/
/
500
400
300
/'
/
Temp.
too
J 10'2tf30*«/ flrf
1
THYMOL, PARATOLUIDINE AND DIPHENYLAMINE.
BABTO.]
INITIAL SLOPES OF THE ISOMETRICS.
59
104°/1000= 414 in one case and 115/1000= 415° per atmosphere iu
the other.
Alcohol di tiers from all the other isometrics, inasmuch as the curva-
ture is upward. The deviation at 1000 atmospheres is nearly 2°. The
initial slope of the isometric 95°/1000=*095° per atmosphere.
Thymol, curiously /mough, is strikingly near a straight line. The
deviation at 1000 is inappreciable. The slope of the isometric 71/1000=
•071° per atmosphere.
Diphenylamine deviates from the straight line. The slope is 63/1000=
•003° per atmosphere*
In case of toluidine the slope is *070° per atmospere. In the two
hitter cases it must be remembered that the initial temperature is 78°,
and the initial pressure 400 atmospheres. The deviation from the rec-
tilinear path is an abrupt high-temperature occurrence.
Turning finally to pi. n, 2, the following slopes are found which may
be compared with the slope of 1:
Taislk 29. — Observed initial slopes of the isometrics.
Ether.
Not corrected for volume
i- banjos of glass tuliiv*
Corrected for volume changes
of glaHM t uIh'h ....
Initial tempcrut lire
Initial prvtMiire, atmosphere.
Boiling point ,
Melting point
°C.
at in.
114 1
115 5
•116
114
17°
80
34°
Alcohol.
°C. / atm.
•005
•095
•094
170
50
78°
ti.. ,««T i Diphenyla- Paratolui-
I Thjmol. *minl dine
°C. I atm.
•071
073
•072
17°
80
233°
53°
°0. 1 atm.
063
•065)
•065 5
68°
(400)
310O
54°
°0. 1 atm.
•070
072
68°
(400)
198°
43o
It is seen from this table, as well as from Table 28, that the correc-
tion to be applied in consequence of nonrigidity of glass never exceeds
2 per cent. In case of ether and alcohol it may be disregarded. In
tbe other cases the approximation made is probably warranted without
elaborate measurements of tbe elastics of glass.
If the abrupt change of curvature above 1000 atmospheres were due
to an unwarranted application of Hooke's law, the curvature of the
isometrics would tend to change in similar ways for all curves at the
same pressures. This is not the case for the above curves, in which the
contour of each preservesanindividual character. Even after the gauge
had been strained (§ 42) I detected no differences in the factor. Again,
the repetition of the thymol work in Table 22 (supplement), made es-
pecially to throw light on the present question, shows that no time
error in the constants of the pressure apparatus is to be apprehended.
The slopes given iu the last table have no absolute value, since these
data must varv with the initial volume under consideration. Volume
measurements are beyond the scope of the present paper. I may state,
however, that when volume measurements are included the complete
thermodynamics of liquid matter are expressible in the family of curves
obtained with a degree of accuracy which is experimentally the most
precise.
GO THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [mix. 96.
58. Final interpretation. — For the time being the above results admit
of the following interpretation: Whenever a substance passes from the
liquid to the gaseous state, no matter whether this takes place contin-
uously above the critical temperature or discontinnously below it, the
underlying cause is a change of molecule from a more complex to a less
complex type. As long as the molecule remains uuchanged the isomet-
rics are straight. When the change of molecule takes place so as to
begin with the liquid molecule and pass continuously into the gase-
ous molecule, the isometrics curve continuously for the linear isome-
tric of the true liquid to that of the true gas. Such an explanation is
of conrse tentative. It rests on evidence purely experimental and
therefore of uncertain interpretation; and it is suggested by a contro-
versy which I have summed up elsewhere1 as follows: "The linear re-
lation was predicted from theoretical considerations by Dupr6 (1869)
and by Levy (1884) — considerations soon proved to be inadequate by
Massieu, H. F. Weber, Boltzmann, and Clausius. Eamsay and Young
(1887) established2 the relation in question experimentally for vapors,
but not, I think, very fully for liquids decidedly below their critical
points. Reasoning from these data, Fitzgerald (1887) investigated the
consequences of the law, viz: (1) specific heat under constant volume
is a temperature function only; (2) internal energy and entropy can be
expressed as a sum of two terms, one of which is a volume function
only and the other a temperature function only. Thus Ramsay, Young,
and Fitzgerald arrive substantially at the same position from which
Dupre and L6vy originally started."
ITowever, too much care can not be taken in keeping clearly in mind
that pressures which, in relation to the usual laboratory facilities, are
exceptionally large, may yet be mere vanishing increments when
mapped out on the scale of the -molecular pressures of liquids and
solids.
Some notion of the internal pressures encountered may be gained as
follows:
Studying the compression of organic substances throughout an in-
terval of 310° and <>00 atmospheres, 1 found that the isothermal com-
pression v/ V could be well represented by an equation v/ F=ln (l+«p)*-'*
where »v and a are constants and p denotes pressure. Taking this a* a
basis, 1 sought the mean values of the constants involved in some fifty-
three isothermals, and found — v/V=\n (1+9'V)1.-9 to apply within the
limits of error of my work. To this extent, therefore, compressibility-
increases as the reciprocal of the first power of the pressure binomial
(l/9*+/>). The interpretation to be given to 1/9* is that of an iuitial
or internal pressure. Computing its value for the above or organic
liquids, I found the data of Table 30.
•Am. Jour.. S<i. fti ser., vol. :w. IKrfji, p. 407.
■For a pri'Muri* interval not i-xivimHiiij almnt SO atm<v*]>h<M-6A for n frrnii]i ofiHoiiiftriYA, nor about 80
aUnoHphort'8 for u single isometric. S»«- Kauisuy and Young, Phil. Mag. : 5th aor., vol. 23, 1887, p. 436,
INTERNAL PRESSURE.
Tauli-: 30.— Onltr of ratnei/vr internal prutur*, assuming a"('L'\dp = 6 | (l + »dji).
■*>
'•s.
68'
J(m.
Subat.
•
X.™.:'
XI 1h? )>.£.] W.
Pnr«.tului-
1,«S8
S
iim°
I.MI
071
All-ulmt )...=-
aw
US*
am*
1.2411 I1 Wphenylam-
pai" i«.:p„ _«,..
to:i .
SO ,!
C.i
t.TflB
rbyiwil
2S°
IMP
1.M3
1.141
If, however, eoinpr<
pressure binomial,' v
nihility bo supposed to vary as the square of the
viz:
"(^ /*=-c/(l + '?)',
the internal pressures eorresp( Hiding, will have almut twice the above
values. Now it appears, from recent ex peri incuts of my own, that the
last expression is probably the more nearly true. It follows therefore
that at zero centigrade, internal pressures of the order of 1,000 to 4,000
atmospheres are to be taken into account.
57. Tftametrica of solid gla**,—A singularly curious inference is sug-
gested in comparing the approximate isometrics of glass above de-
duced, (§§ ~>'J, 53), with the liquid isometrics of the present and earlier
papers. It appears that for solid glass the slope of the isometric in
about HXP/IWH) = .1° per atmosphere in its initial course. This coin-
cides very nearly with the slope of the isometrics of the above organic
liquids, varying :is they do between .07° and .12° per atmosphere. In
view of the similarity of glass and the rock producing magma, this
degree of isometric similarity is of great interest. In general the
proximity of the solid and liquid isometric of compound matter is
worthy of note.
The metallic isometrics are different from the above. So far as they
can be obtained1 the slope of the isometric
= 10s
/hfi
per atmosphere, where A- and ,? are respectively the resilience of vol-
ume and the coellicient of expansion, is only -014° for steel, -OHP Ibr
G2 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bull. 96.
iron, and 'Oil** for copper. They thus preserve an order of magnitude
different from that of glass or the above organic liquids.
58. Conclusion. — In conclusion I will advert to the easy possibility of
obtaining families of isometrics, and from them a complete representa-
tion of the isometrics of liquids with a given pressure interval of say,
.3000 atmospheres. For this purpose it is merely necessary to change
the volume of liquid contained in the glass tubes, and to refer all vol-
umes to the one obtaining at the initial temperature. Thus in the
above tube and in case of ether, temperatures pass from 20° to 220°,
while pressure varies from 0 to 1,900 atmospheres, say. Suppose, now,
that the electric contact is moved in such a way that at 200° the pres-
sure producing contact is not much greater than the vapor tension of
the liquid. Clearly, therefore, the isometrics may now be studied be-
tween 200° and a temperature between 300° and 400°, while pressure
varies between 0 and 2,000 atmospheres as before, etc. Apart from
the unavoidable tediousness of the work, the experimental devices
suitable for accomplish! ug this easily suggest themselves.
CHAPTER III.
A COMPARISON OF THE BOURDON, THE TAIT, AND THE AMAQAT
HIGH-PRESSURE GAUGES.
HISTORICAL.
59. The earlier work. — In my earlier work (chapter H), while inves-
tigating the isometrics of liquids, I was obliged to content myself with
an investigation of empiric pressure gauges. I found by comparing
different Tait gauges with a large Bourdon gauge that so long as pres-
sure continually increased from zero, the relat-iou between the indication
of each under like conditions of pressure was linear; but that when
pressure again decreased from the high value (1,00 ) atmospheres or
more) to zero, this relation changed to a markedly curvilinear locus, of
such a kind that eventually the original zero of both guages was re-
gained. So long as increasing pressures alone were dealt with, either
of these gauges could be used with safety. The present work, in which
both gauges are directly compared with A ma-gat's manom£tre & pistons
libres, corroborates this inference, aud shows that thebow-shaped cycles1
represent the actual motion of the free end of the Bourdon tube. From
this point of view the present datea are important, for they supply an
example of purely mechanical hysteresis, and possibly of metallic vol-
ume lag. The data also show that cyclic indications are absent in the
steel Tait gauge, and that this instrument may be adopted for the
scientific measurement of pressures of any value whatever.
60. Amagafs manometer. — The instrument in my possession2 is con-
structed for the measurement of pressures as high as 3,000 atmos-
pheres. At this extreme limit the height of the compensating column
of mercury (the diameters of the two pistons being -540cai and 12-1 7rm
respectively) will be about 404cm. To read so long a column with reason-
able convenience, I fixed a long, painter's ladder in a vertical position,
aud permanently attached to one side of it both the open manometer
tube aud the long millimetre scale, which I ruled with care on a wide
strip of brass. A round leather belt, passing from top to bottom of the
ladder and everywhere within easy reach, passed over a pulley adjust-
ment, and was suitably connected with the mechanism for rotating the
two "pistons libres." In this way I was able, to make this essential ad-
justment immediately before taking my reading, no matter what my
position on the ladder might be.
'Phil. Mag., 5th aer., vol. .10, 1800. p. :ns. Ibid., pi. x. In the- paper cited I was of the opinion that
the cycles wore thermal phenomena to be nought for in the Tail ^augo.
'Marked E. ][. Anui'Mt, Lvou. 1890.
(S3
64
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OP LIQUIDS. [bull. 06.
I found by trial, that by using the thick mineral machine oil mentioned
in my lastjjaper1, the manometer would be at once connected with my
screw compressor, and that the charge of molasses was quite super-
fluous. I also floated the lower piston in this oil. Thus the same oily
liquid for the transmission of pressure is used with advantage through-
out the system of apparatus. Once put together, it is ready for use at
all times and need not again be touched in years. Care of course must
be taken to obtain oil free from grit or dust.
81. The Bourdon gauge. — The gauge used was the one to which my
earlier measurements apply, having a tube of steel. I made two series
of comparisons of this gauge with the manometer. In the first of these
the usual Bourdon multiplying gear was used; in the other the excur-
sions of the free end of the Bourdon tube were read off directly with a
Fraunhofer microscopic micrometer after the multiplying gear had been
detached. Of many experiments of this kin d which I made I will give
the following typical examples con tained in Tables 31 and 32. In Table
1 the Bourdon registry is given at once in atmospheres, the Amagat
registry both in centimeters and in the atmospheres reduced therefrom.
There are four series of observations, two of them within an interval of
500 atmospheres and the other two within 1,000 atmospheres. Two
observations are made at each step of pressure. In Table 32 the mi-
crometer position of the end of the Bourdon gauge is given in cm./40,
this being the scale part of the Fraunhofer gauge. In other respects
the data are given as in Table 31. Observations were made in triplets,
two at the manometer including each one at the Bourdon gauge.
Table 31. — Cyclic comparison of the Bourdon gauge (steel tube) mth the Amagat mano-
meter.— Multiplying gear.
Bourdon
Atm.
188
174
322
312
457
446
31G
313
102
165
27
29
172
168
317
305
462
444
4:t3
224
225
83
84
20
Amagat.
Cm.
2865
26-80
50.30
48.60
70-00
60 20
49 50
4X10
24-30
24*50
3-60
3-70
26-30
25-50
4010
47-30
71-H0
60-10
67-20
33-90
3410
12- 10
1210
250
Amagat. '
!
Bourdon.
Aiuagut.
Amagat.
Atm.
Atm.
Cm.
Atm.
185
21
2-50
16
173"
242
37-30
241
325 ;
231
35-80
232
314 '
472
73-30
474
459
457
71-30
461
448
060
102-00
660
314
640
99-30
642
311
859
131-30
849
157 1
844
128-80
833
158 '
991
151-80
982
23
977
148-80
962
847
837
12600
124-20
815
804
24
170
651
93 60
606
165
646
92-90
601
318
475
65-10
421
306
475
64-00
420
464
262
84*50
223
447
263
34-70
225
435
28
2-50
16
219
221
78
28
2-70
17 J
30
2-90
19
78
251
38-60
250
16
245
37-50
243
I
Bourdon. Amagat. Amagat
Atm.
465
458
650
645
855
838
985
977
964
950
840
834
631
626
440
440
260
264
35
35
Cm.
72-40
70.80
101-00
99-90
13300
128-60
151-80
148-30
147-30
144-80
125.00
123-90
90-80
90-00
59-60
5960
33-30
34-40
3-30
3-80
Atm.
468
458
653
647
860
833
960
954
937
809
802
587
582
386
886
215
222
21
25
■Phil. Mag., 5th Bor.. vol. 31, 1891, p. 10. [have always found it pre feral »lo to use oily instead qf
aqueous li^uidij, by which flue ports of »Ux\ are liable to ru.-s(.
BARU3.]
bourdon's and amagat'r gauges compared.
65
Table 32. — Cyclic comparison of the Bourdon gauge (steel tube) with tho Amagat manom-
eter. Fravnhofer micrometer.
Bourdon.
Cm. ^40
19-09
16 04
16 12
11-93
12-19
8'40
8
5
5
58
23
66
6-02
6 12
Amagat. : Amagat. Bourdon.
7
8
94
36
11-20
11-28
15 18
15 18
18 97
Cm.
•00
35 -30
35 10
80-80
80-10
119 IK)
118-30
149 80
147 80
141 -30
141 30
116-30
116 30
82-70
82 60
38-80
30 -20
•00
A tin. j
0;
228
227 j
523 :
518 |
772
765
9G9
956
914
914
750
753
535
534
251
254
0
Cm., '40
18-92
15-83
15-87
11-91
12-21)
H
86
918
5 -25
5 70
0 10
6-3.3
8-20
8-39
1108
11 08
14 80
14-80
19 06
1 . ....
Amugat.
Amagat.
Cm.
Attn.
10
1
37-40
242
36-90
239
80 80
523
79 -30
518
112 ^0
730
111-30
720
1J9 -80
969
147 HO
956
144 50
935
139 -30
901
116-80
756
114 -30
739
83 -30
539
83*30
539
41-80
270
42 -40
274
•CO
0
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.
62. Multiplying mechanism. — Constructing Table 31 graphically, it
appears that within the errors of reading the observations of the first
two series lie on a straight line. In series 1 the "on" and "off" ineas*
urements possibly suggest a cycle whose maximum divergence is not
above 5 atmospheres. The factor of the Bourdon gauge (SjS) taken
from these data is -998 "on," and -987 "off." In series 2 this factor
has changed to '984 "on," and -992 "off." There is no cyclic march.
It follows from both series, barring observational errors, that a cyclic
march within an interval of 500 atmospheres does not occur.
The third series "on " shows a change of rate above 700 atmospheres;
thus the locus is composed of two straight lines. The return march is
now distinctly cyclic, and at 500 shows a breadth of almost 50 atmos-
pheres. The zero is regained within 10 atmospheres. The mean factor
is -991 below, and 1*008 above 700 atmospheres in the "on" march.
The mean factor of the " off" inarch is of no interest. In the fourth series,
finally, the remarks made relative to series 3 are substantiated through-
out. The factor below 700 atmospheres is *982, and above 700 is 1-072.
There is some error in this last result, probably due to unwarrantably
vigorous tapping of the gauge. The width of the cycle at 500, about
50 atmospheres..
Hence, the inferences drawn in the earlier pai>er from a direct com-
parison of the Bourdon and Tait gauges1 are valid throughout. It is
gratifying to note that even the standard atmosphere formerly used is
correct to *8 per cent. The present results, however, go further in show-
ing that the cyclic march in question is in the Bourdon gauge, whereas
the indications of the steel Tait gauge are probably very near the truth.
Since I reversed the action of the Bourdon mechanism at different test
' Phil. Map., 5th wr., vol. 30, 1890, pp. 343 ©t seq. ; ibid., $ 18 ; the breadth of cycles here wus about 40
•tmoHphcrvft.
Bull. 96 5
fV.N^.
66 THK VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OP LIQUIDS. [bull. 06.
readings it can not be supposed that these cycles are in the multiplying
gear. Nevertheless this test is essential, and the results obtained are
given in the next paragraph.
63. Fruunhofer micrometer. — Care was taken to lix the axis of the
screw parallel to the line of motion of the free end of the Bourdon
gauge, which makes an angle of nearly 45° with the tangent at the
end of the tube. Table 32 shows the total motion to have been about
4c,n per 1,000 atmospheres, where it is to be noted, however, that the
solid tapering conoidal plug at the end of the flat tube was about 10C1M
long. Of the two series given in Table 32, the "on" inarch of the first
shows some convexity upward. The factor is •302™ per 1,000 atmos-
pheres. The data of the "oft*" march show distinct convexity down-
ward. Hence the two curves form a cycle whose breadth at 500 atmos-
pheres is about 40 atmospheres, a result agreeing substantially with
§ 02. The data of the second series, which show rather better agree-
ment among themselves, corroborate the results of the iirst series
throughout. The mean factor in the "on" march is •361<lu per 1,000
atmospheres — nearly identical with the above.
The bow-shaped cycles, therefore, obtained in the present and earlier
paper1 represent a case of actual hysteresis. A certain amount of
strain is stored up in the Bourdon tube during the interval of com-
pression, which, during removal of pressure4, is always relieved more
slowly than pressure decreases. The phenomenon is thus static in
character, and I venture to regard it as depending on the occurrence
of volume lag in those parts of the tube which are directly influenced
by pressure. In other words, the molecules of metal near the inside of
the Bourdon tube pass from the original to a second molecular state
in proportion as a certain pressure P is approached and exceeded,
whereas these molecules pass from the second molecular state back to
the first again in proportion as pressure falls below a certain other
datum pj where P>p. Nowr, inasmuch as Table 31 shows that within
500 atmospheres there is no appreciable hysteresis, while both Tables
31 and 32 show marked cyclic changes between 0 and 1,000 atmos-
pheres, it follows from the data in question that P must lie somewhere
between 500 and 1,000 atmospheres, whereas p may lie below 300 at-
mospheres. Here, therefore, is a phenomenon very similar to the effect
of pressure on an undercooled liquid.
Two other possible explanations of the cyclic changes may be noted.
In the first place, it is conceivable that the Bourdon tube is hotter dur-
ing the "oil'" inarch than during the "on" march. To test this
directly it would be necessary to submerge the tube in a water bath,
which is scarcely feasible without injuring the mechanism. But I
hold such an explanation improbable. If it were true the comparison
within 500 atmospheres (Table 1) should show a cyclic magnitude pro-
•Phil. Mag., 5th ser., vol. 30, 1800, pp. 344 et acq. See PI. X. Cf. chap, i, $ 16, above.
BARUS.]
tait's and amagat's gauges compared.
67
portioual to the cycle corresponding to the interval 1,000 atmospheres,
which it does not. Again, the cycles should quite vanish on long wait-
ing (five minutes were allowed per observation in my earlier work),
which they do not.
The other explanation, which seems to me equally improbable, is this:
There may be two figures of equilibrium of the Bourdon tube, one cor-
responding to low pressure the other to high pressure, and the figure
of labile equilibrium through whicli the tube passes from the first to
the second may be maintained over a relatively large interval of pres-
sure.
In general, therefore, it follows that if the Bourdon gauge is to be
used for high pressures, it is necessary to take cognizance of discrep-
ancies inherent in the chemical physics of the mfetal, in addition to the
mathematical difficulties discussed by Lord Bayleigh, Profs. Greenhill
and Worthington.
64. The Tait gauge. — In Table 33 I give two series of cyclic compari-
sons of the Tait gauge with the Amagat manometer. The plan of
work was similar to that described in section 61. Readings were made
in triplets — two at the Amagat manometer, including one at the Tait
gauge. An interval of two minutes was allowed for cooling. The Tait
gauge used is the same to which my earlier observations apply.1 The
interval of comparison is 1,500 atmospheres. At the end of Table 33
a short resume of the factors (cm. atm.) corresponding to consecutive
pressure intervals is given.
Tablk 33. — Cyclic comparison of Tait gauge (steel tube) with the Amagat manometer.
Tait.
Cm.
12-65
21 05
20-73
2935
28-73
40- «0
3072
51 05
W16
59-20
5780
64-90
03 98
6330
♦52-50
57 20
5005
49-05
45-50
41 00
40-72
81-U2
3157
22-44
22-49
1305
12-85
Amagat. Amagat.
Cm.
•20
38-30
37-00
75-30
72-30
12430
1 18-70
168-00
163 70
201-70
195-60
22560
221-30
218-60
21540
192-70
190-10
157-70
155-20
123-00
121 40
83-30
8200
41-90
4210
10
10
A>tm.
1
248
239
487
468
804
768
1.087
1,059
1,305
1,266
1,460
1,432
1,414
1,394
1.247
1.230
1.020
1.0O4
796
786
539
530
271
272
1
1
Cm.
12-90
21-30
20-95
30- 17
29-25
38-82
3809
5014
49- 10
6019
5858
6542
64-05
6250
62* (Ml
5830
58 15
4949
49 28
40-45
40-23
2986
29-50
2001
2006
12-85
12-93
Amagat.
Amagat,
Cm.
Atm.
00
0
38oo
246
36-40
236
76-90
498
73-10
484
114-80
743
111-90
724
163-50
1057
159-60
1,033
200 50
1,335
20H00
1,294
228-90
1,481
222- 10
1,437
21600
1. 398
213-90
1.384
199-20
1.289
19730
1,277
100-50
1.(38
159-50
1,023
121-30
785
120-50
780
75-60
489
74-20
480
32-40
210
32-30
200
—•10
—1
— 10
—1
ifhll. Mag., 5th ser., vol. 30, 189), p. 344, § 18, gauge Nq.X.
■.•* >?•*-.
68
TnE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [buli-M.
Favtorn of the Tttit fjanffe.
i
St*rii*».
ProsHure in-
terval.
I. on.
1, on.
I. on.
I, oft".
I, off.
I, off.
II, on.
II, on.
II, on.
II, off.
II, off.
II, off.
Atm.
200 to 1.100
500 to l.aoo
800 to l.rmo
800 to 1 . 400
500 to 1,200
:ioou> 1.000
200 to 1,000
500 to 1,300
700 to 1,500
800 to 1,400
500 to 1.300
200 to 1,000
v . .*..- Mimhih on Moan
*"rtw- aiuloff. total.
fVn. atm. Cin.ffttm
-IKI580 | >
WHO ■ > o3«2S .
3004 > !
•o3M»5 ' ) :
3577 ! } 03576 i
3555 I ) :
1
03544
3002 . .
3023 I }
•03004 )
3691 I >
3579 S
03590
(»3591
•03598
65. Table 33 substantiates the inferences of section 02 relative to the
absence of cycles in the registry of the Tait gauge. In the iirst series,
"on,r the data above 300 atmospheres make up a straight lime. Be-
tween 0 and 300 atmospheres the registration of the Tait gauge is too
high, being more in error as the pressure zero is approached, where the
discrepancy is 30 atmospheres. In the "off" march all the points lie on
a straight line, excepting the zero, which is 10 atmospheres too high
on the Tait gauge. Thus the locus consists of two straight lines con-
verging at 1,500 atmospheres, and the cyclic; character ot the data in
section 01 does not appear. In the second series, though preserving the
general character of series 1, the "off" march practically returns in t he-
line of the "on1' march. Thus again true cyclic changes are absent.
As a whole, therefore, the observations lie on a very flat curve, which
above 300 atmospheres passes into a straight line. (See Fig 1 1.) It is
difficult to conjecture the cause of this curious low pressure discrepancy
in consequence of the great number of errors which may possibly be
encountered, though it may be remarked that the rise of temperature of
a liquid per 100 atmospheres of compression may decrease with increasing
pressure, since at low pressures compressibility i« relatively large.
Table 33 shows, finally, that the mean factor derived from all the series
is .03590 cm. atm. This is to be increased about 4 per cent, to correct
for the temperature of the mercury column of the manometer. Hence
the factor is .0301 cm. atm. In my former paper the results1 were .0300
to .0309 cm. 'atm., showing that my standard atmosphere must have been
less than l2 per cent in error. It is altogether probable that this dif-
ference of factor (U per cent) is the result of the excessive use and abuse
to which the gauge was put during the intervening nine months. Re-
garding the observations as a whole I believe the residual discrepan-
cies to be due rather to unavoidable fluctuations of the temperature of
the water jacket than to thermal effects of compression, or viscosity of
metal. For this reason I doubt whether any permanent expansion of
the metal within 1,500 atmospheres has been registered.
1 Phil. Mag. 5th hit., vol. 30, Tahlf iv, p. 343. Tlda table contain* cm./ntm. inatcari of cm. v lP/alin.
BAHrs.]
"PISTON LIBRE."
G9
Sl'MMAItY.
06.— In the attempt to carry these comjftirisons above 2,000
pheres, I ruptured the stout tube
which connected the compressor
with the manometer. The above
work, however, shows conclu-
sively that the Tait gauge may
be perfected so as to be available,
for precise measurement. J t may
be permissible to indicate the
way in which I am endeavoring
to do this here; since manv of
the experimental contrivances
involved have already been test-
ed. The tables have shown that
the most annoying difficulty is
encountered in maintaining the
temperature of the water jacket
sufficiently constant. To this
end the whole gauge is to be
constructed of metal with close-
fitting jackets. Furthermore,
choice is to be made of as thin
walled a steel measuring tube
as possible, in order that the
volume increase due to pressure,
may be large relatively to the
simultaneous effects of fluctua-
tions of temperature. There is
reason to believe that this can
be accomplished by connecting
the Tait gauge with the com-
pressor by an interposed u pis-
ton libre." In the annexed dia-
gram. Fig. J 2, let li be the cy-
lindrical piston, consisting of a
single piece, of which one end
is larger in diameter than the
other. Let this piston fit the hol-
low cylinder (' C C accurately,
so as to be capable of motion to
and fro and of rotation, with the
minimum of friction. Let the
tube I) be in connection with the
compressor, the tube E in con-
nection with the Tait gauge, and
the whole apparatus be filled
with oil. Then it is clear that
atmos
7ft
THE VOLl'MK THERMOnYXAUICa OF LIQUIDS. [miil.*.
the exceptionally high pressure, acting only on the shoulder of t-lie piston,
can lie counterbalanced by a relatively low pressure at E. Leaving the
essential details of construction out of consideration, a Tait gauge
reading to only 1<KK> atmospheres may thus l»e made to indicate pres-
sure 2, 3, or more times as large as this at J>, by selecting suitable
dimensions of piston and socket. Hence even very high pressures can
be measured by aid of a thin-walled steel tube, the pressure expan-
sions of which arc so large that the accompanying thermal fluctuations
of the environment dwindle to very small importance. I am far from
underestimating the importance of Amagut's manometer as a standard
Pinion lilire," for high preaaur
instrument leading at once to absolute results; hut it is certainly in-
convenient to be obliged to make readings on a column of mercury
which may be 5 meters high, even when a stirring arrangement such as
that described in § 60 is provided. I doubt, moreover, whether it would
conduce to convenience, and certainty if the readings were made by
some easily devised electrical method. On the other hand, in case of
the Tait gauge, the pressures arc read off on a horizontal tube about
1 meter in length and as far as 21KH> atmospheres without "pistons
lilires,'" and therefore quite without diminution of pressure in con-
sequence of unavoidable leakage. Regarding gauges quite free from
leakage, 1 hope soon to be able to communicate results ou the electrical
behavior of pure mercury under pressure.
CHAPTER IV.
THE CONTINUITY OF SOLID AND LIQUID.1
INTRODUCTORY.
67. Scope of the worJc. — In my earlier papers2 I entered somewhat
minutely into the volume thermodynamics of fluid matter. The be-
havior of matter passing from liquid to solid and back again was only
incidentally considered/1 This, however, is the very feature which gives
character, or at least a more easily in terpretable character, to the whole
of the volume phenomena of the substance, and I have therefore re-
served it for special research.
The problem may be looked upon from another point of view. Let
it be required to find the relation of melting point and pressure. I
have long since showrn4 that in a comprehensive attack of this question
the crude optical or other methods hitherto used as criteria of fusion
(criteria which have no inherent relation to the phenomenon to be
observed) must be discarded. In their stead the volume changes which
nearly always accompany change of physical state in a definite or
simple substance are to be employed.
The present experiments were made with naphthalene only. They
are by no means even near the degree of precision of which the applied
plan of research admits. My chief object here has been to carry the
method quite through to an issue preliminarily and to test it at every
point. The data are sufficient, however, to show that the process
adopted, though I approached it with much misgiving, can be brought
under control throughout, and that the attainable accuracy is only
limited by the patience, discernment, and skill of the observer. I was
in some degree surprised therefore to find that my method led to new
results at the outset-.
The literature of the subject I shall omit here, since the more im-
portant experiments have entered the text-books and since I shall have
occasion to refer to it elsewhere. I need merely mention Sir William
'The geological interpretation of this work in in the hands of Mr. Clarence King, by whom tho
inquiry was suggested.
* Am. Jour. Sc.i., 3d hot., vol 38, 1889, p. 407; ibid., vol. 39. 1890, p. 478; ibid., vol. 40, 1890, p. 219;
ibid., vol. 41, 1891, p. 110: Phil. Mag.. 5th hit., vol. 30, 1890, p. 338.
'Am. Jour. Sri.. 3d «er., vol. 3*, 18*), p. 408; ibid., vol. 39, 1890, pp. 190, 491, 494. Mont of my
earlier work on this subject has thus fur remained unpublished.
4 Am. Jour. Sei., loc. eit. More pointedly with an indication of methods in Phil. Mag., 5thsei\, \ol. 31*
1891, p. 14.
71
72 THE VOLUMK THERMODYNAMICS OF UQUFDS. Idull.96.
Thomson (1850), Bunseii (1H50), Hopkins (1864), Mousson (1858),
Poynting (1881), Peddie (1884), Amagat (1887), Battelli (1887), and some
others (ef. § 95, 90).
68. Other method* tested. — In applying this principle I first made
direct volume observations on substances inclosed in capillary tubes
of glass. In the case of naphthalene ami many others I thus obtained
satisfactory results'. Such work is, however, limited to relatively low
pressures (600 or 800 atmospheres); it does not admit of sufficient cor.
reetion for the volume changes of the glass, and for the small quantity
of substance examined and the relatively frequent occurrence of nuclear
condensation, volume lags are often obscured. Hence the definition
which, after making these experiments, I was inclined to adopt, viz,
that a pressure which when acting isothermally for an infinite time will
just solidify the liquid and just liquify the solid, stands to the given
temperature in the relation of melting i>oint and pressure, is not in
accordance with the facts.
In a second method2 1 endeavored to measure the characteristic dif-
ference of specific volume by passing current through the ^ thin, hot
walls of the tube which contained both the substance and the mercury
thread or index. The whole apparatus is in this case surrounded by
the oil of the piezometer in which the tube is inserted, and the changes
of resistance of the arrangement indicate the motion of the index and
hence the degree of compression produced. Here, howrever, a new and
unexpected annoyance was encountered, inasmuch as both the medium
of oil and the glass possess seriously large pressure coefficients.3
Moreover it is only with great difficulty that perfect insulation can be
maintained in an apparatus of which water jackets make up an essen-
tial part. I therefore abandoned this project.
In a third method similar to the preceding I expressed the motion
of the mercury thread or index in terms of the resistance of a very fine
platinum wire passing through the axis of the tube. The successive
intercepts thus indicated the changes of volume to be observed. This
method gave good indications of the pressure positious of the melting
points of the sample. It failed, however, to give serviceable values for
the fluid volume changes. This is due to the fact that contacts in such
a case are essentially loose. Again thermo-currents can only with
great difficulty, if at all, be allowed for, seeing that the successive
isothermal temperatures are to vary over a large range.
Finally all of the methods above described must necessarily fail after
the substance has become solid, for in this case the thread or index in
•
broken and forced into the interstices of the solidified material. Thus
it is manifestly impossible to retain a uniform meniscus after solidifi-
cation has once set in, and it is therefore impracticable both to arrive
1 Cf. American Journal of Science, vol. 38, 1881), p. 408.
•Phil. Ma*:- 5th »er.. vol. 31, 1891, p. 14.
•Ibid., pp. 18 to 24, et aeq.
bum) METHOD— APPARATUS. 73
at tbe behavior of the solid, as well as to rigorously coordinate siicces-
aive scries of cxperiinentH.
69, Advantage* of the present method. — Hence I endeavored to modify
Kopp's1 specific volume flask in a way to make it available under any
temperature or pressure. Here tbe readings are independent of tbe
unbroken character of the meniscus immediately in contact with the
solidifying substance, whereas on the other hand, as I shall presently
show, the expansion measurements can be made electrically1 with al-
most any desirable degree of accuracy. Furthermore, by charging the
flask with properly apportioned quantities of substance and of mercury,
tbe error due to tbe compressibility of the glass may be eliminated in
any degree, whatever, and an apparatus obtained which is practically
rigid in relation to pressure. The data show that from each single series
of experiments I thusobfain the isothermal* nnd isoptcstics, and there-
fore also the isometrics, both for the liquid and for the solid; further-
more the relation of melting point and of solidifying point to pressure,
and finally the changes of the i sot hernial specific volumes of solid and
liquid at the melting points, with pressure. From these results the
character of tbe fusion and the probable position of critical (§92) and
transitional (§i'A) points can already be pretty well predicted. It is
then only necessary to examine a great number of substances, of sub-
stances existing under widely different conditions of thermal state, in
order to broaden tbe evidence nnd possibly to reach result* of a uni-
form bearing on matter in general. This I indicated elsewhere.3
APPARATUS.
70. Temperature. — Inasmuch as pressure varies at a mean rate of, say,
30 atmospheres per degree, so that temperature is as it were the coarse
adjustment and pressure the Hue adjustment for the conditions of melt-
ing point, it is clear that tbe method of experiment should be such that
temperature may be kept rigorously constant while pressure is made
to vary over the necessary interval. To obtain constant temperatures
I constructed a set of vapor baths of well-brazed, thin sheet iron heavily
jacketed with asbestos. C£ PI. HI, p ppp. These were cylindrical in
form, ltlr'" in diameter and 2001" high. Axial tubulures, the upper of
which, M, projected outward, the lower, oono, both inward and outward,
allowed the vertical tubular piezometer to pass axially through tbe va-
por baths, and suitable stuffing boxes obviated all possibility of leak-
age Again the upward projection of the lower tubulure (both of them
fit the piezometer snugly) formed an annular trough with the walls and
bottom of the vapor bath, in which a sufficient quantity of the ebul-
lition liquid could be placed and boiled by aid of a flat spiral burner
■ K.ipp] Ann. UhiHU. n" l'harn... vol. sa. iw<ii, p. 1J».
1 '1'bi- ihwiliiti! "i 1 1 rm* kin urn! rmnpreuiliiltt)- of mercury being dow known $ 73.
' -limliiulnf trarliif! (li« iMilhermtlH uf ■ elnc'e inlwlMicothronKln>,it enonwiiu ranaiworprwunre,
xliiillai'ly nmipanblv rvHull* nuy poi.iblj l>e obtain.*! by examining differ*!
lu skint In nlili'ly dittirtnt tneruial ■tttlfto." (Am. Journ., loo. oit., p. S1U.)
*C ■*&*£&-'&&£ji*#e
'VU<rv:.
74 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bull. 96.
placed below. The top of tbe vapor bath was provided with two other
lateral tubulures, one of which served for the permanent attachment of
a vertical condenser and the other for the introduction of a suitable
thermometer or thermocouple. Here also the quantity of ebullition
liquid present could at any time be tested aud its amount increased or
diminished, or its quality directly purified by fractional distillation (an
operation always necessary when amyl alcohol is used). With a good
condenser the boiling may be kept up indefinitely, since the con-
densed vapors fall back into the trough below. For temperatures
below 100° it is expedient to avali oneself of the high latent heat of
water and to boil this liquid under diminished pressure. Temporarily
attaching Richards's jet pump to the end of the condenser, pressure
may be so regulated that any boiling point between 50° and 100° is
maintained indefinitely. For higher temperatures amyl alcohol, tur-
pentine, naphthalene, benzoic acid, diphenylamine, phenanthren, sul-
phur, etc., subserve the same purposes, though less thoroughly. Low
latent heats1 in most of these substances make it difficult to guarantee
perfect thermal constancy throughout a length of say 10om. (Cf. §72,
where a view of the apparatus is given.)
Temperature was measured by aid of a Baudin thermometer of known
errors and also computed from the vapor tension of steam under known
conditions. Thermolectric measurements are similarly applicable.
71. Pressure. — To obtain pressures as high as2,000atmosplieres I used
my screw compressor described elsewhere.2 1 made ijse, however, of a
vertical piezometer, identical with the horizontal piezometer there de-
scribed, except in so far as it could be removed from the barrel as a
whole. As before, moreover, piezometer aud barrel are insulated.
When in adjustment the piezometer was surrounded by the following
parts enumerated from bottom to top (see PI. in) : An insulated conical
protector or guard preventing spilled water, etc., from reaching the insu-
lation, the lower cold-water jacket, the flat burner, the vapor bath, and
finally the upper cold-water jacket. For temperatures below 200° the
latter may be dispensed with.
Internally the piezometer was filled with thick petroleum oil, as stated
elsewhere.3
For pressure measurement I am now able to avail myself of a superb
Amagat manoniHre & pistons libres, which can be immediately attached
to my compressor with advantage.
72. The volume tube. — A carefid description of this apparatus, to-
gether with the operations necessary in standardizing it, is essential
here. In one case these preliminary operations have led to a result of
an interest apart from the present special purposes.
The tube is shown in the annexed diagram. Fig. 13, while PI. in
1 It m iuy object in farther experiment* to boil water under pressure.
True. Am. Arad., vol. 25, 1H90, p. IM, Clmpter 1, above,
•riiil. Mag., 5th ser., vol. 31, 181)1, p. 10, chapter in, above.
VOLUME TUBE.
75
Rhows the tube in place in the tubular piezometer. It consists of an
external cylindrical envelope, A B, of glass, closed below, open
above, about 2<i'm long and .4t'™ or .5em in diameter. Throughout
tlie greater part of its length, the tube A B is divided into two coaxial
cyliudrie compartments, by a central glass partition tube, Ck C, open at
both cuds and fused to the tube A B along the ring f? C about 7cn below
the open top A. This central tube Ck 0 is about 17cra long and
.13™ internal diameter, and drawn us thin walled and as
even in caliber as possible, so that the greater part of
its lower length may be available for measurement. It
extends nearly to the bottom of A B.
The substance to be examined is introduced into the
annular space E K, care being taken that when fused
under the highest temperature to lie applied its lower
boundary may be ■lrm or more above the end k of Ck C.
My fused samples were about 13"" long. 1 nimediately in
contact with the substance EE and extending upward
into the central tube CfcC is the plug of mercury FJ'with
its free meniscus at g. When E E is solid g must be, say,
2"" above the end k of Ck C, and when E E is liquid at
the highest temperature to be applied g must still be at
about an equal distance below C C. The remainder of
the tube above g is quite filled with a concentrated solu-
tion of zinc sulphate Qhg, into which an amalgamated
zinc terminal, D, has been submerged and fixed in position
by aid of platinum wire a, fused to .the sides of the tube
A B, as shown. The other terminal, b, is fused into the
bottom of the tube A and in metallic connection with the
mercury, F F, therein contained.
The tube thus adjusted is completely submerged in the
oil contained within the tubular piezometer, PI. in, and
pressure is uniformly transmitted to it through the oil.
The terminal a is put into metallic connection with the
insulated piezometer; the terminal b, completely insu-
lated therefrom by a coating of glass tube, is in metallic
connection with the barrel; the tube A J? itself is thus J
held in position by tensely stretching the fixed wires a
and b and so adjusting their lengths that the parts E E
and hg, with reference to which the measurements are r[beIvoTiS»Bt™!>'
made, may lie wholly within the vapor reservoir of the cylindrical vapor
bath surrounding the piezometer. The method of fastening the ends a
and b is a somewhat delicate operation, which, however, I will not further
describe. So adjusted the tube is in position (vertical as shown in
PI. Hi) for any number of experiments and it is only necessary to at-
tach the vertical piezometer to the barrel by aid of a tinned axially per-
forated screw.
76 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bull. oft.
An inspection of the diagram shows at once that if a current enter
the outside of the barrel it will pass through />, A*, </, h, />, and a into
the outside of the piezometer and thence back to the battery. The
only relatively significant resistance encountered in this course need
be that between g and h of the thread of zinc-sulphate solution ; but this
resistance, ceteris paribus, varies directly with the length of gh, and
therefore proportionally to the volume contraction of the substance E E.
Hence the volume variations of the substance to be studied are directly
and rigorously measurable in terms of the resistance of the circuit.
If Kohlrauseh's method * of intermittent currents, bridge, and telephone
be used for the resistance measurement of the electrolvte, solidification
or fusion breaks upon the ear with a loud roar,. whereas the ordinary
volume changes (solid or liquid) are indicated by mere intensification of
sound, sufficiently pronounced to subserve the purposes of measurement.
It is seen that any breakage of the surface of separation between E E
and F F is entirely without influence on this result, and that, even in
the case of the solidification of 13 13, when mercury is forced into the
interstices left after contraction, the compressibility of E E will still
be measurable.
The charging of the tulie, free from air, is an operation which I have
not thus far accomplished satisfactorily. If a volatile substance like
naphthalene be filled into E E and fused in vacuo, the vapor subse-
quently condensing in gh will soil the tube and interfere with measure-
ment. From the solid E EI doubt whether air can be quite eliminated
in vacuo. Hence in the preseut work the substance was not air-free,
a condition of things to which I gave less attention because I do not
believe the melting points can be appreciably influenced by dissolved
air, nor that other of the measurements made are seriously distorted
by this error. In the future, however, I will endeavor to meet this
difficulty by fusing the end A A of the tube A B inverted to the top
of a barometer tube, in addition to a lateral tubulure leading to a
Sprengel pump. If now, after exhaustion, the lower meniscus of the
barometric column is adjustable, so that the column as a whole maybe
raised quite into the tube A 1$ or withdrawn from it at pleasure, it is
probable that a thorough vacuum filling maybe effected. Rubber con-
nections, which corrode and blacken warm mercury, must be scrupu-
lously avoided.
If the whole apparatus l>e charged with pure mercury in the place
of the substance E E, the expansion and compression constants of the
tube may be found as stated in the next paragraph.
Again, even if the measuring thread in gh should break into parts
alternating with threads of zinc sulphate (a possibility when the
thread is worked up and down many hundred times, particularly in
view of the suddenness of solidification), the constants of reduction are
not thereby necessarily vitiated, always supposing that the number of
•KoklrnurtcU: Wietl. Ann., vol. ii, 18*0, p. 653; Long: ibid., 1880, p. 67.
t
t
r
H
Z
Z
o
"9
r
\
\
\
BABw.l PIEZOMETER AND CONTENTS. 77
such breaks is not greater than one or two. S]iecial care, however, must
be taken to avoid contact of the mercury thread and the upper zinc termi-
nal. Such an occurrence would either add to or deduct from the length
of the thread and produce shifting in the coordination of the volume
measurements. The formation of zinc amalgam after the long contin-
ued passage of intermittent currents or the possible electric solution
of mercury is again to be kept in view, as is also the probable change
of compressibility <>f amalgamated mercury. On all these points I shall
make special tests. Solution of mercury, however, can not become of
serious consequence, since the column gh is continually washed by the
zinc terminal />.
To give a succinct view of the method of work I will insert PI. ill,
which shows the volume tube rr in place in the tubular piezometer
uuuu. The upper terminal rir is in contact with the screw plug 1>,
where w is fastened. The lower terminal rxx is completely insulated
from un by a glass tube (not shown) and metallically fastened to the
l>erforated connecting screw a, by which the piezometer is attached to
the barrel (not shown) of the compressor. The insulation of uu from
bh and a has been described in section 12 above, ce being of steel, dd
and A'A* of hard rubber, the whole being made tight by a medium of
marine glue and secured by the steel gland ce. The hard-rubber disc
zzj prevents the external terminal ggg of the piezometer from coming
in contact with the metallic parts below and the barrel, while a conica]
screen or umbrella of sheet iron, ffff, additionally protects the lower
insulation from water or liquid drippings from above. Note that ff is
insulated from nn by a rubber cork, hh. The vapor bath, ppjrp, placed as
shown, is heated by the plato burner rr, adjustable at pleasure, and an
asbestos jacket, w«, keeps superfluous heat away from the tube uu. The
axial tube oooo of the vapor bath is sealed below by a piece of rubber
hose, ww, or by a metallic stuffing box, care having been taken to make
oooo tit the piezometer tube closely and thus take as little liquid out of
the annular ebullition trough already described as possible. The con-
denser qq is connected above with an air pump (not shown). Finally
water jackets tt and //, through which a current continually circulates,
confine the heat to the central parts of the piezometer tube uuuu.
METHOD OF MEASUREMENT.
73. Constant* of the tube. — In order that the present measurements
may be carried out absolutely it is necessary to know—
(1) The volume of the charge at a fiducial temperature and pressure.
(2) The volume of the plug of mercury under the same conditions.
(3) The volume of the central or measuring tube kh per centimeter of
length.
(4) The. resistance of the thread of zinc sulphate solution per centi-
meter of length under all the stated conditions of temperature and
pressure. From 3 and 4 there follows at once —
U*^i++ . * . r± j* - i£&J3tE&1&&Mr
78 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bull.*.
(5) The resistance of the thread of zinc sulphate per unit of volume
under stated conditions of temperature and pressure. Thus it is nec-
essary to investigate preliminarily —
(6) The isopiestic relation of resistance and temperature of the given
concentrated solution of zinc sulphate and
(7) The isothermal relation of resistance and pressure of the same
solution. In other words, it is necessary to know what may be called
the isoelectrics relative to temperature and pressure of the measuring
electrolyte. Furthermore, it is necessary to find or to know —
(8) The compressibility of glass in its relations to pressure and tem-
perature, and
(9) The compressibility of mercury under the same conditions, and,
finally,
(10) The thermal expansion of glass and
(11) The thermal expansion of mercury under the given conditions of
pressure.
The measurements 8 to 11 I did not make directly; they are of smaller
importance, seeing that the substances on which I operate are all char-
acterized by relatively large volume change. Such measurements are,
however, easily feasible, since both the expansion constants and the
compression constants of pure mercury (thanks to the recent labors of
Amagat, Tait, and Guillaume) are now thoroughly known, and it is also
known that the thermal changes of the elastics of glass are of no rela-
tive consequence (Amagat), even as far as 200°. I assumed the com-
pressibility of my glass1 to be -0000022, that of mercury2 being -0000030;
moreover, the coefficient of expansion of glass3 to be -000025, that of
mercury4 being -000182 between 60° and 130°.
74. Volume of the charge. — Clearly the fiducial conditions to which
volume is to be referred are given by the (normal) melting point un-
der atmospheric pressure. By weighing the tube before and afYer charg-
ing I found the mass of naphthalene inclosed to have been -703 gramme.
In a special and duplicate set of pyenometer experiments I furthermore
found the density of naphthalene, fused at 82°, to have been -724.
Hence the volume of the charge at 82° is 'w>2l'm\ which 1 accepted as
identical with the volume at the melting point (80°).
75. Corrections for expansion and compressibility of envelopes. — The
plug of mercury weighed 7-74 grammes. Its volume is therefore -571",u
at 20°, and its mean volume between 00° and 130°, being between -575
and -r>82, is sufficiently near v>8cn,:i.
Thus the volume of the glass tube containing both the charge of
naphthalene and mercury was 1-1 3rm3. Its expansion per degree centi-
grade -000028rl,,:,; while the expansion of the actually inclosed mercury
per degree centigrade was -000105' m3, when* the apparent expansion
I E. H. Amagat: Ann. Hi. et ]>hvw.. 1801, p. 125.
•Iliiil.. p. 137.
* Landolt n. liocrDHtoinn Tables, 1883, p. GO.
Ubid., p. 37.
»*«*.] METHOD OJ? CALIBRATION. 79
■O0O077'"13 per degree. Therefore if, in place of the fiducial volume
■KSrM found iu §74, the following volumes be substituted, viz,
&y •.-«&y"» ioo0 •sasfma
80° '3860 120" -r*-.i9
90° -5512 130- -5311
the tube may Ik- treated as free from thermal expansion. Here at 80°
.5550 appears, instead of .5524, to collect tor the fiducial volume of the
stem * A (Fig. 13), as will presently be explained. (§ 83.)
Again, the compression of the 1'13™* of glass and ■58*™' of mercury
will be
100 atni. r glass, '00025 tmJ; iuercurj, 00023 *n,s; differ™ co, -OOOO^^
000 124 113 11
1000 249 226 23
1500 373 339 34
2000 497 452 45
Thus these corrections, which would individually be appreciable (affect-
ing tiie increments say 3 per cent), are differentially negligible (0.3 per
cent), where they fall below the electrieal pressure coefficient of the zinc
sulphate solution. (§ SO.) This has already been intimated above (§69),
and is one of the interesting advantages of the volume tube Fig. 13.
76. Resistance measurement. — In making the measurements of resist-
ance of thread it is convenient to use Kohlrausch's interrupter, bridge,
and telephone. To facilitate audition I joined the cup of the telephone
to a graphophone tube and listened with both ears. The resistances,
however, are rather higher than contemplated in Kohlrausch's method,
when an ordinary Bell telephone is used. Hence the measurements,
particularly near and in the solid state, aro far below the limit of
attainable accuracy. I shall in future measurements wind telephones
specially adapted tor my purposes, and endeavor to use both ends of
the magnet to actuate diaphragms connected respectively with each
ear by an independent tube.
When zinc sulphate is inclosed between terminals of amalgamated
zinc a galvanometer is available. In this way I made most of the
calibration measurements. Supposing the mercury index to be slightly
deadened in its electronegative qualities by zinc, it may also be used in
case of the tube.
77. CatibmtioH.— In view of the fact that the central tube h k (Fig. 13)
is insufficiently uniform in caliber, it is necessary to express volume as
a function of length. This I did by weighing threads of mercury whoso
length in successive parts of the tul>e had to bo measured, obtaining
the results of the first two columns of Table 34. The fiducial zero is
bete arbitrarily placed 2"" below the ring C C (Fig. 13), the caliber
above this being too variable.
It is next necessary to express the resistance of a filament of the
concentrated solution of zinc sulphate as a function of length referred
to the same fiducial zero at some convenient (atmospheric) temjierature.
To do this 1 drew a zinc wire to a diameter slightly less than the caliber
<T*;£.
■*& ^&aJ&eSM^^s^^
80
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bull. 96.
of the tube to l>e calibrated. Opening the bottom of the tube A B (Fig.
13) and closing the top, ho as to hold the terminal T) firmly in position,
I inverted the tube and quite filled it with the solution. The tube was
then placed in a water bath with the terminal a insulated, and the ter-
minal h replaced by the zinc wire referred to, and so -adjusted that I
could slide it up and down the central tube and fix it in any position.
Measuring the distance between the ring C C (in this case, the neck was
quite tilled by the fitting terminal) and the free end of the wire with
(Jrunow's cathetoineter, and measuring at the same time the resistance
corresponding to this length by means of Kohlrausch's Wheatstone
bridge (§70), I obtained the data necessary for constructing resistance
as a function of length for the temperature of the bath. In this way
the second and third columns of Table 34 were investigated.
Combining the results of these four columns by graphic interpola-
tion, 1 obtained the data of the fifth and sixth columns, in which vol-
ume is expressed in terms of resistance at 17*8° with regard to the
fiducial mark in question.
Table 34.— Vi
tinmen per unit t
>/* length. Calibrai
ion resistance per
0=17*8°. Volume per unit of retistauoc, 0=17,S-".
Length.
Volume.
Cm*.
i
Length. Rc-aiHtHiu-t'.
i
Cm. 1 Oh ma.
Ucsistiiwt'.
0-.17-83.
Volume.
#=178°.
Cm.
Ohms.
Cm*.
a -oo ' -0401
— -06 2730
2800
•0000
11 15 , 1000
2i3 ,- 5780
5KI0 -0350
1
4 75 = 10190
8*50 ! -0040
— ■-. . _ ._^__ -_
7 '96 16200
12530 : -0920
4-45; 0715
• •79 j -l AIM
15-42 j -J 145
12-06 | 24340
j,
i
1 '38 4630
16270
20250
24250
28500
'1190
1450
1705
I960
• — - — -
■ .. z- -Z=~
3-43 | 7920
.
3*30 1 -05.W
7 20 1070
11-40; 1614
6 18 12790
9 '00 1H220
11-49 1 23140
15 60 ! -2152
~— " ™ i ~~
•
11 ; 29W
2 75
0 10
•0470
-0940
2 78 7050
Air bubble error.
9-05
•1410
13-40
•1880
j
i
78. Electrolytic rvnintance and temperature. — It is next necessary to
express the variation of the resistance of the concentrated zinc sul-
phate solution with temperature. This is a general problem apart
from the apparatus used. Nevertheless I made two sets of measure-
ments, in the first of which 1 measured the resistance of the thread
i*//, Fig, 13, between fixed terminals of zinc, when the whole was kept at
successive constant temperatures and under pressure sufficient to keep
the thread liquid and to thoroughly condense all polarization gases.
The first four columns of Table &5 contains these results, all easily in-
telligible except the last column perhaps, where under R;R\M the rela-
tive resistance referred to the resistance at 100° G. is inserted. At
100° the pressures were varied to measure the pressure coefficients dis-
*.]
ZINC SULPHATE SOLUTION.
81
cussed in the next paragraph. Tn the second and third parts of the
table the above tube was replaced by a plain straight tube. Kesist-
ances are much smaller here, but thc^columu -ft/-ft10o makes both series
comparable.
TABLE 86.— Temperature t
[FintMTiM. LeDgtlllif thread 10. TIC-OT
lulfhule
'LV,„|.,.ru
Atm.
RterUV
(M*w.
h-mb
MOM
* *!•
TT,r"
.•„..„„
Kiwlnt-
0hm4.
ifeS
R,-Rm
-RK6
a
"O
4M,
448
(0)1
SKI
SOT
ISO
ff7-3
WO
IIS
007S
0075
1 -:iS»
I-3W
i-aes
100-13
tou-o
MS
l"i!l
1507
144.1
120
J&IO
4JI70
4320
i-iiEi
i-ra>
ItKIl
iai-<i
1-J7-B
1S7
154
154
job:'
MS*-
B84
894
■850
■840
-787
■787
[Third aerlse
Suuiefu
».]
l-'TO
isa
:iT3W
;i7si
sio
■gaa
■;■;
IM
147
4880
5020
3-1184
com
u
\a
L'Tiln
sis
[Second
erlei. 1*1
■ lifllTll'll'
a
l!l«
T3O0
Ml.-, a
8-000
8-7
3
147
"I'M
.V7INI
S-72B
1;
1711
i»ia
1-520
858
ISO
1364
iss
fl-7
98-8
1«9
l«l
looo
l-m>2
1003
«
.137
.890
If the values R,!Rm be constructed graphically, as a function of
temperature for nearly the same pressures, the results of all the series
in Table JS5 are found to be in good accord. Moreover the results for
the large interval <>° to 100° lie on a locus which in form closely re-
sembles an hyperbola.' From this point of view these data are remark-
ably interesting, for if this be true then a suitable inversion of the
locus indicates that the electric conductivity of the electrolyte varies
linearly with temperature. Such a result would not only possess
theoretic interest, but would make measurements of the kind necessary
i Kiueriment* recently made by Prof Iddingt and mymlf with distune < See Am. Jutirriiil S.I.. xi.iv.
pi'. -1'2 Mid 254) sbowud a acomotrinil progression of runlntanom to conv»[Kiml to 1111 uritliriietlcal
proKMMlon of temperature, r«(. par. Thus tbo nature of the abote loom lacxnuneuihil.
Bull. 96 6
>CVa.*-
82
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bcll.06.
in the present paper feasible with a high degree of certainty. I must
withhold my opinion for the present, however, until T ean trace the
above locus as far as 300°, and the interpolations of this paper were
made empirically.
79. Volume in term* qf resistance. — With the data of §§ 77 aud 78 in
hand it is now possible to express the volume of the capillary tube hk}
Fig. 31, in terms of the resistance of the thread of electrolyte observed
at any temperature. This is* done in the next table, 36, where the tem-
peratures, #, are those occurring in the tables of isothermals below.
Tablk 36. — Relation of volume and rrsintane* at different temperatura.
Resistance.
■
Volume.
0.-^03*5".
0^=83".
V 0-^90".
0 = 100-.
0=117".
0=130*.
Cm*.
Ohms.
Ohms.
Ohm*.
Ohm t. .
Ohms.
Ohms.
•oooo
1064
818
776
723
636
608
0350
2101
1615
1532
1427
1255
1200
0040
3363
25X4
2451
2283
2009
1920
•0920
4701
3(59
3471
31K53
2844
2719
1190
6183
4751
4507
4198
3693
3531
•1450
7695
5913
5609
5224
4597
4394
•1705
9215
70*1
6717
62511
5505
5262
I960
10830
8322
7895
7353
0470
6185
80. Pressure coefficient of the electrolyte. — The divers results of Table
35 for variable pressure and constant temperature are summarized in
the small Table 37. Here 0 denotes the temperature and k the pressure
coefficient, which is negative in sign, showing that pressure decreases
th%i'C£istance of zinc sulphate. The braces show the manner in which
the means were taken, where k = <J It/BQ d p. It is the symbol of resist-
ance, p of pressure, and R0 holds at 0° G.
Tablk 37. — Pressure eoeffieients.
Pressure.! *X10*
0. iPrvMiinv JfcxiO*.
119/
4
868
157?
482 \
996
9/ ) -43
9<S -35 ;
8 ) I
_' 'i
100-
137)'
474[>) -
1007S > -
1475 )
-43
35
I
49 . Mean i— - 000045
J
This table shows that the pressure coefficient is independent of tem-
perature, and that it decreases somewhat with pressure. The results,'
however, are not quite consistent, and a graphic construction of the
detailed results of Table 3"> shows a difference of march in the pressure
"on" and the pressure "off" movements. I have yet to learn whether
(his be due to insufficient (ixed terminals or to polarization, as well as
to find conditions under which the pressure coefficient may be a mini-
mum. As the results stand the mean value A = — 45/ 10* is probably
within 20 per cent of the truth, and hence in the extreme case of 2,000
BAMW-] RESULTS. * 83
atmospheres the uncertainty of the pressure coefficient will not affect
the volume increments more than 2 per cent.
I may add in passing that the value, investigated in an earlier paper,1
between 0 and 150 atmospheres was found to be fc= — 50/10*, agreeing
pretty well with Table 37, and I there called attention to the strikingly
close proximity of this datnm to the corresponding coefficient for mer-
cury, — 30/10.*
The pressure coefficient is of considerable interest, inasmuch as it
indicates a certain relation between elasticity and the chemical equi-
librium of the solid or liquid operated on.1 Specially for zinc sulphate
compression, which might be regarded as having a concentrative effect
on the solution between the terminals, increases the conductivity, whereas
the conductivity of a nearly concentrated solution (density >1.29) not
under pressure decreases on further concentration.
The admixture of polarization with the pressure coefficient points out
the nature of its instability.
BESl'LTS OF THE MEASUREMENTS,
81. Arrangement of the tables. — ThefollowiryjTables 38 to 43, in which
the isothermal* of naphthalene are fully given, are constructed on the
same plan throughout. The first column contains tfie time in minutes
at which the observation was made, the first date being arbitrary. The
(uncorrected) resistance as actually found at the pressure given is
shown under R in ohms. The factor Vp is the correction for pressure
coefficient to be added per unit of If, after which this datnm can be
graphically expressed as a volume increment, referred as yet fl) an
arbitrary fiducial zero iu the way indicated in $$ 79, 80. To deduce
from this the corresponding actual volume (last column of the tables)
the initial volume values of § 75 are available, relative to which further
explanation will be given in § 83, Two data are given for each step of
pressure, the second of which, obtained after long waiting, is more
nearly isothermal than the first. The difference is not of seriously
large magnitude. In most cases, after the volume has become solid,
a small amount of additional volnme decrement takes place viscously,
or in consequence of gradual decrease of temperature immediately after
solidification.
The experiments were made on different days and altogether ex-
tended over more than a week. This is somewhat too long a time to
employ the tube without special readjustment, and some shifting of
coordinates may thus have occurred {§§ 91, 92).
Parentheses occur in the following tallies, to show that for the data
inclosed the measurement was made along a part of the measuring
tube hk (Fig. 13), whose caliber is not adequately uniform. Without
'Anit-riivinJmir., vol. 40, 1HU0. ]>.S1B. Thin pu]*r wa* ]>iiuU*hod wt two jews nflor the work w«a
dm*.
'Bulla tPMLMag. (Mh •«.), volM,lSSl,p.S4et «q.
84
THK VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bitix.!*.
knowing the full expansions at the higher temperatures and low pres-
sures, it is, a priori, impossible so to fill the tube that all measurements
fall within the calibrated parts and all other calibration conditions are
complied with. (§§ 75 et seq.) These approximations, however, refer
only to the liquid state, and arc therefore of smaller consequence in
this paper. (§ (57).)
1 may add finally that the melting point of naphthalene in air is 80°,
its solidifying point below this; the density of the solid 1*14, and the
density of the liquid at 82°, '724. (§ 74.) 1 1 cnce naphthalene, if melted
in water, sinks or swims, aecordiug as its temperature is sufficiently
below or above 80°.
82. Solid ixothermal, 63°. — Since the naphthalene melts at 80°, the
isothermal at 63° refers to the solid state. There must clearly be
much greater uncertainty in operating on a substance when solid than
when liquid. Indeed it is rather remarkable that the solid isothermals
are approachable at all. Tlie liquid solidifies to a fissured or honey-
combed structure, and it is therefore essential that the mercury should
completely fill these interstices before the true compressibility of the
substance can be indicated. Similarly the error due to the compres-
sibility of the envelopes now s becomes of much greater importance.
It is thus solely .by comparing these data with similar solid isothermals
obtained at much higher temperatures and pressures that their validity
may be inferred (§ 72).
Table 38.— Isothermal** of {solid) naphthalene at B = GJv>°, referred to •&5cm' at the
normal mrl tiny point.
Tim»*.
in.
16
19
•JO
23
•J."»
29
M
37
PrenHiire.
A tin.
70
68
289
281
401
481
G7f>
062
R.
JtpXlO*.
1
Ohm*.
7600
3
7430
3
7760
13
1 7030
13
8160
n2
HO 10
22
8050
30
78*0
30
VollUlM*.
cm*
•4127
•41.">tf
•40*5
•4109
•4003 ■!
■4027 !
•4010 |
•4039 :
Time. ■ IVoHsnro.
i
R.
■ - i
m.
A
40
42
44
46
49
51
07 '
tin.
K"»0
hf.O
072
INKS
:>o.")
sua
KM)
05
is
Ohms.
8240
8120
8310
8310
7600
7000
7270
7340
1
AyMO'.i
Volume.
cm*
i
30
•3065
38
•3W8
44
-3045
44
S045
23
•4l#7
25
•4097
4
•4183
3
1
•4173
With regard to this series it is curious to note that the recoil of vol-
ume (pressure decreasing) is more rapid than the compression. The
reverse of this would have been anticipated, supposing that mercury
lodged in the interstices after compression. Finally I may state that
telephonic resistance measurement, when the values are so high, is not
unaccompanied by inappreciable errors. (§ 76.)
83. Liquid-solid i*othcrmal, 83°. — Table 39 contains three independent
series of measurements, the last of which is fragmentary and the sec-
ond obtained after the experience of the first, probably the best. The
solidifying point is here very gradually approached and the locus shows
an initial step of James Thomson's double inflections.
It is from these isothermals that I obtained the fiducial zero of the
:..l
T80TIIERMALB AT 83° ASD 00°.
ring tulie hi, Fig. tH. for if R be constructed as a function of
pressure it will be found Mint pressure Kero lies at ■OIKM""' of volume
decrement. Hence the valns of § 74 (■.V>1>-1"":|) increased by this correc-
tion is tlic Hdueial volume (■55.:>''",:|) here to be used and from Hub the
others are derived as already explained. ($ 75.)
Table 39. — Isothermal* of itnpkthalrite at 0: =.*.■.*■■■, ivfrntd to So"™ at tht imrmal mrU-
™ ft. ■
■ um
+ 7 . MS
10 Kli)
1(1 "3*
iCOXIl SKKIKS.
84. Liquidnotiii hofhciuittl tit flW". — Two independent series of results
are jjiveti in Table 40. In consequence of slight variation of the itrti-
ileitil atmosphere, the temperature of the first is somewhat below that of
the second, Tims in series I there is some lack of coincidence in tiie
Iii|iiid "on"' and ""11" inarch, whereas the two are identical in series n.
nili of HiiyhthaU-ii
t tin- normal milt-
• ■"J l»
■'■
im.
». ;,„„.„.,]
hiii-.
■rcwiiiro
til
10'.
K.
;Amir.
riB, ]
Ml '
■Ifm
np>
■ji
;>l:HI
Jl« '
!;=
111"'
J
;!:;.!
:;;;-';
m\
*"":!
1
W*V- r*"^* •_'*TJ«f
8fi
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [huix. oe.
Table 40. — I*oth<rmal* of naphthalene at 9 = .'*/-, referred to ,.Wni:l at the normal melt-
ing point — Continued.
SECOND SERIES. SAME ADJUSTMENT.
1 imp.
VI.
I'reBSuro.
*/».• 10\
Ohm*.
Volume.
cm*
Time.
PifAnnre.
kpxlifi.
R.
V«lllTI\C.
Attn.
m.
Atm.
Ohm*.
fw'
in
57
3
773
•5542 i 60
316 ' 14
4618
•4311
18
231
10
972
•5432 i 65
322
14
4555
•4326
24
10
957
•5439 67
280
13
3855
•4504
20
422
19
1188
•5322 73 ! 283
13
2333
-4929
:u
406
18
1155 : -5338 76 | 283
13
1985
•5028
:w
400
22
1247 1 . -5203
81 ! 278 13
1618
' 5152
40
474
21
1232 ! -5302 83 ■ 175 8
897
•5172 '
- W2
507
23
1258 5292 80 . 179 8
902
•5468 ,
44
532
24
1288 j -527« 91 ! 81 4
793
•5530 |
46
555
25
5250 1-4147 05 : 83 4
802
•5524
57
514
24
5290 : '4139 1
1 ! . 1
1
85. Liquid-solid isothermals at 10o°. — Table 41 contains four independ-
ent series of results, together with some preliminary measurements.
These arc my earliest result with the above tube and are therefore in
greater number. The liquid isothermals should be identical in the
uon" and "off" marches. This is, as a rule, very nearly the case, the
preliminary series and "on" march of the first alone lying below the
others. In the latter the telephone used was more sensitive than in the
ormer.
Taiii.e -U. — Isothermal* of naphthalene at d= 10fi-% referred to \5.-7l'm3 at the normal melt-
ing point.
PRELIMINARY* MEASUREMENTS.
Time. Prt'ftMurc. ,*"/>•- 101.! J{.
Tiiiii*. I PrfHsuro. kp/ 10*.
m.
.1
10
13
15
17
19
21
23
21
27
30
32
A tm .
170
170
381
355
593
55S
630
610
051
KMS
19«
170
7
7
10
25
2*
27
20
31
9
8
It.
Ohms.
780
780
1000
984
1225
1209
1277
1201
1301
1330
812
7*3
Volume.
cm'
•5499
•5199
•5307
•5380
•5255
•5204
•5232
•52 ;o
•5221
•5204
•5480
•5407
TUBE a<;ain* ADJUSTED. FIRST
21
25
'JO
2*
30
32
33
35
37
40
41
43
44 !
48
49 |
50 i
59
61
i::o
•J8il
284
557
540
042
030
022
602
0*tf
709
750
875
8«2
8541
843
720
SERIES.
0
13
13
25
24
20
29
29
28
:io
31
35
35
39
39
39
3H
32
707
884
K70
1100
1150
1290
1279
1274
1247
i:iii7
1322
1405
1392
4840
4720
4720
4720
4720
(■5545)
•5430
•544 1
•52K3
•5289
•5230
•5232
•5215
■5218
•5210
•5172
•5178
•4137
•4109
•4109
•4170
•4177
74 !
in.
66
70
74
78
HI -
83 I
97 I
loo !
1''2 '
104
107
1(H)
112
117
120 j
122
125 :
128 j
129 I
131
132 |
125
137
139
140
142
144
145
r.rji l
Atm.
720
631
633
023
011
000
595
593
502
587
561
550
553
540
545
544
542
503
499
497
401
458
417
413
358
358
296
296
87
87
7 I
n
"7
•>•< i
17%
25
24
24
24
22
21
21
19
18
16
10
13
13
4
4
i
32
28
28
28
:, i
27
27
26
25
25
_ i
Ohm*.
4720
4420
4500
4420
4420
4370
437«
4280
4350
4:150
3600
2840
2150
1530
1240
1120
1140
1080
10(18
1050
1019
1019
978
978
921
924
862
800
600
656
Volatile
c»i\
•4177
•4249
•4225
•4259
•4200
•4274
•4274
•4296
•4278
•4279
•4483
•4708
•4915
•5127
•5250
■53»7
•5298
•5327
•5335
■5343
•53«)
•KMRl
•538 1
5381
'5414
•5412
•544»
■54 47
(-55751
(•5578)
1
: SECOND SERIES. SAME ADJUSTMENT.!
j
20
116
5
667 1
(Ki'frt
27
116
5
Alt"
(•5575)
29
ii
281
13
852
1
•5455
1
100
90'
>0- \?
x?x
:'M&i<Y
J**,
*?/
f^p^
?N
45
aim
S00
BULLETIN NO. N PL IV
130
-m
atm
1500
ULENE FIRST SET.
afcm
2000
ISOTIIEBMALS AT 100° AND 117".
87
"" at the normal Malt-
Time.
l'n-minii. tpxlO'.
H.
«»
Time.
FmHiirr.
tpXIO'
B.
Volnme.
in
Atm.
Ohm*.
fm1.
m
Aim.
Ohnu.
«**.
MS
4fl
874
'4143
45
070
iai
]■/■:.<
■£s5
70
770
s
4811
■41«
SH
4714
•41*1
700
:i4
U77
W3
ss
-1371
KJ
m
28
3075
■4377
TB
ltw
■rtta
so
31108
711
irrao
vfl
:«'js
W'J|
103
?'-'■
:is.is
7*5
■saua
1U7
'JO
-4739
km|
1415
sm
an
-4IM5
■Slffil
133
?
aiHT
l!S
kw
41
1438
■51*5
■sir* ,
I'l
"'".
ion
-501 8
■HI
-si. is
lit!-.
m-
■is
■51HS
it.<v
a
lnru
4i
1033
IN
171
13
■S4I14
gun
4
0.11
(■5GO0)
iso
is
Si
1"!
'"!';
Us
M
am
{■i5»i)
lils
!*!•
■ill
Jul
■4K4
ForilTH SERIES. SAME ADJUSTMENT.
1117
iiia
MM
1711
502 ,
■is
SB
2M«
3279
lIK'il
1411)
4707
•4*77
■5102
31
jsa
it
m
U
0L.11
828
(-5*15)
(-SB0S)
5488
■5*81
1*4
451
■S3II5
KB,
l'.;.
1100
■iviT5
i
418
•us
si
1247
'sac
1
tlo
Id
s
s»
K18
iio
1353
1331
! .-.IiB
?
MM
4917
.4115
117
41
4908
.4089
45
90S*
79
879
40
4S*J
.4125
.4143
i Til J II
TMKST,
?-M
III
*:.«
! 4Si ;i
in
»i:i
1W
11(13
nil
is
■:1
mm
"wS
110
488
£
Im
! 0.147
*™
':■■
!■".«
■sLh!-j
riil!
75
".«
! 5 Iff.
i '»
v.:
S
l-i™
■SS
lis
i:sr.
"*■
S
■' ^
86. Lii/uifl miliil ixotht-rmnte at //;°. — Tublc 11' enntiiins ii series of
results. Tin' vapor bntli In lliis ease wiih JNlt'il with amyl nlmliol. from
wliieli tlic witter was imt i-k1 iwti'il. Hence tlie peenliaily broken
isolliermal obtained is in i-iirre*|i(iiit!(<ura with the known i neon stun ey
of teni in 'i-.it live iiloiiK tlie vertical. This feature is, however, of ron-
HiiU'iiiMe inlerest. ami llimws light nn ecrt.iin i-biiriirti'M nf tlie iithvr
isothermal S. inasmuch as it shows tin- behavior ill ease of |iurtiill solid-
itleutioji.
88
T1IK VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [nrLL. 96.
Taiii.k V2. — IxDtlu ratal* of naphthalan' atO = //?", referred to •J.5,,,,:| at the normal melt-
ing point.
TiniL1. l'rcHMiuv.'i-;) x 10'
I
•in.
4
5
atm.
86
86
1
2/7
12
272
H
41K5
20
4«8
c«>
27
651
29
Oil)
35
805
37
11)02
:»
lOXfl
5»
1008
52
1254
58
1220
59
1326
10'
R.
ohm*.
4
408 1
4
408
13
600 ;
13
5*5 '
«>•>
*■ m
784
21
740 '
31
946
•JO
801 1
41
1123
40
1007 .
49
2257 !
49
277!
48
2701
50
■1208
55
4208
60
4203
Volume.
cm1.
( 5709)
( -5709)
( -5547)
( -5549)
•5111
•5430
■5.109
•5539
•5210
•5224
■4756
•4570
-4601
•4114
•4115
'4091
i. •>« j
Time.
•
! ProANuro.
i
i
1 atm.
kp x 10*
R.
Volume.
m.
ohms.
em%.
64
1 1317
p 1055
59
4263
'4004
66
47
3546
•4325
72
1053
47
2448
'4602
75
1051
47
2279
•4740
81
1054
47
2175
•4786
84
877
40
1253
'5140
90
1 *77 j
70M
i 40
1198
•5174
91
\ 31
953
•6307
95
i J07
31
938
•5U4
97
517
23
760
•5426 j
102
523
21
765
•5421
103
285
13
505
(•5571).
107
290
13
572
( -5561)
109
96
5
412
(•5699)
115
; 100
1
l
5
414
C5690);
i
i
87. Liquid solid inothermals at i30°. — Table 43, finally, contains %ur
Beries of results obtained at 130°. The vapor bath in this case con-
tained ainyl alcohol, thoroughly dried by copious distillations. Slight
differences in the liquid "on" and "off" march are only apparent in
the last series. The temperature of the third series was about 120.0°.
Table 43.— Isometric* of naphthalene at 6 =/.?0°, referred to \t!ocm3 at the normal melt-
ing point.
! FIRST SERIES. SAME ADJUSTMENT.'
Tinur. ty/MO1 , Pn-HHiire.1 R. 'Volume.
in.
'I
32 '
34
30
42 i
46
52
50 :
01
65 '
7»)
72 i
79
85
90
94 I
102
11)5
7
/
22
21
45
45
03
Ct
70
76
m
(VI
03
45
41
25
111
24
114
7
119
7
atm.
151
146
496
461
9:>8
978
14d3
1379
1713
1680
1432
1438
u:»
1423
1013
8!)7
55k
540
115
154
ohms.
272
270
493
862
815
1119
1105
3808
3785
2000
1392
1320
1294
847
786
548
200
275
Time. 'fcpyiO'lProMure.l R.
I
i
i
cm*.
(•5821)
(•5821)
(•5506)
(-5591) :
•5310 i
•5VJ8 j
•5106 '■"
•5171 |
•4148 ,'
•4156
•4578
•5i KM
'5069
•5<>81
•5326
•5305 ;
(-5540) i
(•5551) j
(•5821)
<-5816> .
m.
65
68
71
76
78
84
88
06
98
100
113
123
125
131
135
139
141
145
148
153
78 '
78 I
81 '
79 t
85 |
85 '
72 I
72 '
65:
65 I
65
65
56
56
44
44
25
26
7
7
atm.
1737
1723
1794
1777
1907
1880
1574
1575
1463
1463
1458
1456
1245
1244
990
994
565
580 i
155
168
Volume.
ohm*.
1329
1320
3878
3926
3926
3950
3695 '
:t095
2876 .
1690
1481
1490 |
1021
1021 I
845 '
850 i
5C5 '
570 j
275 '
280
em*.
•5057
-5061
•4119
•4106
•4099
•4001
•4100
•4100
■4480
•4914
•5000
•4096
•5220
•5221
•5327
•5325
(-5536)
(•5531)
(5811)
(•5796)
THIRD SERIES. SAME ADJUSTMENT.
SECOND SERIES. SAME ADJUSTMENT.
■
5
7
151
276
(-5811 )■
7
21
404
405
(-5580) ':
11
20
451
484
(-5601 ),l
14
41
921
808
•5351 :
18
40
K81
770
•5378
1
35
58
133*
1057
•5200
1
.ti
50
1330
1»57
•5200
57
05
1404
1132
•5158 j
59
65
145!)
1132
■5158 ,
01
74
15k I
1223
| -stm) :
63
74
1050
1278
i '5083 ji
04
74
If,;, I
1202
, "5091 1'
1 1.
135
134
468
456
971
960
1467
1420
1579
1501
1605
1632
1794
1784
1564
263
263
517
504 |
845 !
825
1164 1
1114
1242 :
1212
3739 |
3762 I
3831
3831
3651
(•5831)
(-5831)
(•5571)
(•5581 >
•5327
•5341
•5143
•5168
•5101
•5116
•4173
•4106
•4135
•4135
•4206
130
\K*
? >j* *
100
CRco 90' -H^
■55 63
V^tSfy ^N^ <£./ J&ji "*l
•35 ce 6atm
500
FUSION ISOTHCRMiLS C
BULLETIN NO. 96 PL, V
LENE. SECOND SET.
BAKV8/J
DEDUCTIONS.
89
Taiilk 13. — hometricx of naphthalene at q— /#>°, referred to \W fn* at the normal melt-
ing point— Continued.
Time. >kpX 10»; Pressure. H.
♦«.
i\> i
77 :
85 I
91 !
100
105
HI
113
120
122
128
l
45 I
■< *8 !
50
55
70
67
67
63
63
63
47
47
26
26
7
7
atm.
1558
M84
1509
1412
1416
1412
1044
1044
576
584
146
160
oh inn.
3651
3405
3310
2334
1217
1198
855
865
500
560
260
270
FOURTH SERIES.
9
9
19
19
196
196
427
416
320
320
490
480
Volume.
em*
•4206
'4291
•4324
•4670
•5117
•5128
•5319
•53ia
(•5536)
(•5531)
(•5821)
(•5801)
(•5769)
(-5709) |'
(•6501)'
(•5601);
Time.
*pXlO»
Prejaure.
R.
VuluiDV.
m.
atm.
ohm*.
em*
57
28
026
658
•5465
63
27
611
634
•5479
67
36
801
770
•5379
72
36
789
755
5389
74
45
1022
930
•5276
84
43
956
845
•5329
87
54
1215
1050
•5206
90
54
1200
1033
•5214
92
66
1432
1208
•5123-
96
68
1412
1174
•5139
98
74
1634
1331
•5059
104
Ti
1606
1320
•5086
108
72
1608
1320
•5067
112
54
1196
1029
■ -5217
118
54
1199
985
•5240
119
89
859
755
•5387
124
89
862
765
•5381
126
22
498
515
C5571)
127
22
503
525
C5561)
134
7
151
282
(•5781 1
140
7
160
290
(•5781)
DEDUCTIONS.
88. Graphic construction. — To obtain a comprehensive survey over
this series of individual data, it will be necessary to resort to the pic-
torial method and represent volume as a function of pressure, under
successive- conditions of constant temperature. Moreover it will be
expedient to represent the whole group of first series on a single chartr
the second series on another chart, ete., and thus obtain about four
distinct sets of results, covering the whole interval 60° to 130°, and
about 1 ,900 atmospheres. This has been done in Pis. IV, V, VI, and vn, in
which the ordinates are volumes (the fiducial volume being the •5524cm5
at 80°, arbitrarily chosen), the abscissas are pressures, and in which
the temperatures of the isothermals are inscribed at the beginning'
and end of each curve. Finally the dates or times in minutes at which
the individual observations were made are all given by small numerals
attached to the points. Thus it is easy to know at once whether an
observation was taken during the <4on" march or the "off" march of
pressure; but to further facilitate inspection arrows are subjoined to the
contours of the curves, showing their drift. It is seen from the figures
that the solid seems to be comparable as regards compressibility with
the liquid, but on this point I shall not now lay much stress, for rea-
sons repeatedly stated in the above paragraphs, §§ 70, 82.
80. Hysteresis. — The inherent character of all these curves is pro-
nouncedly cyclic. The isothermal pressure necessary to solidify naph-
thalene being at all temperatures decidedly in excess of the pressure at
which it again liquefies. Then the results which I obtained in other ex-
periments and with other substances some time ago1 are thus emphat-
1 Am. .lour. Sci., vol. 38, 1890, p. 408. The full paper and the deductions there made are aa yet on-
publiahed.
90 THE VOLUME THEKMOftYXAMICR OF LIQUIDS. [iull.96.
ically corroborated. Evidea<jes of the thoroughly static character of
these phenomena are abundant and obtained by observing the times
of successive points. I need only mention solid isothermal, 100° PI. iv,
where I waited from.50m to 100"1 at a pressure below the solidifying
point of the liquid without obtaining fusion; whereas after this with
oidy a slight further reduction of pressure fusion sets in and is com-
plete between 101m and 112,n ; liquid isothermal, 100°, PI. v, where I
waited from 47'" to 121m at a pressure greater than that at which fusion
of the solid takes place without obtaining solidification, which, how.
ev$r, sets in at once (I21m 122m) when the pressure interval is only
slightly increased; same plate solid isothermal 130°, I waited from 8Gm
to 96,n at a pressure below the solidifying point without any change of
volume or fusion whatever; solid isothermal, 130° PI. vi, where I waited
from 60m to83m without obtaining fusion, and from 00in to 75 ln without
appreciable change of volume; liquid isothermal, 100°, PI. vn, where
I waited from 3Gm to 90ul without obtaining solidification, and from 74m
to 87m on the solid isothermal without obtaining fusion, etc. If high
temperature conditions are unfavorable to lag, the results at 130° are
specially good evidence in favor of the point of view taken. I have
already pointed out l that it is a phenomenon inherent in the passage
from one molecular condition to another which lies at the root of all
manifestations of hysteresis, whether observed electrically (Conn, Ew-
ing, Schumann) or magnetically (Warburg, Ewing), or as a purely me-
chanical result in my work,2 during fusion, as above, during solution,
§ 95, etc.
80. James Thomson's double inflections. — Solidification almost always
sets in at once. This is what one should expect, for, if there be con-
densation or crystallization at any point, it will form a nucleus for which
the whole column will be solidified. Only in one case (PL v, liquid
isothermal 83°, (>0m to 63'") did I obtain evidences of curvature, whereas
in PI. IV, at the same temperature, the whole path, though observable
(0m, 7ni, 10m), is precipitous.
The reverse of this holds true in case of fusion. Here the initial
or stable contours of James Thomson's circumtiexures are always
marked. It is true that fusion rarely takes place instantaneously, be-
cause of the difficulty in supplying heat fast enough. Hence it might
be plausibly argued that the fusion contours are necessarily more grad-
ual than the solidification contours. It is also supposible that, if tem-
perature be not quite identical throughout the height of the column of
substance, fusion will first take place at the hotter planes below and
proceed thence to the top. This state of things I have actually ob-
served in glass capillary tubes when the vapor baths were imperfect.
In the present experiments, however, the phenomenon occurs with the
same uniformity at all temperatures and is quite as pronounced in a
1 Am. Journal, 1. c.; Phil, tfiig. (5), vol. 31, 1801, p. 27.
"Chapter hi, above.
V. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
35
cc
130'
fe*
loot *>
atm
atm
500
FUSION ISOTHERMALS <
BULLETIN NO. 9a PL. VI
100
K30
m
atm
1500
atm
2000
<ALENE. THIRD SET.
BARFS.]
CHARACTERISTIC VOLUMES.
91
stearti bath. Moreover the column is not above 10,m long. ITeucc,
taking this into account in connection with the evidence cited in the
foregoing paragraph (89), 1 conclude that the initial solid contours are
static, and hence regard them as evidencing James Thomson's1 well-
known inference relative to the doubly inflected contours of the iso-
thermals accompanying change of physical state. When fusion actually
sets in the phenomenon is no longer observable, for the physical parts
of the substance now exist in widely different thermal states.
Here I may expediently point out the advantages gained by oper-
ating in a thin shell of substance (see Fig. 13 and PI. in), the heat
within which is rapidly dissipated. The conditions, therefore are spe-
cially favorable for isothermal work. •
91. The characteristic specific volumes. — Mere inspection of the charts,
Pis. IV to vn, shows that thfc volume at which solidification takes place
decreases with temperature, and the volume after solidification either
increases or remains stationary in value. In Table 44 I have inscribed
the corresponding values of pressure and volume, observed at the so-
lidification points, in each of the four series; and in PI. Vfii these data
have been plotted, volumes being the abscissae and pressures the ordi-
nates. To distinguish the points they are surrounded by little circles
to which the number of the series is attached, and the pressures are
given on the right side of the diagram.
Table 44. — Volumes solid and liquid at the solidifying points, varying with the pressure.9
Temperature 83d. Temperature 90°.
net*.
i I
: i. J.
m. y
IV
Solid
Liquid
Solid
prt-flrfimr.
pressure.
pressure
Solid
Liquid
Solid
volume.
volume.
. _ _
200
volume.
2f>o
550
•41 ."i
•.134
•413
320
320
555
•41 r»
•530
■415
:»4."i
:wr)
550
Liquid
pressure.
Liquid
volume.
turoH™. Temperature 100o.
5W)
•323
550
•527
turo
Solid
pn-HMiire.
Solid
volume.
•418
m-
•415
Solid
presMure.
Solid
volume.
875
•416
920
•413
870
•413
900
•412
Liquid
pressure
Liquid
volume.
Temperature 130°.
875
•510
920
•515
870
•510
900
•517
Solid
pressure.
Solid
volume.
j Liquid
pressure.
Liquid
volume.
1720
•415
1790
•412
1665
•417
1720
1720
•505
179U
•505
1665
•507
1720
•505
* See remarks on Table 46.
A similar and equally important table may be deduced by finding
the values of the characteristic volumes at the successive melting
points. These are inscribed in Table 45, on the plan of Table 44.
i J. Thomson: Phil. Mag. (4), vol. 42, 1872, p. 227.
92
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. [bull. 9$.
Table 45. — Volume* tolid and liquid at the melting point*, varying with pressHrt."
Temperature 83°. Temperature 00°.
Se-
riea.
Solid
Liquid
preMBiire. prouiure
Solid '■ Liquid
Solid
preMrtiirc.
Solid
Liquid
pivanure,
Liquid
tureSl™!' Tom!*ratnpe 1(*°- ! Temperature 180°.
volume, j volume. ! volume. > volume
80
•435 I
80 !
•400
80
■547
80
•548
275
•425
280
•440
275
•540
280
•541
Solid I
preeHiire. Solid Liquid
Solid j prenaure. preiwure,
volume. Solid Liquid
Liquid , volume, j volume,
volume. I
Solid I Liquid
prertrtiire. preaturo,
Solid ' Liquid
volume. . volume.
1050 )
•430 >
•515 ) :
560
•440
560
•435
580
•440
570
'440
I
560
•528
560
•581
580
•528
570
•531
1430
•435
1465
•43)
1410
•440 «
1430
•515
1465
•515
1410
•517
* See remarks on Table 40.
If these data be inscribed iii a chart like PL Vin, both the solid and
the liquid volumes will closely resemble the curves already mapped
out for solidifying point; but since the solid volumes can obviously
only be approximately given, and since the liquid volumes contain no
new feature, 1 omit them to avoid confusing the figure.
A noticeable part of this diagram is the close accordance of the three
groups of points between 0 and 1,000 atmospheres, during which meas-
urements vapor of water was the medium of constant temperature, as
compared with the one group of points between 1,000 and 2,000 atmos-
pheres, where vapor amyl alcohol was# used. I account for this by
supposing the solidification in the latter case (130°) to have been pre-
mature, a result to be associated with insufficient constancy of the
vapor bath (§ 70, 86, 89), hence the liquid volumes found are too large.
There jnay, however, have been some gradual change in the contents
of the tube, which in the lapse of time became appreciable (§70, 81).
Thus the zinc gradually deposited by the intermittent currents in the
mercury, the possible detachment of the end of the mercury thread in
hk (Fig. 13) after repeated motion back and forth, changes in the
quality of the solution of zinc sulphate, etc., would produce a shifting
of the volume constants and a result like that observed in PL Vin.
Further experiments must decide this point, liegarding the solid vol-
umes, it is clear at once that no device can define them as accurately as
the liquid volumes, and the degree of coincidence attained is one of
the valuable accomplishments of the present method.
To summarize, therefore, I have in PL vin placed chief reliance ou
the water points (0 to 1,000 atmospheres) and drawn the locus accord-
ingly.
02. Critical point. — Tin* area inclosed by the figure a b . . . c d, sup-
posing b and c eventually to coalesce, has the same signification a«
Andrews' area of vapor tensions. The same would be true of the sim-
ilar figure for the characteristic volumes at the melting points, or
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bari'8.] SOLIDIFICATION AND FUSION. 93
finally to the figure in which the solidification volumes are taken at
the solidification points, and the fusion volumes at the melting points.
All of these diagrams point out the probable occurrence of a critical
point in the region of positive pressure and reached in the direction of
increasing temperature, at which point liquid would pass to solid or
solid to liquid without paroxysmal change of volume, and consequently
without volume log. This position of this point may be conjectured to
lie at several hundred degrees centigrade and several thousand atmos-
pheres, naphthalene being the material operated on.
93. Solidifying point* and melting points. — The cycles as depicted in
Pis. iv to vn have two prominent characteristics: They gradually de-
crease in vertical extent from left to rtght, and they gradually decrease
in lateral extent toward both sides of the chart. Each of these qualities
throws important light on the phenomena as a whole.
Table 4<> gives the numerical values of the pressures corresponding
to solidification and to fusion at the different temperatures, together
with other information of importance, as sharply as the statement can
be made. Let the solidifying points and the melting points be con-
structed as a function of pressure. This is done in PI. vm, and the
points form a long spindle shaped figure running diagonally across the
chart. Points obtained from all the four sets of results (Pis. iv to vil)
are inscribed and these points are numbered to show the series to which
they belong. The parts of the curves actually observed are given in
full lines and the inferential prolongations in dotted lines.
From the nature of the case the solidification points can not be
sharply measured. (§ 89.) Thus, if the temperature of the column be
not uniform, (and in case of an ebullition liquid of small specific heat
and possibly not homogeneous in composition, the tube is sure to be
hotter at the bottom than at the top), the colder parts will solidify first,
and at once induce solidification throughout the whole length of the col-
umn. This is markedly shown in the isothermal for 117°, and given in PI.
Vii, where the solidifying and fusing points are practically in coinci-
dence. (§ 86.) Similarly all jarring and percussion, too rapid increase
of pressure, a vibratile wire running through the column as in some of
my earlier work, etc., will cause the whole labile framework to topple
into solidification. Hence the solidifying point must be fairly crept
upon and surprised, as it were, and hence my preseut results, in which
these* precautions were taken, show high solidifying points as compared
with my other work. These conditions do not seem to hold in like im-
portance in case of fusion, for the melting points, as a rule, show much
greater coincidence.
94
THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. (bull. 96.
Table 46. — Showing the relation of solidifying point and of melting point with prc**u.re. —
Naphthalene.
Temperature
two.
Fusing
Temperature
83°.
Solid Fusing
at— at—
Temperature ! Temperature I Temperature Temperature
IMP. liHP. : 117\ ViW>.
Attn.* Atm.
Solid i Fusing Solid ! Fusing Solid : Fusing Solid
at— i at— i at— at — . at — at — " at —
r
Attn. ' Atm
Fusing
at- I
Atm. Atm. Atm. Atm.\ Atm. Atm.
&2U0 f80 ' r.V>0 rf*J75 fH75 ! d.r.0<i I *17:M
0320 80 rffwS ' rf "JKO r/U2U i d 500 | c/170il
r34,'i ' | A 87n I dWl | ' il66."i
rf!KK> i rf.ri7U i jUWO I jlu:>U el72n
Factor: Melting point and pressure W»° to i:HK, 28-f»ntni. : (\, or 0351 "<\ / atm.
* < Factor: Solidifying point and pressure m*> to 1WK\ MMl atm. ~(.\. or MG7K °('./ 1 atm. '
100- to 130-, 29-5 atm./°t\,nro:»U 1 °C./1 atm.
>lfm. |
/1«0 !
/14«?.S
/1410
S Factor: Melting point and pressure W»°
Factor: Solidifying point and pressure »
Factor: Solidifying point and pressure,
a Negative.
b Sot crept upon. First result at <83°, second and third at >MJ. Solidification gradual; other
solidification* take place at once.
e Fusing very viscously throughout a pressure interval of 50 atmospheres.
d Crept upon.
e Not crept upon.
/Fusion relatively rapid; more nearly resembling the solidification march than is the case at lower
temperatures.
g Crept upon. First result at <83°, second and third at >&'.ilj. Solidification gradual; other solidi-
fication a take place at once.
h Intermediate between a and b.
i Intermediate liet ween a aud b. Temperature, 129*0°.
j Temperature lower at top than at bottom of tho column. Partial Alstons. Vapor bath containing
aqueous amyl alcohol. %
* Chiefly with reference to Series II.
In drawing PI. vm I have therefore placed chief reliance on the data
of Series II, obtained as they were with the experience of Series I, to
guide me. The horizontal breadth of the spindle-shaped area indicates
the .pressure amount of volume lag corresponding to any temperature.
94. Transitional point — If the twro curves be prolonged in the direc-
tion of increasing temperature, it is clear that they must eventually
coalesce. Fbr, at the critical temperature, liquid will pass to solid and
vice versa without paroxysmal change of specific volume, and henco
there can be no volume lag.
If the curves be prolonged in the direction of decreasing temperature,
then the data emphatically indicate the probable occurrence of an inter-
section in the region of negative pressure. Beyond the point of inter-
section the substance would solidify at a lower pressure than that at
which it fuses, and fuse at a higher pressure than that at which it solid-
ifies. I believe this observation may be interpreted as follows: The
normal type of fusion changes continuously into the ice type of fusion,
through a transitional type characterized by the zero of volume lag.
The position of this transitional type for naphthalene, so far as I can
now discern it, maybe placed at, say, 50° and — 1,000 atmospheres. It
may be noted that with the understanding here laid down, the normal
type of fusion is reached from the ice type in the direction of increas-
ing temperature.
Throughout the present chapter 1 have avoided the discussion of the
isopiestics, since I shall consider them in detail in connection with
special experiment*. It is well to state, however, that the transitional
temperature is related to the prospective intersection of the prolonged
g
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I
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■MW.J THAN8ITIONAL POINT — SOLUTION. 95
liquid and solid isopicstics, of a given substance, at the same pressure
in both cases. Thus a reason why hysteresis may vanish is again sug-
gested. A given substance on one side of the transitional temperature
need not necessarily differ molecnlarly from the same substance on the
other side.
Practically only one of the states is attainable, for the other implies
an application of ucgative pressure.
It' the chart, PI. iv, is to represent in diagram a field of isothermal a
for the ice type, the solid and liquid phases of the chart are to be ex-
changed. The solid march for the ice type takes place along loci of
greater specific volumes and the- liquid march along loci of smaller spe-
cific volumes. Thus the chart of isotherninls must show intersecting
loci, identical points corresponding, however, to different molecular
states. In other respects the character of the figure need not be modi-
fied, supposing always that increase of temperature and pressure be
taken in the algebraic sense, so that negative quantities are included.
Beyond the transitional point. I am therefore tempted to look for the
proper critical temperature of the ice type in a region of positive ex-
ternal pressures and in the direction of decreasing fempcratures.
Thus, curiously enough, the observer is confronted by periodic rela-
thus, which in all probability will admit of a chemical interpretation.
(f§ !>o, !MJ.)
98. Hoi ability and [treasure. — In view of the detailed analogy which
holds between many characters of fusion and of solution, much that
can be investigated for the simpler of these phenomena (fusion appar-
ently) will be applicable to the other. A substance may be transferred
from the solid to the liquid state either by heating it or by dissolving
it. In general, excess of temperature or of solvent favor the diminu-
tion of viscosity here in question. A liquid on the verge of solidifiea- '
(ion or a concentrated solution is solidified or deposits crystals on
cooling; and in both cases the nice adjustment of labile molecular
equilibrium is accompanied by volume hysteresis, undercooling, etc., in
the one case, supersaturatioii, etc., in the other. ITence I conclude
logically, I think, that if under proper thermal conditions pressure
alone can solidify a liquid, it. can also under proper solutional condi-
tions induce crystallization, or the deposit of solid from solution.
I am the more justified in drawing these references, as in my arti-
cle' on the solvent action of hot water on glass I already adduced
the necessary evidence. Since from one point of view the isothermal
compressibility increased proportionally to the time during which the
solvent action has been going on, and from another, with the amount
of silicate dissolved, to more than three times its original value, the in-
ference is pretty closely at hand that what pressure did in this instance
was a mere precipitation of a proportionate amount of dissolved sili-
cate The volume change thence resurtM& were put into computation
■Americas Journal, vol. 41, p. 110, 1891.
•96 THE VOLUME THERMODYNAMICS OF LIQUIDS. (m<u.m
hn increments of compressibility, for the precipitated silicate is again
dissolved when pressure is withdrawn.
Thus the present work hears upon the nature of solution, for I can
not believe that wliat 1 have ventured to rail cohesive affinities ' can
not differ, except in degree, from the affinities which determine
valency. At least, proceeding on such an assumption, I am lead natu-
rally to a theory regarding changes of physical state which I will indi-
cate elsewhere.
Finally, in justice to myself let me say thai the manuscript left iny
hands before the kindred deductions of Onne Masson1 or of Ramsay3
had reached ma lu fact, what the.se gentlemen have deduced from
the solution behavior liquid liquid I had legitimately derived from the
solution behavior solid-liquid, as sot forth in my own work. My pre-
ceding paper was at fault only in postulating an mi necessary change
of hydration of the silicated water (loc cit., p. 116).
It is gratifying to note that evidence of the similar solution behavior
solid-solid is forthcoming, and to lie found in the work of Osmond, of
C. A. Carus->Vilson,* and of myself, as I have already pointed out.*
CONCLUSION.
96. In the above pages I have merely endeavored to describe the re-
sults directly obtained by experiment, and to draw such conclusion,
which, in the light of known facts, seemed to he admissible or even ob-
vious. In view of the detailed analogy which holds between many
characters of fusion ami of solution, 1 believe that much that can he
investigated tor the simpler of these phenomena (fusion) will be appli-
cable also to the other. How far the a I Hive conclusions as a whole are
to stand or fall will depend on similar investigations, which I shall con-
tinue to make with a variety of other substances specially selected with
reference to their position in a scale of thermal state. How such se-
lection is to be made I am now unable to surmise. Substances, for in-
stance, which fuse continuously, like glass or sealing wax, might at tirst
sight be conjectured to lie near their critical points, but I believe these
cases arc mere solution phenomena of relatively small interest. At all
events the experiments must deal with substances of definite and pref-
erably crystalline character and not with mixtures. I feci confident
that in an examination of many types smae will be found lying rela-
tively nearer the critical point, while others lie nearer or even beyond
the transitional point: and that if the above method be applied with
greater rigor than was done in the present paper light will be thrown
on the long- neglected department of fusion thermodynamics. From
i Umkhii : KhIiiit. i ul. la. IWtl. p. 34.1.
!*.]
HECURRINQ HYSTERESIS.
97
this stage of progress it will then be possible to approach nearer the
next of the kindred phenomena, which I conceive to be nothing less
than the kind of hysteresis or higher order of volume lag commonly
known as chemical affinity.
To obviate the occurrence of a bald statement like the last, I will in-
dicate my views on the distribution, or successive orders of volume lags.
These are to be sought — I, during the passage of a given atom into
the next consecutive in a scale of decreasing atomic weights; II, dur-
ing the occurrence of dissociation of the molecule, including solutions
gas-fluid. They are demonstrable, III, the region of Andrews's
vapor tensions, including the Alexeef-Masson solutions liquid-liquid;
IV, in the region of the solid-liquid phenomena of the present paper,
including solutions solid-liquid; V, in the region of solid-solid pheno-
mena categorically distinguishable as " permanent set" (Osmond, Carus-
Wilson, Barns). They are to be sought for Anally, VI, during the pas-
sage of a given atom into the next consecutive in a scale of increasing
atomic weights.
The enumeration is systematic, and inasmuch as VI is virtually iden-
tical with I, the inherent nature of these changes is periodic. Hence,
under suitable thermal conditions and continually increasing pressure,
the evolution of atoms, of molecules, of changes of physical state, are
successive stages of periodically recurring hysteresis.
Bull. 96 — -1
INDEX.
Affinity, chemical, relation to hysteresis. 87
Air thermometer comparisons — 47,60
Alcohol, Isometrics of 44,68
Amagat, manometreof 17,88,48
on compressibility of glass and of
mercury ... 76
Andrews's screw compressor 17,32
Bibliography of Isometric* *
lor melting point and pressure 71
Bourdon gauge — J3, 26, 26,68, 64
helical ~- *.»
mechanism of -. — •
theory of .- "
Calibration of fusion tube "
Carus- Wilson, experiments of 86
furupres-lblllty of glass 86
nl organic liquids ... M,B«
ol glass and of mercury 78
Coil-i :i hi* o( fusion tube 77
Conilniiliy of solid and liquid 71
Correction* for volume changes of glass
uibos 67,78
Crlurl;i fur f n.-lon 71
Critical polnls 82,88
Curvature of isometrics 68, H
Cycles in gautfe comparisons.... &>,Ji, 94,911, 67
Data lor fusion under pressure 82,81
DcsgolTe, differential manometer ot 17
Dipheny lam Ine, isometrics of 43,64
DuprS on 1 -some tries 90
EleotrnrytM. temperature and pressure
coefn.-leiiM of 88
Ether. pui-lil-M «
ls.ili.-lrl.s of _ 38,41,42,61
Expau* loin thermal) of glass 64
Fraunbofer micrometer 88
Fusion unler pressure, methods Of 72,77
Pus loo tube, cot
Galvanom-ter, t
Gasket of marine glua.
Gauge comparisons, cyclic £3,27,84,48,67
summary 68
Glbbs, notation of 18
Glass, thermal expansion of 64
compressibility of . 66
Isometrics of 68,61
dissolved by hot water 86
Grunow, caUieuuneter of 80
Hannay and Hogarth, screw compressor
Of r
Hysteresis, in gauge comparisons ....... 68
on fusion and solidifying ... 88
bibliography of 80
recurring orders of 87
Ice type Of fusion 84,86
ladings on fusion of diabase ........ Bl
Isometrics, liquids . . 83
ether 88,41,42,61
alcohol .. 44,68
toluldlne 46,64
dlpheuyl amine ... 46,64
thymol 46,63
corrected 61
68
n of, l
transitional
.. 66, Bl
lnopleatlcs,
point w
Isothermals of solid naphthalene Bl
of solid-liquid naphthalene ...66, 84, 87, 88, 88
olnaphthalene.ebartsfor 88
Kopp's volume flask TS
Levy on Isometrics 40
Mmomilreof Amagat 18,33.68
Marine glue, gasket of 18
Masson, views of — . 86
Melting and solidifying points 83
Methods for studying Inslon under pres-
sure 72,77
Mousson, compressor of K
Naphthalene, isothermals of. .84, SS, 86, 87,88, 88
Nutation of Gibbs, Ramsay and Young,
Periodic relations 86
Piezometer 20,81,87,74
fully adjusted 77
" Piston libre" 70
Pressure, high, measured 17
coefficient of electrolytes ..
stof.on solution...
Ramsay and Young on isometrics
Resistance, how measured
electrolytic relation to temperature
100
INDEX.
Page.
Screw compressor of Andrews 17
of Hannay and Hogarth 17
for high pressures ...i 18,81
Slopes, Initial of Isometrics 50
Solidifying and melting points 08
Solution under pressure v..... 06,97
Steel tube cold drawn, weldless 80
Taltdescrlbes Amagat's manometre 18
gauge of 28,23,25,26,82,63,07
on elastics of tubes 29
Tinned screw 18
Temperature coefficient of electrolytes.. 82
Thomson, James, double Inflections of — 00
Thymol, Isometrics of 45,68
Toluldlne, isometrics of 45,54
Psg*
Torsion galvanometer 45
Transitional point related to lsopiestlcs. 04
Tube of constant volume 33
Tubes, glass, corrections for 57,78
Tube for fusion under pressure 73. 74
Types of fusion 04
Vapor baths.'. .....80,86,47,48,78
Volume flask of Kopp 78
Volume of tube In terms of electric re-
sistance 82
Volumes, characteristic specific 01
Volume lag, successive orders of 07
Young. 8e$ Ramsay.
Zinc sulphate solution, thermal and pres-
sure coefficients of 81
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To the Director ok tiie
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Washington, D. C.
Washington, D. C, April, 1893,
DEPARTMENT OF. THE INTEBIOB
BULLETIN
UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
No. 97
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOK
1893
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR
THE
MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA
UNITED STATES
WILLIAM BOLLOCK CLARK
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
18'J3
. !J
i
^ J>
n
CONTENTS.
Letter of transmittal t 9
Preface 11
Introduction 13
Bibliography 15
Systematic review 21
Crinoidea 21
UintacrinidiR 21
ApiocrinidiP 24
Peutacrinida* 25
Asteroidea 29
Ophiuririu* 29
Stelleridu? / 31
Echinoidea 33
Euechinoidea -. 33
Regulares 33
Cidaridai : 33
Salcnidu? 40
Diadematida? 44
Echinidte 5-1
Irregulares 58
Echinoconidu* „ 58
O-asBidulida* 59
Holasteridu* 74
Spataugida* 78
Doubtful and unrecognized specien 92
Geological diHtribution 94
Catalogue of nprcitic names employed by writers upon the Mesozoie Echino*
dennata of the United States 95
Plates 103
Index 205
5
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Plate I. Uintacrinns socialis Grinnell • ♦. 106
II. Uintarrinus socialis Grinnell 108
III. Bourguetieriuus alabamensis <io Loriol ; Pentacrinus asteriscuH
Meek &. Huyrien; Pentaerinus Bryaui Gabb; Pentaerinus .
Wliitei Clark 110
IV. Ophioglypba bridgerensis (Meek); Ophioglypha texana Clark. 112
V. Goniaster mamiuillata Gabb; Asterias dubium Whitfield 114
VI. Cidaris taylorensis Clark; Cidaris ealifomieus Clark; Cidaris
splendens Morton ; Cidaris Waleotti Olark 116
VII. Cidaris texanus Clark ; Leiocidaris bemigranosus (Slmmard).. 118
VIII. Leioridaris bemigranosiiH (Sbumard) 120
IX. Leioridaris bemigranosus (Sbumard) 122
X. Salenia texana Credner 124
XI. Salenia tumidula Clark; ftaleuia bellula Clark 126
XII. Hemicidaris intumeseens Clark; Psendodiadeina Emersoni
Clark 128
XIII. Pseudodiadema diatretum (Morton); Pseudodiadema texanuni
(Koenier) 130
XIV. PHeudodiadema texamuu ( Koemer ) 132
XV. Diplopodia texanuin ( Koemer j 134
XVI. Diplopodia toxanum (Roemer); Diplopodia llilli Clark 136
XVII. Coptosoma Mortoni (de Loriol ) 138
XVIII. Coptosoma speriosum Clark: Goniopygus Zitteli Clark 140
XIX. Goniopygus Zitteli Clark 142
XX. Psainmeebiniis oingiilatus Clark 144
XXI. Pedinopsis Pondi Clark 146
XXII. Pedinopsis Pondi Clark 148
XXIII. Stomechinus Hyatt i Clark; lloleetypus plauatus Roemer ISO
XXIV. PvrinaParrvi Hall * 152
* •
XXV. Bntriopygus alabamensis Clark 154
XXVI. Erbinobrissus expausus Clark; Ecbiuobrissus texanus Clark.. 156
XXVII. Trematopygusrrurifer (Morton); Catopygusoviformis Conrad;
Catopygus pusilhiH Clark 158
XX VI 1 1. ( 'assiduius tlorealis (Morton ) 160
XXIX. Cassidulus .'rquorcus Morton 162
XXX. Cassidulus mierocoerus Gabb 164
XXXI. Cassidulus subijiiadratus Conrad 166
XXXII. Cassidulus an beonieus Clark 168
XXXIII. Cassidulus porreetus Clark 170
XXXIV. Cassidulns porreetus Clark 172
XXXV. Cassi dul i is porreetus Clark; Cassidulu* Stantoni Clark 174
XXXVI. Anaucby tea ovalis Clark 176
1
8 ILLUSTRATIONS.
Ptgo.
Plate XXXVII. Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 178
XXXVIII. Holaster simplex Shumard 180
XXXIX. Holaster simplex Shumard; Enallaster texanus (Roomer)... 182
XL. Enallaster obliquatus Clark 184
XLI. Epiaster elegans (Shumard) 186
XLII. Epiaster elegans (Shumard) 188
XLIII. Epinster elegaits (Shainard); Epiaster Whitei Clark 190
XLIV. Epiaster Whitei Clark 192
XLV. Hemiaster parastatus (Morton) 194
XLVI. Hemiaster stella (Morton); Hemiaster uugula (Morton) 196
XLVII. Hemiaster texanus Roemer 198
XLVIII. Hemiaster Humphreysanus Meek and Hay den; Hemiaster
^ Dalli Clark 200
XLIX. Hemiaster cali fornicns Clark; Hemiaster Calvini Clark 202
L. Linthia tumidula Clark 204
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Department of the Interior,
United States Geological Survey,
Division of Mesozoio Invertebrates,
Washington, D. ft, October 15, 1891.
Sir: I herewith transmit the manuscript of a memoir on the Mesozoic
Echinodermata of the United States by Dr. William B. Clark, which
you authorized him to prepare as a part of the work of the division of
the Survey in my charge. 1 recommend that it be published as a bulle-
tin of the Survey.
Very respectfully,
C. A. White,
Geologist in charge.
Hon. J. W. Powell,
Director U. S. Geological Survey.
9
tl '.
I J
r:
"■
-■
PREFACE.
The present bulletin on the Mesozoic Echinodermata of the United
States is the first of a series of reports on American fossil radiates.
The material for a review of the Cenozoic Echinodermata has already
been collected, and the results of that work will be shortly added.
The investigation of the Mesozoic Echinodermata, first undertaken at
the request of Dr. 0. A. White, was intended to include only the material
in the possession of the IT. S. National Museum, but the necessity for
wider comparisons and a general treatment of American species became
apparent as the work advanced. The larger collections in other in-
stitutions were accordingly drawn upon, and as a result the number of
new forms ha,s been greatly increased, while misconceptions that have
hitherto existed as to the limitations of many of the earlier species have
been rectified.
Much poor material that indicates other and new species has been
ignored in this review, so that further collections will doubtless largely
increase the number of American forms.
The writer is under great indebtedness to Prof. Robert T. Hill for in-
formation in regard to the geological range and localities of many of the
Texan species and for the loan of a large amount of material. Further,
the writer desires to extend his thanks to Prof. Angelo Heilprin, of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Prof. R. P. Whitfield, of
the American Museum of Natural History, New York, Prof. Alpheus
Hyatt, of Boston, Prof. O. C. Marsh, of New Haven, Mr. G. Wolf Hol-
stein, of Texas, Dr. (i. Hambach, of St. Louis, Prof. Samuel Calvin, of
the University of Iowa, Mr. E. T. Dumble, State Geologist of Texas,
Mr. E. J. Pond, of Washington, Mr. F. A. Sampson, of Sedalia, Missouri,
and others, for the opportunity to use the important collections in their
possession.
The writer is under the greatest obligations to Mr. 0. R. Keyes, who
has executed the very complete and accurate series of structural draw-
ings, and whose extensive knowledge of the Echinodermata gives to the
other illustrations prepared by him an especial value for determinative
purposes. The author is also indebted to Mr. H. C. Hunter for the care
he has shown in the preparation of the drawings intrusted to him.
11
:-
■
THE MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED
STATES.
By William Bullock Clark.
INTRODUCTION.
The need of a revision of American systematic paleontology is nowhere
more apparent than in the snbkingdom of the Echinodermata. The val-
uable contributions of Wachsmuth and Springer upon the Paleozoic
Crinoidea have largely covered the field for that division, while as yet
nothing exhaustive has been attempted for the Mesozoic and Genozoic.
The value of the Echinodermata in the later horizons may not be so great
as in the earlier, yet many important forms of wide geological and geo-
graphical range are found in both the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
The reports of Morton upon Atlantic Coast species aud of Roemer and
Shuuiard upon Texan types are among the most important publications
upon Forth American Mesozoic Echinodermata, but the articles are in
each case difficult of access to the student and the results recorded
wholly inadequate for present systematic or stratigraphical require-
ments.
In previous discussions of North American Echinodermata no at-
tention has been piud to the South American forms, so that much con-
fusion exists as to the true relations of the two faunas. Very little is
known of the geographical range of the various species, but that many
of the North and South American forms described under different names
are identical is beyond doubt. When more exhaustive collections have
been made and comparisons instituted, this similarity of echinoderm
faunas in the two continents will be made apparent. The present poor
descriptions and meager figures afford a very inadequate basis for such
a study.
The identity of American with European species seems doubtful, al-
though a few forms present characters that closely ally them.
In the succeeding pages is presented a complete bibliography of
works on North American Mesozoic Echinodermata, and of certain
others that deal with closely related forms.
In the systematic review that follows, and that constitutes the major
portion of the report, descriptions of moderate length are accorded the
13
14 THE MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF UNITED STATES. [bull. 07.
different species. It has been deemed sufficient to present simply those
characteristics that are necessary for an accurate determination of the
forms, omitting many of the minute though interesting details of
structure. A table is given showing the geological range of the dif-
ferent American Mesozoic species. In conclusion an index to the various
terms employed by those who have written on the Mesozoic Echinoder-
mata of the United States is presented.
An attempt luu» been made to very fully illustrate all the species.
Many of the details of structure, not recorded in the descriptive portions
of the report, are shown on the various figures.
clabk.] BIBLIOGRAPHY. 15
BIBLIOGRAPHY.'
1829.
Morton, S. G. Nolo: Containing a notice of some Fossils recently discovered in
New Jersey. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser., vol. 6, pp. 120-129.
1830. '
Morton, S. G. Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Ferruginous Sand Formation
of the United States, with Geological Remarks. Amer. Jour. Sci., 1st ser.,
vol. 17, pp. 274-295.
Morton, S. G. Synopsis of the Organic Remains of .the Ferruginous Sand Formation
of the Pnitcd States, with Geological Remarks. Ajner. Jour. Sci., 1st ser.,
vol. 18, pp. 243-250, pis, 1-3.
Morton, S. G. Additional Observations on the Geology and Organic Remains of
New Jersey and Delaware. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser., vol.
6, pp. 189-204.
1833.
Morton, S. G. Supplement to the " Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Ferru-
ginous Sand Formation of the United States/' contained in volumes xvn,
and xviii of this Journal. Amer. Jour. Sci., 1st ser., vol. 23, pp. 288-294,
2 pis.
Morton, S. G. Supplement to the "Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the Ferru-
ginous Sand Formation of the United States." Amer. Jour. Sci., 1st ser.,
vol. 24, pp. 128-132, pis. 9, 10.
1834.
Morton, S. G. Synopsis of tho Organic Remains of the Cretaceous Group of the
United States.
1835.
'•or-"-' *■
Agassiz, L. Prodrome d'une monographic des Radiares ou Echinodermes (1834).
Neuchatel Soc. Sci. Nat., Mem. I, pp. 168-199.
1837.
Desmoulins, C. Etudes sur les Echinides.
1840.
Agassiz, L. Catalogus systematica Ectyporum Echinodermatum fossilium.
Lea. I. Notice of the Oolitic Formation in America, with Descriptions of some of its
Organic Remains. Amer. Phil. Soc. Trans., 2d ser., vol. 7, pp. 251-260, pis.
8-10.
N yst, H ., and ( J aleotte, H. G. Description de quelques fossiles du calcaire jurassique
de Tehuaean au Mexique. Bruxelles Acad. Sci., Bull. 7, pte. 2, pp. 212-221,
2 pis.
'The literature referral to in the accompanying list include* only those works in which North Amer-
ican apecica are directly referred to, or in which identical or related forma are described.
16 THE MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF UNITED STATES [bcll.97.
1841.
Morton, 8. G. Descriptions of two new species of fusils from the Lower Cretaceous
strata of New Jersey. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc, vol. 1, pp. 131,
132.
• 1842.
Morton, S. G. Description of some new species of Organic Remains of the Creta-
ceous Group of the United States. Philadelphia Acad. Nut. fck>i. Jour., 1st
ser., vol. 8, pp. 207-215.
Morton, S. G. Tabular view of the Organic Remains hitherto discovered iu the
Cretaceous Strata of the United States. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour.,
1st ser., vol. 8, pp. 216-227.
D'Okbhjny, A. Voyage dans l'Ani6>ique iiHSridionale. Paleontologie. Text in vol.
3 ; plates in vol. 8.
{ IVOkbigxy, A. Coqullles et fichinoderuies fossilcs de Coluuibie, recueillies par
' M. BoiiMsiugault.
1844.
Forbks. Enw. On the fossil shells collected by Mr. Lyell from the Cretaceous
Formations of New Jersey, (ieol. Soc. London Proc, vol. 4, pp. 307-310.
1846-,47.
Agassiz, L. aud Dksor, K. Catalogue raissomic' des families, des genres, et des
especes de la classe des tfchiundoruics. Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool. ), vol. 6, pp. 305-
374; vol. 7, pp. 129-168; vol. 8, pp. 6-35, 355-381.
1848.
Bronn, H. G. Index Palaeontologicus.
1849.
Roemer, F. Texas, mit besonderer Riicksicht auf Deutsche Auswanderung und die
physischeu Verhiitnisse des Landes nach eigener Reohachtung geschildert.
Mit einem naturwisseuschaftlichen Anhange und einer topograph] sch-gcog-
nostischon Karte von Texas.
1850.
D'Orbiony, A. Prodrome de Pale"ontologic. Terrains Cr^taccs. Senonien. £chino-
dermes, n, pp. 268-275.
Conrad, T. A. Description of one new Cretaceous and seven new Eocene fossils.
Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour.. 2d ser.. vol. 2. pp. 39-41.
Ravenel, E. On the Recent Squalidw of the Coast of South Carolina, and Cata-
logue of the Recent and Fossil Echinoderms of South Carolina. Anier.
Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc, vol. 3, pp. 159-161.
1860-'60.
D'Orbigny, A. Paleontologie Francaise. Description des Auimaux luverte'bre's.
Terrain Crftace*. £chinides. Tome 7.
1861.
Bayle and Coquand. M&noire sur les fossiles secondaires recueillis dans le Chili
par M. Ignace Doineyko. Geol. Soc. France, Mem. ii, 4, pp. 1-47, pis. 1*8.
clam. 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 7
-■ 1852.
Roemer, F. Die KreideMldungen von Texas nnd ihre organischen Einschlilsse.
1853.
Shvmard, B. F. Paleontology of the Exploration of the Red River of Louisiana in
the year 1852, by Capt. R. B. Marcy, IT. S. Army, pp. 199-211.
O ie bel, C. G. Beit-rag zurPjiltpontologie desTexanischeuKreidegebirges. Jahres-
ber. d. naturw. Vereius in Hallo (1852), pp. 358-375, pis. 6, 7.
1854.
D'Orbigny, A. Note rectificative snr divers genres d'Echinoides. Rev. et. Mag.
Zool., vi, pp. 16-28.
1855.
Schikl, James. List and Description of Organic Remains collected during the
Exploration of the Central Pacific R. R. line, 1853-54. Pacific Railroad
Reports, vol. 2, pp. 108-109, pis. 1-1.
1857.
Hall, Jamks. Geology and Paleontology of the Boundary. U. S. and Mex. Bound.
Surv., vol. 1, pt. 2, pp, 101-174.
Meek, F. B. and Haydex, F. V. Description of new Species and Genera of Fossils,
collected by Dr. F. V. Hayden in Nebraska Territory, under the direction
of Lieut. G. K. Warren, U. S. Topographical Engineer; with some remarks
on the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of the Northwest, and the paral-
lelism of the latter with those of other portions of the United States and
Territories. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci, Proc, vol. 9, pp. 117-148.
1858.
Marcot*, Jt'les. Geology of North America.
Desor, E. Synopsis des £clunides fossiles.
Meek, F. B. and Hayi>hn, F. V. Descriptions of New Organic Remains collected
in Nebraska Territory in the year 1857 by Dr. F. V. Hayden, Geologist to
the Exploring Expedition under the command of Lieut. G. K. Warren, Topo-
graphical Engineer., IT. S. Army, together with some remarks on the geology
of the Black Hills and portions of the surrounding country. Philadelphia
Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc, vol. 10, pp. 41-59.
1859.
Gabb, Wm. M. Catalogue of the Invertebrate Fossils of the Cretaceous Formation
of the United States, with references. Special publication of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
1860.
Shttmarp, B. F. Observations upon the Cretaceous Strata of Texas. St. Louis
Acad. Nat. Sci., Trans., vol. 1, pp. 682-590.
Siii'maki>, B. F. Descriptions of new Cretaceous fossils of Texas. St. Louis Acad.
Nat. Sci. Trans., vol. 1, pp. 590-610.
Conrai>, T. A. Descriptions of New Species of Cretaceous and Eocene fossils of
Mississippi and Alabama. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 2d ser., vol.
4, pp. 275-298.
Gabb, Wm. M. Descriptions of New Species of American Tertiary and Cretaceous
Fossils. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 2d ser., vol. 4, pp. 375-416.
Bull. 97 2
18 THE MESOZOIC ECHINODEEMATA OF UNITED STATE8. 1»uul.»7.
Gabb, Wm. M. Description of New Species of Cassidulus from the Cretaceous
formation of Alabama. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Proa, vol. 12, p. 519.
PHiLirn, R. A. Viaje al Desierto de Atacama. (German and other translations.)
18G2-'67.
CoTTEAryQ. Faltfontologie Francaise. Description des Animaux Invertdbrfs. Ter-
rain Crc*tace* Echinides. Tome vn.
1894.
Meek, F. B. Check List of the Invertebrate Fossils of North America. Smith.
Misc. Coll., vol. 7 (177).
1865.
Meek, F. B., and Hayden, F. V. Paleontology of tho Upper Missouri. Smithsonian
Contrib. Knowledge, vol. 14 (172).
1868.
Cook, George H. Common and characteristic fossils of the three marl beds
Geology of New Jersey, pp. 374-377.
Conrad, T. A. Synopsis of the Invertebrate Fossils of the Cretaceous Formation of
New Jersey. Geology of New Jersey, Appendix A, pp. 721-73L
1869.
Gabb, Wm. M. Descriptions of Cretaceous Fossils from Mexico. Geol. Surv. of
California, Paleontology, vol. 2, sec. 3, pp. 255-276.
1870.
Ciiedxer, II. Die Kreide von New Jersey. Zeitsch. der Deutsch. Geol. Gesolls.
xxii, pp. 191-251.
1871.
Marsh, O. C. On the geology of the eastern Pintah Mountains. Amer. Jour. Sci.,
3d ser., vol. 1, pp. 191-108.
1875.
White, C. A. Paleontology. IT. 8. Geog. Survs. West 100th Mcridiau, vol. 4, pt. 1.
Crkdnek, G. K. Ceratites fastigatus mid Salenia tcxaua. Zeitsch. f. d. Ues. Na-
turw. xlvi, pp. 105-116, PI. v, Figs. 1-6.
1876.
Gkinxell, G. B. On a now Criuoid from the Cretaceous formation of the West.
Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 12, pp. 81-83.
Gabb, Wm. M. Note on the Discovery of Representatives of Three, Orders of Fossils
new to the Cretaceous Formation of North America. Philadelphia, Acad.
Nat. Sci. Proc., vol. 28, pp. 17X, 179.
Gabb, Wm. M. Notes on American Cretaceous Fossils, with descriptions of some Now
Species. Philadelphia, Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc, vol. 28. pp. 276-324.
Gabb, Wm. M. Description of a Collection of Fossils made by Dr. Antonio Kni-
mondi in Peru. Philadelphia, Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 2d ser., vol. 8, pp.
262-336.
JjOHioL, P. Di:. Note sur quclques especcs notivelles appartenant a la classe des
EchinoderuK'H. §oc, {\* Phya. et de Hist. Nat. de Geueve, M<Sm. XXIV, pp.
659-673,
olark.] BIBLIOGRAPHY. 19
Mekk, F. B. Note on the new genus, Uiutacriuus Griunell. U. 8. Geol. and Geog.
Surv. of the Territories, Bull., vol. 2, pp. 375-378.
Meek, F. B. Report on the Palcontological Collections of the Expedition. Expl.
Great Basins of Utah by Simpson, Appendix J, pp. 337-373.
Meek, F. B. Invertebrate Paleontology. IT. S. Geological Surv. of the Territories,
vol. 9.
1877.
Hague, A., aud Emmons, S. F. Descriptive Geology. IT. S. Geological Expl., 40th
Parallel, vol. 2.
Whitfield, R. P. Preliminary Report on the Paleontology of the Black Hills.
Hall James, and Whitfield. R. P. Paleontology. U. 8. Geological Expl., 40th
Parallel, vol. 4, pt. 2, pp. 199-302.
1878.
SciilCtek, C. Ueber einige astylide Crinoiden. Zeitschr. der Deutsch. Geol.
Gesells. xxx, pp. 28-66, Pis. 1-4.
King, C. .Systematic Geology. U. S. Geological Expl., 40th Parallel, vol. 1.
1879.
Peale, A. C. Jura-Trias Section of Southeastern Idaho and Western Wyoming. U.
S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of the Territories, Bull., vol. 5, pp. 119-123.
1880.
Whitfield, R. P. Paleontology of the Black Hills of Dakota. U. S. Geol. and
Geog; Surv. of the Rocky Mt. Region. In Report ou the Geology and Re-
sources of the Black Hills of Dakota.
1881.
Steinmann, G. Zur Kenntuiss der Jura-und Kreido formation von Caracoles (Bo-
livia). Neues Jahrb. f. Min. Geol. u. Pal., Bcilageband i, pp. 239-301, Pis.
9-14.
Steinmann, G. Ueber Tithon und Kreide in den peruauischeu Anden. Neues
Jahrb. f. Min. Geol. u. Pal., Bd. n, pp. 130-153, Pis. 6-8.
1889.
i>E Lokiol, P. Description of a new species of Bourgueticrinus. Cincinnati, Soc.
Nat. Hist. Jour., vol. 5, p. 118, PI. v. Figs. 1, 16.
1888.
White, 0. A. Contributions to Invertebrate Paleontology, No. 2. Cretaceous Fos-
sils of the Western States and Territories. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of
the Territories, 12th Ami. Rept. for 1878, pt. 1, pp. 5-39, pis. 11-18.
1887.
Hill, Robt. T. The Texas Section of the American Cretaceous. Amer. Jour. Sci.,
3d sor., vol. 34, pp. 287-309.
de Lokiol, 1*. Notes pour servir a l'ltudcH des Icbiuodermes. Recueil Zoologique
Suisse, tome iv, pp. 365-407, pis. 15-18.
1888.
Roemek, F. Macraster, eine neue Spatangoiden-Gattnng aus der Kreide von Texas,
Neues Jabrbuch fUr Miu, Geol., und! Pal,; £4, h pp. 191-195.
20 THE MESOZOIC ECHINobERMATA OF UNITED STATE8. f^ix. W.
White, C. A. Contributions to the Paleontology of Brazil ; comprising descriptions
of Cretaceous Invertebrate Fossils, mainly from the provinces of Sergipe,
Pernambuco, Para, and Bahia. Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio do
Janeiro, vol. vu, pp. 1-273, Pis. i-xxvii.
1890.
Cotteau, M. Note sur qnelqaes fichinides da terrain crltace* dn Mexiqne. Gool.
8oc. France Ball. Hi, 18, pp. 292-299, pis. 1, 2.
1891.
Clark, Wm. B. A Revision of the Cretaceous Echinoidea of North America. Johns
Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, pp. 75-77.
1892.
Gregory, J. W. The relations of the American and European Echinoid fannaa.
Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 3, pp. 101-108.
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW.
CRINOIDEA.
UTNTACRINnxa:. '
Calyx unsymmetrical, without column. Basis monocyclic. Basals
five, inclosing a centro-doraalplate. Radials 5x3. Interradialfl numer-
ous, the lowest between tbe second radials. Arms 5x2, very long,
with pinnules.
UINTACRINU8 Grinnell.
UlMTACRINUS SOCIALIS Grinnell.
Plate I, Figs, la-c; Plate li, Figs, la-e.
Uintacrinv eoeialis Grinnell, 1876. Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d aer., vol. 12, pp. 81-83, PI.
IV, Figs. l-2b.
Vintacrinui todalit Meek, 1876. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey of tbe TBrrLtorias,
Bull. vol. 2, pp. 375-378, Figi. A-B.
Determinative characters. — Calyx subglobose, composed of numerous
thin, slightly convex plates, joined together by channeled sutures and
without distinct surface markings. Column wanting. Basis composed
of a small pentagonal centre dorsal plate, surrounded by a circle of five
small similar basals. Encircling the peutagoual base and alternating
with the basals are five large radials, hexagonal in outline and wider
than high. Succeeding the primary radials are secondary and tertiary
radials, the latter axillary in form. Tbe primary .radials alone are in
contact, the others being separated by interradials. Succeeding the
radials are several distichals, which gradually change to true rounded
brachials, forming ten long arms. Between the distichals are two
large iuterdistichals, situated one above the other. From the second
distichal, which is axillary in form, a row of plates diverges inter-ra-
dially, alternating with similar platen from tbe same distichal of the
adjacent area. From the fourth distichal a like row of plates diverges
radially, alternating with similar plates from the same distichal of the
other half of the same area. Higher up other rows diverge both radially
'TbsriiniilvnrtL«TTlDliuTiiii(li<<.iuichiruterli»dhyTnnZltt«lliihU"Hu>dl>uchdprF>]eonIoli>gle,"
lurladea out; two epecioe, Uinlacrintu meialii Grinnell. from the Cirtacenni nr Utah and E&naaa,
and U. ir-nl/alirut SohlilU-r from the Cretaceona of Wrethlia. The g.raern CinUerinui and Ma.-
■ujiitrH alone among Mcaowio types afford polota for compariiion with the Paleoiolc crlnolda.
NeuDu;rln"DleStaalmede•ThlerTei(:hea,' conaiden the difficulty of bringing them Into a cooaJatent
Flaaaincallon with the other crinoidi but nuggeita oeveial point* of nlatiooahip between CiuUcriDue
and the Ichthyocrinidie.
31
22 THE MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF UNITED STATES. [bull. 97.
and iuterradially until true pinnules are developed on the free brachials.
The brachials are united either by articulation or sizygial suture, in
the latter case the line of union often becoming obliterated. The in-
terradial plates, eight or nine in number, form a rounded, slightly
elevated shield-like area, surrounded above by the alternating rows of
plates that diverge from the second distichal.
Dimensions. — Calyx: height, U inches; breadth, 2£ inches. Arms:
length, 20 inches ( f ).
Description. — The first specimen of this species was collected by
Prof. O. C. Marsh in 1870 from the Cretaceous of the Uinta Mountains
of Utah and by him compared with Marsupites of the English chalk.1
Subsequently other specimens were obtained from Kansas, and in 1876
were described by Mr. G. B. Grinnell, an assistant to Prof. Marsh at
that time, under the name of Uintncrinus social is. Prof. F. B. Meek,
who had already in his possession similar material, added, in the Bulle-
tin of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the TerrtoHes,
descriptions of certain points in the structure not mentioned by Grinnell.
All the specimens hitherto collected are much com pressed, so that
the original form is \yith difficulty determined. In general, on any
single specimen only the plates of one side are preserved sufficiently
well for identification.
The calyx is subglobose, with ten long, simple arms extending from
the upper side (PL I, Fig. Ih). The plates are thin, slightly convex,
and joined together by simple, though well marked, sutures, that are
generally slightly channeled. The calyx is without column or stalk,
and belongs to the class of "free" forms.
The basis is composed of a centro-dorsal plate, surrounded by five
basals. The centro-dorsal plate is doubtfully visible upon only a
single specimen. Judging from the problematical portion of the plate
exposed, and the shape of the lower edges of the basals, it must be
small and pentagonal in form. Its presence was not noted by either
Grinnell or Meek, upon the specimens examined by them. The five
basals, also undescribed by previous writers, encircle the centro-dorsal
plate (PI. ii, Figs, la, lh). They rest with one side against the latter
and terminate in a sharp angle above. The whole basis forms a nearly
perfect pentagon, which is slightly depressed where the line of junc-
ture of two adjacent basals reaches the edge. Five large primary
radials surround the basals and alternate with them. They are six
or seven sided, the latter occurring when the edge toward the basis
is broken by an angle into two portions. These plates are wider than
high, and come in contact with one another only in the lower portion
of each side. The upper parts are separated by the interradial area,
as are the secondary and tertiary radials that succeed the primary.
The secondary radials are smaller than the primary, and are separated
by horizontal suture lines from them. The tertiary radials are axil-
1 Amer. Jour. Sci., Ml *vr.. vol. 1, 1871, p. 103.
clabk.] UINTACRINUS SOCIALIS. 23
lary, bearing two large distichals that come in contact only along a
portion of their lateral margins (PI. i, Fig. le). Succeeding the primary
distichals are four others of large size and varying shape, beyond which
the plates rapidly decrease in size and change to true brachials (PI. i,
Fig. lc).
In the angle between the larger distichals of each radial series are
two large interdistichal plates. The lower of these comes in contact
with the primary distichals in the angle formed by the upper portions
of the lateral margins of those plates. It likewise touches the sides of
the second and a portion of the third distichal. The upper interdis-
tichal rests with horizontal edge upon the lower, and is embraced be-
tween the upper portion of the third distichals and the lower portion
of the fourth, ending above with angular margin between the modified
plates that branch from the fourth distichals, to be presently referred to.
The second distichals are axillary and support iiiterradially rows of
plates, the first of each row separated from one another by the iuter-
radials (PI. i. Fig. la). The first plates are smaller than the second of
the same row, which meet with a vertical suture and slightly overlap,
a character which becomes more pronounced higher in the series, so
that true alternation results. Beyond the third plate a rapid reduction
in size of plates takes place. Ten to twelve plates have been recog-
nized in each row.
From the fourth distichals, which are likewise axillary, similar rows
diverge radially (PI. i, Fig. le). From the fifth distichals are other
rows interradial in position, while the seventh again bear radial
branches. These rows gradually grow smaller and as the brachials
become movable appear as pinnules. The lower rows become incor-
porated in the calyx, and as they are immovable have become modified
for the position they occupy.
The iuterradials are eight, nine, or more in number and form an ele-
vated, shield-like area, each plate likewise showing a slightly convex
surface (PL I, Fig. la). The arrangement of the plates does not
vary; seven in an oval band inclose the eighth, or eighth and ninth,
according to the number of iuterradials. The lower interradial occupies
the angle between the upper portions of the lateral margins of the
primary radials and likewise separates the secondary radial a. The two
upper iuterradials occupy the angle formed by the branches from the
second distichals and the distichals themselves. The four other iuter-
radials of the outer band lie two on each side between the lower inter-
radial and the upper pair of plates. The lower two of these four are
in contact, while the upper two are separated by the inner plate or
plates. In contact with the four plates are the secondary and tertiary
radials and the first and second distichals. The inner plate is more fre-
quently replaced by two smaller ones irregular in outline and position.
The brachial plates are the continuation of the distichals and form
ten simple arms. They gradually assume a half-round, horseshoe-
24 THE MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF UNITED STATES. [blxl.97
shaped outline, the depression on the inner surface increasing until a
well-marked ainbulacral furrow is produced. The plates are likewise
perforated a short distance in front of the same. The plates are united
in two ways, by articulation (PI. n, Fig. lv) and by sizygiul suture (PI. n.
Fig. Id), the former producing a movable joint, the latter uniting ad
jacent plates immovably. Jtows of pinnules are developed on the iunei
surface of the arms alternately from opposite sides, each row branch
ing from the epizygale, where the sizygial suture is observed (PI. u,
Fig. le).
The arms attain very gieat length. Grinnell mentions a specimen
examined by him where the arms measured 8 inches, and one examined
by the writer was very nearly as long. Grinnell thinks the arms may
reach 2 feet in length.
Related form*. — The present species is closely allied to llnUierinus
icestfalicusj described by Schliiter1 in 1878 from the Upper Cretaceous
(Senonian) of Recklinghausen, in Westphalia. It is the only other spe-
cies of this genus thus far described, so that a statement of the affini-
ties of the two forms is important. In the composition of the basin the
two species are very nearly identical. The radials and distichals show
very slight differences, but the brachials in U. nodalis are decidedly
broader than in L\ trcst /'aliens. In the number and arrangement of the
interradials the most marked difference is manifested. In U. aoeialti
seven interradial plates encircle the eighth, or eighth and ninth, as the
case may be, while in r. irentfalicm the interradials are live in number,
all of which come in contact with plates of other areas. Several minor
differences appear in the rows of small plates that branch from the
distichals. Otherwise, however, there is a marked similarity in the
arrangement and form of the several plates. In general outline the
two species are very similar.
Locality and geological horizon. — The first specimen was found on the
slopes of the Uinta Mountains, in Utah, by Prof. Marsh, associated
with Ostrea congests Con., a typical Cretaceous form. Later, others
were found in Kansas, associated with Odontornithes, Pterodactyls,
and mosasauroid reptiles, likewise characteristic: of the Cretaceous.
Meek assigns the species to the Niobrara Group, a horizon of the uppei
Cretaceous.
Collections. — Peabody Museum, New Haven; [I. S. National Museum,
APIOCKIXID.TC.
Calyx regular, composed of thick, articulated plates; b a sals five:
radials 5 x I-*'*. Exceptions frecpient. Arms strong, numerouslj
divided. Column long.
1 Zeitachr. ifcr lteittHrh. gt>ol. (ie»elln.. xxx, 1877. pp. 55-tKl. 1*1. IV. "*
BOURGUETICRINUS ALABAMEN8IS. 25
BOURGUETICRINUS D'Orbigny.
BOURGUETICRINUS ALABAMENSIS de Loriol.
Plate in, Figs. 1<i-c.
Bourgueticrinus alabamensi* de Loriol, 1882. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. Jour., vol.
v, ]». 118, PL v, Fig. 1, la, 16.
As it has been impossible for the writer to obtain possession of the
type of this species the description of de Loriol, as translated by Prof.
S. A. Miller, is given verbatim : " This species is as yet known only
by the basal cone which supports the calyx, and which is composed of
several enlarging segments of the column surmounted by the basal
plates. The height of the inverted cone is 5mn; the diameter of the
basal plate is 3£,,,U1, and that of the inferior segment of the column is
3mm in its major axis. Its form is faintly swollen in the middle; the
surface is smooth. The sutures are very indistinct, and it is a difficult
matter to determine what was the height of the basal plate. The su-
perior face of the cone carries five slender and comparatively elevated
radiating ridges, which bound five deep depressions in which the basal
pieces of the calyx were lodged; in the center an enlargement of the.
central canal constitutes the bottom of the calyx cavity. The articu-
lar face of the lower joint of the column forming the inferior end of the
cone is elliptical, but the length of its msgor axis does not, however,
much exceed that of its minor axis. It is slightly concave and encir-
cled by a feeble rim along the circumference line; the transverse articu-
lar ridge process is reduced to two elongated tubercles which proceed
from the marginal rim. Central canal comparatively large."
Related forms. — "Although this species is still very imperfectly
known one can affirm that it is certainly distinct from Bottrgueti-
crinm elliptieu* Miller, by the much less swollen form of the basal cone,
which is but slightly convex in outline, and by the facts that the lower
segment of the cone is already elliptical and already possesses the rudi-
ments of a transverse articular ridge. Furthermore, the radiating
carina? are very much more salient, and consequently the depressions
which they separate very much deeper. Finally, by its central canal
being relatively much larger."
Locality and geological horizon. — u Livingstone, Alabama, Ripley
Group of the Cretaceous, or at the top of the Rotten limestone."
Collection. — Cincinnati Society of Natural History.
PENTACRINIDuE.
Calyx small, "composed of five basals and five radials with under-
basals in one genus. The rays divide from one to eight times. The
steins bear verticils of cirri at intervals. Two joints are united by
syzygy at each node, to the upper one of which the cirri are articulated.
26 THE ME80Z0IC EICHIXOPERMATA OF UNITED STATES. [»ru. o
The internodes sire traversed by five ligamentous bundles, which m
iuterradially disposed, and give rise to a more or less petaloid figm
on the joint faces. No root nor radicular cirri.'' (P, H. Carpenter.)
PENTACBINUH Miller.
Pentacbinus asterisccs Meek and Haydcu.
Plat* in, Figs. L'n-rf.
Ffntaeriiittt attfriieu* Mei-k anil Hay den. 1858. I'uilinli'lnliia Acad. Nst. Soi. Proc
vol. 10, p. «.
FfHlncriiiaK aittriim* Meek and Hayden, WflO. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sei. Proo
vol. 12, p. 419.
Pfiitairlnue <Mfn-iicui Meek, IHtil. Smith. Misc. Cull. (ITT), p. 37.
1'eitlueriniteii aitcriicit* Meidc anil Hay den, lfcW5. 1'nl. 1'ppflr Missouri, Smith. Coot
Knowledge (1731. p. (iT, l'l. in. Vig. 2.
t Penlaeriniln Hfcrwui W liittield, 1880. (kol. Itlatk liyiduf Dakota, p.34."i, Pl.n
Figs. 1, 2.
Determinatice character*. — Calyx branching. Stem or column con
posed of small, pentagonal joints, rather thick, that bear at interval
small rounded processes or cirri. Tlie-colmnn joints are connected b
erenated ridges arranged in pen tape talous form. The stem is perft
rated by » central canal.
■ Dimensions. — Column: breadth of joint, .j\ to 1 inch; length of joint
j& inch.
Description. — This species was first described by Meek and Flayden i:
185S, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phils
delpliia. from several fragments of the column. The calyx or arms ar
not known, and, as in the succeeding species, the distinguishing ehnrai
teristics are confined entirely to the column joints. On the large sin
figured by Meek and Ilayden in the Paleontology of the Upper Mit
souri are several detached jiortions of the column I to 2 inches ii
length. The sutures are clearly marked and the nodal can be readil;
separated from the intemodal joints. Of the latter, ten are plainly seei
between two nodes on one fragment (l'l. m. Fig. '2 it), while in othc
instances the number seems to be slightly greater. All the joints ar
rather thick (l'l. in, Fig. 2c). Five cirrus scars are found on each noil
in the reentering angles. I'acli node is joined to the underlying tiitei
node by syzygial suture, while the overlying plate is connected b,
creuulated ridges, as are also the intemodal plates themselves. Th
arrangement of these ridges is distinctly pctaloid (PI. in, Fig. '3b'
The reentering angles of the outer surface of the stem are not deep, »
that the points of each star-shaped prolongation are short and broad.
The cirri arc composed of small round joints that mo longer thai
broad. They are joined, as far as could be discerned, by simple suture
(PI. in. Fig. 2d). '
There is some doubt whether the form referred by Whitfield to I
asterisciis in the <! oology of the Itlack Hills, and so figured and dt
clabk.] PENTACRTNUS WHITEI. 27
scribed, should be considered such. The reentering angles are much
too deep. Unfortunately there is no side view of the plates.
Related forms. — This species is wholly mi like the other American
forins. Iu the first place, it is much smaller than P. Whitei, and P.
Bryani and has it distinctly different form from P. Whitei with which
it has been hitherto confounded. In P. Whitei the reentering angle is
made deeper and of different shape. Likewise the crenulations of the
petajoid area of the joints are differently arranged. The joiuts them-
selves are also relatively much thicker.
Locality and geological horizon. — Reported by Meek and Hayden1
"associated with other Jurassic fossils from the southwest base of Black
Hills, and opposite Ked Biittes, North Platte river," the former in Da-
kota, the latter in Nebraska. In the Check List of Invertebrate Fossils
from the Jurassic, Meek also mentions Idaho and Colorado. Peale men-
tions the occurrence of specimens in Idaho.
Collection. — U. 8. National Museum.
Pentacrini'S Whitei Clark.
Plate in, Figs. 4a-c.
Pentacrinites aster item White, 1875. XI. S. Oeog. Survs. west of 100th Meridian, vol.
4, 187;*», p. 1«2, PI. xm, Fitfs. 6a-b.
1 Pentacrinites asteriseus ( f ) Hall snul Whitfield, 1S77. I •. S. Geol. Expl. 40th Parallel,
vol. 4, pp. 280, 281, PI. vi, Fig. IB.
f Pentacrinites asterisvus WhitHeld, 1880. Geology of Black Hills of Dakota, p. 345,
PI. in, Figs. 1,2.
Determinative characters. — Calyx wanting. Column composed of
large, thin, pentagonal joints that possess deep reentering angles.
The crenulated ridges of the suture have a petaloid arrangement. Col-
umn perforated by central canal.
Dimensions. — Column: breadth of joint, £ to £ inch; length of joint,
t& inch.
Description. — In the volume upon paleontology of the quarto pub-
lications of the IT. S. Geological Surveys West of the One- Hundredth
Meridian, Dr. White figures and refers a form to Pentacrinites asterisens
Meek and Ilaydeu, that belongs evidently to another species. A com-
parison by the writer of the specimens figured by Meek and Hayden
and by White shows Unit the differences are too great to permit
their reference to the same species. The name 7>. Whitei is there-
fore suggested for the new form in honor of the distinguished scientist
who has done so much to advance our knowledge of American
Mesozoic geology and paleontology. As with /\ asterisens only por-
tions of the column of P. Whitei have been discovered. The outer side
of the column is furrowed by deep reentering angles producing five
prominent ridges at the salient angles. The joints are relatively thin,
with rounded edges, so that the column does not appear compactly
1 Paleontology Upper MirtBouri. u. 67.
28 THE MESOZOIC EICHINODERMATA OF UNITED STATES. [bcluM
formed from outward aspect (PI. in, Fig. 4c). A distinctly petaloic
arrangement of the crenulated ridges is exhibited (PL in, Figs. 4«r, 46)
Hall and Whitfield refer to Pentacrinites asterhcus Meek and Haydei
certain specimens collected by Hague in Nevrada from "limestone o
supposed Triassie age." There is some doubt as to the identity of this
form, though the description and figures render it probable that i
should be referred to P. Whitei.
The form figured and described by Whitfield from the Black Hilli
under the name P. aster incus is, on account of the deep reentering angles
to be probably associated with P. Whitei. No side view of the joints i,
given by which comparison may be made.
Related forms. — Separated from P. asteriseiis, with which it has beei
hitherto confounded, by its larger size, deeper reentering angles, au<
relatively much thinner plates.
Locality and geological horizon. — The type specimens of this form an
from the Jurassic of Salt creek and Diamond valley, Utah.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
PENTAmiNrs Bryani Gabb.
Plate in, Figs. 3a-b.
Pentacrinun Iiryani (rahb, l«7t>. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. ,S«i. Proc, vol. 28, p. 17*
PI. 5, FigH. I, U, lfc.
Determinative characters. — Calyx wanting. Column composed o
moderately large, rather thick, pentagonal joints, with sharp reentering
angles. The crenulated ridges are broadly petaloid and each area I
rounded at its outer extremity. Column perforated by canal.
Dimensions. — Column: breadth of joint, .£, inch; length of joint
£ inch.
Description. — Two small fragments of the stem of this form art
described by Gabb in the Proceedings of the Academy of JHatura
Sciences of Philadelphia for 187<>. As the only representative of this
family recited from the American Cretaceous it possesses considera
ble interest. The column is composed of moderately large, thick joints
that in breadth reach quite one-quarter of an inch in diameter anc
about one-fifth of that in thickness. The broad rounded ridges at tin
salient angles of the pentagonal outline form a nearly unbroken line
while the furrow at the reentering angles is alternately depressed an<
elevated in successive joints. The edge of each joint is slightly rounded
The crenulated surfaces form fiva broad petaloid areas distinctly
rounded at the outer extremities (PI. m. Fig. lla) and unite near thi
inner edge of the reentering singles to form a double Hat-topped ridgi
that reaches to the central canal, around which there is likewise J
slight elevation. The crenulations are visible on the outer surface o
the column. The column is perforated by a central canal.
Related forms. — As the only representative of this family in th
clabk.] OPHIOGLYPHA BRIDGERENSIS. 29
Cretaceous, there is little among the American forms with which it
may be compared, especially as the two Jurassic types previously
described show marked differences in every particular.
Locality and geological horizon. — The specimens described by Gabb
and examined by the writer are from the yellow limestone of Vin-
centown, New Jersey. The yellow limestone belongs to the middle
marl bed and is upper Cretaceous.
Collections. Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; Johns
Hopkins University.
ASTEROIDEA.
OPHIURID^E.
Body star-shaped, with central disk and elongated arms, which are
distinctly separated from the disk. The ambulacral grooves are gen-
erally covered with plates.
OPHIOGLYPHA Lyman.
OPHIOGLYPHA BRIDGERENSIS (Meek).
Plate IV, Figs. 2a-b. %
Ophioderma f bridgerensis Meek, 1873. U. S. Geol. Surv. Territories for 1872, p. 475.
Ophioderma t bridgerensis White, 1883. IT. 8. Geol. and Geog. Surv. of the Terri-
tories for 1878. pp. 8, 9, PI. 12, Fig. 12a.
Determinative characters. — Disk composed of numerous small imbri-
cating plates. Upper arm plates wider than long, the outer angles
sharp and extending between .the side arm plates, which are slightly
smaller. Under arm plates long and nearly rectangular in shape.
Dimensions. — Diameter of disk, £ inch. Length of arm, f inch.
Width of arm near disk, -fa inch.
Description. — The single specimen of this species thus far found is
described* in a foot-note to a list of specimens appended to the pale-
ontologieal report of F. B. Meek in the Annual Report of the U. S.
Geological Survey of the Territories for 1872, and rcdescribed and
figured by Dr. 0. A. White in the Annual Report for 1878 of the same
organization. This specimen, which has been carefully examined by the
writer, presents the upper surface of the disk and fragments of the five
arms. Upon all but otie fragment the upper and side arm plates are
shown, while upon that a minute portion of the under surface of a single
arm with the under arm plates and ambulacral openings is preserved.
The disk is described by Meek as "depressed, nearly circular, show-
ing on the dorsal side ten ovate-subtrigonal radial plates, that are joined
together over the inner ends of the arms, so as to form five pairs." A
close examination of the specimen shows that the disk is made up of
numerous small imbricating plates, and that the supposed division into
30 THE MESOZOIC ECHJNODERMATA OF UNITED STATES. Ibull.07.
ten, as mentioned by Meek, maybe explained by the fractured condition
of the poorly-preserved specimen.
The arms are small, and are, as stated by Meek, perhaps $ inch in
length, although none of them are preserved entire. The upper arm
plates are wider than long, and hexagonal in form (PI. IV, Fig. 2b).
The outer angles are sharp, and are embraced between the upper portions
of the side plates. The latter are slightly swollen, but are not shown
in their entire length. The lower arm plates ai:e poorly preserved, but
so far as exhibited are long and narrow, nearly rectangular in shape
and slightly swollen in their central portions.
Belated forms. — There is some doubt as to the generic position of this
species. So many of the distinctive characters are wanting that a defi-
nite determination in that particular is quite impossible, but from the
apparent structure of the disk, formed of numerous imbricating plates,
its reference to Ophwglypha seems probable. The only other form,
0. tcxana, has a somewhat smaller and differently constructed disk
so far as can be discerned, and both the upper and under arm plates
are of different shape.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is reported by Meek, from
the "last foot of Bridger Peak, 4 miles north of Fort Ellis, Montana,"
associated with undeterminable species of the genera Gryphcca, Avicula,
Inoceramus, Crassatclla, Pholadomya, Turritella and Gyrodes, that de-
note the Cretaceous age of the strata.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
Ophioklypiia texaxa Clark.
Plate iv, Figs, la-c.
Determinant ire characters. — Disk round ; composition indistinct. Arms
long, with wedge-shaped under arm plates about as wide as long; up-
per arm plates about twice as wide as long.
Dimensions. — Diameter of disk. J inch; length of arm, 2 inches;
width of arm at disk, ^ inch.
Description. — The determination of this species is dependent upon
three fairly well preserved forms that are grouped upon a single
slab of limestone, all with the lower side exposed. The surface upon
which they rest is considerably "weathered, so that many of the details
of structure have consequently suffered. The general form of the disk
is preserved, though its composition can not be made out. In many in-
stances the arm plates have disappeared, leaving only the skeletal pieces.
Where preserved, the under arm plates are wedge-shaped and about as
wide as long (PI. iv, Fig. le). Tin4 upper arm plates, which are shown
only as impressions upon the limestone, are nearly twice as wide as
long, and have their lateral edges rounded (PI. iv, Fig. \b).
Related forms. — Although this form can not with certainty be referred
to Oj)hioglyphUj it possesses, however, many points of similarity fa
clark.) ASTERIAS DUBIUM. 31
m
h
the previous species, from which, on the other hand, it is separated by
the different shape of the disk and of the under and upper arm plates.
Locality and geological horizon. — The slab containing the specimens
described is from the Denison beds of the Washita division of the Co-
manche series (Lower Cretaceous), 0 miles north of Fort Worth, on the
banks of Fossil creek. It is found associated with Ostrea quadriplicata
Shumard, Stearnsia Robbinsi White, and Leiocidaris hemigranosus (Shu-
mard).
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
STEJLLERID^E.
Body star-shaped or pentagonal, composed of a ceutral disk and five
prolongations of the same, called arms, that are portions of the body
proper. Integument strengthened by calcareous plates irregularly ar-
ranged. Ainbulacral furrow uncovered.
ASTEKIAS- Linnaeus.
Asterias! dubium Whitfield.
Plate v, Fig. 2.
Atieriasl dubium Whitfield, 1877. Prelim. Kept. Pal. Black Hills, p. 15.
Jnteriasl dubium Whitfield, 1*80. Geol. Mack Hills of Dakota, pp. 344, 545, PI. 3,
Fig. S.
Determinative characters. — Imperfectly preserved forms of small size,
with slender flexuous arms, apparently covered superiorly with longi-
tudinal rows of plates.
Dimensions.. — Length of arms, $ inch to 1\ inches.
Description. — This interesting but doubtful form is thus clutracterized
by Whitfield: "The specimens are not in condition to afford a full de-
scription of their specific characters. They are of small size, the rays
being from three-fourths of an inch to one and one-fourth inches long,
measuring from the center of the body. The rays are slender and flex-
uous, most of them being more pr less curved in their direction and
elevated along the middle, as shown on a gutta-percha cast taken in a
natural mold of a group of three individuals. The upper surface is
subangular, and in structure they are apparently composed of small
uniform plates, placed in longitudinal rows. The center of the body
or disk is marked by an obscurely pentangular depression on the upper
sufface. None of the specimens show the under side of the body or
rays, so that the characters of these parts are entirely unknown.
"The species appears to have been somewhat abundant, judging from
the condition in which they are grouped on the sandstone, and, although
the specimens arc obscure and too imperfect for positive determination
and description, it has been thought best to designate them by names,
as they will undoubtedly prove a characteristic form over a certaiu re-
32 THE MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF UNITED STATES, [bull.*.
gion and of a limited horizon. The Rand stone is marked by the layers
in which they are found by ripple or wave marks, having a width of
about 3 inches, and indicates a near proximity to a shore line over the
area where they were obtained, and that the individuals are probably
stranded specimens. A single very imperfect impression of a lamelli-
branchiate shell is present on the same fragments of rock, but too
imperfect for determination."
Related forms. — This very doubtful species scarcely admits of com-
parison with other forms. There is nothing hitherto reported from
American strata that can be closely associated with it.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is reported by Whitfield
as occurring "in red sandstones of Jurassic age, 70 feet above the red
beds, on the east side of Spearfish creek, near its junction with the
Eedwater, Black Hills, Dakota."
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
GONIASTER Agassiz.
GONIASTER MAMMILLATA Gabb.
Plate V, Figs. la-h.
Gonuwter mammillata Gabb, 1876. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc., vol. 28, pp.
178, 179, Figs. 2, 2«, 26.
Determinative characters. — Body pentagonal, provided with a dorsal
and a ventral row of marginal plates that are narrower than high, and
distinctly tumid on their outer surfaces. Only detached marginal
plates preserved.
Description. — Gabb mentions the discovery of about thirty detached
marginal'plates of this species. They differ widely in shape by reason
of their position upon the margin, but among those examined the ma-
jority are higher than wide, and swollen on the outer surfaces. Certain
of the plates show marked protuberances upon the general level of the
plate (PI. V, Figs, la, lb). The surface of the plates is punctate, the
small depressions beiug arrauged iu rows that cross one another at
right angles (PI. V, Fig. 1*).
Related forms. — There are no American forms similar to this species
with which it may be confounded, while the absence of all knowledge
of the characters outside of a few marginal plates renders wide com-
parisons impossible.
Locality and geological horizon. — Yellow limestone of the middle
marl bed of the Cretaceous from Vincentown, New Jersey.
Collections. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences ; Johns Hop-
kins University.
clabk] CIDAKIS SPLENDENS. 33
ECHINOIDEA.
EUECHINOIDEA.
REGULARES.
CIDARID^E.
Test spheroidal. Ainbulacral areas narrow, more or less flexuous,
and covered only with very small tubercles. Interauibulacral areas
very wide, with two rows of large tubercles that bear the primary
sj)ines. The apical disk is composed of five genital #iud five ocular
plates.
CIDAKIS Klein emend. Lamarck.
ClDARIS SPLENDENS MortOU.
Plate vi, Figs. 3a-#.
Cidaris ( f ) «p. Morton, 1829. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., let ser., vol. 6, p. 123.
Echinus sp. Morton, 1830. Amer. Jour. Sci., 1st ser., vol. 17, p. 287; vol. 18, PI. in,
Figs. 12, 13.
Cidarites splcndens l Morton, 1841. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc, vol. 1, p. 132.
Cidarites armiger Morton, 1842. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser., vol.8,
p. 215, PI. ii, Fig. 1.
Cidaris armiger Gahb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils. Cretaceous Formation, p. 18.
Cidaris splcndeu* Gubb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous Formation, p. 18.
Cidaris armiger Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Test of moderate size, spheroidal. Ambu-
lacral areas narrow, flexuous, with four rows of granules between the
pore pairs, the outer rows larger than the inner; imperfectly defined
granules also appear between the pores of each pair. Interambulacral
areas very wide, with seven or eight plates in each column, each plate
bearing a tubercle of large size, that is characterized by a wide circular
areola, smooth boss, and small perforated mamelon. Miliary area
small and covered with numerous thickly-set granules of small size.
Sutures sharply defined, depressed. Spines elongated, cylindrical,
with longitudinal rows of sharp denticulated processes.
Dimensions. — Height, 5 inch; width, 1$ inches.
Description. — The first mention of this form is made by Morton in
1829, when he doubtfully referred a few fragments to Cidaris without
an attempt at specific determination. Several of the more important
characters were then given, but as the material examined included only
detached plates and a few spines the description necessarily lacked
much of completeness. In 1841 Morton proposed the name Cidarites
splendens and then more accurately defined the species. In 1842 he
redescribed and now for the first time figured the same form as Cidar-
1 Morton doubtless intended tonne, tho tvrm tplcndms iuMviul of xj'letidcu*, which is probably a typo-
graphical error. In t he publication of 1812, wheru armiyer is HubititutuU, the. form splendciu i* used.
Bull. 97 3
34 ME8UZ0IC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bull. 97.
tie* armiger, a name which he stated he desired substituted for C.
splendens. Gabb, id his Catalogue of the Invertebrate Fossils of the
Cretaceous Formation of the United States, employs both names, mis-
taking tbem for independent species, although 0. splendent* is referred
to as C. splendetis. The specimens examined by the writer are chiefly
detaehed plates, and in no instance is the entire test preserved, as in
the figure given by Morton. Two entire, or nearly entire, interainbu-
hicral areas, with part or all of the adjoining ambulacra, are among this
material (PI. vi, Fig. 3a). In these specimens the oral side is slightly
more depressed than the aboral, although not to the extent exhibited
in Morton's figure. The ambulacral areas, which are narrow and flex-
uous, have, between the poriferous avenues, four granules. In the
center of each column of plates these granules are approximately of
equal size, the outer rows slightly larger, but toward the disk or toward
the mouth opening the inner rows rapidly diminish in size and finally
disappear. The pores are oval in shape, with funnel-like openings ex-
teriorly. Each row of pores is separated from that which accompanies
it in the same avenue by a rowr of imperfectly defined granules that
form an undulating ridge (PI. vi, Fig. 3c).
The interaihbulacral areas are very wide and bear large tubercles,
each of which covers the greater portion of its respective plate (PI. vi,
Fig. 3b). Upon the larger plates, in the center of each column, the are-
olae are circular, but become somewhat oval toward both disk and mouth
opening. The outer edge of each areola Is surrounded by a circle of
large granules that give it a crenulated appearance. The areola rises
from its depressed margin, gradually at first, then rapidly, to the boss,
which reaches a marked elevation above the general level of the plate.
The boss is of moderate width and smooth. From its center rises the
mamelon, which is small, perforated, and slightly flattened upon the
upper surface (PL vi, Fig. 3d). The miliary space is covered by small
granules, that are most numerously developed along the median line of
the interambulacra.
None of the specimens afford the apical disk. Strong auricula; show
the presence of powerful jaws. •
The spiues are slender, elongated, cylindrical, with longitudinal, ser-
rated ribs that gradually become obsolete toward the base (PL VI,
Fig. 3c). The collar is short and finely striated longitudinally (PL vi,
Fig. 3/). The acetabulum is bordered by a smooth margin and is per-
forated in the center (PL vi, Fig. 3//).
Belated forms. — In many particulars Cidaris splcndens (Morton) shows
points of comparison with V. serratu Desor of the European Cretaceous,
but the American species differs from it in its smaller miliary areas and
higher areolas, and also in the presence of only four rows of granules
between the poriferous avenues.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is reported by Morton
from Timber creek, New Jersey, which establishes the horizon as that
clark] CIDARIS TAYLORENSIS. 35
of the yellow limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous).
It has also been found by the writer near Vincentown in the same
formation.
Collections. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; Johns Hop-
kins University.
ClDARIS TAYLORENSIS Clark.
Plate vi, Figs. 2ar-b.
Determinative characters. — Test small. Interambulacral areas wide.
Tubercles large, with circular areolas, much depressed marginally;
boss crenulated ; mamelon perforated. Miliary Space narrow. Spines
long, cylindrical, covered with small granules arranged in longitudinal
rows.
Dimensions. — Test undetermi ned. Spines : length 1£ inches ( T) ; width
in broadest portion, ^ inch.
Description. — The fragments of this form, although they admit of
determination of but few of the important characters, warrant specific
description from the fact that they are totally distinct from the only
other representative of Cidaris from the Jurassic rocks of America.
The small fragments of the interambulacral area and the spine occur
together and doubtless formed part of the same individual. The inter-
ambulacral plates, of which only portions are preserved on the specimen
figured, indicate a form of no great size (PI. VI, Fig. 2a). The tubercles
are large, with depressed areolas surrounded by a circle of large gran-
ules. The boss is crenulated and the mamelon perforated. The miliary
space is apparently narrow, the tubercles of adjacent plates in the same
column being nearly confluent.
The spine is long, gently tapering toward the bask in the portion
preserved, and covered with longitudinal rows of small granules (PI.
vi, Fig. 26).
Related forms. — As the Jurassic strata of North America afford few
fossif Ecliinodermata as compared with the Cretaceous, there are not
many American types with which the present form may be compared.
Cidaris californicus, the only other representative of this genus thus
far reported, has no portion of the test preserved, so that the comparison
is limited to the spines. In C. taylorensis the spines are long and
cylindrical, while in C. californicus they are short and thick set, and
there is a totally different surface decoration.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is known only from the
Jurassic strata of Taylorsville, California,
Collection. — XJ, S. National Museum.
36 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bull.W.
Cidaris califobnicus Clark.
Plat© vi, Figs. la-b.
Determinative character*. — Test unknown. Spines large, club-shaped,
with rows of large granules that coalesce to form longitudinal ridges
which extend from neck to point of spine.
Dimensions. — Spine: length, J inch; breadth in thickest part, ft inch.
Description. — This species is based upon detached spines, four or
five specimens of which are afforded in material from Taylorsville,
California. They are distinctive in every way, and can not be mis-
taken, even in fragments. The specimens examined occur as casts, but
so well preserved that impressions in gutta-percha, from which the
drawings were made, show the characters completely. Each spine has
a short narrow neck, beyond which it rapidly increases in size so as to
give a club-shax>ed outline to the middle and upper portions. Bows of
longitudinal granules cover the surface from the neck to the point of
the spine, presenting the appearance of long serrated ridges (PL vi,
Figs, lor-6).
Belated forms. — Separated from C. taylorensis by it* club-shaped
form and surface characters.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is found in Jurassic
strata at Taylorsville, California.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
Cidaris texanus Clark.
Plate vn, Figs. la-e.
Cidaris texanus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 75.
Determinative •characters. — Test large, inflated. Ambulacral areas
narrow, sinuous, with four rows of granules between the poriferous
avenues, which at the ambitus are increased to six and toward the apical
disk and mouth opening are reduced to two rows. Pores oval, sepa-
rated by transverse elevatious, which partially envelop the openings.
Interambulacral areas wide, with large circular tubercles. Areola cir-
cular, depressed; boss smooth; mamelon small, perforated. Miliary
8i>acc wide, covered with numerous small granules.
Dimensions. — Height, 1£ inches; width, 2J inches.
Description. — A largo portion of the test of this beautiful species is
in an excellent state of preservation. All of the characteristic features,
with the exception of those relating to the apical disk and mouth edges,
are clearly shown. The test, however, is somewhat compressed, so
that the original form can not be with certainty made out. The am-
bulacral areas are narrow and slightly flexuous. Between the porifer-
ous aveuues, which arc narrow and depressed, are four rows of granules
of nearly equal size which directly at the ambitus are increased to six,
CLARK] CIDARIS WALCOTTI. 37
while toward both apical disk and mouth opening they are reduced to
two. Irregularly scattered among the rows of granules are others
smaller in size. The pores are oval and separated by transverse ele-
vations that partially encircle the openings, leaving a depression
between each pair (PI. vn, Fig. Ic).
The interambulacral plates are wide and bear large circnlar tuber-
cles (PI. vn, Fig. Id). The areola of each tubercle is radially ridged,
deeply depressed, and surrounded by a row of mammilated granules.
The boss is slightly elevated above the level of the x>late, and presents
a smooth aud sharp ridge around the small perforated mamelon (PI. vn,
Fig. le). The miliary space is wide and thickly set with small elevated
granules of equal size. The apical disk and mouth edges are lacking.
Related forms. — At first sight this species shows strong points of
similarity with (-. sceptrifera Man tell from the White Chalk of England,
although the arrangement of granules in the ambulacral area is differ-
ent. The areola of ft sceptrifera is described as smooth, while that of
ft texanus is clearly ridged radially. The only related form reported
from Texas is Leiocidaris hemiyranosus, formerly referred to Cidaris} but
which, as will be shown, does not belong to that genus. Cidnris Bran-
neri, from Brazil, described by White, is allied to ft texanus, although
presenting differences in the character of the areola and arrangement
of granules in both the ambulacral and iuterambulacral areas.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is found in the Washita
formation of tin?. Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of Bexar county,
Texas.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
Cidaris Walcotti Clark.
Plate VI, Figs. \a-d
Cidaris Walcotti Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Test small, inflated. Ambulacral areas
narrow, sinuous, with four rows of granules between the depressed
poriferous avenues. Iuterambulacral areas broad; each tubercle with
depressed circular areola, smooth boss and small imperforate mamelon.
Miliary space wide, thickly covered with small granules.
Dimensions. — Height, 1 inch (f). Width, 1£ inches (?).
Description. — The fragments of this form examined are sufficiently
distinctive to separate it from other species. A nearly complete inter-
ambulaeral area, with the adjoining ambulacra, shows that the test of
the species is small and in a marked degree inflated (PI. VI, Fig. 4a).
The ambulacral areas .are narrow, slightly sinuous, and provided with
four nearly equal rows of granules between the poriferous avenues (PI.
vi, Fig. 4c). At times additional granules are irregularly interspersed.
The poriferous avenues themselves are narrow, deeply depressed, and
slightly sinuous. The pores are round, with funnel-shaped openings,
38 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. (bull.»7.
produced by the intersecting ridges. These ridges, which separate the
individual pores and the pore pairs, give a lattice-like appearance to
the poriferous zones.
The interambulacral plates are moderately large. On account of the
indistinctly marked sutures the small tubercles and numerous granules
cause a very eveu surface over the entire interambulacral area (PI. VI,
Fig. 4b). The tubercles are circular and stand nearer the outer margin
of the plates than the inner. The areolas are deeply depressed, the
central portion but slightly exceeding the margin in height. The boss
is smooth and stands but little above the level of the plate. The mame-
lon is imperforate (PI. vi, Fig. 4d). The wide miliary space is covered
with a large number of irregularly arranged granules of equal size.
The broken specimens atford no information as to the character of-(he
apical disk or mouth edges.
Related forms. — This species is very readily separated from C. splen-
dens, the only other representative of this genus thus far reported from
the Atlantic Coast Cretaceous, in possessing imperforate mamelons
and wide miliary spaces, over which the granules are regularly scat-
tered. The even surface of the test is likewise a distinguishing feature.
Locality and (jcolo<jical horizon. — The specimens of this form examined
by the writer wen4 found associated with C. splendens in the yellow
limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous), of Timber creek,
New Jersey.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
LEIOCIDAKI8 Desor.
Leiocidaris HEMiGRANosrs (Shumard).
Plate vn, Figs. 2a-d. Plate vin, Figs. la-b. Plate IX, Fig. la-c.
Cidaris hemigranoxus Shumard, 1*60. 8t. Louis. Acad. Sri. Trans., vol. 1, p. 609.
("ularift hemigranosuft Meek, 1864. Smith. MiRC Coll. (vol. 7, 177), p. 2.
Cidari* he mi (j ratios a s White, 1883. I \ S. Geol. smil <!t»ojr. Surv. of the Territories, 12th
Ann. Rept. for 1878, p. 38, PI. 18, Fijis. 2a-b.
Leiociduritt hemigranoHua Clark, 18SU. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87,
p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Test very large, subspherieal. Ambula-
cra! areas narrow, sinuous, with six rows of grauules in the middle.
Poriferous avenues wide, deeply depressed. Pores of each pair united
by clearly defined furrow. Interambulacral areas broad. Tubercles
very large; areola circular or slightly polygonal, depressed; boas
smooth; mamelon large, perforated. Miliary space covered with large .
scattered oval grauules. Sutures clearly marked, depressed.
Dimensions. — Height, 2£ inches; width, 3$ inches.
Description. — This form, which was quite fully described by Shumard
in I860, but not figured, was incorrectly referred to the genus Cidaris,
w-rk.] LKIOCIDAUtS IIEMIGRANOSUS. 39
from which it is separated by the presence of furrows uniting the pores
of each pair. In this respect it is a typical representative of the genus
Leiovidaris of Desor. A very good illustration is given by Dr. White
in the Twelfth Annual Report for 187S of the IT. S. Geological and Geo-
graphical Survey of the Territories, although necessarily, from the size
of the figure, the furrows connecting the pores are not very distinctly
shown. This species is the largest echinoid known from the Texas
Cretaceous, and, with possibly a single exception, the largest from the
American Mesozoic, In one unusually flue specimen obtained from
Prof. B. T. Hill the test is subspheripal, although considerably broader
and more flattened on the oral than aboral side.1
The ambulacra! areas are narrow and sinuous, with six rows of gran-
ules between the poriferous avenues (PL vn, Fig...2 6). The regular
arrangement of the granules is not persistent, the number being in-
creased irregularly near the middle of the column and somewhat reduced
toward the apical disk and the mouth opening. The poriferous avenues
are wide and deeply depressed, the pores of each pair being united
by a shallow furrow.
The interambulacfal areas are wide and the plates of massive size
(PI. vn, Fig. 2a). The tubercles occupy the center of the plates and
are large and prominent. The areolas are deeply depressed, subcircu-
lar or slightly polygonal, and occupy more than half of the greatest diam-
eter of the plates. On all the specimens examined the areolas show
perfectly smooth surfaces, although Shumard mentions the occurrence of
radiating ridges. Toward the center each areola rises to form the boss,
which is provided marginally with a sharp smooth ridge. The mam-
mon is large, subspherical, with a deep perforation upon its summit (PI.
vir, Fig. 2c). The miliary space is wide and covered with large, irreg-
ularly-shaped and flattened granules, some round and some oval in form.
Interspersed among these are much smaller granules, which iucrease in
number along the margin of the plates. The apical disk and mouth
edges are wanting.
Related forms. — This species is readily separated from any hitherto
described from American or European strata. Tts characters are well
defined and distinctive.
Locality and geological horizon. — Shumard says that it is found "in the
Washita limestone [Comanche series (lower Cretaceous)], forming the
iiBper pn-rt of'the Bluff of Bed river, Lamar county, and 10 miles above
the mouth of Kiamesha creek, at both localities associated with Oatrea
quadriplicata" This places it in the Denison beds. It has only been
reported from Texas.
Collection*.— JJ . 8. National Museum; Prof. B. T. Hill.
1 A much more perfect specimen (1*1. IX. Figs. la-c) baa been examined by tbe writer since the above
description was prepared.
40 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bull.«7.
SAI/RNIDyE.
Test spheroidal or depressed. Ambulacra! areas narrow, straight
or flexuous; poriferous zones narrow; pores round, nnigeminal, often
increased in number toward the mouth opening. Interambnlacral areas
broad, with two rows of primary tubercles. Apical disk large and
prominent. Mouth opening large, with incisions at regular intervals.
Anal opening eccentric.
SALENIA Gray.
Salenia tex ana Creduer.
Plate x, Figs. la~h.
Cidarii diatretum Giebel, 1853. Jahrosbnr. d. Natnrw. Vereins in Halle, 1852, p. 374,
PI. 7, Fig. 2.
Salenia texana Credner, 1875. Zeitachr. f. d. Ges. Xaturw., xlvi, pp. 105-116, PI. v,
Figs. 1-6.
Salenia texana Clark. 1891. Johns Hopkinn University Circnlars, No. 87, p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Test subglobose; upper surface convex;
sides inflated; under surface flat. Ambulacra narrow, flexuous, with
two rows of mam mi Hated granules in each area: poriferous zones flexed ;
pores nnigeminal. Interainbulacral areas wide, with two rows of alter-
nating plates, six in each row. Apical disk large, convex, subcircular ;
anal opening prominent. Mouth opening moderately large.
Dimension*. — Height, £ inch; transverse diameter, 1 inch.
Description. — Credner in the Zeitschrift fur die gesaminten Natur-
wissensehaften zu Berlin for 1870 presents the first complete diagnosis
of a North American Mesozoic echinoid, in the detailed descriptions
accorded the present species. Its reference by Professor Giebel in
1852 to Cidari* diatretum ( = Pseudodiadema diatretum) is shown from
the carefully prepared specimens to> have been erroneous.
The test is subspherical when complete, but in the specimens exam-
ined is generally somewhat flattened, both actinally and abactinally.
The lower surface is slightly concave in the vicinity of the month open-
ing. The sides are inflated, presenting a rounded surface which is fuller
above than below (PL x, Fig. Ic).
The ambulacra] areas are narrow, increasing gradually in width from
the apical disk to the mouth opening. Two rows of manmiillated gran-
ules, twenty-four to twenty-six in each, occupy the middle of each area.
Very minute grannies extend in a line between the rows and in the
vicinity of the mouth opening surround the larger granules themselves.
The poriferous zones are narrow and flexuous and the pores are regu-
larly arranged in a nnigeminal scries; near the mouth opening they
are slightly more crowded. The most pronounced flexure is opposite
the second interainbulacral plate from the apical disk. Toward the
mouth opening the zones become nearly straight (PL x, Figs, le, 1/).
«lakk.1 SALENIA TIJMIDULA. 41
The interamhulacral areas are broad, and formed of two alternatiug
rows of broad plates, six in each row (PI. x, Fig. Id). The tubercles
increase rapidly in size from the mouth- edges, where they are scarcely
larger than the mamillated granules of the ambulacra! areas. The
areolas are large, and surrounded by mamillated granules of various
sizes, that are crowded together along the inner edge of the plates.
Between the larger granules are numerous minute granules. The are-
ola rises to a prominent boss, that is deeply crenulated, and bears an
imperforate mamelon (PI. x, Fig. lh).
The apical disk is very large, convex, subcircular, with radiating
ridges that extend from the ovarial openings of each plate and unite
with similar ridges of adjacent plates. Small punctures are found at
the angles of the plates and intermediate between them (PI. x, Fig. lg).
The subanal plate Is situated before the anal opening, and occupies the
center of the disk. The anal opening is subelliptical, rounded anteri-
orly, angular posteriorly, and slightly elevated at the border.
The under surface is flat and the mouth opening large, covering
nearly one-half the diameter of the test. The mouth opening is cir-
cular, with ten incisions upon the edge that divide it into nearly equal-
sized lobes (PI. x, Fig. lb).
Related forms. — Oredner, in discussing the affinities of this form, con-
siders it to be closely related to Salenia petalifera Defr., and S. Desori^
Wright. It is somewhat more elevated than fl. petalifera, and the
radial ridges on the apical disk are less pronounced on the latter than
on the former. The ocular plates also enter less compactly into the
composition of the disk in the latter species. In S. Desori, on the other
hand, there is a wider difference, both in the character of the test
plates and the decorations of the apical disk. With 8. scutigera Gray
it also shows some points in common.
Locality and geological liorizon. — This form is from Cileola, Co-
manche spring, Texas, in the Washita formation of the Comanche
scries, (lower Cretaceous).
Collections. — U. S. National Museum; Boston Society of Natural
History.
Salenia tumiditla Clark.
Plate xi, Figs. l«-j.
Salenia tumidula Clark, IS91. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Test small, subglobose; outline of upper
surface regularly convex. Ambulacral areas narrow, nearly straight,
witli two rows of main mil la ted granules betw'een the pore pairs ; porifer.
ous zones slightly flexed; pores unigeminal. Iuterambulacral areas
wide, composed of two alternatiug rows of five or six plates. Apical
disk large, regularly convex, subcircular; anal opening slightly ele-
vated. Mouth opening small.
Dimension*. — Height, {J inch; transverse diameter, J inch.
42 MESOZOIC EriUNODERMATA OF TUB UNITED STATES. [bull.»7.
Th'Hcription. — The perfectly preserved specimens of this beautiful
species admit of a determination of all the details of structure.
The general form of the test is subglobosc. The sides are inflated
and regularly curved, rising into a convex upper surface, from which
the anal openiug projects but slightly (PI. xi. Fig. le). The lower sur-
face is quite flat, and toward the mouth opening slightly depressed.
The ambulacral areas are rat Iter broad, increasing in width from the
apical disk to the mouth edges (PI. xi, Fig. 1/). Extending along the
center of each area are two rows of luamniillated granules, fifteen or
sixteen in each row, between which are other minute granules. The
poriferous zones are narrow and nearly straight; the pores round,
regularly arranged in a unigemiual series, and largest in the middle of
the column.
The interambulacral areas consist of two rows of alternating plates,
five or six in each row (PI. xi, Fig. leZ). The larger tubercles diminish
rapidly in size toward the mouth edges, and are very indistinct on the
plates bordering the same. Each areola is large and circular, the boss
creuulated, and the mamelon flattened and imperforate (PL XI, Fig. 1/).
The miliary space is bordered with oval grannies of irregular size and
arrangement, although most numerous between the rows of tubercles.
The sutures of the plates are very indistinctly marked.
The apical disk is prominent, subcircular, with a regularly curved eon-
vex surface, from which the anal aperture projects but slightly. The
granular decorations of the surface often coalesce and appear as broken
ridges extending radially from the live openings in the genital plates
(PI. xi, Fig. Iff). The anal opening is oval, slightly pointed below, and
projects but slightly above the level of the apical disk. It is bordered
by a flange-like edge that is formed of the anal and two genital plates.
The mouth opening is small, occupying scarcely two-fifths of the diam-
eter of the test. Ten incisions divide the edge into lobes, the ambu-
lacral lobes projecting the farther (PI. xi. Fig. 1/).
/{elated forms. — The identity of this species is readily established by
the straight poriferous zones and peculiar decorations of the apical
disk. Tin' number of mammillatcd granules in the ambulacral areas is
less than in S. te-rana, while the oval granules of the interambulacral
areas are readily distinguishable from the round forms of 8. bellula.
The anal aperture also projects far less than in S. texana, although
in this respect it is not unlike aS\ bellula.
Ideality ami (jrolotjical horizon. — This species is from the yellow lime-
stone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber creek, New
.Jersey.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; Johns Hop-
kins Cniversitv
clakk.] SALENIA BELLITLA. 43
Salenia bellitla Clark.
Plate xi, Figs. 2a-g.
Sal en ia bellitla Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 75.
■
Determinative characters. — Test small, compressed, circular; upper
surface convex; sides inflated; under surface flat. Ainbulaeral areas
rather broad, nearly straight, with two rows of granules in each row;
poriferous zones broad, very slightly flexed; pores round, unigem-
inal. Interambulacral areas wide. Apical disk convex and nearly
circular. Mouth opening small.
Dimensions. — Height, £ inch; transverse diameter, -& inch.
Description. — This Salenia is a very rare form, oidy a few specimens
having come under the notice of the writer, yet from certain peculiari-
ties of outline and structure it is not to be confounded with other species
heretofore described.
In general outline the test is somewhat flattened; the upper surface
is regularly convex, the sides are inflated, the lower surface is flat or
slightly concave at the mouth opening.
The ambulacra! areas are prominent and change but slightly in width
from the apical disk to the mouth edges. Two rows of mammillated
granules, fifteen in each, occupy the center of each area.
The interambulacral areas are wide and consist of two rows of alter-
nating plates, five or six iu each. The tubercles are prominent, but
decrease rapidly iu size toward the mouth edges. The areola is of mod-
erate size, the boss narrow and indistinctly crenulated, and the mam
elon small, flattened, and imperforate (PI. xr, Fig. 2g). An indistinct
circle of mammillated granules surrounds each tubercle. They unite to
form a sinuous double series between the rows of tubercles. Between
the larger granules are scattered irregularly numerous small granules
that are crowded together along the central line of the interambulacral
area (PI. xr, Fig. 2d).
The apical disk is slightly convex, the anal opening interfering but
little with the regularity of the curved surface. The anal opening is
subcircular, with a flange-like rim. The plates are decorated with
oval granules that are arranged iu radial rows extending from the
opening of each genital plate and unite with corresponding rows of ad-
jacent plates at the suture (PI. xi, Fig. 2/).
The mouth opening is small, being but one-third of the transverse
diameter of tin4 test. Ten weak incisions divide the edges into lobes
that are nearly of equal size (PI. xi, Fig. 2b).
Related forms. — This species is quite distinct from Salenia texana or
S. tumiduht* and at the same time does not admit of reference to any of
the European species. It is most closely related to 8. tumidula, but is
more compressed, has a differently shaped and decorated apical disk,
and has round and mammillated granules iu the miliary space, while
those of 8. tumidulu are characteristically oval
44 MKSOZOIC ECII1XOHKKMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bi*ll.»7.
locality and geological horizon. — This species, like 8. tamidula, is
only found in the yellow limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cre-
taceous) of Timber creek, New Jersey.
Oollertions. — Phihidelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; American
Museum of Natural History, New York.
MADEXATIIJJR.
Test more or less spheroidal. Ambulacral uveas broad, at times ap-
proaching the interambulacral in width. The ambulacral plates are
generally compound; the pores unigeminal, increasing oftentimes in
the vicinity of the peristome. The mouth opening is large, with deep
incisions, and provided near the margins with well -developed auriculae.
The spines are frequently large and variable in shape.
HEM1GIDAKIS Agassiz.
Hemioidakis intumescens Clark.
Plate xn, Figs. \a-i.
Determinative characters. — Test spheroidal, upper surface inflated,
lower surface flat. Ambulacral areas moderately broad, increasing in
width from the apical disk to the mouth edges. The tubercles at the
peristome are nearly equal in size to those of the interambulacral areas,
but become greatly reduced in passing from the ambitus to the apical
disk. Interambulacral areas rather wide, with two rows of large tuber-
cles. Miliary space wide, covered with numerous granules. Mouth
opening moderately wide, with deep incisions.
Dimensions. — Height, A inch; transverse diameter, J inch.
Description. — The very perfectly preserved molds of this sj>ecies permit
the taking in gutta-percha of all the details of form and structure. As
the only representative of this genus in American deposits it possesses
considerable interest. The test is of moderate size, with a convex and
slightly inflated upper surface and nearly flat lower surface. The
slightly flexuous ambulacral areas broaden from the region of the api-
cal disk toward the ambitus and slightly contract again before the
peristome is reached. The tubercles are prominent in the lower part
of the column, where several pairs attain a size nearly equal to those
of the interambulacral areas. Minute perforated granules succeed them
above and continue as a double row to the apical disk. The poriferous
zones are slightly flexuous, and the small pores are unigeminally ar-
ranged, although somewhat increased in the vicinity of the month
edges.
The interambulacral areas are from three to four times the width of
the ambulacral at the ambitus. The two rows of medium sized tuber-
cles occupy the center of the plates; the areola is circular and slightly
elevated; the boss deeply crcnulated. and the mamelon distinctly per-
clark.1 PSEUDODIADEMA EMERSONI. 45
fora-tcd. There are about eight primary tubercles in each row. The
apical disk is rather large, although uot sufficiently well preserved to
admit of a determination of the individual plates.
The mouth opening is small and occupies scarcely one-half of the di-
ameter of the test. It is deeply notched, the lobes being nearly equal
in size.
Related forms. — The present species of Hcmicidaris is the only repre-
sentative of the genus known from American deposits. A comparison
with European species fails to identify it with any described forms.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Jurassic
strata of Taylorsville, California.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
PSEUDODIADEMA Desor.
Pseudodiadema Emersoni Clark.
Plate xii, Figs 2a-e.
Determinative characters. — Test circular, depressed. Ambulacral
areas straight and prominent; poriferous zones narrow; pores unigemi-
nal. Interambulacral areas not quite twice the width of the ambu-
lacral, with two rows of large tubercles, eight or nine in each row.
Mouth opening wide.
Dimensions. — Height, J inch; transverse diameter, £ inch (f).
Description. — The beautifully preserved molds of this interesting
form were collected by Prof. Hyatt from the Jurassic beds of Taylors-
ville, California. The gutta percha casts from which the drawings
were made represent very perfectly all the details of structure. The
test is nearly circular, the prominent ambulacral areas giving it a
slightly subpentagonal outline. The ambulacral areas are rather more
than one-half the width of the interambulacral, and support two rows
of primary tubercles somewhat smaller than the interambulacral
tubercles. There are nine or ten in each row. Between the tubercles
are numerous granules that are arranged in an undulating line between
the rows and along the margin. They nearly disappear between the
tubercles of the same series. Toward the apical disk the tubercles are
greatly reduced in size. The pores are unigeminal, there being three
or four opposite each ambulacral plate.
The interambulacral areas bear two rows of primary tubercles, eight or
nine in each, that are only slightly larger than those of the ambulacral
areas. They increase from the peristome to the ambitus, after which
they rapidly decrease in size. The areolas are nearly confluent above
and below, broader than long, and rise into prominent bosses that arc
not deeply crenulatcd. The roamelon is distinctly perforated. The
miliary space is covered with granules of different sizes. There are no
secondary tubercles developed near the mouth opening. The lower sur-
46 MESOZOIC ECHINODEKMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bull.91.
face is flat, the mouth opening large and deeply notched; the uinbu-
lacral lobes larger than the interambulacral. The apical disk is not
preserved.
Related form*. — As the only Pseudodiadeina in the Jurassic of America
it is unique, while its identity with any European form is very doubtful.
It closely resembles P. Bailey i, from England, in many particulars,
but it is a less depressed form, with more rounded sides and more
numerous granules in the miliary space.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is found in the Jurassic
bods of Taylorsville, California, and is named in honor of Prof. B. K.
Emerson, of Amherst College, from whom the writer received his first
instructions in geology and paleontology.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
PSEUDODIADEMA DIATRETUM (Morton).
Plate xin, Figs. la-/.
Cidari* diatretum Morton, 1833. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st Her., vol. 23, p. 294.
Cidarite* diatretum Morton, 1834. Synop. Organ. Remains, Cretaceous, p. 75, PI. 10,
Fig. 10.
Cidari* diatretum Bronn, 1K48, Index Pal., vol. 1, p. 208.
V*eudndiadema diatretum Desor, 1858. Synopsis (lea tfchinides foasiles, p. 73.
Cidari* diatretum Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 18.
Cnendodiadema diat§etum Cotteau, 1862-,67. Palrfont. irancaise, vol. 7, p. 519.
Pseudodiadvma diatretum Meek, 1864. Smith. Miw. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 2.
Paeudodiadcma diatretum Conrad, 1868. Geol.* of N. J., Appendix, p. 722.
Cidari* vlarigera Credner, 1870. Zeitsehr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesells., vol. 22, p. 218.
Cidari* nccptrifera Credner, 1870. Zoitsehr. d. dentsrh. geol. Gesells., vol. 22, p. 218.
I'wudodiadema diatretum Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87,
p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Test circular, convex above, concave be-
low, sides inflated. Ambulacra wide, sinuous, with two rows of tuber-
cles, that are large at the ambitus and decrease toward the poles;
poriferous zones narrow, sinuous. Lnterainbulacra with two rows of
primary tubercles and several irregular rows of secondary tubercles.
Mouth opening narrow, about one-third the diameter of the test.
Dimensions. — Height, £ inch; transverse diameter, 1J inches.
Description. — The specimens of this species vary greatly in size, the
full-grown forms being moderately large. The test is circular, depressed,
slightly convex above, concave below. The sides are inflated (PL xin,
Fig. l/>).
The ambulacral areas are wide, slightly raised, and furnished with
two rows of tubercles, thirteen to fourteen in each row. They are
large and prominent at the ambitus, but decrease gradually toward
the poles. The broad areolas, that are sharply depressed in their mar-
ginal portions, are striated by faint radial ridges on the outer sides.
At the upper and inner angle of each plate is a small secondary tuber,
cle, while irregularly scattered over the other portions of the plates are
clabk.] PSEUDODIADEMA TEXANUM. 47
smaller tubercles, and between them minute granules. The poriferous
zones are slightly flexed, the pores of each plate being disposed in
curved form about the margin (PL xm, Fig. Id). Although there are
generally three pairs of pores on each plate, four pairs are not infre-
quent near the ambitus (PL xm, Fig. 1^).
The interambulacral areas are about one and one-half times the width
of the ambulacraL and have two rows of tubercles somewhat larger than
those of the latter. There are, in addition, several irregular rows of
secondary tubercles, of various sizes, that are most numerous between
the rows of primary tubercles and the poriferous zones. Sparsely
scattered over the interambulacral space are flattened granules (PL
xm, Fig. le).
The primary tubercles of both the ambulacral and interambulacral
areas have wide circular areolas, elevated and deeply crenulated bosses,
and distinctly perforated mamelons (PL xm, Fig. 1/).
The mouth opening is narrow, reaching scarcely one-third the diame-
ter of the test. The incisions of the margin are weak (PL xm, Fig. la).
The discal opening is subpentagonal.
Related forms. — This species resembles in some particulars Psendo-
diadema ornatum Goldfuss, of the Cretaceous of Europe, but the latter
form has a different arrangement of the secondary tubercles and gran-
ules and lacks the radial striation upon the areolas.
Locality and geological horizon. — Pseudodiadema diatretum is from
the yellow limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Crotacous) of Tim-
ber creek, New Jersey.
Collections. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; American
Museum of Natural History, New York.
Pseudodiadema texanum (Roemer).
Plate xm, Figs 2ar-b. Plate xiv, Figs. Id-g.
Diadema texanum Roomer, 1852. Die Kreidehildungen von Texas, p. 82, PI. 10, Fig. 5.
Pseudodiadema texanum Desor, 1858. Synop. dea Eehinides fossiles, p. 72.
Diadema texanum (rabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Pseudodiadema texanum Meek, 1864. Smith Misc. Coll. vol. 7 (177), p. 2.
pHf.udodiadema Jioemeri Clark, 1891 . Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Test small, circular, depressed; sides in-
flated; upper and lower surfaces about equally flattened. Ambulacra
narrow, with two rows of primary tubercles, eleven or twelve in each row ;
poriferous zones narrow, pores unigeminal. Interambulacra wide, with
two rows of primary tubercles of larger size than those of the ambula-
cra. Mouth opening wide, covering nearly one-half the diameter of the
test. Discal opening subcircular, with deep incision in right anterior
ambulacrum.
Dimensions. — Transverse diameter, § inch; height, ■$,- inch.
Description. — This form, described by Koeiner, in 1852, as Diadema
texanum, was assigned a new name (P. Roemeri) by the writer in his
48 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OP THE UNITED STATES. [bvul.97.
prelim iuary report,1 when Vyphosoma texanum of the same author was
referred to Pxeudodwdema. The reference of the latter form to Dip-
lopodia, in the present report, makes it possible to return to the earlier
name for the present species.
The test is circular, very much depressed on both the upper and
lower surfaces and inflated at the sides (PI. xiv, Fig. 1c).
The ambulacra! arcaa are narrow and lanceolate. They bear two
rows of tubercles, eleven or twelve in each rovr, that decrease rapidly
in size from the ambitus to the poles (PI. xiv, Fig. le; PI. xm, Fig. 2b).
The areola* are circular, the bosses stout and prominent, the mamelons
distinctly perforated (PI. xiv, Fig. Iff). Small secondary tubercles are
irregularly dispersed between the rows of primary tubercles. A few
scattered granules surround the same. The poriferous zones are uni-
geminal throughout, though the pores show a slight tendency to in-
erease at the peristome.
The interambulacral areas are about twice the width of the ambula-
cra!. There are two rows of primary tubercles, nine or ten in each
row, that decrease in size from the ambitus to the poles (PI. xiv, Fig.
Id; PL xm, Fig. 2a). The areolas are depressed, circular, and dis-
tinctly outlined, the bosses elevated and deeply crenulated, the mame-
lons large and deeply perforated. Small secondary tubercles surround
the primary tubercles, between which are interspersed minute granules
(PI. xiv. Fig. 1/).
The mouth opening is wide, covering nearly one-half of the diameter
of the test. Ten incisions produce wMl-defined lobes at regular inter-
vals ( PI. xiv, Fig. lb). The discal opening is large and subcircular, with
a deep incision in the right anterior ambulacrum (PI. xrv, Fig. la).
Related form*. — Both Boenier and Desor mention the similarity of
this 8i>ecies to I\ tenuc, of the Cenonianian of Europe, from which, how-
ever, it is separated by its smaller tubercles and more numerous gran-
ules.
Locality and (jeofaffical horizon. — This important species is common in
the Fredcrickifburg formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous)
of Texas, and is found at Fredericksburg and near San Saba valley.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
D1PLOPODIA McCoy.
Dii'LOPomA texanum (Kocmer).
Plate xv, Figs. 1«-/; Plate xvi, Figs. La-d.
Diadema texanum Roomer, 1819. Texas, etc., i>. 302.
Cyphotnma texanum KoeiiHT, 1852. Die Kreidebildungen von Texas, p. 82, PI. 10,
Fitf. 6.
CyphoHtmn tisanum Conrad, 1857. lT. S. and Mex. Bound. Snrv. Kept., vol. 1, pt. 2, p.
itri, ri. i. FiK. :t.
rhymotfoma texanum Dcsor. 1858. Synopsis des tfcliinides fossil oh. p. 90.
1 J oh ii8 liopkiim University C'ircularn, lslil, Su. 67, pp. 75-77.
<lakk.1 DIPLOPODIA TEXANUM. 49
Cyphosoma texanum Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossil*, Cretaceous, p. 18.
Cyphosoma texanum Gabb, 1869. California Geol. Snrv., Paleontology, vol. 2, p. 270.
Pneudodiadema texanum Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins I diversity Circulars, No. 87, p. 75.
Determinative characters. — Teat large, subeircuiar; sides inflated;
upper surface elevated; lower surface depressed, concave. Ambulacra
prominent, with two rows of priniarj* tubercles; poriferous zones broad
above, narrow below; pores in single pairs from peristome to ambitus,
beyond which to the apical disk they are bigeminal. interambulacra
wide, with four rows of primary tubercles at the ambitus, which become
reduced to two at the poles. Mouth opening wide, about two-fifths
the diameter of the test. Discal opening large, subpentagonal.
Dimensions. — Transverse diameter, If inches; height, £ inch.
Description. — This species was first described by Roewer, in 1849, in
Texas, etc., as Diadema texanum, but subsequently, in 1852, referred to
Cyphosoma. Although the perforated mamelons are not always shown
with distinctness at the first glance, they are sufficiently numerous
upon careful inspection to warrant the removal of this form from the
genus Cyphosoma.
The test is large, subcircular and elevated (PI. XV, Fig. lc). The
sides are inflated, and the upper surface elevated and convex. The
base is depressed and concave.
The ambulacral areas are broad and lanceolate. They have two rows
of primary tubercles, fourteen or fifteen in each series, that are large at
the ambitus and decrease gradually toward the poles (PI. xv, Fig. Id).
A circle of scattered granules surround the narrow areola*. The porifer-
ous zones are broad upon the upper surface, but below the ambitus are
very much narrowed. The pores are in single pairs below the ambitus,
except directly at the mouth edges, where they become greatly increased,
as shown in Plate xvi, Fig. la. From the ambitus to the apical disk
they are bigeminal (PI. xv, Fig. lc), a character :which Duncan, in his
recent revision of the Echinoidea, considers of generic importance and
sufficient ground for a separation of Diplopodia from Pseudodiadema.
The interambulacral areas are about one and one-half tines the width
of the ambulacral at the ambitus. There are four rows of primary
tubercles at the ambitus (PI. XV, Fig. If), which become reduced to
two in the vicinity of the apical disk and mouth edges (PI. xvi, Fig. lb,
lc). In the center of the column the tubercles of the four rows are of
about equal size, but those of the outer rows become much more rapidly
reduced in size toward the poles. Small secondary tubercles are found
on the outer margin of the plates, while irregularly scattered granules
cover the space between the tubercles. A broad depression occurs
along the line of the central suture in the vicinity of the discal opening.
The mouth opening is circular, but is broken by distinct incisions.
Its diameter is about two-fifths that of the test (PI. XV, Fig. lb).
The discal opening is large and subpentagonal (PL xv, Fig. la).
Bull. 97 i
50 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED 8TATES. [b«i.«7.
Related forms. — This species is closely allied to or perhaps identical
with the form described by D'Orbigny in 1842 from the United States of
Colombia under the name of Echinus Bolivarii, and later recognized by
Gabb in a collection obtained from Peru. As the original description
and figures leave some doubt as to the determination of the species, the
term texanum is retained here.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is found in the Fredericks-
burg formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of Texas. It
is from the Comanche Peak beds, and is reported from Fredericks-
burg and near the head of the San Saba river.
Collections. — U. S. National Museum: Boston Society of Natural His-
tory; Texas Geological Survey; University of Iowa; Prof. Kobt. T. Hill.
Diplopoma Hilli Clark.
Plate xvi, Figs. %la-g.
Pscudodiadema Hilli Clark, 1891. .Johns Hopkins llmversity Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative characters. — Test subpentagoual, depressed; sides in-
flated; upper and lower surfaces flattened. Ambulacra prominent,
straight, with two rows of primary tubercles, twelve or thirteen in each
row; poriferous zones narrow, with slight increase in width, toward the
apical disk; pores in single pairs below but bigeminal on the upper
surface. Interambulacra with two rows of primary tubercles of equal
size with those of the ambulacra. Mouth opening narrow, circular.
Discal opening broad, pentagonal.
dimensions. — Transverse diameter, J inch; height-, & inch.
Description. — This rare Diplopodia has a subpentagoual outline, the
projecting ambulacra occupying the angles. It is depressed on both
the upper and lower surfaces, the latter becoming somewhat concave
toward the mouth opening. The sides are moderately inflated.
The ambulacra are broad, very prominent, and furnished with two
rows of large tubercles, twelve or thirteen in each row, that decrease
rapidly from the ambitus toward the apical disk and peristome. The
poriferous zones are narrow and lanceolate. The pores are arranged
in single pairs on the lower surface, but from the ambitus to the apical
disk are increased slightly in number, and near the apical disk become
bigeminal (PI. xvi, Fig. 2d). The interambulacral areas are narrow
and appear flattened, as compared with the slightly projecting ambu-
lacra. They are provided with two rows of primary tubercles of equal
size with those of the ambulacra (PI. xvi, Fig. 2/). There are ten or
eleven in each row. The areolas are narrow, circular, and elevated, the
bosses prominent and distinctly crenulated, and the mamelons deeply
perforated. The tubercles are somewhat widely separated and the in ter-
vening space is covered with small secondary tubercles and sparsely
scattered granules.
The mouth opening is broad, depressed, and circular. It is divided
clark] COPTOSOMA MORTONI. 51
by ten incisions into well-defined lobes, those of the ambulacra broader
and extending farther into the opening than the others (PI. xvi, Fig. 2b).
The distal opening is pentagonal, the angles occurring at the point of
the medial suture 6f the interambulaera (PL xvi, Fig. 2a).
Related forms. — IHptopodia HUH appears at first glance closely allied
to, if not identical with, Pseudodiadema texannm. It is separated from
the same, however, by its larger size, subpentagonal form, and increase
in number of pores from the ambitus to the apical disk. In this latter
particular it is not unlike D. tcxanum, from which, however, it is sepa-
rated by its smaller size, subpentagonal form, and two instead of four
rows of primary tubercles. It is similar to P. Rhodani ef the European
Cretaceous in some particulars, but that form is without the increase in
number of pores on the upper surface and likewise possesses more plates
in each column.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Austin chalk
(upper Cretaceous) of Texas.
Collections. — U. S. National Museum; Prof. Robt. T. Hill.
COPTOSOMA Desor.
Coptosoma Morton i (de Loriol).
Plate xvn, Figs. la-e.
Cypkottoma Mortoni de Loriol, 1887. Rectieil Zoologique Suisse, Tome iv. No. 3,
pp. 389-391, PL xvii, Fig. 2a-c.
Deter m inn t ive characters. — Test circular, depressed. Ambulacra very
wide, with two rows of primary tubercles, thirteen in each row, the
three or four at the ambitus large and nearly confluent, but diminish-
ing rapidly in size toward either pole; poriferous zones narrow, sinuous;
pores unigeniinal, those of each pair separated *by a granule. Inter-
ambulacra with two rows of tubercles, nine or ten in each row. Mouth
opening very large.
Dimensions. — Transverse diameter, £ to g inch; height, ^ inch.
Description. — The writer has l>een unable to obtain a specimen of
this species, but the very full description and excellent ligures given
by de Loriol admit of its satisfactory identification. The description
that follows is a translation in nearly every particular of that given by
de Loriol. The two specimens in the possession of de Loriol were so
deformed that he could not determine the height accurately. The
test is circular and depressed. The ambulacral areas are relatively
very wide, almost as large as the interambulacral, and bear two rows
of large tubercles, thirteen in each row. The first four or five tubercles
from the apical disk are far apart and very small. At the ambitus
three or four of the tubercles are very large, with nearly confluent
areolas (PI. xvii, Fig. lc«), but rapidly diminish in size toward the
lower surface, the last four or five being very small and with diffi-
culty distinguished. The areolas, except at the ambitus, are not large.
52 MESOZOIC ECUINODERMATA OF THE IMTKD STATES. [n1.-u.0r.
The bosses are finely crenulated and the mamelons small and imper-
forate. Upon the lower surface there are large mammillated granules
which can be with difficulty distinguished from the primary tubercle*.
Each areola is also partially surrounded by a circle* of small granules
that occur most numerously near the line of the central suture. The
granules are few in number on the upper surface. The poriferous zones
are narrow, slightly siftuous, and composed of small pores without any
increase toward the apical disk or mouth o]>ening. A small granule is
found between the pores of each pair (PI. xvn. Fig. lo).
The interambulacral areas bear two rows of primary tubercles that
are similar to those of the ambulacra, but larger and less numerous
(PI. xvn, Fig. la). The lower surface is covered by large mammillated
granules that can scarcely be distinguished from the tubercles, and
also by numerous small ones. There are few granules on the upper
surface. The mouth opening is large, with slight incisions.
Related forms. — This species is most closely related Co Coptosoma
speciosum^ but in form and in several details of structure is unlike it.
The presence of granules between the pores of the present species is a
marked feature.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is from the Rotten limestone
(upper Cretaceous) of Nahalak, Kem[>er county, Mississippi.
Collection. — P. de Loriol, Switzerland.
Coptosoma speciosum Clark.
Plate xvin, Figs. la-h.
Cyphonoma aprciosum Clark, 1H91. Johns Hopkins University (-irmlars, No. 87, p. 76.
Detcrminatire characters. — Test circular, inflated at the sides, flat-
tened on the upper And lower surfaces. Ambulacra wide, with two
rows of primary tubercles, twelve or thirteen in each, that gradually
diminish in size toward the poles; poriferous zones sinuous; pores uni-
geminal. Jnterambulaera with two rows of tubercles slightly larger
than those of the ambulacra. Mouth opening one-third the diameter
of the test.
Dimensions. — Transverse diameter, -}J inch; height, j{ inch.
Description. — This delicate species has a circular test with inflated
sides. Both poles are flattened, the lower more than the upper (PI.
xvin, Fig. \b).
The ambulacral areas are wide and prominent, and bear two rows of
large tubercles, twelve or thirteen in each row. The areolas are nearly
confluent above and below, and are striated by irregular radiating ridges
(PI. xvin, Fig. 1/). The bosses are deeply crenulated, and the small
mamelons are imperforate. Minute tubercles and granules irregularly
surround the primary tubercles, occurring iu greatest number along
the central suture. The poriferous zones are slightly sinuous, the
three i>ore pairs having a curved arrangement on each ambulacral plate
c'lark.] GONIOPYGUS ZITTELI. 53
The interambulaeral areas are about one and one-half times an wide
as the ambulacral. They have two rows of primary tubercles that are
somewhat larger than those of the ambulacra (PI. xviii, Fig. Id). The
areolas are very large and are confluent above and below. Throughout
the greater part of the column the two rows approach each other, but
toward the apical disk are widely separated from one another. The
smaller tubercles are disposed in rows, with greater or less regularity,
on either side of the primary series.
The mouth opening is narrow, occupying a little more than one-third of
the diameter of the test. It has an irregular pentagonal outline. The
discai opening is large and pentagonal in form (PL xvm, Fig. la).
Related form*. — This form is apparently closely related to Goptosoma
Mortonij but is more elevated and does not exhibit the granules between
the pores.
Locality and geological horizan. — This species is from the yellow
limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber creek,
New Jersey.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
GONIOPYGUS Agassiz.
«
Goniopygits Zitteli Clark.
Plate xvi n, Figs. 2a-d. Plate xix, Figs. la-e.
GoniopyguH Zitteli Clark, 1891. Johns Hokins I Tni versify Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative characters. — Test subconoidal, circular in circumfer-
ence; upper surface elevated; Jbase flattened. Ambulacra broad, with
a double row of alternating tubercles, eighteen to twenty in each series;
poriferous zones, with a double row of pores, multiplied at the peri-
stome. Interambuiacra broader than the ambulacra, with a double
row of primary tubercles, ten to twelve in each row. Apical disk prom-
inent, compact. Mouth owning large, with shallow incisions.
Dimensions. — Transverse diameter, 1£ inches; height, 1 inch.
Description. — All the specimens of this species examined by the
writer have a distinctly subcorneal form that is highly characteristic.
The upper surface is very much elevated, while the lower is flat and
slightly depressed around the mouth edges (PI. xviii, Fig. 2a).
The ambulacral areas are broad, increasing regularly in width from
the apical disk to the ambitus, beyond which they decrease toward the
mouth opening (PI. xix, Fig. 1/7). There is a double row of eighteen to
twenty tubercles in each area, that rapidly increase in size from the
apical disk downward. The jiores are arranged in a double row on
each poriferous zone except in the vicinity of the mouth edges, where
they become suddenly increased in number (PL xviii, Fig. 2l>).
The interambulaeral areas are about one and one-half times the width
of the ambulacral, and each contains a double row of large tubercles,
54 MESOZOIO EOHINODERMATA OF THE EXITED STATES. * [bull.*.
ten to twelve in each scries (PI. xix, Fig. lc). These* tubercles are con-
siderably larger than those of the ambulacral area, and have wide
circular areolas, smooth bosses, and iinjierforate nianielons (PI. xviii,
Fig. 2c). On the base the tubercles of all the areas are of nearly equal
size. The miliar}' space is wide, very nearly smooth in ihe upper por-
tions of the column, and sparsely covered with granules toward the
mouth edges.
The apical disk is large and compact, the elongated genital plates
giving it a star-shaped appca ranee (PI. xviii, Fig. 2d). The well-de-
fined ocular plates, wedged into the interspaces, make the entire
outline subpent agonal. Each genital plate is angular at the outer ex-
tremity and perforated. On the inner edge of the same there is a
semicircular depression, in the center of which is a small mainmi Hated
tubercle.
The mouth opening is large, covering quite one-half the diameter of
the base. It is divided into ten lobes by ten shallow incisions (PI. xix,
Fig. lb).
Related forms. — This species shows many points of similarity to
Echinus patayonensis, described by d'Orbigny in 1H42, from the Tertiary
of southern Patagonia. The margin of d'Orbigny's species is sharper
and the apical disk of somewhat different shaj>e. Moreover* if prop-
erly referred to the Tertiary, it is undoubtedly a different form. Echi-
nus (tndinns, from the desert of Atacama, described by Philippi in 18C0,
is likewise closely allied to G. Zitteli, though more conical and present-
ing a different surface decoration of the plates. Goniopygus major,
from the ( ■enomanian of Europe, is similar in many particulars, though
the pores are not increased around the. peristome as in G. Zitteli, and
the apical disk is of more compact form.
Locality and geological horizon. — Goniopyyus Zittcli is from the Ca-
prina limestone, a division of the Fredericksburg formation of the
Comanche series (lower Cretaceous), and has been collected at many
points in Texas, among others Spanish Oak branch, Williamson county,
and Round Rock.
Collections. — IT. S. National Museum: Texas Geological Survey.
Test spheroidal. Ambulacra wide, with two or more rows of primary
tubercles; poriferous zones usually trigeminal or polygeminal. Inter-
ambulacra with two or more rows of primary tubercles, generally of
equal size with those of the ambulacra. Mouth opening large, decag-
onal. Apical disk coui}>osed of ten plates.
CLARK] PSAMMECITINU& CINGULATUS. 55
PS AMM ECHINUS Agassiz.
PSAMMECHIKUS CINGULATITS Clark.
Plate xx, Figs. la-i.
Pvammechiuux cingulatu* Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87,
p. 7*>.
Determinative vlta-metera. — Test small, hemispherical, with circular
circumference; sides inflated; upper surface elevated; base flattened
and concave. Ambulacra wide, with two rows of primary tubercles,
sixteen or seventeen in each series; poriferous zones depressed, tri-
geminal. Interambulacra about one and one-half times the width of
the ambulacra; plates covered with numerous uncrenulated and imper-
forate tubercles. Mouth opeuing large, with ten deep incisions.
])LmcMion8. — Transverse diameter, J inch; height, £ inch.
J)ettcription. — This delicate form, of which two very perfect specimens
were examined by the writer, is hemispherical in shape with circular
circumference, inflated £i«les, elevated upper surface, and flattened base.
In the vicinity of the mouth opening the lower surface is depressed,
producing a slight concavity.
The ambulacra! areas are wide and composed of eighteen to twenty
plates (PI. xx. Fig. 1/). The lower sixteen or seventeen of each series
bear prominent tubercles that occur in a continuous line to the peris- m
tome. On either side of the primary tubercles are smaller ones of like
shape. The three pore pairs are arranged in semicircular form, the
two upper separated from the lower by one of the secondary tubercles
(PL xx, Fig. If/).
The interambulacral areas are about one and one-half times as wide
as the ambulacral and the plates about fifteen in number. Each plate
bears a large tubercle in the center, and irregularly arranged about it
smaller tubercles of various sizes (PI. xx, Fig. le).
The mouth opening is large, with ten deep incisions (PI. xx, Fig. lh).
The sipical disk is lacking, but the broken opening is large and pen-
tagonal in form.
JMated forms. — This unique species is quite unlike any hitherto
described, and is readily characterized by the arrangement of the
tubercles and pore pairs. As the only representative of this genus
recognized in American deposits it has especial interest.
Locality and (jeoUnjieal horizon. — This species is labeled as simply •
from New Jersey, but in character of preservation is not unlike other
specimens from the yellow limestone of the middle marl bed (upper
Cretaceous) of Timber creek.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
56 MESOZOIC ECIIINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATE 8. [buu.W.
STOMKCHIXUS Desor.
STOMEcniNrs Hyatti (Uark.
Plato xxiii. Figs. \a-e.
Determinative character*. — Tost high, circumference circular. Ambu-
lacra with four rows of small primary tubercles; poriferous zones wide,
trigeminal. interambulacra with eight or ten rows of tubercles that
diminish in number toward apical disk and mouth ojrening, with a de-
pression along the line of the central suture.
Dimension*. — Height, 1 inch; transverse diameter, 1 inch.
Description. — The single s]>ecimen of this interesting Jurassic form has
only the cast of a portion of the exterior preserved. The test is high,
and the circumference circular or slightly subpentagonal. The sides
rise abruptly from the margin (1*1. xxiii, Fig. la).
The ambulacral areas are about one-half the width of the interam-
bulaeral, and preserve a nearly uniform width throughout. There are
four rows of tubercles that increase slightly in »size from above down-
ward. A depression appears along the line of the central suture.
The poriferous zones are wide; the pore pairs are placed in oblique
ranks of three, and each rank is separated from that next to it by two
small tubercles (PI. xxiii. Fig. lft).
The interambulaeral area is about twice* the width of the ambulacral,
and the plates of the former are but slightly higher than those of the
latter (PI. xxiii, Fig. lc). Kach plate is covered at the widest part of
the area with an irregular row of four or five tubercles that are of about
equal size. The tubercles of the interambulaeral areas are of about the
same size as those of the ambulacral. The tubercles are uncrenulated
and imperforate. A wide depression extends along the medial line of
each, interambulaeral area according with the ivosition of the central
suture.
The regions of the apical disk and mouth opening are largely want-
ing, but a deep incision shown upon the margin of the latter indicates
that it is distinctly lobed throughout.
Related forms. — The American species shows some points of identity
with Stomechinus nudus Wright of England, though the latter is less
elevated, has a sharper marginal angle, and a less regular arrangement
of the tul>ercles.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Jurassic
strata of Taylorsville, California.
Collection. — V. S. National Museum.
claiik.] PEDINOPSIS PONDI. 57
PEDINOPSIS Cotteau.
Pedinopsis Pondi Clark.
Plate xxi, Figs, la-b. Plate xxn, Figs, la-c.
Determinative characters. — Test large, circular, inflated at the sides,
convex on the upper surface. Ambulacra with six rows of tubercles at
the ambitus, the two marginal rows complete and the four inner incom-
plete; poriferous zones broad, bigeminal. Interambulacra with twenty-
rows of tubercles at the ambitus, which become reduced to four at the
margin of the mouth opening; tubercles small, equal, crenulatcd, and
perforated. Mouth opening small, with distinct incisions.
Dimensions. — Transverse diameter, 3i inches; height, 2£ inches.
Description. — The single very large specimen of this species exam-
ined by the writer has portions of the test in a very perfect state of
preservation. The test is large, circular, inflated at the sides, and con-
vex on the upper surface. The lower surface is flattened, with a slight
concavity in the region of the mouth opening (PI. xxn, Fig. la). The
ambulacra! areas are wide, and have at the ambitus six rows of tuber-
cles (PI. xxn, Fig. lc), the two marginal rows alone continuing from the
discal opening to the peristome. The four inner rows are incomplete,
but of equal size with the outer. The tubercles are finely crenulated
and perforated. The poriferous zones are broad and bigeminal (Pi.
xxn, Fig. lc), except on the lower surfjice, where the rows become
crowded together. Near the mouth opening they again broaden out
and become greatly increased in number at the margin. The pores
are small and round. The interainbulacral areas are broad and have
twenty rows of tubercles at the ambitus, which become reduced to four
at the mouth edges (PI. xxn, Fig. lb). The tubercles are of equal size
with those of the ambulacra. Small mammillatcd granules are found
scattered over both the ambulacra 1 and interainbulacral plates, to-
gether with a fine granulation covering the entire surface.
The mouth opening is small and measures about seven-eighths of an
inch in diameter. It has ten distinct incisions in the interambulacra.
The discal opening is partially outlined, but is very indistinct.
This species is named for Mr. Edwin J. Pond, of the IT. S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey, by whom the specimen described by the writer was
discovered.
Related forms. — The present species is unlike any described from
American or European deposits.
Lomlity and geological horizon. — The specimen wras found on the south
bank of Onion creek, Travis county, Texas, about one-fourth mile south-
west of the crossing of the Austiu and San Antonio wagon road. It is
probably from tin4- lower portion of the Austin chalk (upper Cretaceous).
Collection. — Johns Hopkins University.
58 MESOZOlC £(vIIIN0l>EllMATA OF TItK UNITED STATES. [BrLL.W.
IEEEGULAEE8.
KCIIIXOCONIDjE.
Test circular, elliptical, or ]>entagona1. Ambulacra narrow; porifer-
ous zones unigemiual, seldom bigeminal. I ntcrambulacra broad ; surface
covered with small, j>erforatcd, and crenulatcd tubercles, that are larger
ou the bast;. Mouth opening central, circular, or decagonal, with jaws
and distinct incisions. Apical disk central, coiii]>osed of ten plate*.
Aual opening between apical disk and mouth opening.
IIOLEOTYPUH Desor.
JIolkctypvs planatus Roenier.
Plate, xxnr, Fig. 2«-f.
Holed y pus planatus Roemer, 181!*. Texas, et<\, |i. '19$.
Holcvtypus planatus Koemer, 1XT>2. Die KTei«lrbiltluutf**n von Texas, p. 84, pi. 10,
Fitf. 2.
Holtvtypu* planatus Slmninnl, 1H52. Kept. Expl. Ked Kiver of La., p. 211.
Uolevtypus planatus (iit'Wl, lSfitt. Juhresher. d. Naturw. Ver. in Halle, p. 373.
Flolrctypus planus (iit'licl, 1KT>3, ibid.
HohvnjpHH planatus Conrad, 1H57. l:. S. and Mi*x. Bound. Surv. Kept. vol. 1, pt. -\
p. 115, pi. 1, Fig. 1.
Holcvtypus planatus Detiur, 1KT>S. Synop. des £<-hinideM fiwHiles, p. 174.
Flottctypit* planatus (iul>b, 1H(»0. (.'at. Invert. FoshiIh. Cretaceous, p. 18.
HoUvtytjus planatus Meek, \XVA. Smith. Mine. Coll.. vol. 7 (177). p. 2.
Holertypus planatus Clark, ISill. Johns Hopkins ("niverKity Circulars, No. 87, p. 7rt.
Dctcrmimttire characters. — Tost subcircular, subconical, flattened on
the under surface. Ambulacra narrow., straight, and somewhat lanceo-
late, with six irregular rows of tubercles; poriferous zones straight,
narrow, unigemiual. Interambulacra wide, plates numerous and liar-
row, each with a nearly horizontal row of small tubercles. Apical
disk small, the madreporite large. Mouth opening small, subcircular.
Anal opening large.
Dhncnxionit. — Height, }{ inch; transverse diameter, 12 inches.
DcHcription. — This very common form, from the Cretaceous of Texas,
was first reported by Roenier in uTexas.Metc.,in 1849, and subsequently,
in 185:2, more accurately defined and figured. Although wide differences
in outline and in the size and arrangements of the tubercles occur,
they appear to be rather individual than specific. The majority of the
specimens are subcircular; in the case of some, however, distinctly cir-
cular, while in that of others clearly pentagonal. The ambitus in some
individuals is sharp, in others, rounded, while the upper surface is dis-
tinctly elevated at the center with slightly tumid sides. The under
surface* is flat and slightly depressed in the vicinity of the mouth 0]teniug.
The ambulacral areas are narrow, straight, increasing in width toward
the ambitus and somewhat lanceolate in form. The poriferous zones
are narrow, the pores small and unigeminal. Six rows of small tuber-
CLARK.] PYRINA PARRYI. 59
eles are found in the broader portion of the areas, which become re-
duced to four toward the apical di.sk and mouth edges ( PI. xili n, Fig. 2e).
The interambulaeral areas are about three times the width of the
ambiilacral at the ambitus. The plate's are narrow, eacli with a hori-
zontal row of small tubercles, five or six in a row at the ambitus, but
fewer above and below. Each tubercle has a small circular areola,
crenulated boss, and perforated mamelon. The* tubercles cover the
greater portion of the plates, with minute granules interspersed be-
tween them (PI. xxiii, Fig. 2/7). The tubercles are very much larger
on the lower surfjice, and the difference in size shown between those of
the ambulacra and iuterambulacra on the upper surface disappears.
The apical disk is small. The live ovarial plates are all perforated;
the madreporite is of large size and indistinctly separated from the
other plates (PL xxiii, Fig. 2/).
The mouth opening is small, with slight incisions that give a decagonal
margin. The Large oval anal opening extends from the vicinity of the
mouth edges to the ambitus (PL xxiii, Fig. 2/>).
Related form*. — Cotteau has recently described, under the name of
H. Castilloi, a new species of Holeetypm from Mexico that is not unlike
certain individuals of H. planatns examined by the writer. As a suffi-
cient number of intermediate forms has been found to connect all the
specimens examined with the type form described by Koemer, no at-
tempt has been made to establish new species. H. planus described by
Giebe) is considered such a variation.
Locality and geological horizon. — This widely distributed form is from
the Washita formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of
Texas. It has been found at Austin, Fredericksburg, and elsewhere.
Collections. — U.J3. National Museum; Philadelphia Academy of Natu-
ral Sciences; Boston Society of Natural History; Texas Geological
Survey ; Prof. Robt. T. Hill.
CASSIDUIilD^E Aoassiz.
Test circular, oval or subpent agonal. Ambulacra simple or peta-
loid, generally similar. Mouth opening central or subcentral, generally
with a pentapetaloid floscelle. Anal opening excentric.
PYRINA Desmoulins emend, de Loriol.
Pyrina Parryi Hall.
Plate xx iv, Figs, lar-k.-
Pyrina Parryi Hall, 1857. I*. S. and Mex. Bound. Surv. Kept., vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 144, PI. 1,
Fig. 1-ld.
Pyrina Parryi Gabh, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils Cretaceous, p. 19.
Pyrina Parryi Meek, 1804. Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 2.
Pyrina Parryi Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circular**, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative characters. — Test snbpentagonal, broader anteriorly
tbau posteriorly, inflated at tbe sides, flattened above and below.
GO * MESOZOIP EClIIXOI>KKMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [mix.*:.
Ambulacral areas narrow, unigcminul; both areas covered with minute
tubercles.
Mouth opening large, elliptical, oblique. Anal opening oval, supra-
marginal.
Dimenttions. — Length, 1\ inches; height, & inch.
Description. — The two specimens originally described by Hall, in the
Mexican Boundary Survey lte]>orts, are the only representatives of this
interesting species that have been examined by the writer. The test
is regular and symmetrical, slightly ]>cntagoiial in outline, enlarged
anteriorally, contracted ] posteriorly. The upper surface is convex,
though somewhat flattened at the summit. The sides are inflated, the
base flattened and slightly depressed in the vicinity of the mouth open-
ing (PI. xxiv, Figs lc, Id).
The ambulacral areas are narrow and lanceolate; the poriferous
zones straight and depressed, the pores small, oval, and unigeminal
(1*1. xxiv. Fig. 1/). The. iuterambulacral areas are broad and less ele-
vated than the ambulacral. Both the ambulacra and interambulacra
support numerous small tubercles, that are larger and more distinct
on the lower than the upper surface. Fine microscopic grannies are
disseminated between the tubercles (PI. xxiv, Figs, lc, 1#).
The mouth opening is large, elliptical, and obliquely situated slightly
in front of the center of the base. The anal opening is oval and placed
nearly in the renter of the posterior margin. The apical disk is small,
composed of four ovarial plates, the large right anterolateral modified
to form the mnd rewrite. The Ave small ocular plates are firmly wedged
between the ovarial plates (PI. xxiv, Fig. Ih).
Related form*. — The species just described is the only representative
of this genus reported from American strata, and both in tbrni aud
structural features admits of a ready separation from all European
species. It presents some points of similarity with Pyrina Desmoulintdi
D'Arc.hiac, but is broader ]>osteriorly and less elevated.
Locality and geological horizon. — Pyrina 1'arryi Hall is from the
Washita formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous), and in
vol. i of the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey Reports is
reported from Leon Springs, El Paso Road, Texas.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
BOTIUOPYGUS I >,Orbigny.
BOTBIOPYOITS ALABAMEN8IS Clark.
Plate xxv, Figs. \a-f.
Botriopygus alalHimimxis Clark, 1S<U. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87,
p. 76.
Determinative character h. — Test oblong; more or less depressed on
upper surface, highest anteriorly; under surface concave. Ambulacra
broad, lanceolate; poriferous zones subpetaloidal above. Interambu-
CLAiiK.i ECHINOBRISSUS EXPANSUS. 61
lacral plates covered with numerous, irregularly distributed tubercles.
Apical disk anteriorly situated. Mouth opening small, oblique, for-
ward of the center.
Dimension*. — Length, 2£ inches; width, 2 £ inches; height, 1 inch.
Description. — The single imperfectly preserved specimen of this spe-
cies, although apparently lacking some of the characteristics of Botri-
opygus, is nevertheless referred to that genus. The test is oblong,
considerably depressed on the upper surface, and concave on the base.
The apex of the upper surface is forward of the center, making the an-
terior margin full, the posterior flattened (PI. xxv, Fig. lc).
The ambulacral areas are broad and lanceolate. They contract ap-
preciably just above the ambitus, giving to the poriferous zones a sub-
petaloidal form. The pores of the subpetaloidal i>ortions are large and
oval, those of the outer rows more elongated than those of the inner
and acuminated on their, inner margins. The pores of each pair are
united by a furrow. The inner i>ortions of ambulacral plates are cov-
ered with tubercles that in the broadest portion of the subpetaloidal
areas reach five or six in number (PI. xxv, Fig. lc). Below the sub-
petaloidal areas the pores recede from the outer margin of the plates.
Those of eaeh pair are close together, small, and nearly round. The
plates also become broader (PI. xxv, Fig. Id).
The interambulacral plates are large and covered with numerous,
irregularly arranged tubercles. A microscopic granulation covers the
intertubercular space (PI. xxv, Fig. 1/).
The position of the apical disk is forward of the center of the upper
surface, although none of the plates are preserved on the specimen ex-
amined. The mouth opening is small and obliquely placed slightly in
front of the center of the base.
Related forms. — Gabb describes a species of Botriopygus from Peru
under the name of B. elcvatus that is not unlike B. alabamensis in many
particulars, though the American species is larger, less rounded anteri-
orly, and has a more depressed posterior margin.
locality and geological horizon. — This form is from the Ripley group
(upper Cretaceous) of Alabama. Its exact locality is unknown.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
ECHINOBRISSCTS Breyn.
Echinobuissus expansus Clark.
Plate xxvi, Figs. la-g.
Echinobrissus expansus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative characters. — Test subquadrate, broader i>osteriorly,
moderately convex on upper surface, concave on the base. Ambulacra
narrowly lanceolate. Anal opening large, supramaximal ; anal sulcus
broad, deep, extending from near the apex to the ambitus. Mouth
opening large, situated in front of the middle of the base.
62 MESOZOIC ECIIINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. r«7LL.W.
Dimensions. — Length, 1£ inches; width, 1J inches; height, i inch.
Description. — This typical Echinobrissns is of moderate size, some-
what depressed above, and subquadrate in marginal outline. The pos-
terior i>ortioiL is broader than the anterior and distinctly lobed. The
ba-se is concave.
The ambulacral areas are narrowly lanceolate, and on the upper sur-
face the ponferous zones are subpetaloidal (PI. xxvi, Fig. la). The
inner rows of pores are round, the outer oval, with acuminated inner
margins and obliquely placed (PI. xxvi, Fig. 1/). The interambulaeral
areas are formed of broad plates that bear numerous small perforated
and mammillated tubercles. A microscopic granulation covers the
miliary space (PL xxvi, Fig. le).
The apical disk is small and compact and the perforations of the
genital plates distinct (PL xxvi, Fig. Ig).
The mouth opening is large, excentric, situated at some distance in
front of the center of the base. The anal opening is large, acuminated
on the upper margin, and placed in a broad, deep anal sulcus that ex-
tends from near the apical disk to the posterior margin (PL xxvi,
Fig. Id).
Related forms. — Echinobrissus expanses has no points that would
closely ally it with any species of this genus hitherto described.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Ripley
group (upper Cretaceous) of Alabama or Mississippi, but its exact
locality is not recorded.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
Echinobrissus texani's Clark.
Plate xxvi, Figs. 2a-f.
Echinobrissus texanus Clark. lHIU. .Johns IIopkinH University Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative charcutcrs. — Test ovate, rounded anteriorly, subqnad-
rate posteriorly; upper surface convex, apex forward of the center;
base concave. Ambulacra lanceolate, subpetaloidal. Apical disk for-
ward of the center. Mouth opening small, excentric. Anal opening
small, oval, in narrow sulcus that begins some distance below the apical
disk.
Dimensions. — Length, J inch; width, g inch; height, ^ inch.
Description. — The single specimen of this species is somewhat dam-
aged on the sides, so that the ambit al outline is not complete. It is
ovate in form, broader posteriorly, and subquadrato. The upper sur-
face is convex, but more or less compressed. The lower surface is con-
cave.
The ambulacral areas are narrowly lanceolate. The poriferous zones
for a short distance from the apical disk are subpctaloid in form. <The
posterior ambulacra are much longer than the others, the unpaired
ambulacrum being the shortest. The pores of each plate are oval and
set at an angle to one another (PL xxvi, Fig. 2c).
<lakk.] TREMATOPYGUS CRUCIFER. 63
The interambulacral plates are large and covered with irregularly %
arranged tubercles. Between the tubercles a microscopic granulation
covers the surface (PI. xxvi, Fig. 2/).
The apical disk is small and situated forward of the apex. The indi-
vidual plates can not be fully distinguished on the specimen examined.
The mouth opening is apparently small, though somewhat obscured.
It is situated forward of the center of the base.
The anal opening is small, placed in a narrow sulcus that begins some
distance posterior to the apical disk.
Belated forms. — Eckinobrissus texanun is readily separated from E.
expansm by its ovate form and the shape and size of the anal sulcus.
It is unlike any European species.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is from the Austin chalk t
(upper Cretaceous) of the south bank of the Colorado river, Austin,
Texas.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
TEEM ATOP YG US d'Orbigny.
Trematopygus crucifer (Morton).
Plate xxvn, Figs. lo-t.
Ananchytes cruciferus Morton, 1830. Am. Jour. Sci., lHt sor., vol. 18, p. 245, PI. 3,
Fig. «.
Ananchytes cruciferus Morton, 1830. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci., 1st. aor., vol.6, pp.
201, 202.
Xucleolites crucifer Morton. 1833. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st scr., vol. 23, p. 294.
Xucleolites crucifer Morton, 1834. Synop. Organ. Remains, Cretaceous, p. 75, PI. 3,
Fig. 15.
Xucleolites cruciferus Agassiz, 1840. Cat. Syst., p. 4.
Xucleolites cruciferus d'Orbigny, 1847. Prodrome, vol. 2, p. 271, £tage 22, No. 1197.
Xucleolites cruciferus Agassiz and Desor, 1847. Cat. rais., p. 97.
Xudiolitcs crucifer Bronn, 1848. Index Pal., vol. 1, p. 818.
Pyyorhynchus crucifer Kavenel, 1850. Am. Assoc. Adv. ScL Proc, p. 160.
Trematopyyus crucifer d'Orbigny, lR53-'60. Puloout. fra^isw, vol. 6, p. 387, PI. 953,
Figs. 10, 11; PI. 963, Figs. 1-5.
Echinohrissus cruciferus d'Orbigny, 1851. Revue zool., p. 25.
Xucleolites crucifer Desor, 1858. Synop. des tichiuides fossiles, p. 262.
Xucleolites crucifir Oabh, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils Cretaceous, p. 19.
Xucleolites crucifer Meek, 1864. Smith Misc. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 2.
Xucleolites crucifer Cook, 1868. Cool, of New Jersey, p. 377.
Xucleolites crucifer Conrad, 1868. Oeol. of New Jersey, App., p. 722.
Xucleolites crucifer U8 Credner, 1870. Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. (Jesells., XXII, p. 217.
Trcmatopygus crucifer Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
IMermi native characters. — Test ovate, inflated at the sides and base
and slightly contracted anteriorly. Aiibnlaeralong, well defined; pores
uiiigeminal, prominent on the upper surface, indistinct on the base.
Apical disk situated anteriorly. Month opening large and oblique.
Anal opening large, oval, supramarginal.
Dimension*. — Length, 1 inch; breadth, I inch; height, $,- inch.
Description. — This urchin is not uncommon at Timber creek, New
Jersey, where many very perfect specimens have been obtained. Its
64 MKSOZOIC ECHINODKRMATA OF THE UNITED 8TATES. fmiJ.W.
outline is ovate and very regular, lacking at the ambitus or ai>ex any
sharply defined angularity. The sides are highly inflated, together
with the outer portion of the base.
The ainbulacral areas arc long, lanceolate, and unequal; the posterior
pair are the longest, the unpaired anterior area is the shortest. The
areas do not produce any irregularity in the outline of the test beyond
inconsiderable depressions in the immediate vicinity of the mouth edges.
The poriferous zones are clearly marked on the upper surface, and the
pore pairs are nearly horizontal (PI. xxvn, Fig. 1/), but toward the
ambitus the pores become smaller, those of each pair nearer together,
and the pairs obliquely situated at the lower, outer corner of each plate
[V\. xxvn, Fig. le); near the mouth edges they again become larger and
. slightly increased in number.
The interambulacral areas are wide and composed of large plates
that are bent in the middle. The surface is covered with irregular
rows of tubercles that are perforated and mammillated. The miliary
spaee in its turn is covered with numerous minute and irregularly dis-
tributed granules.
The apical disk is small and anteriorly situated; the four genital
plates are distinctly perforated, Hume of the anterior pair situated much
nearer together than those of the posterior (PI. xxvn, Fig, Iff).
The mouth opening is large, oblique, and placed somewhat forward of
the center of the base. The anal opening is large, oval, and acuminate
at the upper extremity. It is situated in an anal sulcus, that makes a
marked indentation in the posterior margin, and is bordered by two
well defined ridges (PL xxvn, Fig. Id).
Related forms.— TrcMatopygus crucifer (Morton) is a unique species
that affords no closely allied forms in either American or European
deposits. It is the single representative of this genus recorded from
American strata.
Locality and geological horizon. — The only specimens of this form
thus far reported are Trom the yellow limestone of the middle marl
bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber creek, New Jersey.
Collections. — American Museum of Natural History, New York; Phila-
delphia Academy of Natural Sciences; Johns Ilopkins University.
CATOPYGUS Agassi z.
Catopygus oviformis Conrad.
Plate xxvn, Figs. 2a-f
Catopygu* oviform is Conrad, 1847. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. $ci. Jour., 2d ser., vol.
2, p. 39, PI. 1, Fiff. !>.
Xnrltolites or if or mi* (CatopygiiB) Conrad. 18(W. Geol. of New Jersey, App., p. 722.
Catopygtt* oriformi* ('lark, 18!U. Johns Hopkins I'uivcnity Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
•
Determinative characters. — Test ovate, broader posteriorly; up]K»r
surface nearly Hat ; apex posterior to apical disk. Ambulacra narrow,
subpetaloidal. Jntcrambulacra wide; single iuterambulaeruui elevated.
olabk] CATOPYGUS PUSILLUS. 65
Apical disk excentric, nearer the anterior border. Mouth opening small,
excentric, nearer the anterior margin. Anal opening oval, situated in a
narrow sulcus, that terminates above in a projecting arch.
Dimensions. — Length, $ inch ; width, finch; height, -^ inch.
Description. — The test of this very beautiful little form is ovate, with
rounded, inflated sides and elevated upper surface. The base is nearly
flat, slightly concave in the vicinity of the mouth edges, and lobed pos-
teriorly.
The ambulacral areas are narrowly lanceolate, subpetaloidal on the
upper surface, the two posterior areas being much longer than the
others. The plates in the petaloidal portions are narrow, but beyond
increase in breadth (PI. xxvn, Fig. 2e).
The large interambulacral plates are covered with minute tubercles,
between which are numerous microscopic granules.
The apical disk is small, excentric, and situated far anterior to the
apex (PI. xvn, Figs. 2a, 2c).
The mouth opening is small and situated nearer the anterior margin.
The anal opening is oval and placed at the upper part of a nearly verti-
cal anal sulcus. The upper margin of this sulcus forms a beak-shaped
prominence that overhangs the opening (PI. xxvn, Fig. 2d).
Related forms. — It is separated from C. pusillus Clark, the other
American species, by its narrower outline, more inflated sides, and the
anterior position of its apical disk. In form it is somewhat like C.
columbarius, which is widely distributed in the Genomanian of Europe,
but the position of the apical disk at once distinguishes it.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the yellow
limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber creek,
New Jersey.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
•
Catopygus pusillus Clark.
Plate xxvn, Figs. 3a-d.
Catopygus pusillus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative cfaracters. — Test ovate to subquadrate, rounded an-
teriorly, subquadrate posteriorly, broader behind than before; upper
surface elevated; base concave. Ambulacra narrowly lanceolate, sub-
petaloidal on the upper surface. Apical disk small, nearly central.
Mouth opening small, anteriorly placed. Anal opening oval, in vertical
sulcus beneath overhanging arch.
Dimensions. — Length, £ inch; width, & inch; height, g inch.
Description. — All the specimens of this species examined by the writer
are casts, that are, however, sufficiently well preserved to admit of the
determination of all the more important characters. The test is ovate
to subquadrate, occasioned by the slight angularity of the posterior
margin. The anterior portion is regularly rounded.
Bull. 97 5
66 MESOZOIC ECHINODEKMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bcll.«T.
The ambulacral areas are narrow, the posterior pair only slightly
longer than the anterior.
The interambulacral areas are wide and composed of large plates.
The apical disk is small and situated nearly in the center of the upper
surface.
The mouth opening is small and placed forward of the center of the
base. The anal opening is situated in a nearly vertical sulcus that
is overhung at its upper extremity by a projecting arch (PI. xxvn,
Fig. 3c).
Related form*. — Catopygus pusillus is separated from C. oriformis by
its broader and slightly subquadrate form, less rounded sides, and
nearly central position of the apical disk.
Locality and geological horizon. — Catvpygus pusillus is from the lower
marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Wordills, Monmouth county, New Jer-
sey.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
CASSTDULUS Lamarck.
Cassidulus flore alis (Morton).
Plate xxviii, Fig. lar-l.
Clypeaster ep. Morton, 1830. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser., vol. 6, p. 2fi2.
Clypeaster floreali* Morton, 1*33. Amer. Jour. Sci., lBt sur., vol. 23, p. 294.
Clypeaster floreali* Morton, 1834. Synop. Organ. Remains Cretaceous, p. 76, PI. 3, Fig.
12, and PI. 10, Fig. 12.
Pygurus floreali* Agassi/, and Pcsor, 1847. Cat rais.. p. 141.
Clypeaster floreali* Broun, 1848. Index Pal., p. 312.
Faujatia floreali* dOrhigny, 1853-'«0. PalCont. irauyaiae, vol. 6, p. 319, PI. 930,
Figs. 5, 6.
Faujasia floreali* Desor, 1X5X. Synop. des £chiui<les i'ossiles, p. 318.
Clypca*ter floreali* (iubh, 1859. Synop. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 18.
Ca$*idnlu* floreali* Meek, lXUi. Smith Misc. Coll.. vol. 7 (177), p. 2.
ry gurus floreali* Conrad, ISoX Gcol. of New Jersey, App., p. 722.
Cassidulus floreali* Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 7f>.
Determinative characters. — Test subconoidal in outline, subpentag-
onal, slightly longer iu the an tero posterior diameter than the lateral,
rounded anteriorly, angular posteriorly; apex slightly forward of the
center. Ambulacra narrow; poriferous zones petaloidal on the upj>er
two-thirds of the dorsal surface, lnterambulacra wide, covered with
small jKM'foratcd tubercles. Apical disk small, situated anteriorly.
Mouth opening pentagonal, with well-developed floscelle. Anal opening
supra-marginal, in short, narrow sulcus.
Dimensions. — Length, ljf inches; breadth, 1J inches; height, f inch.
Description. — This species, the earliest of this genus recognized from
American deposits, has a subconoidal test of moderate height, with a
subpentagonal margin. The angularity is more pronounced posteri-
orly than anteriorly, the anterior portion of the margin being dis-
tinctly rounded. The anteroposterior diameter is but slightly greater
clark.] CASSIDULUS FLORE ALIS. 67
than the lateral, while the height is a little more than one-half of the
same. The apex is a short distance in front of the center of the upper
surface, the slope of the anterior face being sharper than the posterior
(PI. xxvni, Fig. If).
The ambulacral areas are narrow. The poriferous zones consist of a
double row of pores that are arranged in petaloidal form on the
upper two thirds of the dorsal surface, and as phylloidal expansions in
the vicinity of the mouth edges (PI. xxvni, Fig. le). In the petaloidal
portion the pores of the inner row are oval, those of the outer elon-
gated, and each pair united by a shallow furrow (PI. xxvni, Fig. If).
Toward the margin the pores are smaller and placed near together
(PL xxvni, Fig. 1<7), wid so continue until near the peristome, when
the poriferous zones suddenly expand. At this point the pores increase
in size and distance from one another. • Between the oral lobes the po-
riferous zones again suddenly contract.
The interambulacral areas are of unequal width; the anterior pair are
the narrowest; the three posterior are of about equal width and nearly
one-half wider than the anterior. The surface of the plates is irregu-
larly covered with numerous small perforated tubercles with sunken
areolas, between which are numerous microscopic granules (PI. xxvm,
Fig, It).
The apical disk is comj)osed of four perforated genital and five small
ocular plates. The fifth genital is apparently obsolete, as it could not
be observed on any of the several very perfect specimens examined.
The large right anterolateral genital plate, the madreporite, extends
across the disk, forming a large portion of the center of that body (PI.
xxvni, Fig. lj).
The mouth opening is large, pentagonal, and slightly nearer the
anterior margin. It is surrounded by five j)rominent lobes, that pro-
ject over the oral opening. Between the lobes the ambulacra are con-
tracted and beyond the same expand to form wide phylloidal areas.
The peculiar, somewhat star-shaped, form thus produced has been
termed JiosceUe by Desor (PL xxvni, Fig. 16).
The anal opening is small, circular, and supra-marginal, and is situated
in a short, narrow sulcus (PL xxvni, Figs. la-Id).
Related forms. — Cassidulus florealis is allied to C. cequoreut, though
the latter is more depressed and more elongated. C. subconicus pre-
sents some points of similarity, but has a more sharply defined pen-
tagonal outline, a differently situated anal opening, and more elongated
pores in the1, outer rows of the petaloidal areas.
locality and geological horizon. — This species is reported from the
lower marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of New Jersey and Delaware.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences,
68 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [buu-OT.
Cassidulus ^ecjuokeus Morton.
Plate XXIX, Figs, la— i.
Cassidnln* irqnorcH* Morton, 1834. Synop. Organ. Remains, Cretaceous, p. 76, PI. 3, Fig.
14.
Ca**idnltt" (iquon us Dcsinoulins, 1*37. £tudt*s sur ]<>m fickinides, p. 146.
Casnidulus tn/uorcu* Agasaiz and DrMjr. 1*47. Cat. rain., p. 141.
Ca*»idu1us MjuorcM* d'Orhigny, 1x17. Prodrome, vol. 2, p. 271.
Cassidulus uyuoreu* Broun. IMS. Index Pal., vol. 1, p. 244.
Cassidulus aquurcus d'Uibigny, lS33-"tiO. Pa loon t. francuitie, vol. 6, p. 329, PI. 026, Fig.
6-12.
Cassidulus trquoreu* Drsor, 1S5K. Synop. den Echinidos fossiles, p. 290.
Cassidulus <i quorum Gab I), 1K"»9. Cat. Invtrrt. Fossils, Crt'taceou*, p. 18.
Cassidulus wqnorcu* Mvek. 1S61. Smith Misc. Coll.. vol. 7 (177), p. 2.
CawidnluH (rquon us Conrad. 1*6*. Geol. of Nrw Jersey. App., p. 722.
Cassidulus (rquoreu* Clark, 1891. John* Hopkins Fniveraity Circulars, No. 87. p. 76.
iMenn inaticv vhanutrrx. — Test subpcntagonal, depressed ; upper sur-
face convex; under surface concave, slightly rostrated posteriorly;
apex forward of the center. Ambulacra narrow ; poriferous zones peta-
loidal on the upper surface: contracted above the margin and expanded
again on the lower surface, much narrowed at the peristome. Inter-
ambulacra wide, covered with small perforated tubercles. Apical disk
small, situated forward of the center. Mouth opening small, with flos-
celle. Anal opening supramarginal, in short sulcus.
Dimension*. — Length, 1J inches; width, 1£ inches; height, | inch.
Description. — This typical Cassidulus, early recognized as such by
Dr. Morton, has a depressed test, sub] pentagon al in outline. It is
longer in the anteroposterior diameter than the lateral. The upper
surface is convex, with sharp marginal edges, while the lower surface
is flat, with a slight concavity toward the center. The apex is some-
what anterior to the center.
The ambulacral areas are narrow. The poriferous zones are unigem
inal, the pores of the upper part of the dorsal surface arranged in peta-
loidal form. At a point varying in the different areas from one-
quarter to one-third of the distance from the margin to the apical disk,
the zones are contracted and continue as narrow bands over the mar-
gin and to the vicinity of the peristome, where they broaden again per-
ceptibly, becoming finally much contracted at the margin of the oral
opening (PI. xxix. Fig. 1<>). The pores are distinct in the petaloidal
I M»ri ion MM. xxix, Fig. 1/) and in the broadened area near the peri-
stome (1M. xxix, l^ig. lr/), but in the intermediate contracted portion
are small and indistinct. The interambulacral areas are broad, and
covered by small perforated tubercles with sunken areolas.
The apical disk is coni]>osed of four perforated genital and five small
ocular plates. As explained under the previous species, the fifth geni-
tal is obsolete (JM. xxix. Fig. 1//).
The mouth opening is pentagonal and surrounded by a well-developed
claml] CASSIDULUS MICROCOCCUS. 69
floscelle. The oral lobes are very prominent and the ambulacral furrows
much contracted (PI. xxix, Fig. It).
The anal opening is situated in a short sulcus on the upper surface
(PL xxix, Fjgs. la-Id).
Related forms. — This species is separated from the preceding, with
which it has much in common, by its more depressed and elongated
form. From C. micrococcus it is separated by its sharper apex, more
angular margin, the position of the anal opening, and the shorter pore
openings in the outer rows.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is reported from the
Ripley group (upper Cretaceous) of Alabama. No more definite state-
ment as to the locality is given.
Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
Cassidulus micrococcus Gabb.
Plate xxx, Figs. la-t.
Cassidulus micrococcus Oabb, 1860. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc, p. 519.
Cassidulus micrococcus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative characters. —Test oval, rounded anteriorly, slightly ros-
trated posteriorly; upper surface convex, flattened at the apex; sides
equally declining. Ambulacra moderately broad; poriferous cones
petaloidnl on dorsal surface; outer row of pores slit-like in petaloidal
portion. Mouth opening small, pentagonal, with floscelle. Anal open-
ing oval, situated high on upper surface, in long, narrow sulcus.
Dimensions. — Length, If inches; width, 1£ inches; height, £ inch.
Description. — This species has a distinctly oval form, wider posteri-
orly. The upper surface is elevated at the margin, but somewhat flat-
tened at the apex. The sides decline very nearly equally. The base
is flattened, with a slight concavity at the mouth edges. The posterior
margin is truncated and slightly rostrated.
The ambulacral areas are rather broad, contracted about one-quarter
of the distance from the ambitus to the apex, and narrowed nearly to the
peristome, where they are again broadened to form indistinct phylloidal
areas (PI. xxx, Figs. 1/, 1<7). The pores are slit like in the outer rows
of the petaloidal portion (PL xxx, Fig. 1/).
The interambulacral plates are covered with minute tubercles, with
sunken areolas, that increase in size and number on the base (PL xxx,
Fig. It).
The apical disk is situated slightly in front of the center of the
upper surface. The right anterior genital plate, which is modi tied to
form the inadreporite, is very large. The posterior genital is not de-
veloped, or if present the suture is obscured (PL xxx, Fig. 1/*).
The anal operfing is oval, situated high upon the upper surface, in a
long, narrow, and deep sulcus (PL xxx, Figs, la, Id).
Belated forms. — A comparison of this species with Cassidulus ccquo-
70 MESOZOIC ECHTNODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bcllW.
reus, as made also by Gabb in his original description, shows tbat the
present form is much larger and more oval, and that the anal opening is*
m
situated higher and in a deeper and louger sulcus, and, furthermore,
that the i>ores of the outer row in the petaloidal portion are elongated
and slit-like.
I/ocality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Ripley group
(upper Cretaceous) of Enfaula, Alabama.
f Collection. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
Cassimtlus subqttadratus Conrad.
Plate xxxi, Figs. 1 a-h.
Cassiduhts suhquadratu* Conrad, 1860. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jonr., 2d sot..
vol. 4, p. 291. PI. 47, Fiff. 19.
Cassidulus subquadratu* Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circular*, No. 87,
p. 76.
Determinative characters. — Test subquadrate to subpentagonal. hemi-
spherical; sides equally declining, upper surface convex; lower surface
concave; posterior margin truncated and rostrated. Poriferous zones
broadly petaloidal on upper two-thirds of the dorsal surface; sharply
contracted at lower margin of petaloidal areas. Mouth opening small
pentagonal, with well defined lioscelle. Apical disk large, slightly
anterior to the center. Anal opening round, in deep sulcus.
Dimensions. — Length, 2J inches; width, 2 inches; height, 1 inch.
Description. — This remarkably symmetrical Cassidulus has a nearly
hemispherical form. In outline it is nearer subpentagonal than suh-
quadrate, due to the rostrated character of the posterior margin, which
is at the same time truncated. The anterior margin is rounded. The
lateral edges are nearly parallel, though somewhat more approximated
anteriorly. The apex is slightly forward of the center.
The amhulacral areas are moderately wide in the petaloidal portion,
narrow beyond. The poriferous zones are composed in the petaloidal
portion of an inner row of small, nearly circular pores and of an outer
row of oblique slit like openings. The pores of each pair are united by
a shallow furrow (PI. xxxi. Fig. 1/). Keyond the petaloidal areas the
narrow plates of those portions give place to broad plates, each with a
pair of small, round pores in the lower and outer corner (PL xxxi, Fig.
1c). In the vicinity of the peristome the poriferous zones expand and
the pores increase in size, though apparently reduced in number (PI.
xxxt, Fig. lg). The last pair of plates are much contracted.
The intcrambulacral areas are wide. The plates are covered with
miuutc tubercles with depressed areolas, which become larger and more
prominent on the lower surface.
The apical disk is large, composed of four perforated genital and five
ocular plates. The tilth genital is apparently obsolete (PL xxxi,
Fig. 1*).
claml] CASSIDULUS SUBCONICUS. 71
The month opening is small, pentagonal, and surrounded by a well-
developed floscelle. The anal opening is round and situated high
above the margin, in a deep sulcus, that becomes narrower and shal-
lower toward the ambitus.
Related forms. — This species is most closely related to Cassidulus
subconicus, but the latter is much more elevated, while the anal opening
is situated higher and in a less depressed sulcus than in G. snbqnadratus.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is from the Ripley forma-
tion (upper Cretaceous) of Mississippi. The specimen described is from
Holly Springs, and was collected by Mr. W. J. McGee.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
Cassidulus subcontous Clark.
Plate xxxii, Figs. la-Jc.
Cassidulus snlconicus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circnlars, No. 87, p.,76.
Determinative characters. — Test subconical; margin subpentagonal,
truncated and rostrated posteriorly ; apex anteriorly placed. Ambu-
lacraabroad in petaloidal portion, narrow "beyond; poriferous zones
unigeminal, pores with slit-like opeuiugs in outer row of petaloidal
areas. Apical disk large, anteriorly situated. Mouth opening subcir-
cular, with very prominent floscelle. Anal opening large, situated high
on upper surface in shallow sulcus.
Dimension*. — Length, 1J inches; width, 1£ inches; height, 1J inches.
Description. — The outline of this form is so similar to the one preced-
ing that there was some hesitation, at first, in establishing it as an inde-
pendent species. More careful examination of numerous specimens of
each species has proved the constant occurrence of the individual differ-
ences. Cassidulus subconicus is} as its name signifies, subconical. In
margiual outline it is subpentagonal, the posterior border more or less
rostrated and clearly truncated. The apex is slightly forward of the
center, giving a somewhat sharper slope to the anterior portion of the
test than to the posterior.
The ambulacra] areas are broad in the petaloidal portion, beyond
which they are narrowed. At the margin they again acquire consid-
erable width, but gradually contract beyond, although expanded for a
short distance in the phylloidal area near the mouth opening (PI. xxxii,
Fig. le). At the peristome the final pair of plates is highly attenuated
(PL xxxit, Fig. 1</). The pores of the outer rows, in both the petaloidal
and phylloidal areas, are in a marked degree elongated. In the inter-
mediate portion of the column they are small and indistinct.
The interambulacral areas are more prominent than the ambulacral,
which are slightly depressed. The surface is covered with minute
tubercles and a microscopic granulation (PI. xxxii, Fig. It).
The apical disk is large, and composed of four perforated genital
72 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OP THE UNITED STATES. [hhll.97.
plates and five ocular plates. The fifth genital is apparently obsolete
(PL xxxn, Fig. lfc).
The mouth opening is large, subcircular, and surrounded by a very
prominent floscclle'(Pl. xxxu, Fig. lh). The anal opening is large,
circular, and is situated high above the margin in a shallow sulcus.
Related forms. — Cassidulus subconicus is closely related to C. sub-
quadratus, but is separated from it by its high subcorneal test, more
elevated anal opening, and shallow anal sulcus.
Locality and geological horizon. — Like the preceding species, Cassidu-
lus subconicus is from the Ripley group (upper Cretaceous) of Missis-
sippi.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
Cassidulus porrecttjs Clark.
Plate xxxiii, Figs, lo-J>; Plate xxxiv, Figs, la-6; Plate xxxv,
Figs. la-d.
CattiduJus porrectus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative characters. — Test very large, subcircular, o*al, de-
pressed; upi>er surface convex; lower surface concave; broader pos-
teriorly than anteriorly; apex forward of the center. Ambulacra broad.
Interambulacra thickly covered with minute tubercles. Apical disk
small, forward of the center. Mouth opening large, subcorneal, with
prominent iioscelle. Anal opening supra-marginal, in short shallow
sulcus.
Dimensions. — Length, 4 inches; width, 4 inches; height, 2 inches.
Description. — This very large Cassidulus, with one exception the
largest Echinoid in the American Mesozoic, has an irregularly oval,
depressed test, that is subcircular in marginal outline. The breadth is
equal to the length, but is greatest in the posterior portion, so that the
margin appears contracted anteriorly. The apex is some distance for-
ward of the center and slightly flattened. The posterior margin is
feebly truncated.
The ambulacral areas are wide; the contractions below thepetaloidal
region and above the phylloidal continue for short distances, while the
lowest pair of plates in the column bordering the mouth opening are
long and greatly attenuated (PL xxxv, Fig. la). The pores of the
outer rows are slit-like in form and obliquely placed (PL xxxv, Figs.
lft, lc).
The iuterambulacral areas are prominent; the plates are covered with
numerous small tubercles, with depressed arcolas, which are larger and
more prominent on the under than the upper surface (PL xxxiii. Fig.
Id). The apical disk is small and is placed forward of the center.
The mouth opening is large, subcircular, with very prominent Iios-
celle. The oral lobes project far beyond the level of the base and are
separated by deep ambulacral furrows ^Pl. xxxiv, Fig. la).
*.l CASSIDULUS STANTONI. 73
jie anal opening is large, oval, and is situated at the head of a
.ort, narrow sulcus (PI. xxxiii, Figs, la, 1ft).
Related forms. — Cassidulus porrectus is from its size, form, and de-
tails of structure readily separated from the other species of Oassidulus
described from the American and European Mesozoic.
Locality and geological horizon. — Cassidulus porrectus is from the
Ripley group (upper Cretaceous), of Euf'aula, Alabama. In the pre-
liminary report, published in the Johns Hopkins Circulars, the writer
incorrectly cites Mississippi as the locality.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
Oassidulus Stantoni Clark.
Plate xxxv, Figs. 2a-d.
Cassidulus Stantoni Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 76.
Determinative characters. — Test small, subovate, elevated; upper
surface convex, lower surface concave; apex forward of the center.
Ambulacra very narrow. Apical disk small, forward of the center.
Mouth opening small, with floscelle. Anal opening high above mar-
gin, in long, narrow, and deep sulcus.
Dimensions. — Length, £ inch; width, \ inch; height, \ inch.
Description. — This minute Cassidulus has a subovate test, an elevated,
convex upper surface and a concave lower surface. It is broader pos-
teriorly than anteriorly, and the posterior margin is truncated. The
apex is situated slightly anterior to the center of the upper surface
(PI. xxxv, Fig. IJrt).
The ambulacral areas are very narrow. The petaloidal portion but
slightly exceeds the remainder in width, which is nearly equal through-
out. The phylloidal region is feebly outlined.
The interambulacral areas are broad, but the poor state of preserva-
tion of the specimens renders it impossible to determine all the details
of structure.
The apical disk is small and forward of the center, but not sufficiently
well preserved to distinguish the individual plates. The mouth open-
ing is small and surrounded by a feeble floscelle. The anal opening is
round and situated high above the margin, at the head of a narrow,
deep sulcus (PI. xxxv, Figs. 2a, 2d).
Related forms. — Cassidulus Stantoni is quite unlike any other repre-
sentative of this genus from American strata, and can not be readily
associated with any European species.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Colorado
group (upper Cretaceous). of Muddy creek, Huerfano county, Colorado.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
74 MESOZOIC ECIIINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [buluW.
IIOLASTEKIIME.
Test ovate or cordate. Ambulacra narrow ; poriferous zones narrow,
pores uuigeminal. Apical disk elongated, at times so much that the
three anterior ambulacra are widely separated from the two posterior.
Mouth opening execntric, anteriorly situated. Anal opening infra-
marginal or marginal.
ANANCHYTES Mercati.
Ananciiytes ovalis Clark.
Plate xxxvi, Fig. lrt-/i.
Determinative characters. — Test subovate cordate; contracted pos-
teriorly; upper surface convex; lower surface flat. Apical disk elon-
gated, consisting of four perforated genital and five ocular plates
situated sliglitly forward of the center. Mouth opening near the an-
terior margin. Anal opening oval, situated on a slight protuberance
of the posterior margin.
Dimensions. — Length, 1J inches; width, 1£ inches; height, 1 J inches.
Description. — The two specimens of this species collected by the
writer are remarkably well preserved and admit of the determination
of all the essential features. The test is in lateral outline subovate,
though somewhat cordate in form when viewed from al>ove or below.
A marked protuberance (PI. xxxvi, Fig. 1e) is present on the posterior
margin that appears as a slight ridge on the lower surface between
the mouth and anal openings. The upper surface is convex. The sides
are full and rounded at the ambitus. The base is nearly flat, with the
exception of the slight ridge and depressed mouth edges.
The ambulacral areas are wide arid straight, attaining their greatest-
width just above the ambitus. The i>ores are oval, and those of each
pair are placed at an angle to one another (PI. xxxvi, Fig. 1^). The
surface of both the ambulacral and intcrambulacral plates is covered
by small tubercles, between which are numerous microscopic granules.
The apical disk is elongated (PL xxxvi, Fig. 1/). The four genital
plates are large and distinctly perforated. The anterior, right-hand
genital plate, which serves as the madreporite, is much larger than any
of the others, being several times the size of the anterior left-hand
genital, with which it is in contact. The posterior genitals are very
nearly of equal size.
The mouth opening is transversely oblong and situated near the an-
terior margin. The anal opening is oval and situated on a marked
protuberance on the posterior margin.
Related forms. — The present species is the only representative of the
genus recognized from American deposits. It is more ovate and less
elevated than the forms described from European strata.
clark.1 CABDIASTER CINCTU8. 75
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the yellow lime-
stone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Vincentowii, New
Jersey.
Collection. — Johns Hopkins University.
CAEDIASTER Forbes.
Cardtaster cinctus Morton.
Plate xxxvn, Figs. la-k.
Spatangus sp. Morton, 1829. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser., vol. 6, p. 122.
Ananchytes sp. Morton, 1830. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st ser., vol. 17, p. 287.
Ananchytes cinctus Morton, 1830. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser., vol. 6,
p. 200.
Ananchytes fimbriates Morton, 1830. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser., vol.
6, p. 200. . •
Ananchytes cinctus Morton, 1830. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st ser., vol. 18, p. 246, PI. 3, Fig. 7.
Ananchytes fimbriates Morton, 1830. Am. Jonr. Sci., 1st ser., vol. 18, p. 245, PI. 3,
Fig. 9.
Ananchytes cinctus Morton, 1834. Synop. Organ. Remaios, Cretaceous, p. 78, PI. 3,
Fig. 19.
Ananchytes fimbriatus Morton, 1834. Synop. Organ. Remains, Cretaceous, pp. 77, 79,
PI. 3, Fig. 20.
Holaster cinctus Agassi z and Desor, 1840. Cat. Syst., p. 1.
Holaster cinctus Agassiz and Desor, 1847. Cat. rais., p. 133.
Hoi aster fimbriatus Agassiz. 1847. Cat. rais., p. 141.
Holaster cinctus d'Orbiguy, 1847. Prodrome, vol. 2, p. 2G9.
Holaster fimbriates d'Orbiguy, 1847. Prodrome, vol. 2, p. 269.
Holaster cinctus Bronn, 18-18. Index Pal., vol. 1, p. 593.
Ananchytes fimbriates Bronn, 1848. Index Pal., vol. 1, p. 70.
Cardtaster ductus d'Orbiguy, 1853-'60. Patfont. francaise, vol. 6, p. 147 ; PI. 905. Fig. 4.
Cardiaster fimbriatus d'Orbigny, 1853-'60. Paleont. franyaise, vol. 6, p. 147; PI. 905,
Fig. 3.
Cardiaster cinctus (Cardiaster fimbriatus) Desor, 1858. Synop. des Ulchinides fossiles,
p. 346.
Ananchytes cinctus Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 18.
Ananchytes fimbriatus Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 18.
Holaster cinctus Credner, 1870. Zeitschr. d. dentsch. geol. Gesells. xxii, p. 218.
Holaster ductus Clark, 1H91. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test "cordate, distinctly grooved anteri-
orly; contracted posteriorly; npper surface convex; lower surface flat.
Ambulacra wide. Apical disk much elongated, consisting of four per-
forated genital and live ovular plates situated slightly forward of the
center. Mouth opening near the anterior margin. Anal opening oval,
situated on the truncated posterior margin.
Dimensions. — Length, 2 inches; width, 2 inches; height, 1£ inches.
Description. — This species, which is among the earliest of the Echinoid
forms recognized from American Cretaceous strata, is distinctly cordi-
form, with a pronounced groove on the anterior face that is occupied
by the unpaired ambulacrum. Opposite thereto is a slight ridge at the
central suture of the unpaired posterior interambulacrum that is sud-
76 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [««ix.W.
deuly terminated by the nearly vertically truncated surface of the
posterior margin. The sides decline equally to the ambitus, giving an
oval outline to the vertical lateral section. The lower surface is nearly
flat, with the exception of the slight depressions directly at the mouth
edges and the elevated area extending from the center of the base to
the iiosteiior margin.
The ambulacra! areas are wide, apctaloid, and separated at the apex.
The anterolateral pair are bent backward "in their upper part, beyond
which they extend straight to the margin. The postero lateral pair
are bent somewhat forward, after which they extend straight over the
margin. The single ambulacrum is situated in the deep anterior sulcus.
The pores of the paired ambulacra consist, in the upper portion of the
columns, of oblique oval openings united by furrows (PI. xxxvn, Fig.
If), while lower down they become small and often indistinct (1*1.
xxxvn, Fig. If). In the unpaired ambulacrum the pores are extremely
small.
The surface of theintcrambulacral as well as of the ambulacral plates
is covered with fine granules, among which are irregularly scattered
numerous small perforated tubercles.
The apical disk is narrow, elongated. The four perforated genital
plates are disposed in pairs, between which two of the five ocular plates
are situated. Forming the posterior portion of the disk are two more
ocular plates, while the fifth plate comprises the anterior part. The
ambulacral areas are on this account separated at their apices (PL
xxxvn, Fig. Ik).
The mouth opening is transversely oblong and is situated near the
anterior margin of the base. The anal opening is oval and situated on
the truncated surface at the posterior margin of the test (PL xxxvii,
Fig. lv).
Related form ft. — This species is separated from /Master simplex, the
only other closely related form found in American Mesozoie dej>osits
by its deep anterior sulcus and less inflated upper surface.
Locality and geological horizon. — Cqnliaxter cinctus is from the yellow
limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber creek,
New Jersey.
Collections. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; American
Museum of Natural History, New York.
1 10 LAST KK Agassiz.
Holaster simplex Shumard.
Plates xxxvin. Figs, la-g; xxxix, Figs. la-d.
ITolaster simplex Shumard, 1853. Kepi. Kxpl. Ri-il Kivor of Louifdaua in 1852, p 210.
PI. 3. Fig. 2.
Holanter comanchesi Marcou, 1858. <leol. of North Amorica, p. 40, PL 3, Fig. 3.
JJolatter rimplrjc ltagor, 1858. Syiiop. ilea firhinidwi fossileH, p. 450.
Holaeter comanchrtti lksor, 1858. Syiiop. deB ftrhinidm fossilw, p. 448.
clark.] HOL ASTER SIMPLEX. 77
Holaster simplex Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Holaster comanchesi Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Holaster simplex Meek, 1864. Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 7, (177), p. 3.
Holaster comanchesi Moek, 1864. Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 3.
Holaster simplex Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test oblong, cordiform; upper surface
much elevated, rounded, and grooved on the anterior face; lower sur-
face flat; apex nearly central. Ambulacra wide; pores unigeminal,
with slit-like openings" in upper portion of the column that become in-
distinct toward the margin and upon the base. Apical disk compact
and not greatly elongated. Mouth opening transversely oval, situated
near the anterior margin. Anal opening large, on truncated posterior
margin.
Dimensions. — Length, 2£ inches; width, 2£ inches; height, 2 inches.
Description. — After the most careful examination of a large nijmber
of specimens the writer has been uuable to find any constant characters
that would warrant the separation of the forms described as Holaster
simplex and Holaster comanchesi. They are accordingly included under
the same species. The test is oblong, cordiform, much elevated,
rounded above and flattened below. A shallow groove occupies the
anterior face of the test, producing a feeble emargination of the an-
terior ambitus. A slight ridge extends along the line of the central
suture of the single interambulacrum, which is suddenly terminated by
the truncated face of the posterior margin.
The ambulacral areas are wide. The poriferous zones of the paired
ambulacra are in the case of the posterior pair bent more or less for-
ward in their upper portions, and in the case of the anterior slightly
backward. The pores of the paired ambulacra have elongated oi>en-
ings in the upper portion (PI. xxxvni, Fig. Id) and become very small
and indistinct below (PI. xxxvni, Fig. le). The pores of the unpaired
ambulacrum are exceedingly small.
The surface of both iuteratnbulacral and ambulacral plates are cov-
ered by small tubercles, between which are numerous microscopic
granules (PI. xxxlx, Figs, lc, Id).
The apical disk is compact and rather short. The four genital plates
are large and broad. The two interposed oculars are large; the re-
maining three very small (PI. xxxvm, Fig. 1/).
The mouth openiug is large, transversely oblong, and situated near
the anterior margin (PI. xxxvm, Fig. lb). The anal opening is oval,
acuminate above, and situated on the truncated posterior border (PI.
xxxix, Fig. l/>).
Related forms. — Holaster simplex is separated from Cardiaster cinctm
by its more elevated upper surface and shallow anterior sulcus. It is
very like Holaster lavis, var. planus, from the European Cretaceous, but
is more elevated and distinctly broader posteriorly.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Washita
formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of Texas. It is
78 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. Ibull.97.
found in Bell and Bexar counties, and near Fort Worth ; also at Pres-
ton, Grayson county, on the Bed river and at Austin. It is also
found near Fort Washita, Indian Territory.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
SPATANGID^E.
Test bilaterally symmetrical, generally cordiforni. Ambulacra un-
equal and petaloidal. Apical disk compact. Mouth opening transversely
bilabiate or pentagonal, situated anteriorly. Anal opening posteriorly
situated and supra-marginal. Spines of different sizes.
ENALLASTEB D'Orbigny.
Enallasteb texanus (Roeiner).
Plate xxxix, Figs. 2a-g.
ToxasUr texanus Roomer, 1849. Texas, etc., p. 393.
Toxaster texanus Roetner, 1852. Die Kreidobildungen von Texas, p. 85, PI. 10, Fig. 3.
Toxaster ungula Giebel, 1853. Jahresber. ties natnrvr. Vcroiiis in Halle, p. 373.
Enallaster texasus d'Orbigny, 1853-60. Paleont. franyaUe, voL 6, p. 1S4, PL 850,
Fig. 1-7.
Toxaster texanus Conrad, 1857. U. S. and Mex. Bound. Surv. Rcpt., vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 145,
PL 1, Fig. 2a-2c.
Enallaster texanus Desor, 1858. Synop. des Echini des fossiles, p. 358.
Toxaster texanus Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fosails, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Toxaster texanus Meek, 1864. Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 3.
Eh alia iter texanus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test oblong, tordiforin, broad in anterior
portion, contracted and truueated posteriorly, with deep anterior
groove; upper surface convex, elevated; base flat, depressed at the
mouth opening; sides rounded; apex excentric and posterior. Ambu-
lacra narrow and unequal, the ]>ostero lateral pair much shorter than the
others. Apical disk small and compact. Anal opening situated high
above the margin.
Dimensions. — Length, 1$ inches; width, 1J inches; height, J inch.
Description. — The exact limitations of this species have in most of
the earlier publications been very imperfectly designated. Other
forms, even one of a different genus, have been included. The test
is oblong cordiform, and elevated. The upper surface is convex, with
a well-defined anterior groove, narrow and slightly depressed at its
head. On the posterior face the surface is truncated to the margin.
The sides are rounded and inflated. The base is flat, except for the
peristomial depression near the- anterior margin and the central ele-
vated region extending from the same to the posterior border.
The ambulacral areas are narrow and very unequal. The antero-
lateral pair are large and curved backwards in their upper portions.
The pores are very unequal; those of the auterior zone are small and
near together, those of the posterior elongated, the external nearly
clabk.) ENALLASTER TEXANUS. 79
twice as large as the internal series (PL xxxix, Fig. 2c). There are
about 35 pairs of pores in the petaloidal portion of each poriferous
zone.
The posterolateral pairs are short and quite symmetrical in structure.
There are 16 pairs of pores in the petaloidal portions of each poriferous
zone.
The anterior unpaired ambulacrum is situated in the anterior groove,
and is wider than the other areas. An elongated pore appears in the
external rows on alternate plates. On the intervening plates the
small rows are closely approximated (PL xxxix, Pig. 2/). In the lower
portion of each column the plates are large and oblong. A pair of minute
pores occupy the lower outer corner of each.
The surface of the test is covered with a minute granulation, scat-
tered among which are numerous small tubercles.
The apical disk is small and compact, and the four large genital
plates are distinctly perforated. The right anterolateral plate occupies
the center of the body. The five small oculars are wedged in between
the genitals (PL xxxix, Fig. 2g).
The mouth opening is transversely oblong and situated in a depres-
sion.
The anal opening is situated high upon the truncated posterior
margin, and is small and oval, acuminate below (PL xxxix, Fig. 2d).
Related forms. — It seems not improbable that Spatangus columbianum,
described by Lea in 1840, from the United States of Colombia, may
prove to be identical, or at least very closely related to the Texan
form. The indistinct figure shows a different arrangement of the pores
in the anterolateral ambulacra, but it is doubtful whether it can be de-
pended upon for such details of structure. It seems unwise, however,
to replace the term texanus when any doubt upon this point still remains.
Enallaster peruvianas, described by Gabb in 1876, from material ob-
tained from Peru, seems to be identical.
Among the European Enallasters none apparently are closely related
to Enallaster texanus.
Locality and geological horizon. — Enallaster texanus is found widely
in Texas in the Fredericksburg formation of the Comanche series
(lower Cretaceous). It is characteristic of the Comanche peak horizon.
Collections. — U. S. National Museum; Texas Geological Survey; Bos-
ton Society of Natural History; Prof. Kobt. T. Hill.
ENALLASTER OBUQUATUS Clark.
Plate xl, Figs.Ao-L
Determinative characters. — Test oval, cordiform; upper surface con-
vex, flattened and depressed anteriorly, elevated posteriorly; lower
surface flat, with peristomial depression; apex forward of the center.
Ambulacra narrow, unequal. Surface of the plates covered with small
80 MESOZOir ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bill. 97.
tuberelcs and intervening inieroseopie granulation. Apical disk com-
pact. Mouth opening transversely siibpentagonal. Anal opening situ-
ated on truncated posterior margin.
Description. — This species lias a broad eordiform test, that is flattened
and slanting on the anterior upper surface, whence the name obliquatw.
The anterior groove is deep, wider at its head, and cuts broadly into
the anterior margin. The posterior portion of the test is elevated near
the apex and obliquely truncated toward the margin. The sides are
sloping anteriorly, fuller posteriorly. The base is flat with a deep
peris tomial depression.
The ambulacral areas are narrow and unequal. The anterolateral
pair are slightly depressed and curved backwards in the upper portion.
The i>orcs are unequal, those of the anterior zone small and near
together, those of the posterior elongated, the exterior much more so
than the anterior series (PI. XL, Fig. 1/). There are about forty pairs
of pores in each zone.
The posterolateral pair are short and slightly depressed. The
pores are more nearly equal and about twenty-four pairs are found in
each zone. The single ambulacrum is placed iu the anterior groove
and is much wider than the paired ambulaera. The pores of the
different plates vary in size and position (PL XL, Fig. le). The plates
in the lower portions of the areas are large and oblong in form.
The surface of the test is covered with minute tubercles between
which is a microscopic granulation. The apical disk is small and com-
pact (PL XL, Fig. It).
The mouth opening is transversely subpentagonal (PL XL, Fig. lh).
The anal opening is oval and situated high on the truncated posterior
margin (PL XL, Fig. 1//).
Related forma. — Enallaster obliquatm is separated from E. texanus,
the only other representative of this genus from the Crefcieeous deposits
of the United States, by its broader more depressed form, more sunken
anterior sulcus, and the lower position of the anal opening. It is closely
related to E. mejicanutt, described by Cotteau, in 1890, from material
obtained from Mexico.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Fredericks-
burg formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of Texas.
It is characteristic of the alternating or Glen Rose beds of Austin and
Glen Rose.
Collection*. — U. S. National Museum; Texas Geological Survey.
■
El'IASTEtt IVOrbigny.
EriASTEE T3LEGANS (Shumard).
Plate xli, Figs. \a-b; Plate xlii, Figs, la-b; Plate xliii, Figs. la-f.
UemiaHter elegant Shumard, 1853. Kept. Expl. Red River of Louisiana in 1862, p. 210,
PI. 2, FiffH. 4<^4o.
Tvxattvr clegaua Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils Cretaceous, p. X9.
ouml] EPIABTER ELEGANS. 81
Tviailfr f>egn«> Meek, 18B4. Smith. Slisc. Coll., vol.7 (ITT), p. 8.
Macraiter tezann* Knemer, 1888. Neues Jahrbuch filr Min., Geo!., u. Pal., Bd. I, pp.
191-195, PI 6, Figs. 1-4.
Epiasltr iltganl Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative character*. — Test large, oblong, cordiform, flattened
both above and below; sides rounded, with a shallow anterior groove
and truncated posterior margin. Ambulacra subpetaloidal, depressed ;
poriferous zones straight, pores with elongated, slit-like openings.
Apical disk small, compact. Mouth opening transversely oval, situated
near the anterior margin. Anal opening oval, situated on the truncated
posterior margin.
Dimensions. — Length, 4 inches; width, 33 inches; height, 2 inches.
.Description. — lioemer in 1888 established a new genus and species
(Macraster texanus) for a form that is identical with Remiaitter elegant
described by Shumard in 1853. The species properly belongs to the
genus Epia»ter. Tbere does not seem to be a sufficiently wide differ-
ence between the characters assigned to Maeratter and those properly
belonging to Epiatter to warrant the acceptance of the former genus
for the present species.
The test is very large and flattened on both the upper and lower sur-
faces. The sides are round. The groove ou the anterior face is shallow
and cuts the margin lightly. The posterior face is obliquely but not
broadly truncated.
The ambulacral areas are nearly equal, depressed, with a distinct
furrow on the upper surface (PI. XLI, Fig. la). The poriferous zones
are long, wide, and straight, and the pores consist of slit-like openings
(PI. XLUI, Figs. 1ft, lc). The zones are subpetaloidal on the upper sur-
face, reaching qnite to the upper margin of the rounded sides. The
unpaired ambulacrum is narrower than tho others; the pores are smaller
and more closely approximated.
The surface of both areas is covered with minute tubercles, between
which are microscopic granules (PI. xr.ui, Fig. Id).
The apical disk is small, compact, and consists of four large perfo-
rated genital plates and five small oculars (PL XLIII, Fig. le).
The mouth opening is transversely oval and situated near the anterior
margin (PL xlii, Fig. 1«).
The aim) opening is large, oval, and situated ou the truncated face of
the [wsterior margin (PL xlii, Fig. 16).
Related farms. — Kpiaster elegant is most nearly related to E. Whitei,
the single other American representative of this genus, but is separated
from it by its great size, its excessively long subpetaloidal areas, and
the position of the anal opening, which isjon an obliquely truncated sur-
face that opens downward, while on E. Whitei it is situated on a vertical
face that opens upwards.
Locality and geological horizon. — Epiatter elegant is from the Washita
formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of Texas. It is
Bull. 97 6
82 MEftOZOIC ECHINOPERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bcll.*.
characteristic of tbo Fort Worth limestone, and is fonnd at numerous
localities between Den i son and El Paso.
Collections. — U. S. National Museum; Johns Hopkins University;
Boston Society of Natural History; Texas Geological Survey j Prof.
Robt. T. Hill.
Epiastee Whitei Clark.
Plate xliii, Figs. 2a-d; Plate xliv, Figs. la-g.
Toratter ehgana Conrad, 1X.77. U. S. and Mox. Bound. Surv. Kepi., vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 146,
PI. 21 , Fitf. la-f.'
Epiatter Whitei Clark, 181M. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test small, cordiform; upper surface con-
vex, elevated ; lower surface flat? sides inflated; apex forward of the
center. Ambulacra moderately broad; poriferous zones petaloidal,
pores with elongated openings; a ntero- lateral pair bent slightly back-
ward in upper part. Apical disk oval. Mouth opening transversely
oval. Anal opening small, oval, situated high on i>o8terior border.
Dimensions. — Length, \h inches; width, 1% inches; height, J inch.
Description. — This species has been frequently confounded with
EnaUaster iexanus and Epiaster elcgans. With the former it has little
in common beyond a certain similarity in outward form, while the points
of difference from the latter are less striking and will be shortly stated.
The test is small and cordiform. The upper surface is distinctly
elevated, the apex occupying a point anterior to the center. The lower
surface is flat with the exception of the peristomial depression. The
sides are inflated with a well marked groove at the center of the an-
terior face and a prominent truncated surface on the posterior margin.
The ambulacra! areas are moderately broad. The poriferous zones
are suhpeialoidal in their upper part, but this feature does not continue
to the margin (PI. xllii, Fig. LV). The pores in the paired ambulacra
are all of about equal size and equally spaced. In the unpaired ambu-
lacrum they are smaller and nearer together. The anterolateral pair
are bent slightly backward in their upper part. They are distinctly
larger than the posterolaterals.
The interainbulacral areas are prominent and the surface of the plates
covered with minute tubercles and microscopic granules (PL XLIV,
Fig. 1c).
The apical disk is small, compact, and consists of four large perforated
genital plates and fivo oculars.
The mouth opening is transversely subpentagonal and situated near
the anterior margin (PI. xliv. Figs. \b9 If).
The anal opening is small, oval, ami situated high on the truncated
posterior margin (PI. xi.nr, Fig. L7>).
Related forms. — In many particulars Epiastcr Whitei is to be closely
associated with E. vleiptn*. It is, however, more elevated, the anibu-
1 Figurril untliT the minu> of Holntter elegant.
run*.] HEMIASTER PARASTATU8. 83
lacral furrows are shorter, and the anal opening is differently situated
as previously mentioned in the description of the latter sj>ecies.
locality and geological horizon. — Epiastcr Whitei is from the Washita
formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of Texas. Jt is
found in the Duck creek chalk of Denison, associated with Hamites
Frcmontii Marcou.
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
JlEMIASTER PAItASTATUS (Morton).
Plato xlv, Figs. lo-m.
Spatangu* *p. Morton, 1830. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st B«r., vol. 17, p. 286.
Spa tan (jus cor-marinum ( f ) Morton, 1830. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st Her., vol. 18, p. 250, PI.
3, Fig. 10.
SpatangN8 cor-marinum ( f ) Morton, 1830. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., 1st ser.,
vol. 6, p. 199.
Spatangtw par as talus Morton, 1833. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st Her., vol. 23. p. 294.
Spafangm para* tat u* Morton, 1834. Synopsis Organ. Remaius, Cretaceous, p. 77, PI.
3, Fig. 21.
Hemiaster parastatus Agasaiz and Desor, 1847. Cat. rain., p. 141.
Hemiaster parastatus d'Orbigny, 1847. Prodrome, vol. 2, p. 270.
Spatangus parastatus Rronn, 1848. Index Pal. vol. 1, p. 1160.
Hemiaster parastatus d'Orbigny, 1853-'56, Pal6ont. francaise, vol. 6, p. 265, PI. 894,
Fijr. 4.
Hemiaster par as tat us Desor, 1858. Synop. des £chinides fossiles, p. 373.
Hot aster par astat us Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Hemiaster ( t) parastatus Meek, 1864. Smith. MiRC. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 3.
Hemiaster parastatm Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test cordiforin, inflated; upper surface
elevated, with deep groove on anterior surface and sharp ridge pos-
teriorly that is terminated by the flat, nearly vertical, truncated face
of the posterior margin. Ambulacra! petals depressed, the anterior
pair twice as long as the posterior. Apical disk small, compact.
Mouth opening with distinct, overhanging lip. Anal opening small,
situated high on truncated surface.
Dimensions. — Length, 1J inches; width, 1 \ inches; height, 1 J inches.
Description. — This interesting and rather common form has a high,
cordiforin test, with deep anterior sulcus and high posterior ridge on
the upper surface, the latter terminated by the high and nearly verti-
cally truncated face of the i>osterior margin. The sides are rounded
and inflated. The base is flat, with the exception of the peristomial
depression.
The. ambulacra! areas are very unlike. The poriferous zones are
distinctly petaloidal (PL xlv, Fig. le). The petals of the postero-
lateral pair are short and broad. Those of the anterolateral pair are
bent backward at their center, depressed, and about twice the length
of the posterolateral pair. The pores are slightly elongated (PL xlv,
Fig. \h). The unpaired ambulacrum is very broad, the poriferous
84 MESOZOIC ECHIXODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bull. 97.
zones far apart, and the pores small and approximated (PI. xlv, Fig. If).
The surface is covered with small tubercles, between which are nu-
merous microscopic granules (PI. xlv, Figs. If \g, li, 1/, and lwt).
The apical disk is small and situated posteriorly to the center of the
upper surface. The four genital plates are distinctly perforated and
separated by the five small oculars (PI. xlv, Fig. In).
The mouth opening is transversely arched and bilabiate. The lower
lip projects prominently. The anal opening is small and situated high
on the truncated surfjwe of the posterior margin. The peripetalous
fascioleis broad and distinct (PI. xlv, Figs. If, It).
Related forms. — 1/emiaster parastatns is most closely related to H.
ungula, from which, however, it is separated by its deeper and broader
anterior sulcus, more posterior position of the apical disk, and more
inflated sides. It is apparently distinct from any of the many species
described from Kuropean deposits.
Locality and geological horizon. — //. parastatm is from the yellowfliine-
stone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber creek,
New Jersey, and also from the Ripley group (upper Cretaceous) of
Alabama.
Collection*. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; American
Museum of Natural History, New York ; Johns Hopkins University.
HKMIASTtill Desor.
Hemiasteh stella (Morton).
Plate xlvi, Figs. la-d.
Spat an gu 8 ntella Morton, 1830. Am. Jour. Sri., 1st ser., vol. 18, p. 245, PI. 3, Fig. 11.
SpatanguH stella Morion, 1830. Philadelphia Acail. Nat. Sci.Jour., 1st ser., vol.6, p.
1*00.
SpatanguHntvlla Morton. 1831 . Synop. Organ. Remains Cretaceous, p. 78, PI. 3, Fig. 18.
Hernia* ter stella Agassi/, and Donor, 1847. Cat. rais., p. 141.
Hcm\a*ttr ntrlla Desor, 1858. Syimp. des fie-liiiiides fossiles, p. 373.
Ifemiaster stella Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Hemiasteri?) attlla Meek, 18(W. Smith Misc. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 3.
Hemiastcr Wvtherbyi do Loriol, 1887. Recueil Zoologique Suisse, f. 4, pp. 391-394, PI.
17, Figs. 5-8.
Jlemiasttr incrattaatu* Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Detcrminatirc characters. — Test small, oval, cordate, inflated, rounded
before, truncated behind; upper surface elevated posteriorly, sloping
anteriorly; anterior groove short, not reaching the ambitus. Ambula-
cra straight, depressed above. Apical disk excentric and posterior.
Mouth opening bilabiate and near the anterior border. Anal opening
small, high above posterior margin. Fasciole distinct.
Dimensions. — Length, 1 inch; width, | inch; height, § inch.
Description. — This form was originally described by Morton in 1830,
and later, in 1833, considered by the same writer as the young of
the species for which the name parastatm was then substituted. In
presenting a preliminary notice of the present report the writer followed
clark.] HEMIASTER STELLA. 85
Morton in this regard, but the examination of a larger amount of mate-
rial shows that the new species, H. incra&satusj there described is only a
large form of H. stella, so that it becomes necessary to discard the former
term and employ both H. Stella and H. parastatus of Morton. HemiaMer
Wetherbyi de Loriol is apparently identical with II. stella Morton.
The test is small, oval, and cordate, and much elevated on the pos-
terior portion of the upper surface. The whole test has a rounded,
full outline, that is much increased by the absence of the usually deep
anterior groove, which in H. stella does not reach the margin (PI. xlvi,
Fig. la). The i>osterior border is flatly and nearly vertically truncated.
The ambulacra! areas are depressed in the petaloidal portions which,
in the anterolateral pair, are twice as long as in the posterolateral.
The poriferous zones are narrow; the pores have transverse slit-like
openings. The unpaired ambulacrum is situated in the anterior groove.
The surface of the test is covered with innumerable small tubercles,
between which is a microscopic granulation. The peripetalous fasciolo
is very distinct, oval, and passes with a regular curve about the ends
of the petaloidal areas. The surface of the test is covered with minute
tubercles, between which are microscopic granules. The apical disk
is small, and situated posteriorly to the center of the upper surface of
the test.
The mouth opening is transversely oval, bilabiate, and placed near
the anterior margin. The anal opening is small, oval, and situated at
the upper part of the truncated posterior margin.
Related forms. — Hemiaster stella is unique among American Hemias-
ters. The shallow anterior groove, that falls short of the margin, and
the full elevated test readily distinguish it from other forms.
Locality and I geological horizon. — Hemiaster stella is found in the yel-
low limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber
creek, New Jersey.
Collections. — U. S. National Museum; Philadelphia Academy of Nat-
ural Sciences; Johns Hopkins University.
Hemiaster ungula (Morton).
Plate xlvt, Figs. 2a-g.
Spatangus sp. Morton, 1830. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st ser., vol. 17, p. 28(5.
Spatangus ungula Morton, 1833. Am. Jour. ScL, lstser., vol. 23, p. 131, PI. 10, Fig. 6.
Spatangus ungula Morton, 183-1. Synop. Organ. Romania, Cretaceous, p. 78, PI. 10,
Fig. 0.
Micraster ungula Agassiz and Desor, 1847. Cat. rais., p. 141.
Spatangus ungula ttroiiii, 1818. Index Pal., vol. 1, p. 1161.
Holastvr ungula Gabb, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Hemiaster angula Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test oval, cordiform, elevated ; upper snr-
faee inflated, elevated posteriorly; lower surface flat; sides sloping;
anterior sulcus narrow and dee]). Ambulacra narrow ; poriferous zones
Straight, depressed, petaloidal. Peripetalous fasciole deeply bent
86 MESOZOIC EcniNODERMATA OP THE UNITEt) STATES. (BULutf.
inward between the anterior and posterior paired ambulacra. Apical
disk small, compact. Mouth opening transversely oval near anterior
margin. Anal opening oval, supramarginal.
Dimensions. — Length, 1J inches; width, 1J inches; height, J inch.
Description. — This species has an oval, cordate test, that is very much
elevated in the posterior portion. Anteriorly the upper surface slopes
rapidly, so that the margin is much thinned down, losing the full round
aspect of the previously described forms. The sharp ridge on the pos-
terior portion of the test is terminated by a nearly vertical truncation
of the posterior margin. The base is flat, save for the peri s torn ial de
pression.
The anibulacral areas are narrow. The poriferous zones are petaloi-
dal, straight, and deeply depressed on the upper surface. The unpaired
ambulacrum is placed in the anterior sulcus and but slightly exceeds
the other areas iu width. The petals of the an tero- lateral pair are twice
the length of the posterolateral. The pores of the paired ambulacra
are elongated and separated (PI. xlvi. Fig. lie), those of the single am-
bulacrum small, oval, and approximated (PI. xlvi, Fig. 2/).
The surface of the test is covered with small tubercles, between
which are numerous minute granules. The peripetalons fasciole is dis-
tinct and bent outwards between the anterior and posterior paired
ambulacra.
The apical disk is small and situated posterior to the center of the
upper surface. The anterolateral genital plate is very large and widely
separates the posterior pair of oculars. The posterolateral genitals
have large perforations (PI. xlvi, Fig. 2(f).
The mouth opening is transversely oval, bilabiate, with a prominently
projecting lower lip. The anal opening is large and situated at the
upper part of the truncated face of the posterior margin.
Related forms. — It is separated from Hemiaster parastatus, with which
it is found, by the narrower anterior groove, more central apical disk,
less inflated sides, sliarper posterior keel, and straight ambulacral
plates.
Locality and geological horizon. — Hemiaster ungula is from the yellow
limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous) of Timber creek,
New Jersey.
Collections. — Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences; American
Museum of Natural History, New York.
11 KMl ASTER TEXANTS Uoeuier.
Plate xlvii, Figs Id-i.
Uania8ter texanus Hueiuer, 1819. Texas, etc., p. 393.
BtmiasUr texanus Koeiner, 1852. Die Kreidebildungen vuu Texas, p. 85. PI. 10, Pig. 4.
Htmiastvr aineriettnu* Ciebel, 18T>3. Jahrcsber. d. Xuturw. Ver. in Halle, p. 372, 373.
Htmiusttr texanus Gabb, 1839. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 19.
Utmiasttr texanu* Mwk, 18tU. Smith. Misc. Cull., vol. 7 (177), p. 3.
Htniiattttr texanu* Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
clabk.) HEMIASTER TEX ANUS. 87
Determinitive characters. — Test oval, cordate, declining anteriorly,
elevated slightly posteriorly; anterior sulcus broad and deep, produc-
ing groove in margin. Ambulacra broadly depressed on upper surface;
anterolateral pair bent backward in upper part; unpaired ambula-
crum very broad. Apical disk compact, tbe four genitals distinctly
perforated. Mouth opening large, transversely oval, bilabiate. Anal
opening large, oval, at center of truncated surface of posterior margin.
Dimension*. — Length, 1J to 2 inches; width, 1£ to 1J inches; height,
| to 1 inch.
Description. — This important species is broadly cordate and slightly
depressed on the upper surface; base flat. Posterior to the apex there
is a sharp ridge that declines gradually toward the obliquely truncated
margin. Anteriorly the upper surface declines toward the anterior
border.
The ambulacral areas are broad, very unequal, and depressed in the
petaloidal portions. The poriferous zones are broad, the pores of the
paired ambulacra elongated (PL xlvii, Fig. le), those of the single am-
bulacrum round and approximated (PI. xlvii, Fig. 1/). The petals of
the anterolateral pair are bent backward in their upper part and are
nearly twice the width of the postero -lateral pair. The single ambu-
lacrum is very broad, the poriferous zones widely separated.
The surface of the test is covered with small tubercles tbat are per-
forated and for tbe most part crenulated (PI. xlvii, Fig. lft, li). A
microscopic granulation tills the intertubercular spaee.
The apical disk is small and compact and situated near the center.
The four genital plates are distinctly perforated; tbe autero-lateral is
larger than the others aud serves as the madreporite. The live oculars
are wedged between the genitals and are deeply cut by the upper por-
tions of the ambulacra (PI. xlvii, Fig. \g).
The mouth opening is large, transversely oval, and bilabiate. The
anal opening is large, oval, and situated in the center of the truncated
surface of the posterior margin (PI. xlvii, Fig. Id).
Belated forms. — Uuder the name oiHemiaster americanus, Giebel pub-
lished the description of a new species of Hemiaster, in 1853, that he
states can be with difficulty distinguished from H. texanus. It is con-
sidered identical in the present report. Tbe differences seem hardly to
warrant the establishment of a new species. PeriaMer australis, des-
cribed by Gabb, from Peru, so far as the figures and description show,
must be a Hemiaster, and to all appearances is closely allied if not
identical with U. texanus.
Locality and geological horizon. — Hemiaster texanus is from the upper
division of the Cretaceous of Texas. It is characteristic of the Austin
chalk.
Collections. — U. S. National Museum; Prof. Kobt. T. HilL
88 1IES0Z0IC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES- Tbcll-W.
Hemiaster IlUMPHUEYSAKis Meek and Ilayden.
Plate xlviii, Figs. la-f.
m
Hemi aster (f) numphrcysanus Meok and liny den, 18T>7. Philadelphia Acad. Nat.
Sei. Proc, vol. 9. pp. 117, 118.
Hernia titer (?; Humphrcysanu* Gabh, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils Cretaceous, p. 19.
Hemiaster (?) Humphrey Mints Meek, 18til. Smith. Misc. Coll., vol.7 (177), p. 3.
Hemiaster Humphrey nanus Meek: 1'. 8. (ieol. Surv. of the Territories, vol. 9, pp. 5,
6, PL 10. Fi#*. \a-tj.
Hemiaster Humphrey son us Clark, 1X91. Johns Hopkius I diversity Circnlars. No.
87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test oval, cordate; upi>er surface high,
flat, with broad, vertical truncation on posterior margin, and long
anterior groove ; base flat; sides rounded. Ambulacra in deep furrows
that reach to the edge of the elevated sides. Apical disk large and
compact, posteriorly situated. Mouth opening small, transversely oval,
and bilabiate. Anal opening oval, situated high on posterior margin.
Dimensions. — Length, 1J inches: width, 1£ inches; height, £ inch.
Description. — The absence of distinct fascioles on the type specimens
of this species caused Meek and ilayden to place, it doubtfully in the
genus Ilemiastcr. to which beyond doubt it belongs. The test i» full, the
sides rounded, and the high upper surface distinctly flattened. The
base is also flat, with the except ion of the peristomial depression. The
situation of the apex so far posterior to the center of the upper surface
produces a long anterior sulcus, that grooves the anterior margin. A
high, vertically truncated surface terminates the jKtsterior margin.
The ambulaeral areas are broad, very unequal, and deeply depressed
on the upper surface. The petals of the postcro- lateral pair are very
short, those of the antero lateral very long, the latter quite three
times the length of the former. The unpaired ambulacrum occupies
the long anterior sulcus. The antero lateral pair are bent backward
in the upper part and forward in the lower. The poriferous zones are
broad, the pores distinct and oval ( PL XLViir, Figs, le?, 1/). Since much
of the surface of the test has suffered removal the character of the
tubercles and granules can not be fully determined.
The apical disk, which has been largely destroyed, was large, com-
pact, and situated far posterior to the center of the upiier surface.
The mouth opening is small and situated near the anterior margin.
The anal opening is oval and situated on the vertically truncated sur-
face of the posterior margin (PL xlviii, Fig. Id).
Related form*. — Hemiaster Humphrey sun us is a unique form, that is
not closely related to any species of Hemiaster hitherto described.
Locality and geological horizon. — This species is from the Fort Pierre
formation (upper Cretaceous) of Meek and Hayden and was found 150
miles from the mouth of the Yellowstone river in Montana.
Collection.— U. S. National Museum.
clark.] HEMIASTER DALLI. 89
Hemiaster Dalli Clark.
Plate xlviii, Figs. 2a-c.
Hemiaster Dalli Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, pp. 77.
Determinative characters. — Tost cordate, subhexagonal, depressed;
upper surface with sharp ridges between the ambuhicral furrows; base
flat; sides rapidly declining; anterior margin deeply grooved. Ambu-
lacra unequal, very deeply depressed on petaloidal portions; antero-
lateral pair much bent in upper part. Mouth opening transversely
oval, near anterior margiu. Anal opening oval, situated on vertically
truncated surface of posterior margin.
Dimensions. — Length, If inches; width, If inches; height, § inch.
Description. — This species is much depressed, with distinct marginal
angles that give it a subhexagonal outline. Prominent ridges cross
the upper surface between the ambulacral furrows. The anterior sulcus
cuts deeply into the test and grooves the anterior margin. The sides
decline rapidly to the flattened base. The low posterior surface has a
nearly vertical truncation of small area.
The ambulacral areas are very deeply depressed on the upper sur-
face, a feature much more pronounced than in any other American
species. The anterolateral pair are bent backward in their upper
part, and have loug, deep furrows. The postero-lateral pair are about
one-half the length of the anterior pair. The single ambulacrum is
situated in the broad, deep, anterior sulcus. The poriferous zones in
the paired ambulacrum are broad, the pores oval, those of each pair
united by a shallow furrow (PI. xlviii, Fig. 2c). In the unpaired am-
bulacrum the poriferous zones are narrow, the pores small and approxi-
mated.
The surface is covered with small tubercles with sunken areolas
that increase in size toward the base, where they are large, with dis-
tinctly perforated mamelons and crenulated bosses. A tine microscopic
granulation fills the interspaces.
The apical disk is sunken, small, and posterior to the center of the
upper surface.
The mouth opening is transversely oval and close to the anterior
margin.
The anal opening is oval and situated on the truncated surface of the
posterior border (PI. xlviii, Fig. 2d).
Related forms. — The very deep ambulacral furrows and angular out-
line readily separate Hemiaster Dalli from any other American species.
It is not closely allied to any European form.
Locality and geological horizon. — This form is from the Washita
formation of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of Bexar county,
Texas.
Collection.— \J . S. National Museum.
90 MES07A)IC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bull.*.
Hemiaster californicus Clark.
Plate xlix, Figs. 1/i-c.
Uemiatster californicus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkius University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test small, subquadrate, depressed; up-
per surface Hat, with shallow anterior sulcus, sloping sides, and low
truncated interior margin; lower surface dat. Ambulacra depressed,
in shallow7 furrows. Apical disk small, posterior to center. Mouth
opening transversely oval near anterior margin. Anal opening situ-
ated on the low truncated surface of the interior margin.
Dimension*. — Length, 1 inch; width, 1 inch; height, \ inch.
Description. — This form, the single representative of the Echiuoder-
mata thus far obtained from the Cretaceous deposits of California, has
the details of its structure i>oorly preserved in the specimens examined,
although it belongs, beyond much doubt, to the genus Uemiaster.
The test is small, much depressed, and subquadrate in ainbital outline.
It is broader anteriorly, with a feeble groove in the center of the ante-
rior margin. The posterior i>ortion of the test is but slightly more
elevated than the anterior, and the truncated margin is low and narrow.
The base is tlat, with the exception of the peristoniial depression.
The ambulucral areas are but slightly depressed in the petaloidal
portions. The poriferous zones are broad, and the oval j>ores are united
by shallow furrows (1*1. xlix, Fig. \a).
The apical disk is small and situated slightly forward of the center.
The mouth opening is transversely oval and situated near the ante-
rior margin (1*1. xlix, Fig. lb). The anal opening is small, oval, and
situated on the low, truncated surface of the posterior border.
Related forms. — On account of its shallow ambulacral furrows, Hemi-
aster californicus may be compared to H. Hnmphreysanus, but is readily
separated from it by means of its more central apical disk aud its
depressed form. It is a very unique species.
Locality and geological horizon. — H. californicus is from Redding,
Shasta county, California, in deposits that have been referred to the
Chico group (upper Cretaceous).
Collection. — U. S. National Museum.
Uemiaster Calvint Clark.
Plate xlix, Figs, lia-i.
Determinative characters. — Test oval, cordate, inflated; upper sur-
face elevated; lower surface Hat; posterior margin obliquely truueated.
Ambulacra moderately depressed on the upper surface. Mouth open-
ing transversely oval. Anal opening oval, high on truncated posterior
border.
Dimensions. — Length, li inches; width, 1£ inches; height, J inch.
Description. — This species has au elevated test that is oval, cordate.
cLabk.) HEMIASfER CALVINI — LINTHtA TUMIDUtA. 91
and broadly truncated on the posterior margin. The anterior sulcus is
shallow, and produces but a feeble groove on the anterior margin. The
base is flat.
The ambulacral areas are narrow. The poriferous zones are broad;
the petals moderately depressed and of good length; the pores in the
petaloidal portions of the paired ambulacra elongated, slit like (Pi.
xlix, Fig. 2e), those of the unpaired ambulacrum small and approxi-
mated (1*1. xlix, Fig. 2<7). Beyond the petals the pores are very small,
and occupy the lower outside corner of each plate (PI. xlix, Fig. 2/).
The surface of the plates is covered with small perforated tubercles,
rather widely scattered, between which a microscopic granulation in-
tervenes. The peripetalous fasciole is indistinct.
The apical disk is small, compact, and nearly central (PL xlix,
Fig. 2i).
The mouth opening is small, transversely oval, and situated at a dis-
tance from the margin.
The anal opening is oval and situated high on the truncated surface
of the posterior margin.
Related forms. — Hernias ter Calvini is most closely related to H. tex-
anus, from which, however, it is separated by its more elevated form
and small, narrow, anterior sulcus. The apical disk is also more ex-
centric.
Locality and geological horizon. — Hemiaster Calvini is from the Shoal
creek limestone at the top of the Comanche series (lower Cretaceous) of
Texas. It is found in Travis county.
Collections. — U. IS. National Museum; University of Iowa.
LINTBIA Merian.
Linthia tumidula Clark.
Plate l, Figs. la-i.
Linthia tumidula Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkius University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Determinative characters. — Test oval, cordiform, elevated; apex cen-
tral ; ]R>sterior border obliquely truncated, anterior portion grooved by
narrow sulcus; sides sloping. Ambulacral furrows long, straight, de-
pressed ; poriferous zones broad, pores oval. Apical disk small, nearly
central. Anal opening on truncated posterior border. Peripetalous
and lateral (ascioles distinct.
Dimensions. — Length, 2 J inches; width, 2 inches; height, 1£ inches.
Description.— This large form has an elevated test, with flattened,
sloping sides, oval outline, and a narrow, moderately depressed anterior
sulcus that grooves the anterior margin. The base is flat, except for
the i>eristomial depression.
The ambulacral areas are narrow and farrow for a long distance the
upper surface of the test to a moderate depth. The poriferous zones
92 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [Bru.07.
are broad and straight. The pores are large and oval, and those of
each pair connected by a shallow furrow (PI. L, Fig, If). The antero-
lateral petals reach far down the sloping sides aud are about one aud
one-half times as long as the posterolateral pair.
The surface of the test is covered with minute, perforated tubercles
that are much larger on the base than on the upper surface. A micro-
scopic granulation fills the space between the tubercles (PL L., Fig. li).
Both the pcripetalous and lateral fascioles can be readily traced.
The apical disk is small, nearly central, and slightly depressed (PI.
L, Fig. \g).
The mouth opening is transversely oval and situated near the
anterior margin. The anal opening is small, oval, and situated but a
short distance above the posterior margin (PI. L, Fig. 1*/).
Related forms. — L. tumidula is the only representative of the genus
from Amerieau deposits. It is not closely allied to any species de-
scril>ed elsewhere.
Loral ity and geological horizon. — Linthia tumidula is from the yellow
limestone of the middle marl bed (upper Cretaceous), of Timber creek.
New Jersey.
Collections. — American Museum of Natural History, New York; Bos-
tonSociety of Natural History.
DOUBTFUL AND UNRECOGNIZED SPECIES.
With few exceptions the writer has hail an opportunity of examining
the type forms of previous writers upon the Mesozoic Kchinoderuiata of
the Tinted States, and as a result Caxsidulus abrupt us Conrad, Arbacia
sp. Hoemer, and Diadema sp. Koemer are the only species that can not
be identified. Three other species — two from lack of generic charac-
ters (Pggurutt (f) geometricus (Morton) and ('idari* nahalakenttis de
Loriol), the third [lHscoidea occidentale (iabh) because of probable
foreign origin — are not included, although the synonymy uf each is
given for purposes of reference. A single specific name (Holectypus
simplex Hoemer) has found its way into the literature from its use in
ti abb's Catalogue, although probably mentioned by mistake.
CASSIDULUS ABRUPTI7S Conrad.
Ca»*idulu* ahruptit* Conrad, lstf >. rhil.'itlelpliia Ac:ul. Nat. Sci. Jour., new eer., vol. 4,
11.11*1.
(.'a^'ululus abraptits Clark, ISM. Johns Hopkins ITniversity Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
This species, originally described by Conrad in 1SC0, but not figured,
is from Tip] Kill county, Mississippi. Jt has not been recognized iu
material examined by the writer, so that its relations to the other forms
described are not known.
Pygurcs (!) geometrtcits (Morton).
Clypeatter up. Morton, 1830. Philadelphia Acad. Soi. Jonr., 1st acr., vol. 6, p. 202.
Cljfpeaattr ytomvtricu* Morton, l&tt. Am. Jour. Sci., 1st ser., vol. 24, p. 131, PL 10^
Fig. 9.
* Clark] CIDARIS — DISCOIDEA — HOLECTYPUS. 93
Clypeaster geometricus Morton, 1834. Synop. Organ. Remains, Cretaceous, p. 76, PI. 10,
Fig. 10.
Pygurus geometricus Agassiz and Desor, 1847. Cat. rais., p. 141.
Pygurus geometricus d'Orhigny, 18-17. Prodrome, vol. 2, p. 270.
Clypeaster geometricus Bronn. 1848. Index Pal. vol. 1, p. 312.
ry gurus geometricus d'Orbigny, 1853-'60. Paleont. francaise, vol. 6, p, 313, PI. 920,
Fig. 4.
Pygurus geomelrieus Pcsor, 1H58. Synop. dee Echinidea fossiles, p. 313.
Clypeaster geometricus Gal>1>, 1859. Cat. Invert. Fossils, Cretaceous, p. 18.
Pygurus (?) geometricus Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
The type of this species was examined by the writer, but its state of
preservation (that of a poor cast) is such that its generic relations can-
not be with certainty determined. Until further material is obtained
it seems best to defer its recognition.
Although originally described by Morton as a Clypeaster, it has been
referred to the genus Tygurus by Agassiz, d'Orbigny, ami Desor. The
single specimen "was obtained from the lower marl bed (upper Creta-
ceous) of the Delaware and Chesapeake canah
ClDARIS NAIIAXAKENSIS de Loriol.
Cidaris nahalakcnsis do Loriol, 1887. Kecueil Zoologique Suisse, tome 4, pp. 388, 389,
PI. 17, Figs. 3-4.
The present species is based by P. de Loriol upon fragment of spines
obtained from the Rotten limestone of the upper Cretaceous of Nahalak,
Kemper county, Mississippi. The acceptance of the species is reserved"
until fuller material has been obtained. Similar spines have been
recognized by the writer from other localities, but whether they repre-
sent an independent species or one hitherto described is not yet
clear.
Discoidea occidentals Gabb.
JJiscoidea oceidentale (Jabb, I860. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., new ser., vol. 4.
p. 308. PI. fiH, Figs. 42-44.
JHscoideu oceidentale Gabb, 187f>. Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. Proe., vol. 28, p. 323.
JHscoidea oceidentale Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77,
When iirst described in 18G0 Gabb referred this form to the Cretace-
outf of Oregon, but later, in 1876, thought he might have been mistaken
in the locality and mentioned Peru as its probable origin. In view of
this doubt it is omitted from the list of species.
! IIoleotypus simplex Shumard.
? Pfolectypus simplex Shuniard (description unknown).
Hohctypus simplex Meek, IXi'A. Smith Misc. Coll., vol. 7 (177), p. 2.
.* Holevtypus simplex Clark, 1891. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 87, p. 77.
Meek includes Jfolectypus simplex Shumard among his list of American
Cretaceous Echinodermata and gives Texas as the locality. As a careful
search of the literature and extended correspondence with those familiar
with Shumard's writings fail to elicit any information .upon this point,
the writer is of the opinion that the reference to this species by Meek
is a mistake. No such species was probably ever described.
94 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [buix.07.
GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION.
CRINOIDEA:
ULVTArRIJUDJE—
rintAcrimiB socialis Grinoell
AriOCRINIIM!—
Bon r^iet icrin us alabamen«iis de Loriol . . .
Pentac 'RI xid.«—
Pentacrinus aafrrinouH Meek and Haydcn
Pentacrinun Whitei (lark
Pentac rinua Br yani Gabb
ASTEROIDEA:
OPHlURIDiK—
Ophioglypba bridgeronai* (Morton)
Ophioglypba texana Clark
Stkllerid^—
Aateriaa ( ? ) dubium Whit field
Goniaster mammillata Gabb
KCHINOIDEA:
EUETHINOrDEA—
REQVLARK8—
ClDARIDAE—
Cidaiis tavloronaia Clark
Cidaris ralifornirii* Clark
Cidaria aplendrna Morton
Cidaria Walcotti Clark
Cidaris texauufi Clark
LeioHdarta hemigranoaua (Shumard)
Ralenidak—
Salenia texana Credner
Salcnia tiimidula Clark
Salenia bollula Clark
DlADEMATIDiK—
Hemicidaria int umeaccna Clark
Paeudodiadcnia Emcr*oni Clark
Paeudodiadema diat return (Morton)
Paeudodiadema texanum ( Koenier)
Diplopodia texanum ( Koemer)
Diplopo<lia Hilli (Hark
Coptoaoma apex'iosum Clark
Coptosoina Mortoni (de Loriol )
Goniopygu« Zittoli Clark
ECHINIDiC—
Paaminerhinua ringulatua Clark
Stomechinua Hyatt i Clark
Pedinopaia Pondi Clark
Irreoularkb—
ECHINOtONIDiK-
Holecty pita planatus Roenier
Cakhidulid*—
Pyrina Parryi Hall
BotriopyjjUK alabamenai* ( Mark
Kchinobriaans expanaua (Mark
Echinobrisana texanus ( 'lark
Trematopygus crucifer (Morfbn)
Catopygus oviformia Conrad
Triaa.
Jura.
:•. (?)
x
Lower Upper
Creta-
CCOUft.
Creta-
ceoua.
X
X
X
X
X
\
X
X
X
X
V
■V
Catopvgus puaillua (Mark.
Caaaidulua florealia (fc
(Morton)
Cassidulua R*quoreua Morton
Caaaiduhia inicrocorriiH (iabb
Caaaidnlua aulM|iiadratua Conrad
Caaaidnlua aubf-onicua Clark
Caaaidulua |K>rrerttia ( 'lark
Caaaidnlua Stantoni Clark
Holastebidae—
AuanchyloH ovalia Clark
Cardiaater rinrtua (Morton)
llolaater ximplcx Klmniard •
Spatanoidae -
EnalljiMtnr te\anua (Koemer)
EnalluKterobliquatua C'ark
Epiaater elegana (Shumanl)
Epia*t*r Whitei Clark
Hcniiaater atella (Morton)
Hemiaater paraatat ua ( Morton)
HcniiaRter ungula ( Morton)
Hemiaater texanus Koemer
Hemiaater HumphreyHanua Meek and Haydeu
Hem i aster Dalli Clark
Hemiaater oalifornicua Clark
Hemiaater ( "alvlni Clark
Linthia tuinidula Clark
X
X
X ■
s-
X
X
X
X
A
v
■V
X
# ■
s ■
.V
X
X
<
X
X
X
X
X
clabk.] CATALOGUE OF SPECIFIC NAMES. 95
CATALOGUE OF SPECIFIC NAMES EMPLOYED BY WRITERS UPON
THE MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES.
Ananchytes sp. Morton, 1830=Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
cinctus Morton, 1830= Cardiaster cinctus (Morton 75
cinctus Morton, 1834=Capdiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
cinctus Gabb, 1859=Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
crnciferii8 Morton, 1830=Trematopygus crucifer (Morton). . 63
fimbriatus Morton, 1830=Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
fimbriatus Morton, 1834=Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
fimbriatus Bronn, 1848=Oardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
fimbriatus Gabb, 1859=Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
ovalis Clark 74
*
Arbacia sp. Roemer, 1849=unrecognized 92
Asterias ? dubium Whitfield, 1877 31
? dubium Clark = Asterias dubium Whitfield 31
Botriopygus alabamensis Clark GO
Bourgueticrinus alabamensis de Loriol, 1882 25
alabamensis Clark =Bourgueticrinus alabamensis de Loriol 25
Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
cinctus d'Orbigny, 1853-'60= Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) . . 75
cinctus (fimbriatus) Desor, 1858=Cardiaster cinctus (Morton) 75
cinctus Clark=Cardia«ter cinctus (Morton) 75
fimbriatus d'Orbigny, 1853-'60=Cardiastcr cinctus (Morton) 75
Cassidulii8 abruptus Conrad, 1860 92
aequoreus Morton, 1834 68
aequoreus Desmoulins, 1837=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton . 68
aequoreus Agassiz, 1847=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton 68
aequoreus d'Orbigny, 1847=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton ... 68
aequoreus Bronn, 1848=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton 68
aequoreus d'Orbigny, 1853-,60=Ca8sidulus aequoreus Morton 68
aequoreus Desor, 1858=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton 68
cTquoreus Gabb, 1859=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton 68
aequoreus Meek, 1864=Cassidulns aequoreus Morton 68
aequoreus Conrad, 1868=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton 68
aequoreus Clark=Cassidulus aequoreus Morton 68
florealis (Morton) 66
florealis Meek, 1864=Cas8idulus florealis (Morton) 66
florealis Clark =Cassidulus florealis (Morton) 66
micrococcus Gabb, 1860 69
micrococcus Clark =Cassidulus micrococcus Gabb 69
porrectus Clark, 1891 72
Stantoni Clark, 1891 73
subconicus Clark, 1891 71
subquadratus Conrad, 1860 70
subquadratus Clark =Cassidulus subquadratus Conrad 70
98 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bvll.97.
Hemiaster THumphreysanus Meek, 1864= Hemiaster Humphrey-
sanus Meek & ilayden 88
Huuiphreysanus Meek, 1870= Hernias ter Hamplireysanus
Meek & Hayden 88
Humphreysanus Clark = Hemiaster Humphreysanus Meek*&
Haydeu 88
incrassatus Clark, 1891=Hemiaster stella (Morton) 84 ■
parastatus (Morton) 83
parastatus Desor, 1847=nemiaster parastatus (Morton) ... 83
parastatus d'Orbigny, 1847= Hemiaster parastatus (Morton) 83
parastatus d'Orbigny, 1853-HjO=Hemiaster parastatus (Mor-
ton) 83
parastatus Desor, 1858=Hemiaster parastatus (Morton) 83
parastatus Gabb, 1859= Hemiaster parastatus (Morton) 83
parastatus Meek, 1864= Hemiaster parastatus (Morton) 83
parastatus, Clark = Hemiaster parastatus (Morton) 83
stella (Morton) 84
Stella Agassiz & Desor, 1847=Hemiaster stella (Morton).. . 84
stella Desor, J 858= Hemiaster stella (Morton) 84
stella Gabb, 1859=Hemiaster stella (Morton) 84
? stella Meek, 1864=Hemiaster. stella (Morton) 84
stella Clark=Hemiaster stella (Morton) 84
texanus Roemer, 1849 SO
texanus Roemer, 18T>2=Hemiaster texanus Roemer 86
texanus Gabb, 1859= Hemiaster texanus Roemer 86
texanus Meek, 1864=Hemiaster texanus Roemer 86
texanus Clark = Hemiaster texanus Roemer 86
Wetherbyi do Loiiol, 1887= Hem iastcr stella (Morton) 84
ungula (Morton) 85
ungula Clark=Hemiaster ungula (Morton) 85
Hcmicidaris intumescens Clark 44
Uolastcr ductus Agassiz, 1840 =Cardi aster einctus (Morton) ... 75
einctus Agassiz and Desor, 1847=Cardiaster einctus (Mor-
ton) 75
einctus d'Orbigny, 1847=Cardiaster einctus (Morton) 75
einctus Rronn, 1848=Cardiaster einctus (Morton) 75
einctus Credner, 1870=Cardiaster einctus (Morton) 75
einctus Clark, 1891=Cardiaster einctus (Morton) 75
comanchesi Marcou, 1858=Holaster simplex Shumard 76
comanchesi Desor, 1858=Holaster simplex Shumard 76
comanchesi Gabb, 1859=»Hohoster simplex Shumard 76
comanchesi Meek, 1864=ITolaster simplex Shumard 76
elegaus Conrad, 1857 (figure only)=Epiaster Whitei Clark. . 82
fimbriatus Agassiz and Desor, 1847=Cardiaster einctus
(Morton) 75
"cluuc] CATALOGUE OF SPECIFIC NAMES. 99
Holaster fimbriatus d'Orbigny, 1847=Cardiast«r cinctus (Mor-
ton) 75
parastatus Gabb, 1859= Hem iaster parastatus (Morton) 8:S
simplex Shunianl, 1853 70
simplex Desor, 185S=Holaster simplex Shnmard 7(i
simplex Gabb, 1859=Holaster simplex Shunianl 70
simplex Meek, 1864=HolaBter simplex Shumanl 70
simplex Clark= Holaster simplex Sliumard 70
ungida Gabb, 1859=Heimaster ungula (Morton) 85
Holectypus planatus Roeiner, 1849 58
planatus Roemer, 1852= Holectypus planatus Roeiner 58
planatus Sliumard, 1852 =Holecty pus planatus Roemer 58
planatus Giebel, 1853= Holectypus planatus Roemer 58
planatus Conrad, 1857= Holectypus planatus Roemer 58
planatus Desor, 1858= Holectypus planatus Roemer 58
planatus Gabb, 1859 ^Holectypus planatus Roemer 58
planatus Meek, 1864= Holectypus planatus Roemer 58
planatus Clark = Holectypus planatus Roemer 58
planus Giebel, 1853= Holectypus planatus Roemer 58
simplex Meek, 1864 (probably accredited to Shunianl by
mistake) 93
Leiocidaris hemigranosus (Sliumard) 38
hemigranosus 01aik=Leiocidaris hemigranosus (Sliumard). 38
Linthia tumidula Clark 91
Macraster toxanus Roemer =Epiaster elegans (Shunianl) SO
Micraster nngnla Agassiz and Desor, 1847=Hemiaster ungula
(Morton) 85
Nuclcolites crucifer Morton, 1833=Treinatopygus crucifer (Mor-
ton) 63
cmcifer Morton, 1834=Trematopygus crucifer (Morton) 03
crucifer Bronn, 1848=Trematopygus crucifer (Morton) 03
crucifer d'Orbigny, 1853-'00=Trematopygus crucifer (Mor-
ton) 63
crucifer Desor, 1858=Trematopygus crucifer (Morton) 63
crucifer Gabb, 185fl=Trematopygus crucifer (Morton) 63
crucifer Meek, 1864=Trematopygus crucifer (Morton) 03
crucifer Cook, 18fi8=Trematopygus crucifer (Morton) 63
crucifer Conrad, 1868=Treniatapygns crucifer (Morton) 03
cruciferus Agassiz, 1840=Trematopygns crucifer (Morton). . 63
cruciferus d'Orbigny, 1847=Tromatopygus crucifer (Morton) . 63
cruciferus Agassiz and Desor, 1847=Trematopygus crucifer
(Morton) 63
cruciferus Creditor, 1870=Trematopygns crucifer (Morton). G3
Opbioderma (t) bridgereiwis Meek, 1873=Ophioglypkabridger-
ensis (Meek) 29
bridgereusis White, 1883=Ophioglyplia bridgerensis (Meek) 29
100 MESOZOIC ECHINODERMATA OF THE UNITED STATES. [bull. 97.
Page.
Ophioglyphii bridgerensis (Meek) 29
bridgerensis Clark=Ophioglypha bridgerensis (Meek) 20
texana Clark 30
Pedinopsis Pondi Clark 57
Pentacrinus asteriscus Meek & Hayden, 1858 26
asteriscus Meek & Hayden, 1860=Pentacrinus asteriscus
Meek & Hayden 26
asteriscus Meek, 1804=Pentacrinus asteriscus Meek & Hay-
den 26
asteriscus Clark = Pentacrinus asteriscus Meek & Hayden. . 26
Bryani Gabb, 1876 28
Bryani Clark = Pen tacrinus Bryani Gabb 2S
Whitei Clark 27
Pentacrinites asteriscus Meek & Hayden, 1865=Pentiicrinus as-
teriscus Meek & Hayden 26
( f ) asteriscus Whit field,l 880= Pentacrinus asteriscus Meek &
Hayden 26
asteriscus White, 1875= Pentacrinus Whitei Clark 27
( ? ) asteriscus ( ! ) Hall & Whitfield, 1877= Pentacrinus Whitei
Clark ' 27
(f ) asteriscus Whitfield, 1880=Pentacrinus Whitei Clark . . 27
Phymosoina texanum Drsor, 1858=I)iplopodia texanum (Roenier) 48
Psammechinus ciugulatus Clark, 1801 55
Pseudodiadema diatretum (Morton) 46
diatretuin Desor, 1858=Pseudodiadema diatretum (Morton) . 46
diatretum Cotteau,1862-?67=l>seudodiademadiatrctum(Mor-
tou) 46
diatretuin Meek, 1864=Pseudodiadcma diatretum (Morton) . 46
diatretum Conrad, 1868=Pseudodiadema diatretuin (Morton) 46
diatretum Clark= Pseudodiadema diatretum Morton 46
Kmersoui Clark 45
llilli Clark, 1801=l)iploi)odia Hilli Clark 50
Koemeri Clark, 1801= Pseudodiadema texanum (Roenier) .. 47
texanum (Roemer) 47
texanum Desor, 1858= Pseudodiadema texanum (Roemer). . 47
texanum Meek, 1804=Pseudodiadema texanum (Roemer) . . 47
texanum Clark, 1801=Diplopodia texanum (Roemer) 48
Pygorhynchus crucifer Ravenel, 1850=Trematopygus crucifer
(Morton) 63
Pygurus florealis Agassiz, 1847=Cassidulus florealis (Morton).. 66
florealis (1onrad, 1808=Cassidulus florealis (Morton) 66
( ? ) geometricus (Morton) 92
gcomotrieus Agassiz & Desor, 1847=Pygurus (!) geomet-
ricus (Morton) 92
geometricus d'Orbigny, 1847=Pygurus (!) geometricus
(Morton) 92
en**.] CATALOGUE OP SPECIFIC NAMES.
Pygurus geonietrieuB d'Orbigny, 1853-'00= Pygurus (!) geomet-
rtanq (Morton)
geometricus Desor, I858=Pygurn9 (!) geometricus (Morton)
(!) geometricus Clark= Pygurus (!) geometricus (Morton).
Pyrin* Parry! Hall, 1857 :
Parryi Uabb, 1859=Pyruia Parryi Hall
Parryi Meek, 1864=Pyrina Parryi Hall
Parryi 01ark=Pyriua Parryi Hall
Salenia bellula Clark, 1891
texana Credner, 1875
texana Clark = Salenia texana Credner
tamidula Clark, 1891
Spatangus sp. Morton, 1829=Cardiaster chictns (Morton)
sp. Morton, 1830=Heroiaster parastatus (Morton) and Hetni-
aster ungula (Morton) (
cor-mariuuin (!) Morton, 1830= Hernia ster parastatus (Mor-
ton)
parastatus Morton, 1833=Hcmiaster parastatus (Morton)..
parastatus Morton, 1834=Heiniaster parastatus (Morton)..
parastatus Bronn, 1848= Hemiaster parastatus (Morton). ..
Stella Morton, ]830=Hemiaster Stella (Morton)
Stella Morton, 1834=Hemiaster Htcllii (Morton)
ungula Morton, 1833= Uemiastcr ungula (Morton)
ungula Mortou, 1834= Hemiaster ungula (Morton)
morula Broun, 1848=Hemiaster ungula (Morton) . . :
Stoinccliiiius Hyatti Clark
Toxaster elegans Conrad, 1857 =E pi aster Whitei Clark
elegans Gubb, lS5U=Epiaster elegans (Slmmard)
elegans Meek, 18li4=Epiastov elegans (Shuinard)
texanus Roemer, 1849=Eiiallaster texanus (Eoenier)
texanus Roemer, 1852=Eualla»tcr texanus (Roemer)
texanus Conrad, 18.17 =Euallaster texanus (Uoemer)
texanus flabb, 1859=Enalla8ter texanus (Roemer)
texanus Meek,lS64=EnalIaster texanus (Roemer)
nngula Giebel, lS53=EnaIlaster texanus (Roemer)
Trematopygus crueit'er (Mortou)
cruoifer d'Oibigny, 1 853-'G0= Trematopygus crucifer (Mor-
ton)
crucifer Clark = Trematopygus crucifer (Morton)
Uintacrinus social is Orinnell, 187G
soeialis Meek, 187)i=Cintacriuu8 socialis C.Niiuell
eocialis Clark=Uiutacriuus socialis Urinuell
■1
M
i
1
r
• 7t
k
?-
J*
III
i
>J'i
fi
PLATES.
HolaslerJdiu »iiJ Spulanyida-
■suf III.- IMH-.f till)
PLATE I.
Uixtacrixcts sociams Griunell (page 21).
Fig. 1<i. Laterial view of tho test, with intorradial area central, natural size.
1&. Test with nriiiM.
lc. A radial area, magnified two diaiuetert*.
106
UINTACRINUS.
PLATE II.
UiNTACRiNUs socialih Grinnell (page 21).
Fig. la. Diagram showing the structural arrangement of the plates in the test.
lb. Specimen showing nasals and portions of radial and interradial areas.
\c. Lateral view of arm with attached pinnules.
Id. Zizygial surface of brachial plate.
If. Articular surface of brachial plate.
108
UIHTACBIMUS.
PLATE III.
109
PLATE III.
Bourgukticrints alabamensis Do Loriol (page 25).
Fig. la. 8ldo view of the basal cone magnified five diameters,
lft. Upper surface magnified six diameters,
lo. Lower surface magnified six diameters.
Pextacrixi's ASTKitiHcrs Meek & Hayden (page 26).
Fig. 2a. Colnmn with attached pinnules.
2ft. Upper surface of a detached plate of the column.
2c. Lateral view of a portion of the column.
2(h Enlarged pinnule.
Pextacrinis Bisyani Gabh (page 28).
Fig. 3a. Upper surface of a detached plate of the column.
3ft. Lateral view of a portion of the column.
Pextacrinl's Wiiitei Clark (page 27).
Fig. 4«. Upper surface of a detached plate of the column.
4ft.- Ditto,
ic. Lateral view of a portion of the column.
110
BOUftQUETlCWNUS AMD PEMTACRIMU8.
OPHIOQLYPHA.
/
PLATE IV.
Ophioglypha BRIDGEREN8I8 (Meek) (page 29 x
Fig. la. Skeleton, natural size.
lb. Enlarged view of a portion of the upper surface,
lc. Enlarged view of a portion of the lower surface.
Ophioglypha texaxa Clark (page 30).
Fig. 2a. Skeleton.
2b. Enlarged view of a portion of the upper surface.
112
*rs.r~-.-- -. ■_
PLATE V.
Pull. 07 « 113
PLATE V.
GOMASTKK MAM MILL ATA Gahb (page 82).
Fig. lri-f/. Views from various Hides of four different platen ; magnified two diameters.
l/i. Greatly magnified surface of plate.
Astkhias ihbh'M Whitfield (page 31).
Fig. *2. Gutta-percha t:a«t of three individuals.
114
QONIASTEB AND ASTERIAS.
I
1c
4c
PLATE VI.
CiDAJiis <:alifokxici'h ('lark (page3ti).
Fig. hi. Spine, enlarged.
lb. Ditto,
lc. Articular surface i>f \h, much enlarged.
Cidakis taylokknsis Clark (page 35).
Fig. 2a. Fragment of two contiguous intcramhulaeral plates of the same serien.
2h. Spine.
Cii>Ai:is 8I*i.kni»i-:ns Morton (page 33).
Fig. 3«. Portion of test, natural size.
'M>. Interambiilacral plate, magniticd two diameters.
3c. Ambulacra 1 area, highly iuagnilied.
3d. Tubercle, enlarged.
3r;. Spine.
3/. Base of name much enlarged.
3</. Articular surface of spine.
Cidakis Walcotti Clark (page 37).
Fig. 4a. Portion of test, natural rd /.*»..
4b. Interambiilacral plates, enlarged.
4c. Ambulacral area, highly magnified.
-1(/. Tubercle, enlarged.
116
CIDARIS ANO LEIOCIDARI8.
PLATE Vlt
Cidaris tf.xani'8 Cliirk (page 36).
Fig. la. Test restored, natural size.
lb. View showing the arrangement of the interambnlacral plates in the vicinity
of the apical dink, with adjacent ambulacral plates,
lc. Portion of ambulacral area, enlarged.
Id. Intcrnmhulacral plate, enlarged,
le. Tubercle, much enlarged.
Leiocidarik nEMKjRAXOsus (Shumard) (page 38).
Fig. 2a. Interambnlacral plate.
2b. Portion of ambulacral area, enlarged.
2c. Tubercles, magnified two diameters.
2d. Apical disk, enlarged.
118
CIDAR13 AND LEIOCIQARIS.
LEIOCIDARIS.
PLATE VIII.
Lki<m'ii>akis HKMiGKANosrs (Shuinanl) (pago&t).
Fig. l«i. I'm^r Hiirface nf tho tfst, natural »i/.t».
\h. Lateral view nt'tJu* h.iiuv.
V>0
LEPOCID»RIS.
LtlOCIDARlS.
fLATK IX.
Lktoch>aicis HKMUiKANd-srs (Shuiuarcl) (page 38).
Fig. la. Uppor surface of the tent.
lb. Lower Hiirfare of the. t**at.
li\ Lateral view of the same.
122
LEIOCIOARIS.
PLATE X.,
Salenia texana Credner (page 40).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test, natural size.
1/*. Under surface of the same.
h\ Lateral surface of the same.
id. Tnteraiuhulacral area, magnified two diameters,
lc Ambulacral area, magnified three diameters.
1/. Portion of the same, highly magnified.
\g. Apical disk, enlarged.
1/*. Tubercle, enlarged.
124
PLATE XL
Saxkxia tumldula Clark (page 41),
Fig. la. Upper surface of test, magnified two diameter*.
lb. Under surface of the same,
lc. Lateral surface of the same.
Id. Interambalacral area, magnified four diameters.
If. 8ingle plate of same, highly magnified.
If. Ambnlacral area, highly magnified.
\g. Apical disk, enlarged.
Ik. Genital plate of same, highly magnified.
It. Monti; opening, enlarged.
1/. Tubercle, enlarged.
Salexla, bellula Clark (page 43).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of test, magnified two diameters.
2b. Under surface of the same.
2c. Lateral surface of the same.
2d. Three interambulacral plates, highly magnified.
2c. Three ambnlacral plates, highly magnified.
2/. Apical disk, enlarged.
2g. Tubercle, highly magnified.
126
I
■t
Mb*.
■A-
<*£3sb*.'
#:
HEMICIUAR1S AND PSE U DO DIADEM*.
*
«
4
PLATE XIII.
PLATE XIII.
PHEI'DODlAftEMA DIATREITM (Morton) (page 46).
Fig. la. Under anrface of t*et.
16. Lateral view of the same.
\r. Two interambulacral plates, magnified four diameters.
Id. Auibulacral platen, highly magnified.
le. Ditto.
1/. Tubercle, much enlarged.
Phkudodiadrma texantjh. (Roemer) (page 47).
Fig. 2a. Upper portion of the interambulacral area, highly magnified.
*2b. Portion of ambulacral area, ditto.
130
PSEUOODIADEMA.
1
A
I
i
i
PLATE XIV
131
PLATE XIV.
Pseudodiadema TBXANUM (Roemer) (page 47).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the teat.
lb. Lower surface of the same,
lc. Lateral surface of the same.
Id. Interambulacral area, oniargeu.
It. Ambulacral area, enlarged.
If. Three interambulacral plates, highly magnified.
lg. Tubercle, much enlarged.
132
PSEUDOOIADEMA.
PLATE XV.
PLATE XV.
Diplopodia texantm (Roemer) (page 48).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lower surface of the same,
lo. Lateral surface of the same.
Id. Ambulacral area, enlarged,
le. Four plates of the same, highly magnified.
1/. Interanibulacral plates, ditto.
134
PLATE XVI
135
/
P
PLATE XVI.
Diplopodia texanum (Roemer) (page 48).
Fig. la. Lower portion of ambulacral area, highly magnified.
lb. Upper portion of interanibulacral area, much enlarged,
lc. Lower portion of same, ditto.
Id, Tubercle.
Diplopodia Hilli Clark (page 50).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the test.
2b. Lower snrface of the same.
2c. Lateral surface of the same.
2d. Upper portion of an ambnlacral area, enlarged.
2e. Three plates of the same, highly magnified.
2/. A portion of an interambnlacral area, highly magnified.
2a. Tubercle.
136
PLATE XVII
137
PLATE XVH.
Coptosoma Morton i (de Loriol) (page 51).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
16. Lateral view of the same,
lc. Three ambulacral plates, mncli enlarged.
Id. Iiiteramhulacral area, enlarged.
le. Three interainbulacral plates, much enlarged.
138
PLATE XVIII.
139
PLATE XVni.
Coptosoma .sfeciosum Clark (page 52).
Fig. Id. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lateral view of the same.
lr. Upper portion of au interambulacral area, enlarged.
Id. Three plates of the name, highly magnified.
le. Portion of amhulacrul area, highly magnified,
if. Ditto.
\g. Tubercle of amhulacral area.
1*. Tubercle of interambulacral area.
tioMoi'Yurs Zittrli Clark (page 53).
Fig. 2a. Lateral surface of the teat.
26. Lower portion of anibulacral area, highly magnified.
2c. Portion of interambulacral area, highly magnified.
2d. Apical disk, enlarged.
140
COPTOSOM* AMD OON1OPY0U3
PLATE XIX.
141
PLATE XIX.
Goniopygus Zittku Clark (page 53)
Fig/la. Upper surface of the test.
16. Lower surface of the same,
lc. Interaiuhulacral area, enlarged.
Id. Ambulacral area, enlarged.
le. Tubercle.
142
QONIOPYQUS,
I
PLATE XX
143
PLATE XX.
P8AMMECBINU8 ciNOULATDs Clark (page 55).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
16. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Interauibulacral area, enlarged,
le. Three plates of the same, highly magnified.
1/. Ambulacra] area, enlarged.
\g. Four plates of the same, highly magnified.
lh. Mouth opening, enlarged.
It. Tubercle.
144
PS* MM ECHINUS.
PLATE XXI.
Bull. 97 10 145
R
PLATE XXI.
Pkdinopsis Pondi Clark (page 57).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
16. Lateral view of the same.
M«
I
I
\
PLATE XXII.
147
I
I
PLATE XXII.
Pedinop818 Ponm Clark (page 57).
Fig. la. Lower surface of the test.
16. Four interambulacral plates, much enlarged,
lc. Four ambnlacral plates, highly magnified.
148
PLATE XXIII.
149
.1
]
I
I
I
PLATE XXIII.
Htomechinus Hyatti Clark (page5ti).
Pig. la. Lateral surface view of the teat, slightly distorted.
lb. Portion of the ambulacral area, enlarged,
lr. Portion of the i titer ambolacral area, enlarged.
Id. Tubercle from above, highly magnified.
\e. The same from the side.
Holectypuh planatl'4 Koemer (page 58).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the test.
2b. Lower surface of the same.
2c. Lateral surface of the same.
2d. Two interamhulacral plates, enlarged.
2e. Portion of the ambulacra! area, highly magnified.
2/. Apical disk, enlarged.
150
^SB m
2d.
ST0MECHMU9 AMD HOLECTYPUB.
PLATE XXIV.
x. :
151
PLATE XXIV.
Pyrina Pakkyi Hall (page 59).
Fig. la. Upper snrface of the test.
16. Lower surface of the same,
lc. Side view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
If. Portion of an amhulacral area, enlarged.
1/. The same further enlarged.
\g. Two interambnlacral plates, magnified three diameters.
lh. Portion of single interambulacral plate, highly magnified,
li. Apical disk, enlarged.
Ik. Portion of the madreporite, highly magnified.
152
warn
I
PLATE XXV.
153
PLATE XXV.
Botkiopygus ALABAMKN8I8 Clark (page 60).
Fig. la. Upper surface of test.
15. Lower surface of test,
lc. Side view of the same.
Id. Portion of an ambulacral area at base of petaloidal region, enlarged.
le. Same in center of petaloidal region, highly magnified.
1/. An interambulacral plate, highly magnified.
154
\
-f
PLATE XXVI.
155
PLATE XXVI.
Echinobrissus KXPAN8U8 Clark (page 61).
;' - ' .1
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lower surface of the test.
\-t lc. Side view of the same.
Id. Posterior view, showing anal sulcus.
le. An interainbulacral plate, enlarged.
1/. Portion of the petaloidal region of the right anterolateral ambulacra! area.
lg. Apical disk, enlarged.
Echinobrissus tkxanus Clark (page 62).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the test.
^ 26. Lower surface of the test.
2c. Side view of the same.
2d. Posterior view, showing anal sulcus.
2e. Portion of the right antero-lateral ambulacrum.
| 2f. Four interainbulacral plates, highly magnified.
156
PLATE XXVII.
167
PLATE XXVII.
TrematopyoU8 crucifkr (Morton) (page 63).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
16. Lower surface of the test,
lo. Side view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
le. Lower portion of the pctaloidal region of the right posturo-lateral ambt
crum.
If. Much enlarged view of several plates of the same.
\g. Apical disk, enlarged.
1A. Tubercle from above.
It. Lateral view of the same.
Catopygus oviform is Conrad (page 64).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the test.
2ft. Lower surface of the test.
2c. Lateral view of the same.
2d. Posterior view of the same.
2«. Right postero-lateral ambulacrum, enlarged.
2/. 8everal plates of the same, highly magnified.
Catopygi's PU8ILLU8 Clark (page 65).
Fig. 3a. Upper anrface of the test.
36. Lower surface of the test.
3c. Lateral view of the same.
3d. Posterior view of the same.
168
TREMATOPVOUS AND CATOPVQUB.
PLATE XXVIII.
159
PLATE XXVIII.
Caksidulus FLOREAL18 (Morton) (page 66).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test, i
lb. Lower surface of the test.
\v. Lateral view of the name.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
If. Right posterolateral ambulacrum.
If. Several plates in the petaloidul region of the same, much enlarged.
\g. Ditto, lower surface,
l/i. Posterior interambulacrum.
It. Siugle plate, much enlarged.
1/. Apical disk, highly magnified.
Ik. Tubercle from above.
U. Lateral view of the same.
160
I
PLATE XXIX.
tfull, 97 11 161
PLATE XXIX.
CA88IDILU8 .cquorkus Morton (page 68). •
Fig. la. Upper surface of the teat.
Id. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the name.
Id. Posterior view of the same,
lc. Anterior ambulacrum.
I/. Several plates, petaloidal region of the same, much enlarged.
lg. Ditto, oral region.
Ik. Apical disk, much enlarged.
It. Diagram showing the arrangement of the plates about the peiistc
opening.
162
CASSIDULUS.
1
PLATE XXX.
163
PLATE XXX.
CA88ID17LU8 MICROCOCCUS Gabb (page 69).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same. ,
If. Anterior ambulacrum at the base of the petaloidal region.
1/. Several plates in petaloidal region of anterior ambulacrum, much enlarged.
\g. Oral portion of an ambulacral area.
1a. Apical disk, enlarged.
It. Surface of an interambulacral plate, highly magnified.
164
S§88§
PLATE XXXI.
165
I
PLATE XXXI.
Ca88idulu8 SUBQUADRATU8 Conrad (page 70).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
If. Lower portion of the petaloidal region of the right anterolateral am
lacruin.
If. Several plates of the same, much enlarged.
lg. Oral portion, much enlarged.
1*. Apical disk, enlarged.
166
CAS51DULUS.
HI!!
1
III*
» - - — -L. __ ... ._■__■. ■_■ • » . ■ — ~ . J_ . —J
PLATE XXXII.
167
PLATE XXXII.
Cassiih-u's smcoxicra Clark (page 71).
Kig. lo. Upper surface of the test.
l/>. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
\e. An amhulacral area, enlarged.
1/. Several plates of the petaloidal portion, highly inaguitied.
Iff. Ditto, oral portion.
Ih. Diagram showing the arrangement of the plates around peristoiuial openin
1». Interamhulacral plate, much enlarged.
1A\ Apical disk, much enlarged.
168
CASSIDULU8.
PLATE XXXIII.
ira*
PLATE XXXIII.
Cassiduli's pokkectus Clark (page 72).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
16. Posterior view of the same.
170
CA5SI0JLUS.
I 9
PLATE XXXIV.
171
0
PLATE XXXIV.
Cassidulu8 porbectus Clark (page 72).
Kig. la. Lower surface of tlie test.
\b. Lateral view of the same.
172
CASSIDULUS.
>■
I
I
i\
l»
i:
I'
i
I*
V
I
III
PLATE XXXT.
173
PLATE XXXV.
Cassidcia's porrectus Clark (page 72).
Fig. la. An ambtilacral area, enlarged.
lb. Lower portion of petaloidal region, highly magnified,
lc. Central portion of same, highly magnified.
Iff. Three interambulacral plates, much enlarged.
Ca8aiduli:8 Stantoni Clark (page 73).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the test.
2b. Lower surface of the test.
2c. Lateral view of the same.
2d. Posterior view of the same.
174
.".-,-, .^r-n
L vmi
PWWW1^«»"
PLATE XXXVI.
175
\
i
W
PLATE XXXVI.
Axanciiytks ovalis Clark (page 74).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the tost.
lb. Lower surface of the same.
lc\ Lateral view of the same.
Id. Anterior view of the same.
le. Posterior view of the same.
1/. Apical disk, enlarged.
j \g. Ambnlacral plate*, much enlarged.
1 Ih. Interambulacral plates, much enlarged.
» 176
V '
PLATE XXXVII.
Bull. 97 12 177
t
i
PLATE XXXVII.
Cakiuastei: cinctits (Morton) (page 75).
Fig. la. Tapper surface of the teat.
lb. Lower surface of the test,
lr. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Anterior view of the same.
» It. Posterior view of the same.
1/. Central portion of the pctaloidal region of an ambulacral area
larged.
Iff. \\i\nn\ portion, ditto,
l/i. Apical diiik, enlarged.
17«
t
I
!
, it
I '!
ill lb
PLATE XXXVIII.
179
r i
I
PLATE XXXVIII.
Holastkr ssiMrLKx Shninard (page 76).
•
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lower surface of the same,
lc. The right antero-lateral ambulacrum, enlarged.
Id. Portion of the petaloidal region of the same,
le. Four basal plates of the same.
If. Apical disk, enlarged.
\g. Tubercle, highly magnified.
180
■
ill
H
II
,ii
1 I
t
I
M
I
PLATE XXXIX.
'.[
PLATE XXXTX.
Holastkk simplex Shumard (page 76).
Fig. la. Lateral view of the teat.
lb. Posterior view of the same,
lc. Interambulacral plate, much enlarged.
14. Tubercle, highly magnified.
Enallastek trxanus Roeiuer (page 78).
Fig. 2a. Upper view of the test.
2b. Lower view of the test.
2c. Lateral view of the same.
2d. Posterior view of the same.
2e. Portion of the petaloidal region of the right anterolateral ami
much enlarged.
2/. Ditto, anterior ambulacrum.
2g. Apical disk, enlarged.
182
HOLASTEft AND KNALLASTEH.
I
I
I
t
\
I
i
I
ih
I
PLATE XL.
EnaiJ.ASTKK tiBLUll'ATVS Clark (page 79).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lfc. Lower surfaeo of the teat.
1c. I-aterul view uf tl»> same.
Irf. HutcriwTiiw of thouunp.
lr. Portion of the pelaloiilal region of (lie nnterinr ambulacrum.
if. Ditto, left anterior ambulacrum.
]g. .Sfcond plate of the same, from the moiitli opening.
It. Diagram xliowing arrangement of jilates about the mouth open in
li. Apical disk, tuilurged.
lit. Tubercle from nlww. much enlarged.
II. Lateral view of the mini*.
184
ENALLA3TER.
PLATE XU.
PLATE XLI.
Epiabteu klkoans (Shumard) (page 80).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lateral view of the same.
186
PLATE XLII
187
I
PLATE XLIJ.
Epiastkr ELKOAN8 (Shumanl) (page 80).
Fig. 1«. Lower aurface of the teat.
U. Posterior view of the same.
188
j
t
PLATE XLIII.
PLATE XLIII.
Epiahtkr kle<;anb (Shumard) (page 80).
Fig. la. Upper portion of the anterior ambulacrum, enlarged.
16. Middle portion of the petaloidal region of the anterior ambulacra]
magnified,
lc. Ditto, left antero-lateral ambulacrum.
Id. Two interambulacral plates, much enlarged.
If. Apical disk, enlarged.
Epiastkr Wiutei Clark (page 82).
Fig. 2a. Lateral view of the test.
2b. Posterior view of the same.
2c. Left antero-lateral ambulacrum, enlarged.
| 2d. Diagram showiug the arrangement of the plates in the apical
I bordering areas.
■ 190
\
f!
M
it
t:
*'
:-i
I >
I
111
''I
« ii)
'I1
■ i
i
-
.1
l
PLATE XLIV.
191
PLATE XLIV.
Epiastek Wiiitei Clark (page 82).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
16. Lower surface of the same.
lc. Right a 11 tero- lateral interambalacral area, much enlarged.
Id. Lower portion of the petaloidal region of the right antero-lateral
cram, highly magnified.
It. Several plates of the petaloidal region of the left antero-ambulacru
1/. Peristomial opening, with surrounding ambulacral and interam
plates.
lg. Apical disk, much enlarged.
192
' i
PLATE XLV.
Hull, ft? 13
PLATE XLV.
Hemiabter paraSTatus (Morton) (page 83).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
If. Anterior ambulacrum, enlarged.
1/. Portion of petaloidal region of the same, highly magnified.
\g. Portion of basal region, ditto.
1A. Several plates from the petaloidal region of the right anterolateral
lacrum, much enlarged.
It. Three interanilmlacral plates, with fasciole.
Ik. Portion of fasciole, highly magnified.
If. Tubercle from the side,
lm. Ditto from above.
In. Apical disk, enlarged.
194
I «!:
ri '
1 ii
PLATE XLVI.
195
PLATE XLVL
Hemiaster stella (Morton) (page 84).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the test.
lb. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
Hkmiastek ungula (Morton) (page 85).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the test.
2b. Lower surface of the test.
2c. Lateral view of the same.
2d. Posterior view of the same.
2e. Portion of the petaloidal region of the right antero-lateral amh
much enlarged.
2/. Ditto, anterior ambulacrum.
2g. Apical disk, enlarged.
196
PLATE XL VII.
PLATE XLVII.
Hemi aster texanus Roemer (page 86).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the teat.
Id. Lower surface of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Iff. Posterior view of the same.
If. Several plates from the petaloidal region of the right postero-later
lacrum, highly magnified.
1/. Ditto, anterior ambulacrum,
ly. Apical disk, much enlarged.
lh. Lateral view of a tubercle, highly magnified,
li. Same from above.
198
ii'
1 in
PLATE XLVIII.
PLATE XLYril.
Hk.miastkh Hi'MHiiHKYSANrs (Meek ami Haytlen) (page 88).
Fig. la. Upper surfhce of the tost.
lb. Lower surface- of the test,
lc. Lateral view of the .same.
Id. Posterior view of the name.
If. Several platen from the pctaloulal region of the right posterior lat
bulacruui, highly magniticri.
If. Ditto, auterior ambulacrum.
Hkmiastf.k Dalli Clark (page 89).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the test.
2b. Lower surface of the test.
2c. Lateral view of the same.
2d. Posterior view of the name.
2e. Several plates from the petaloidal portiou of the left auteio-luteial
lucrum.
200
PLATE XLIX.
iin
PLATE XLIX.
Hkmiastkk caijfornicus Clark (page 90).
Fig. la. Upper surface of the teat.
lb. Lower surface of the test,
lr. Lateral view of the same.
Hkmiastkk Calvini Clark (page 90).
Fig. 2a. Upper surface of the t«»st.
26. Lower surface of the same.
2c. Lateral vi<>w of the same.
2d. Posterior view of the same.
2c. Several platen from the pctaloidal region of the right postero-later
lacruui, highly magnified.
2f. Same, lower portion of petaloidal regiou.
2a. Several plates from anterior ambulacrum.
2A. Inierambiilacral plate, enlarged.
21. Apical disk, eularged.
202
1
i
'• /"I.
I !■"
..'» " i '
:M!
■' Mi
V ' li'-'
I1 ; I'/'l
.!'! :•
«,;
I
Uli il
;...„.. ,i
'"I1 ' !|
1 II 'i
■fc
5 ,.?■
r- :•:!!;!■
'I "I'
. ! r
i
ft ■: )
ii'
,'rl
II
i !
C :
i ,
PLATE L.
203
PLATE L.
Li nth i a tu. mi in la Clark (page 91).
Fig. 1«. Upper surface of the test.
16. Lower surface of the same,
lc. Lateral view of the same.
Id. Posterior view of the same.
lr. Upper portion of the anterior ambulacrum, enlarged.
If. Several platen from the petalnidal region of the left posterolateral «
lacrum, highly magnified.
lg. Apical disk, enlarged,
l/i. Tubercle from the side, highly magnified,
li. Ditto, from ahove.
201
il
li!
I"
i • •
r
1.
i ■
> !"
: •
t
f »■
i
•I.
:|
It
' ,H
!
1 !
'•
'I t
I a:
. r
if
■ii
i
r-[
j
.i!
."M
i
i
■ i
! I
,:
INDEX.
A. Page.
Ananchytes 74-75
ductus 75
cruoif eras 63
fimbriates 75
ovalls 74-75,176
sp 75
Apiocrinid® 24-25
Arbaciasp 92
Asterias 31-32
fdubium 31-32,114
Asteroidea 29-33
B.
Botriopygns 60-61
alabamensis 60-61,154
eleratus 61
Bourgueticrinus 25
alabamensis 25,110
elliptioas 25
C.
Cardiatter 75-76
cinotus 75-76. 178
fimbria tan 75
Carpenter, P. n.. cited on Pentacrinidw 25-26
Cassidnlidffi 59-73
Cassidulus 66-73
abrnptus 92
®quoreus 67, 68-69, 182
asquorum 68
florealis 66-67.160
micrococcus 69-70, 164
porrectue 72-73,170-174
Stantoni 73, 174
subeonicus 67,71-72.168
subquadratus 70-71. 72, 166
Catopygus 64-66
eolumbarins 65
oviformis 64-65,66,158
pusilhis 65-66,158
Cidaridie 33-40
Cidaris 33-38
armiger 33
Branneri 37
oalifornicus' 35,36,116
clavigera 46
diatretum 40,46
nemlgranosus 38
.nahalakensiB 92,93
aoeptrifera 46
•ceptrtferi compared with C texanua , 87
Cidaris— Continued .
serrata 84
(l)sp 33
splendens 33-35, 116
splendeus 33, 34
Taylorensis 35,116
texanus 36-37,118
Walcotti 37-38,116
Cidaritoa armigcr 33
diatretum 46
splondens 33-35
Clypeaster florealis 66
geometricus 92, 93
sp 66,92
Coptosoma 51^53
Mortoni...- 51-52,53,138
npecioaum 52-53, 140
Crinoidea 21-29
Cyphosoma texanum 48, 49
D.
Diaderaasp 92
texanum 47, 48
Diadematidae 44-54
Diplopodia 48-51
Diplopodia Hilli 50-51, 136
texanum 48-50, 134-186
Discoidea oocidentale 92, 93
Echinide 54-58
Echinobrinsus 61-63
cruciferus 63
expansun 61-62, 63, 156
texanus 62-63. 156
Echinoconidic 58-59
Echinoidoa : 33-93
Echinus andinus 54
Boli vani ; 50
patagonensis 54
sp 33
Enallaster 78-80
mexicanns, related to E. obliquutus ... 80
obliquatiiH • 79-80, 184
peruviau us 79
texan us 78-79, 80, 82, 182
texasus 78
Epfaster 80-«4
elogans 80-82,186-190
Wuitei 81,82-83.190-192
Eoecbinoidea 33-93
m
206
INDEX.
F.
Tag*
Faujaaia florealis CO
G.
Goniaxtfr 32
muniinilluta 32, 1 18
Goniojiy kiw 53 54
major 54
Zittcli 53-31.140-142
H.
Hainitc* Frriimntii *3
IK'iiiiiiittrr 84-91
HiucriraniiH Kti. 87
Hall i *9, 200
?b»gnu* >l
ruliforniriiH 90. 202
C'iilvini 'in .hi , "JOL*
IIuinpliP'.vsiiuiiH ^.'.m/jiw
incra.-.sat iih SI. 85
paia*tatus s-: n\, S5.K6. 194
MHla *l >5 1*16
tt'xanus Sit ST. «•! . 1!IS
iincula S|. >».*» >*fl. lufi
Wt«th«rbyi si,85
Ileiniiirlaris 41 45
iiitumr.vo-iu* i I l.*i. rjS
IIolilHttT 70 7a
ciru-tiiB
r.oiiiaiichc.Hi
fimbria! ua
l««vis. \ ar. planum
para*tatu*
HUliplrX 7*5 7S IhiI.vj
iinuul.i s:»
Holaatcrbhr 74 7s
Holiu'typu* :*ri ,"»'.»
Cnsi illni ;,0
plana! 11a 5
plan us
aimplcx 9293
N.
Faft
Neumayr, on clarification of crinoida 21
Niobrara group, Uintacrinua aocialit aa-
ftignwl by Meek to 24
Nuticolitoa crucifrr 63
oriicifcrus 63
ov jformiii (Catopygua) 64
O.
Ophiixlerma brblgtwnsia 29
( >i>liio^lvpha 29-M
brM "crcusi.s 29-30. 1 12
trxana 30-.n.l 112
()p>iinriil:i> 29 11
( )str»-a cmijicHta 24
qiiatlriplirata 39
r.
r«*<lino)iHis 57
I'ciiifflf 57. 14f--l4M
IViMariiiiiria* LT»-Ji>
1'«-ii1.h riniti-j* aNtiTirii'iis
IViita<Tiniis
a.Ht«M'iM'iin
lJr\ ani
Whitci
lVrin*li«r nuMralift
I Miy inosoiiia tcxanmn
IV>.iiiiiii<»< liiiuiM
-&.+}
26 27.2S. 110
2*-2i» 110
27 -2S.1I0
....... Pi
4H
55
to
III, ||
75
w'1
cinuulahis "•:». 144
rfloiiilcMliatlrrua 4;, 4*
r>Hilr\i ft
fliatrrtiuii 46 47. i*u
Kmcr-miii 45-4n 1'S
50
47
M
47
48
'.'. 150
5S. 59
I,.
LHocidnria 3S- T!9
liMiiigranoau* 37. :- :!9. 1 1*- 122
h»'miuran«i«u-i. Sbuman! citril on local-
ity : 39
Luriol. V. ib«, ritt'il on ItoiiruuHifriiitm ala
baun-n-is 25
di»«cribp«» ( 'optosoma Mm loni 51 52
Linthia «i] «i2
tiiuiidula 91-92, 204
M.
Mawaater tr-\anns g|
Mfk. F. 1*., (li'Hrribra .strut turn of I'inta-
crinni* «*>
aasiuiis riiuacrinuH sni-ialin to Niobrara
Rr«»'ip 24
Meek & Hayib'ii firat oVscribn IViitiuriiiii«
antcri.Hc.u8 26
MicraattT ungula 85
Hilli
mnatnni
ICliiMiaiii
ItHIIUTi
ti'lllH'
1 fxanuiii 47-48, 40. 51. I'm ])2
Py gorliy nrliiis <arii<:iff*r 5.1
I'.Miuru* florcali* 64
(?) p -0111 t'trir ti8 92.91
I'y rina 59-fio
1 tiMnionlinHii 60
l*an y i 59-M. 1 "»2
S.
Sab-nia 40-44
lwlliila 42. 43-44. 126
J)i-.sori. rompariHon of, with S. texaoa . 41
InMalifcra, coinparUon of, with S. tax-
ana 4|
•«"M»» 40-41,42,43,124
timiitliiln 41,42,43,126
SulcniuV 40-44
Shmuanl, II. F.. rit«l on lm-ality of LHocid-
aria h«Miii^ranoMiia t|j
Spatau£h!a» 7^.90
Spataimua roltimbiauiim 79
oor-tri.irinuin (/) $3
parastatiia jy
»I» 75.83,83
8t«'!la £4
nngula gj
INDEX.
F»g*.
IntarriTMam IU*
iiit«.Ti!nu ai-M
•grlalln 21-24, !K1 108
wwtliiUciu S*
IVhitfloId, cited on Asleriul duMum 11-12
TrMntlnpygui <
crucifer W-«.15B
Zlltcl, tod, on Uinttcrinldo ..
DKI'AUTMKNT OF Til K INTKUIOlt
BULLETIN
OV TIIK
UN ITKI) STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
.No. «.>7
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WASH I X(5ToN
U O V K U N M K N T I'KINTIN'- < • I !• I < r.
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11
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DO NOT CIRCULATE
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